processes
Article
Influence of Exhaust Pipe Structure on Urea-Related Deposits in
Diesel Engine SCR System
Neng Zhu, Hang Song, Feng Qian *
Citation: Zhu, N.; Song, H.; Qian, F.;
Xu, X. Influence of Exhaust Pipe
Structure on Urea-Related Deposits
in Diesel Engine SCR System.
Processes 2023, 11, 1199.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11041199
Academic Editor: Thomas S.Y.
Choong
Received: 28 March 2023
Revised: 10 April 2023
Accepted: 12 April 2023
Published: 13 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Processes 2023, 11, 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11041199
and Xiaowei Xu
School of Automotive and Transportation Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430081, China; znqc@wust.edu.cn (N.Z.); sh20000625@163.com (H.S.); xuxiaowei@wust.edu.cn (X.X.)
* Correspondence: feng.qian@wust.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-180-6206-0988
Abstract: To solve the problem of deposits formation in the exhaust pipe of a diesel engine SCR
(selective catalytic reduction) system, the CFD (computational fluid dynamics) model of the exhaust
pipe was established to research the influence of structural parameters on the wall film from the
perspective of optimizing the flow field. The solid structure was simplified in the modeling without
considering the flow fields inside the catalytic converter. The simulation conditions were obtained
through bench tests and vehicle real road tests. The spray and temperature simulation results were
verified via high-speed photographic and bench tests under three typical operating conditions. The
conclusions are as follows: compared to the case with a step surface, wall film mass was reduced
by 48.27~55.4% when the exhaust pipe had no step surface; compared to the case where the nozzle
orifices were located 10 mm off center axis, wall film mass reduced by 2.83~6.38% when the nozzle
orifices located in the center axis of exhaust pipe; compared to the case of 110 mm, wall film mass
reduced by 21.3~24.72% when the exhaust pipe diameter was 100 mm. To eliminate the potential
problem of deposit formation inside the catalytic converter, the nozzle should be arranged close to
the engine turbine, and there should be no abrupt cross-section downstream of the exhaust pipe.
Keywords: urea-related deposits; exhaust pipe structure; numerical simulation; selective catalytic
reduction system
1. Introduction
To bring down the nitrogen oxide (NOx ) emission of diesel engines and meet the
increasingly strict emission regulation, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology is
widely regarded as one of the most promising technologies [1–3]. However, the urea
deposits in the exhaust after-treatment system (ATS) have always been a challenging
problem. Severe deposits can lead to ammonia leakage and exhaust pipe blockage, and they
will add back pressure, reducing nitrogen oxide conversion efficiency [4,5]. Therefore, the
actual operation process of a commercial vehicle equipped with an SCR system (hereinafter
referred to as “vehicle real road test”) was tracked and monitored, and it was found that
there was a large amount of deposits formation on the wall surface of the exhaust pipe.
As shown in Figure 1, the commercial vehicle started from Yancheng, Jiangsu Province,
passed through Zhengzhou, Xi’an, Lanzhou, et al., and finally reached Xining, Qinghai
Province, covering a total distance of about 2000 km. There was no deposit in the exhaust
pipe before departure from Yancheng. However, upon arrival in Zhengzhou, it was found
that there was deposits formation on the upper left and upper right of the exhaust pipe.
Upon arrival in Xi’an, there were large amounts of deposits formation. After arriving at
Xining for inspection, all the deposits were cleaned and collected, weighing 105.5 g.
Automobile NOx emissions account for 95% of global NOx emissions, highlighting
the importance of reducing NOx emissions from diesel engines [6]. As the mainstream
technology to control NOx emission of heavy commercial vehicles, many problems still
need to be explored and solved in the SCR system, among which the problem of deposit
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 2 of 21

formation is particularly prominent. The urea aqueous solution sprayed into the exhaust
pipe is gradually heated by the high-temperature exhaust, and the liquid evaporates after
reaching a certain temperature. As the boiling point of water is lower than that of urea,
the evaporated gas is mainly water steam. If the water evaporates too fast, it is easy
to precipitate urea solids and form deposits. These deposits are called “soft crystals”,
which are crystals of the urea itself. Soft crystals dissolve easily in water and decompose
easily by heating, with less influence on the SCR system and engine. The other type of
deposit is urea-related by-products formed through a series of chemical reactions called
“hard crystals”. Hard crystals hardly dissolve in water, are not easy to pyrolyze, and have
strong
Processes 2023, 11, mechanical
x FOR PEER REVIEW stability. However, once formed, it is difficult to remove, significantly 2 of 22
influencing the SCR system and engine [7,8].

Figure 1. Deposits formation in the exhaust pipe during the vehicle’s operation equipped with SCR
Figure 1. Deposits formation in the exhaust pipe during the vehicle’s operation equipped with SCR
system. (Cities: Yancheng in Jiangsu Province, Zhengzhou in Henan Province, Xi’an in Shaanxi
system. (Cities: Province,
Yancheng andinXining
Jiangsu Province,
in Qinghai Zhengzhou in Henan Province, Xi’an in Shaanxi
Province)
Province, and Xining in Qinghai Province).
Automobile NOx emissions account for 95% of global NOx emissions, highlighting
World harmonized
the importancetransient cycle (WHTC)
of reducing urea deposits
NOx emissions are urea,
from diesel cyanuric
engines acid
[6]. As the(CYA)
mainstream
and ammelide, technology
implying that accelerating
to control the decomposition
NOx emission of these species
of heavy commercial vehicles,could
manyprevent
problems still
the accumulation needof to
urea deposits and
be explored [9]. solved
To explorein thethe
SCRinfluence factors which
system, among of deposit formation,
the problem of deposit
formation is lots
scholars have conducted particularly
of relevantprominent.
studies.TheXu urea
et aqueous solution
al. [10] from Fordsprayed into the
Research andexhaust
Innovation Centerpipe is gradually
found thatheated
solid by the high-temperature
deposits were generated exhaust,
on theandexhaust
the liquidpipeevaporates
wall after
surface downstream of the urea nozzle and mixer in the diesel exhaust post-treatmentof urea,
reaching a certain temperature. As the boiling point of water is lower than that
the evaporated
system. Two different gas is mainly
SCR catalysts (ironwater steam.
zeolite andIfcupric
the water evaporates
zeolite, both of toowhich
fast, ituse
is easy to
precipitate urea solids and form deposits. These deposits are called “soft crystals”, which
cordierite as a base) were studied the results showed that iron zeolite was more likely to
are crystals of the urea itself. Soft crystals dissolve easily in water and decompose easily
form deposits than cupric zeolite. Zhao [11] researched the effects of exhaust temperature,
by heating, with less influence on the SCR system and engine. The other type of deposit
exhaust velocity,is the injection by-products
urea-related rate of urea formed
aqueousthrough
solution, nozzle
a series of installation position
chemical reactions and “hard
called
injection system type on deposit formation through bench tests. The results showed
crystals”. Hard crystals hardly dissolve in water, are not easy to pyrolyze, and have strong that
the airless-assisted injection
mechanical system However,
stability. produced once moreformed,
depositsitthan the air-assisted
is difficult to remove, injection
significantly
system under the same conditions.
influencing the SCR system Theand airless
engine assisted
[7,8]. injection system with a nozzle
positioned diagonally World forward in the transient
harmonized straight section of the exhaust
cycle (WHTC) pipe produced
urea deposits more acid
are urea, cyanuric
deposits than the(CYA) and positioned
nozzle ammelide, implying
at the elbowthat accelerating
of the exhaust the decomposition
pipe. Exhaustoftemperature,
these species could
exhaust velocity,prevent
and the accumulation
injection rate ofofureaureaaqueous
deposits [9]. To explore
solution the influence factors
all significantly influence of deposit
deposit formation. To reduce urea deposits in the SCR system, Chen et al. [12] studied Ford
formation, scholars have conducted lots of relevant studies. Xu et al. [10] from
the relationshipResearch
between and Innovation
liquid Center foundand
film temperature thatreactants
solid deposits
and were generated
designed mixerson with
the exhaust
pipe wall surface downstream of the urea nozzle and mixer in the diesel exhaust post-
different structures. CFD method was used to simulate the evaporation and pyrolysis
treatment system. Two different SCR catalysts (iron zeolite and cupric zeolite, both of
process of urea aqueous solution. It was found that in a mixer with low turbulence intensity,
which use cordierite as a base) were studied the results showed that iron zeolite was more
likely to form deposits than cupric zeolite. Zhao [11] researched the effects of exhaust
temperature, exhaust velocity, the injection rate of urea aqueous solution, nozzle
installation position and injection system type on deposit formation through bench tests.
The results showed that the airless-assisted injection system produced more deposits than
the air-assisted injection system under the same conditions. The airless assisted injection
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 3 of 21

the mass and distribution area of liquid film and deposit decreased significantly with the
decrease of injection angle and pressure; however, when the turbulence intensity was high
in the mixer, urea droplets were enjoined by strong turbulence, and the decrease of injection
angle and pressure did not significantly reduce the liquid film and deposit. The structure
of the SCR system was optimized to improve the effect of urea mixing by Jungmin [13]
from Hyundai-Kia R&D Center as a result of reducing the deposit yield from 14.3 g to 5 g
under the same conditions. Way et al. [14] from Donaldson Company used CFD simulation
to optimize the installation geometry of the injection unit and solved the deposit problem
in the reflux area near the nozzle. Munnannur et al. [15] from Cummins CES Department
studied the influence factors of wall film formation in exhaust pipes by CFD simulation.
It was beneficial to reduce deposits to increase the shear force between the exhaust flow
and the wall surface. The larger the shear force, the easier the wall film is peeled off and
the easier the droplets are entrained and rolled into the airflow. Zheng et al. [16] from
Tenneco Company established a three-dimensional simulation model of the SCR system by
combining the spray, droplet breakage, evaporation process of urea aqueous solution and
the interaction with the exhaust flow field. They qualitatively researched the effect of diesel
exhaust pipe diameter on the amount of urea droplets striking the pipe wall. The results
showed that increasing the diameter of the exhaust pipe in the inlet section of the catalytic
converter can reduce the amount of wall film and decrease the risk of deposit formation.
Canyurt et al. [17] investigate the spray-wall interaction, the liquid film formation at
different severities, the liquid film evaporation by injecting urea water solution into an
impingement plate in a non-uniform flow medium under different operating conditions,
experimentally and numerically, and they found that the liquid film layer formed in the
stagnant flow regions has greater risks in terms of deposit formation than the other regions.
The urea water solution is often used as a source of the reduction agent ammonia for the
selective catalytic reduction of nitric oxides in combustion after-treatment systems. In
applications, however, some technical problems appear, for example, the formation of solid
residuals or incomplete decomposition of urea [18]. It should be pointed out that because
urea water solution has higher evaporation and atomization, it is not easy to form a deposit
at a higher gas flow temperature and mass flow rate [19]. In addition, deposit growth can
also be observed at the peripheral boundary because urea water solution is transported
through capillary structures on the surface or within the deposit [20].
To guarantee the normal operation of the SCR system and engine, it is necessary to
solve the problem of deposit formation in the exhaust pipe. In this paper, the CFD model
of diesel engine exhaust pipe is proposed to explore the influence rules of exhaust pipe
structural parameters on deposit formation from the perspective of flow field optimization.
Through its research, this article hopes to provide a reference for avoiding deposit formation
in the exhaust pipe.

2. Materials and Methods

Through the vehicle real road test, the deposits formation in the exhaust pipe of a
diesel engine was understood preliminarily, and the deposits were mainly formed on the
upward side of the exhaust pipe. However, further study revealed that the exhaust pipe
where the deposits accumulated had an abrupt cross-section (hereinafter referred to as
“step surface”), and the nozzle hole was 10 mm off the center of the exhaust pipe shown
in Figure 2.

2.1. Geometric Modeling

To ensure the simulation accuracy of the diesel engine after-treatment system, it
is necessary to describe the geometric model accurately. A full after-treatment system
should include an exhaust pipe, injection unit, and catalytic converter. The corresponding
geometric model should consist of geometries from the turbo to the catalyst. The full-scale
geometric model of an SCR system with an engine displacement of 11.12 L was established,
as shown in Figure 3. The diameter of the exhaust pipe was 110 mm, and the wall material
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 4 of 21

of the pipe was stainless steel. In addition, a perforated tube and a perforated plate were
integrated inside the catalytic converter. This design was conducive to the evaporation
Processes 2023, 11,and pyrolysis
x FOR of urea aqueous solution and improving the concentration and uniformity of
PEER REVIEW 4 of 22
NH3 at the catalyst entrance. (a)

(b)
Figure 2. Diesel engine exhaust after-treatment system layout. (a) Arrangement and assembly of
SCR system, (b) Sketch map of nozzle position and step surface.
(a)
2.1. Geometric Modeling
To ensure the simulation accuracy of the diesel engine after-treatment system, it is
necessary to describe the geometric model accurately. A full after-treatment system
should include an exhaust pipe, injection unit, and catalytic converter. The corresponding
geometric model should consist of geometries from the turbo to the catalyst. The full-scale
geometric model of an SCR system with an engine displacement of 11.12 L was
established, as shown in Figure 3. The diameter of the exhaust pipe was 110 mm, and the
wall material of the pipe was stainless steel. In addition, a perforated tube and a perforated
(b)
plate were integrated inside the catalytic converter. This design was conducive to the
evaporation
Figure Figure
2. Dieseland 2.exhaust
Diesel of
pyrolysis
engine engine
ureaexhaust after-treatment
aqueous
after-treatment solution
system system
and
layout. layout. (a)the
(a)improving
Arrangement Arrangement and
ofassembly
concentration
and assembly and of
SCR
SCR system, (b) Sketch map of nozzle position and step surface.
uniformity
system, of NH
(b) Sketch 3 atof
map the catalyst
nozzle entrance.
position and step surface.
2.1. Geometric Modeling
To ensure the simulation accuracy of the diesel engine after-treatment system, it is
necessary to describe the geometric model accurately. A full after-treatment system
should include an exhaust pipe, injection unit, and catalytic converter. The corresponding
geometric model should consist of geometries from the turbo to the catalyst. The full-scale
geometric model of an SCR system with an engine displacement of 11.12 L was
established, as shown in Figure 3. The diameter of the exhaust pipe was 110 mm, and the
wall material of the pipe was stainless steel. In addition, a perforated tube and a perforated
plate were integrated inside the catalytic converter. This design was conducive to the
evaporation and pyrolysis of urea aqueous solution and improving the concentration and
uniformity of NH3 at the catalyst entrance.

Figure 3. The full-scale geometric model of the SCR system.

Figure 3. The full-scale geometric model of the SCR system.

Due to the small diameter and large number of holes, it would generate a huge amount
of calculation grids for the full model, which affected the calculation efficiency. In addition,
this research focused on the formation of deposits inside the diesel engine exhaust pipe.
Therefore, the solid structure was simplified in the modeling without considering the flow
fields inside the catalytic converter. The geometric model of the diesel engine exhaust pipe
is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. The full-scale geometric model of the SCR system.


Processes 2023, 11, 1199
Due to the small diameter and large number of holes, it would generate a huge
amount of calculation grids for the full model, which affected the calculation efficiency. In
addition, this research focused on the formation of deposits inside the diesel engine
exhaust pipe. Therefore, the solid structure was simplified in the modeling 5 of 21without
considering the flow fields inside the catalytic converter. The geometric model of the
diesel engine exhaust pipe is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Geometric model of diesel engine exhaust pipe.

Figure 4. Geometric model of diesel engine exhaust pipe.
2.2. Initial
2.2. Initial Parameters andParameters
Boundaryand Boundary Conditions
Conditions
In a sense, CFD technology is the process of extrapolating and extending the data of
In a sense, CFD technology is the process of extrapolating and extending the data
initial parameters and boundary conditions. Therefore, the initial parameters and
of initial parameters and boundary conditions. Therefore, the initial parameters and
boundary conditions should conform to the actual situation, which is the premise to
boundary conditions should conform to the actual situation, which is the premise to ensure
ensure the accuracy and effectiveness of the simulation results. This study used AVL Fire
the accuracy and effectiveness of the simulation
to carry out the simulation results.
work. Table This
1 shows study
the basic used AVL Fire
parameters to diesel
of the carry engine
out the simulation work. Table
and SCR system. 1 shows the basic parameters of the diesel engine and
SCR system.
Table 1. Basic parameters of the diesel engine and SCR system.
Table 1. Basic parameters of the diesel engine and SCR system.
Name Parameter
Engine
Name displacement 11.12 L Parameter
Cylinder bore × stroke 123 mm × 156 mm
Engine displacement 11.12 L
Compression ratio 16.4
Cylinder bore × stroke 123 mm × 156 mm
Rated power 230 kW at 1900 r/min
Compression ratio 16.4
Rated power Maximum torque 230 kW at Nm
1210 1900atr/min
1200 r/min
Maximum torque Catalyst volume 1210 21.75
Nm atL1200 r/min
Catalyst volumeUrea pump type 21.75Emitec
L UDA 7.5-OA-24
Urea pump typeUrea flow ranges Emitec0–7500
UDAmL/h
7.5-OA-24
Urea flow rangesNozzle type 0–7500SCRmL/h
Nozzle 4936201
Nozzle type Number of spray orificesSCR Nozzle 4 4936201
Number of spray orifices
Spray direction 4 Radially along the exhaust pipe
Spray direction Radially along the exhaust pipe
Droplet size <40 μm
Droplet size <40 µm
SCR ECU Self-innovate, supporting manually and automatically
SCR ECU Self-innovate, supporting manually and automatically

According to the vehicle real road test, the data of three groups were collected and
Accordingused to vehicle
to the indicatereal
the road
operating conditions
test, the data of distribution
three groups of were
the employed
collected commercial
and
used to indicatevehicle, as shown
the operating in Figuredistribution
conditions 5. A representative operating commercial
of the employed condition with the highest
vehicle,
probability
as shown in Figure of occurrence was
5. A representative selectedcondition
operating for the following simulation
with the work.
highest probability of
occurrence was selected for the following simulation work.
The diesel engine and SCR system parameters under typical operating conditions
were obtained through bench tests, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Test data under each typical operating condition.

Operating Condition Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Speed (rpm) 1400 1300 1300
Percentage of torque (%) 55 100 60
Exhaust gas mass flow rate (kg/h) 709 957 683
Turbine exit temperature (◦ C) 400 460 427
Exhaust temperature before nozzle (◦ C) 328 384 353
Pipe wall temperature before nozzle (◦ C) 208 260 215
Exhaust back pressure before nozzle (kPa) 7.4 10.3 7
Urea injection rate (mL/h) 2730 2300 2360
NOx concentration (ppm) 1360 1568 1487
 Processes
Processes 11,11,
2023,
2023, 1199 PEER REVIEW
x FOR 6 of
6 of 22 21

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 5. Distribution of of
5. Distribution thethe
operating
operatingconditions
conditionsfrom
fromvehicle real
vehicle road
real test.
road (a)(a)
test. Case 1: 1:
Case Distribution
Distribution
of of
thethe
operating conditions from Yancheng to Zhengzhou; (b) Case 2: Distribution
operating conditions from Yancheng to Zhengzhou; (b) Case 2: Distribution of the of the operating
operating
conditions from Zhengzhou to Xi’an; (c) Case 3: Distribution of the operating conditions
conditions from Zhengzhou to Xi’an; (c) Case 3: Distribution of the operating conditions from from Xi’an
Xi’an
to Xining.
to Xining.
 Exhaust temperature before nozzle (°C) 328 384 353
Pipe wall temperature before nozzle (°C) 208 260 215
Exhaust back pressure before nozzle (kPa) 7.4 10.3 7
Urea injection rate (mL/h) 2730 2300 2360
Processes 2023, 11, 1199
NOx concentration (ppm) 1360 1568 14877 of 21

The exhaust gas of the diesel engine was a compressible fluid with similar properties
The
to air, soexhaust gasinlet
the fluid’s of the diesel engine
boundary was a compressible
was defined by giving the fluid with gas
exhaust similar
massproperties
flow rate
to
andair,temperature.
so the fluid’sNext,
inlet the
boundary was defined
static pressure was byusedgiving the exhaust
to define gasboundary.
the outlet mass flowNext,
rate
and
the temperature.
convective heat Next, the static
transfer pressure
with was used toatdefine
the atmosphere the outlet
the wall boundary.
boundary Next, the
was proposed.
convective
Finally, theheat transfer
fluid velocity with the atmosphere
component at the wall
in the normal boundary
direction of thewas
wallproposed.
was definedFinally,
as 0.
the fluid velocity component in the normal direction of the wall was defined as 0.
2.3. Model Validation
2.3. Model Validation
2.3.1. Verification of Spray
2.3.1. Verification of Spray
Urea aqueous solution was sprayed into the exhaust pipe in mist. The unevaporated
Urea aqueous solution was sprayed into the exhaust pipe in mist. The unevaporated
urea droplet, which hit the inner surface of the exhaust pipe wall, would convert into wall
urea droplet, which hit the inner surface of the exhaust pipe wall, would convert into
film film
wall under certain
under conditions.
certain conditions.In In
thisthis
paper,
paper,the
thedroplet
droplet size,
size, initial velocity, and
initial velocity, and
atomization cone angle of different urea injection rates were measured
atomization cone angle of different urea injection rates were measured to accurately describe to accurately
describe
the movementthe movement of urea droplets.
of urea droplets.
As shown in Figure 6,6,the
As shown in Figure theLSA-III
LSA-IIIlaser
laserparticle
particlesize
sizetester
testerwas
wasused
usedto tomeasure
measurethethe
droplet size of the urea nozzle. Due to the symmetrical distribution of the
droplet size of the urea nozzle. Due to the symmetrical distribution of the four holes of the four holes of
the urea nozzle, only one of the holes was measured. The droplet size
urea nozzle, only one of the holes was measured. The droplet size distribution of different distribution of
different urea injection rates is shown
urea injection rates is shown in Figure 7. in Figure 7.

Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22

Figure6.6.LSA-III
Figure LSA-IIILaser
Laserparticle
particlesize
sizetester
testerconfigurations.
configurations.

Figure 7.
Figure The droplet
7. The droplet size
size distribution
distribution of
of different
different urea
urea injection
injection rates.
rates.

As shown in Figure 8, the high-speed photographic test measured the urea nozzle’s
As shown in Figure 8, the high-speed photographic test measured the urea nozzle’s
droplet initial velocity and atomization cone angle. It can take 1000 pictures per second by
droplet initial velocity and atomization cone angle. It can take 1000 pictures per second
setting the frequency of the high-speed camera to 1000 frames. Based on the beginning of
by setting the frequency of the high-speed camera to 1000 frames. Based on the beginning
the spray, the droplet’s initial velocity was obtained by measuring the spray penetration
of the spray, the droplet’s initial velocity was obtained by measuring the spray penetration
distance in 1 ms. The atomization cone angle was measured directly from the spray
distance in 1 ms. The atomization cone angle was measured directly from the spray
geometrical morphology. Table 3 shows different urea injection rates’ droplet initial velocity
geometrical morphology. Table 3 shows different urea injection rates’ droplet initial
and atomization cone angle.
velocity
Figure 9 shows the cone
and atomization angle. results between the simulation and test of spray
comparison
morphology. The results indicate that the spray penetration distance and cone angle are
consistent between the simulation and test at the same moment.
 Figure 7. The droplet size distribution of different urea injection rates.

As shown in Figure 8, the high-speed photographic test measured the urea nozzle’s
droplet initial velocity and atomization cone angle. It can take 1000 pictures per second
by setting the frequency of the high-speed camera to 1000 frames. Based on the beginning
of the spray, the droplet’s initial velocity was obtained by measuring the spray penetration
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 8 of 21
distance in 1 ms. The atomization cone angle was measured directly from the spray
geometrical morphology. Table 3 shows different urea injection rates’ droplet initial
velocity and atomization cone angle.

Figure 8. Diagram of high-speed photography test.

Figure 8. Diagram of high-speed photography test.
Table 3. The droplet initial velocity and atomization cone angle of different urea injection rates.
Table 3. The droplet initial velocity and atomization cone angle of different urea injection rates.
Injection Rate (mL/h) Initial Velocity (m/s) Atomization Cone Angle (°)
500 28 11
Injection
1000
Rate (mL/h) 25 Initial Velocity 14
(m/s) Atomization Cone Angle (◦ )
2000 500 26 28 14 11
3000 26 13
1000 25 14
Figure 9 2000
shows the comparison results between the 26
simulation and test of spray 14
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22
3000 indicate that the spray penetration distance
morphology. The results 26 and cone angle are 13
consistent between the simulation and test at the same moment.

Figure 9. Comparison between simulation result and experimental result of spray morphology.
Figure 9. Comparison between simulation result and experimental result of spray morphology.
2.3.2. Verification of Temperature
2.3.2. Verification of Temperature
The temperature field in the exhaust pipe affects not only the evaporation rate of urea
The
droplets, buttemperature field
also the formation andinevaporation
the exhaustrate pipe
of wallaffects not only
film. Therefore, it isthe evaporation rate of urea
necessary
todroplets,
verify thebut alsotemperature
exhaust the formation andwall
and pipe evaporation
temperature. rate
Theofexhaust
wall film. Therefore, it is necessary
temperature
and pipe wall
to verify thetemperature before the nozzle
exhaust temperature andforpipe
each typical operating condition
wall temperature. The in Table temperature and
exhaust
2 were measured by bench test. As shown in Figure 10, an exhaust temperature sensor
pipe wall temperature before the nozzle for each typical operating condition in Table 2 were
and a wall surface temperature sensor were arranged 100 mm upstream of the nozzle,
measured by bench test. As shown in Figure 10, an exhaust temperature sensor and a wall
respectively.
surface temperature sensor were arranged 100 mm upstream of the nozzle, respectively.
Figure 11 shows the comparison results between the simulation and test of exhaust
temperature and pipe wall temperature under the three typical operating conditions. The
results indicate that the difference between the simulation and test values was within 5 ◦ C
under each typical operating condition.

Processes 2023, 11, 1199
2.3.2. Verification of Temperature
The temperature field in the exhaust pipe affects not only the evaporation rate of urea
droplets, but also the formation and evaporation rate of wall film. Therefore, it is necessary
to verify the exhaust temperature and pipe wall temperature. The exhaust temperature
and pipe wall temperature before the nozzle for each typical operating condition in Table
2 were measured by bench test. As shown in Figure 10, an exhaust temperature sensor 9 of 21
and a wall surface temperature sensor were arranged 100 mm upstream of the nozzle,
respectively.

Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22

Figure 10. Layout diagram of the temperature sensors.
Figure 10. Layout diagram of the temperature sensors.
Figure 11 shows the comparison results between the simulation and test of exhaust
temperature and pipe wall temperature under the three typical operating conditions. The
results indicate that the difference between the simulation and test values was within 5 °C
under each typical operating condition.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 11. Simulation and experimental results of exhaust temperature and pipe wall temperature
Figure 11. Simulation and experimental results of exhaust temperature and pipe
under typical operating conditions. (a) Case 1; (b) Case 2; (c) Case 3.
wall temperature
under typical operating conditions. (a) Case 1; (b) Case 2; (c) Case 3.
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

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3. Results
The formation of deposits can be divided into three processes: the urea aqueous
3. Results
solutionThehitsformation
the wall to ofform wall can
deposits film be
in the exhaust
divided intopipe;
threewhen the urea
processes: theconcentration
urea aqueous
in solution
the wall hits
filmthe
is higher than a certain threshold value, it will convert into
wall to form wall film in the exhaust pipe; when the urea concentration “soft crystals”; in
thethe
urea in the soft crystals develops into “hard crystals” through complex
wall film is higher than a certain threshold value, it will convert into “soft crystals”; physical and
chemical
the urea in the soft crystals develops into “hard crystals” through complex physical of
reactions at different temperatures. Therefore, wall film is the precursor and
deposits
chemical formation
reactions onatthe exhausttemperatures.
different pipe wall, and Therefore,
the residual mass
wall of is
film wallthefilm reflects of
precursor
thedeposits
yield of formation
deposits from a sideways
on the exhaust perspective.
pipe wall, and To assess the risk
the residual of deposits
mass of wall formation
film reflects
under different
the yield conditions,
of deposits from athe evaluation
sideways indexes, To
perspective. including
assess the wall
riskfilm area, wall
of deposits film
formation
thickness and wall film mass, were proposed.
under different conditions, the evaluation indexes, including wall film area, wall film
thickness and wall film mass, were proposed.
3.1. Influence of Step Surface on Wall Film
3.1. Influence of Step Surface on Wall Film
Figures
Figures 1212and
and1313show
show thethe
influence
influenceof of
exhaust
exhaust pipe with
pipe or or
with without
without stepstepsurface
surface onon
wall film
wall filmarea
areaandandthickness,
thickness, respectively.
respectively. TheTheresults indicated
results indicated that thethe
that variation
variation trends
trends
of of
wall
wallfilm
film area and
area and wall
wallfilm
filmthickness
thickness were
were thethe
same
same forfor
thethe
three
three typical
typical operating
operating
conditions.
conditions. WhenWhen there was
there wasnonostep surface
step surfacein in
thetheexhaust
exhaust pipe,
pipe,thethewall
wallfilmfilmarea was
area was
larger, and the wall film thickness was thinner, which was beneficial
larger, and the wall film thickness was thinner, which was beneficial to the evaporation andto the evaporation
and pyrolysis
pyrolysis of of
thethe wall
wall film.
film.

(a)

(b)

Figure 12. Cont.

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11, xx FOR
FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of
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of 21

(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure
Figure 12.12.
12. Influence
Influence of exhaust
of
Influence exhaust pipe
pipe
of exhaust with
with
pipe or without
or
with without stepstep
step
or without surface
surface on wall
on
surfacewall film area.
film
on wall area.area.
film (a) Case
(a) Case 1;
(a) 1; (b) 1;
(b)
Case
Case 2;
Case 2; (c)
(c) Case
Case 3.3.
(b) Case 2; (c) Case 3.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

Figure 13. Cont.

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Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 12 of 21

(c)
(c)
Figure 13. Influence of exhaust pipe with or without step surface on wall film thickness. (a) Case 1;
Figure 13. Influence of exhaust pipe with or without step surface on wall film thickness. (a) Case 1;
Influence
Figure
(b) Case13.
2; (c) Case 3. of exhaust pipe with or without step surface on wall film thickness. (a) Case 1;
(b)(b)
Case 2; (c) Case 3.
Case 2; (c) Case 3.
Figure 14 shows the influence of exhaust pipe with or without step surface on wall
Figure 14 14
Figure shows
showsthethe
influence of of
influence exhaust
exhaustpipe with
pipe or or
with without
withoutstep surface
step surfaceononwall
wall
film mass. As can be seen, by the figure below, the wall film mass was lighter when the
film mass. As can be seen, by the figure below, the wall film mass was lighter
film mass. As can be seen, by the figure below, the wall film mass was lighter when the when the
exhaust pipe had no step surface. Compared to the case with a step surface, wall film mass
exhaust
exhaustpipe had
pipe nono
had step surface.
step Compared
surface. Compared to the case
to the with
case a step
with surface,
a step wall
surface, film
wall mass
film mass
was reduced by about 54.44%, 55.40% and 48.27% for each operating condition,
was wasreduced
reduced by
by about
about54.44%, 55.40%
54.44%, and and
55.40% 48.27% for each
48.27% foroperating condition,condition,
each operating respectively,
respectively, in the exhaust pipe without a step surface.
in the exhaust
respectively, pipe
in the without
exhaust a step
pipe surface.
without a step surface.

Figure 14. Influence

Influenceofofexhaust
exhaustpipe
pipewith
withor
orwithout
without step
stepsurface
surfaceon wall film mass.
Figure
Figure 14.14.
Influence of exhaust pipe with or without step surface on on wall
wall filmfilm mass.
mass.
3.2.Influence
3.2. InfluenceofofNozzle
NozzlePosition
Positionon onWall
WallFilm
Film
3.2. Influence of Nozzle Position on Wall Film
Figures 15
Figures 15 and
and 1616 show
showthe theinfluence
influenceofofdifferent
different nozzle positions
nozzle on on
positions wall filmfilm
wall areaarea
and
Figures
wall film 15 and 16respectively.
thickness, show the influence
The of different
results indicated nozzle
that positions
the variationontrends
wall film
of area
wall film
and wall film thickness, respectively. The results indicated that the variation trends of wall
and wall
area andfilm thickness,
wall film film respectively.
thickness werewereThe
the results
same indicated
for the that the variationconditions.
trends of wall
film area and wall thickness the same forthree typical
the three operating
typical When
operating conditions.
film area
the and
nozzle wall film
orifices thickness
were located were
in the
the same
center for the
axis ofthree
the typical
exhaust operating
pipe, the conditions.
wall film area
When the nozzle orifices were located in the center axis of the exhaust pipe, the wall film
Whenwas the nozzle
larger. The orifices
wall were
film located was
thickness in the center which
thinner, axis ofwas
the exhaust pipe,
beneficial to theevaporation
the wall film
area was larger. The wall film thickness was thinner, which was beneficial to the
areaandwas larger.ofThe
pyrolysis wall film.
the wall film thickness was thinner, which was beneficial to the
evaporation and pyrolysis of the wall film.
evaporation and pyrolysis of the wall film.
Processes 2023,
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2023, x FOR
1199PEER REVIEW 14 of
1322
of 21

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 15.15.
Figure Influence of different
Influence nozzle
of different positions
nozzle on wall
positions filmfilm
on wall . (a) (a)
areaarea. Case 1; 1;
Case (b)(b)
Case
Case2;2;(c)
(c)Case
Case 3.
3.
Processes 2023,
Processes 11,11,
2023, x 1199
FOR PEER REVIEW 1514
of of
2221

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure16.
16.Influence
Influenceof
ofdifferent nozzlepositions
different nozzle positionsononwall
wall film
film thickness.
thickness. (a) Case
(a) Case 1; (b)1;Case
(b) Case
2; (c) 2; (c) 3.
Case
Case 3.
Figure 17 shows the influence of different nozzle positions on wall film mass. As
canFigure
be seen,17 by
shows the influence
the figure of different
below, the wall filmnozzle
mass positions
was lighteronwhen
wall film mass. As
the nozzle can
orifices
bewere
seen,located
by thein figure below,axis
the center theofwall
the film masspipe.
exhaust was Compared
lighter when the case
to the nozzle orifices
where the were
nozzle
located
orificesinare
thelocated
center10 axis
mmofoffthe
theexhaust pipe.wall
center axis, Compared
film massto was
the case where
reduced the nozzle
by about 2.83%,
orifices are located 10 mm off the center axis, wall film mass was reduced by about 2.83%,
 Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 15 of 21

6.38% and 3.87% for each operating condition, respectively, when the nozzle orifices
6.38% and 3.87% for each operating condition, respectively, when the nozzle orifices located
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWlocated
in the center axis of the exhaust pipe. 16 of 22
in the center axis of the exhaust pipe.

6.38% and 3.87% for each operating condition, respectively, when the nozzle orifices
located in the center axis of the exhaust pipe.

Figure 17.
Figure Influenceof
17. Influence ofdifferent
different nozzle
nozzle positions
positions on
on wall
wall film
film mass.
mass.

3.3. Influence of Pipe Diameter on Wall Film

3.3. Influence of Pipe Diameter on Wall Film
Figures 18 and 19 show the influence of different exhaust pipe diameters on wall film
Figures 18 and 19 show the influence of different exhaust pipe diameters on wall film
area and wall film thickness, respectively. The results indicated that the variation trends
area 17.
Figure and wall film thickness, respectively. The results indicated that the variation trends
of wallInfluence
film area of and
different
wallnozzle positions on
film thickness wall
were filmsame
the mass. for the three typical operating
of wall film area and wall film thickness were the same for the three typical operating
conditions. When the exhaust pipe diameter dropped from 110 mm to 100 mm, the wall
conditions.
3.3. Influence ofWhen
Pipe the exhaust
Diameter on waspipeFilm
Wall diameter dropped from 110 mm to 100 mm, the wall
film area was smaller, which averse to the evaporation and pyrolysis of the wall film.
film area was smaller, which was averse todifferent
the evaporation and pyrolysis ofon
thewall
wallfilm
film.
OnFigures 18 and
the other hand,19 show the influence
the smaller diameter of contributed exhaust pipe
to the diameters
faster flow velocity and the
On
area the other
and wall hand,
film the
thickness, smaller diameter
respectively. contributed
The results to the faster
indicatedwhich flow
that the velocity
variation and
trends the
higher shear stress to obtain a thinner wall film thickness, was beneficial to the
higher shear
of evaporation
wall film area stress
and to obtain
wall film a thinner
thickness wall film thickness, which was beneficial to the
and pyrolysis of wall film. were the same for the three typical operating
evaporation
conditions. Whenandthepyrolysis
exhaust ofpipe
walldiameter
film. dropped from 110diameters
mm to 100
Figure 20 shows the influence of different exhaust pipe onmm,
wallthe
filmwall
mass.
filmAsarea
can was smaller,
be seen, by thewhich
figurewas averse
below, towall
the the evaporation
film mass was and pyrolysis
lighter when ofthe
theexhaust
wall film.pipe
Ondiameter
the otherwashand,100themm. smaller diameter
Compared contributed
to the case of 110 to the
mm,faster
wall flow
film velocity
mass was and the
reduced
higher shear24.72%,
by about stress to obtain
21.30% anda thinner
23.14% for wall filmoperating
each thickness, which was
condition, beneficial when
respectively, to thethe
evaporation
exhaust pipe anddiameter
pyrolysiswas of wall film.
100 mm.

(a)

(a)

Figure 18. Cont.

 Processes
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2023,
2023, 11,xxFOR
11,
11, FORPEER
1199 PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 17of
17 of22
16 2221
of

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 18.
18.
Figure 18. Influence
Influence ofofdifferent
Influence different
of exhaust
exhaust
different pipe
pipe
exhaust diameters
diameters
pipe onwall
on
diameters wall
on filmfilm
film
wall area . .(a)
(a)Case
areaarea. Case
(a) 1;1;(b)
Case (b) Case
Case
1; (b) 2;2;2;
Case
(c)
(c) Case
Case33.3..
Case
(c)

(a)
(a)
Figure 19. Cont.
Processes
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2023,11,
11,x 1199
FOR PEER REVIEW 1817ofof2221

(b)

(b)

(c)

Figure 19. Influence of different exhaust pipe diameters on wall film thickness. (a) Case 1; (b) Case
2; (c) Case 3.

Figure 20 shows the influence of different exhaust pipe diameters on wall film mass.
As can be seen, by the figure below, the wall film mass was lighter when the exhaust pipe
diameter was 100 mm. Compared to the (c) case of 110 mm, wall film mass was reduced by
about 24.72%, 21.30% and 23.14% for each operating condition, respectively, when the
Figure
Figure19. 19.Influence
Influenceofofdifferent
differentexhaust
exhaustpipe
pipediameters
diameterson
onwall
wallfilm
filmthickness. (a)
thickness. (a)Case
Case 1;
1; (b)
(b) Case
Case 2;
exhaust pipe diameter was 100 mm.
2;(c)(c)Case
Case3. 3.

Figure 20 shows the influence of different exhaust pipe diameters on wall film mass.
As can be seen, by the figure below, the wall film mass was lighter when the exhaust pipe
diameter was 100 mm. Compared to the case of 110 mm, wall film mass was reduced by
about 24.72%, 21.30% and 23.14% for each operating condition, respectively, when the
exhaust pipe diameter was 100 mm.

Figure 20. Influence of different exhaust pipe diameters on wall film mass.

4. Discussion
According to the results of the above simulation analysis, it is found that it can effec-
tively reduce the residual wall film mass after optimization of the structural configuration.
However, it is worth noting that the diameter reduction of the exhaust pipe inevitably
 4. Discussion
According to the results of the above simulation analysis, it is found that it can
effectively reduce the residual wall film mass after optimization of the structural
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 configuration. However, it is worth noting that the diameter reduction of the18exhaust of 21 pipe
inevitably allows the exhaust back pressure to build up, which should influence the
normal operation of the engine. Therefore, the acceptable measures to optimize the
allows theflow
exhaust exhaust backwere
field pressureto toremove
build up,the
which shouldcross
abrupt influence the normal
section in theoperation
exhaust pipe
of the engine. Therefore, the acceptable measures to optimize the exhaust flow field were to
downstream of the nozzle and arrange the nozzle orifices in the center axis of the exhaust
remove the abrupt cross section in the exhaust pipe downstream of the nozzle and arrange
pipe.
the nozzle orifices in the center axis of the exhaust pipe.
Figure21
Figure 21shows
shows thethe distribution
distribution of wall
of wall film,film,
shearshear
stressstress andfield
and flow flow field velocity
velocity at at
the sectionofofstep
the section stepsurface
surface in the
in the exhaust
exhaust pipe.pipe.
AfterAfter optimization,
optimization, the region
the region of wall film
of wall film
formed
formed on the exhaust pipe wall became smaller, the shear stress on the wall film wasfilm was
on the exhaust pipe wall became smaller, the shear stress on the wall
significantly increased,and
significantly increased, andthethe flow
flow field
field velocity
velocity nearby
nearby the the
wallwall surface
surface increased
increased by by 20
20 m/s
m/s on on average,
average, whichhelped
which helped promote
promote spalling,
spalling,flow, and
flow, evaporation
and evaporationof wall film.film.
of wall

(a)

(b)
Figure 21. Comparison
Figure 21. Comparisonresults
results of flow
of flow fieldfield simulation
simulation beforebefore andoptimization.
and after after optimization. (a) Before
(a) Before
optimization; (b)After
optimization; (b) After optimization.
optimization.

Another
Anothersupplementary vehiclevehicle
supplementary real roadreal
test was
roadconducted to verify
test was the effectiveness
conducted to verify the
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
of the optimization scheme. It was found that a small number of deposits formed on the 20 of 2
effectiveness of the optimization scheme. It was found that a small number of deposits
perforated pipe at the entrance of the catalytic converter, as shown in Figure 22.
formed on the perforated pipe at the entrance of the catalytic converter, as shown in Figure
22.

Figure
Figure 22.22. Both
Both sides
sides of the
of the perforated
perforated pipe
pipe are at are at the entrance
the entrance of the catalytic
of the catalytic converter.converter.

After spraying into the exhaust pipe, urea droplet usually takes time for evaporatio
and pyrolysis. Currently, the nozzle is arranged at the entrance of the catalytic converte
which is only 150 mm away from the perforated pipe. However, a urea droplet wa
attached to the perforated pipe, which might cause hidden trouble in deposit formation
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 19 of 21

After spraying into the exhaust pipe, urea droplet usually takes time for evaporation
and pyrolysis. Currently, the nozzle is arranged at the entrance of the catalytic converter,
which is only 150 mm away from the perforated pipe. However, a urea droplet was attached
to the perforated pipe, which might cause hidden trouble in deposit formation. Therefore,
to explore the suitable nozzle location, further simulation research was conducted. The
distances from the perforated pipe to each nozzle location are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Nozzle location.

Serial Number Distance from Perforated Pipe (mm)

P1 4200
P2 3800
P3 3650
P4 3250
P5 2100
P6 1800
P7 650
P8 150

Part of the urea droplets sprayed into the exhaust pipe is heated to evaporation and
become gas, and another part attaches to the exhaust pipe wall to form wall films. The
rest part of the unevaporated urea droplets keeps moving with the exhaust flow. Figure 23
shows the change in residual urea droplet mass fraction with the distance downstream of
the nozzle location. The results indicated that there was almost no residue of urea droplet
at the distance 10D downstream of the nozzle location (D was the exhaust pipe diameter
of 110 mm). Therefore, the nozzle location should be arranged at least 10D upstream
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 2
of the perforated pipe to eliminate the hidden trouble of deposit formation inside the
catalytic converter.

Figure
Figure 23. Residual 23.droplet
urea Residual ureafraction
mass droplet at
mass fraction
different at different positions.
positions.

The primary
The primary purpose purpose of
of arranging thearranging the nozzle
nozzle location location
at least 10Datupstream
least 10D of upstream
the of th
perforated
perforated pipe pipe temperature.
is to increase is to increase temperature. However,
However, reducing thereducing
injectionthe injection
rate rate is anothe
is another
way
way of avoiding of avoiding
deposit deposit
formation. Our formation.
previous Our previous
studies show studies show
a critical a critical
injection rateinjection
of Q. rate o
Q. injection
When the actual When therate
actual
R isinjection
lower thanrateQ.
R is
Nolower thangenerate
deposits Q. No deposits generatepipe.
in the exhaust in the exhaus
pipe.RConversely,
Conversely, when is higher thanwhen Q, Rthere
is higher than Q, there
are deposits. are deposits.
The injection rate The injection
is also closelyrate is als
related to NOclosely related
x emission. to NOx emission.
Therefore, Therefore,
the appropriate the appropriate
control strategy forcontrol strategy for ure
urea injection
injection needs to balance the formation
needs to balance the formation of deposits and NOx emission. of deposits and NO x emission.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the CFD model of diesel engine exhaust pipe was established an
showed a good performance verified by the experimental results of spray an
temperature. A commercial vehicle was employed to conduct a real road test, and th
statistical result showed three typical operating conditions for the employed vehicle. Th
research indicated that the variation trends of wall film area and wall film thickness wer
the same for the three typical operating conditions. When the exhaust pipe had no ste
Processes 2023, 11, 1199 20 of 21

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the CFD model of diesel engine exhaust pipe was established and
showed a good performance verified by the experimental results of spray and temperature.
A commercial vehicle was employed to conduct a real road test, and the statistical result
showed three typical operating conditions for the employed vehicle. The research indicated
that the variation trends of wall film area and wall film thickness were the same for the
three typical operating conditions. When the exhaust pipe had no step surface or nozzle
orifices located in the center axis of the exhaust pipe, or the exhaust pipe diameter dropped
from 110 mm to 100 mm, wall film mass reduced by about 48.27~55.4%, 2.83~6.38%
and 21.3~24.72% respectively. However, in another supplementary vehicle real-road test,
deposits formed on the perforated pipe at the entrance of the catalytic converter, which
indicated that only optimizing the exhaust flow field could not solve the problem of deposit
formation completely. According to further simulation research, it can be inferred that the
hidden trouble of deposits formation inside the catalytic converter would disappear when
the nozzle location was arranged at least 10D upstream of the perforated pipe.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.Z.; investigation, F.Q.; writing—original draft prepa-

ration, H.S.; writing—review and editing, X.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province, grant
number 2022CFB730.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: The authors appreciate the support of the School of Automotive and Trans-
portation Engineering (Wuhan University of Science and Technology) and the Wuhan University
of Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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