1.

Divide the world into "Population Resource Regions"

and describe the major characteristics of any one region.

Population Resource Regions (PRRs) are geographical areas defined by their distinctive
population patterns and resource availability. These regions play a crucial role in shaping social,
economic, and environmental dynamics. In this analysis, we will focus on one specific PRR, the Asia-
Pacific region, and explore its major characteristics, incorporating relevant geographical and social
science theories to support our observations.

I. Introduction to the Asia-Pacific Region: The Asia-Pacific region encompasses a vast

area extending from East Asia to Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Pacific Islands. It is
home to a significant portion of the world's population, rich cultural diversity, and
abundant natural resources. The region's characteristics can be understood through
various geographical lenses, such as human geography, economic geography, and
political geography.

4 Types of Population Resource Regions given by Zelensky

 Type A: Such countries have low population, high technological development and
vast natural resources and potential for extensive economic development. E.g: USA,
Canada, Australia

 Type B: These are countries where technological development, resource allocation

and environment have been judiously balanced. E.g., Japan, Israel, Romania

 Type C: These countries have vast natural resources but slightly lack technological
development. E..g. Egypt, Brazil, China

 Type D: These countries have clustered settlements, limited capital investment,

illiterate population, non-existent mineral resources. E.g. Srilanka, Bangladesh,
Pakistan all belong to this category
 II. Population Patterns:

MAP OF ASIA:
a) Population Distribution: The Asia-Pacific region exhibits significant variations in population
distribution. High population densities are found in urban areas, particularly in countries like China,
India, and Indonesia. Urbanization and rural-urban migration have led to the growth of mega-cities,
resulting in challenges such as overcrowding, informal settlements, and strain on infrastructure.

b) Demographic Transition: The region demonstrates diverse stages of demographic transition.

Countries like Japan, South Korea, and Singapore have experienced low birth rates and an aging
population, leading to concerns about labor shortages and increased healthcare costs. Conversely,
countries like India, Pakistan, and Indonesia have youthful populations with high fertility rates,
presenting opportunities for economic growth and development but also posing challenges in terms
of education, employment, and healthcare provision.

c) Migration and Mobility: The Asia-Pacific region has been a hub of migration, both within and
across national borders. Theories such as Lee's Push-Pull Model and Ravenstein's Laws of Migration
can be applied to understand migration patterns. Factors like economic opportunities, political
instability, and environmental changes drive migration within the region, resulting in diaspora
communities and cultural diversity.

III. Resource Availability:

a) Natural Resources: The Asia-Pacific region is endowed with a wide range of natural resources. It
includes vast mineral deposits, such as coal, iron ore, copper, and rare earth elements. The region's
forests, fisheries, and agricultural lands contribute to food security and economic activities. However,
unsustainable resource extraction practices, deforestation, and overfishing pose challenges to
environmental sustainability.

b) Water Resources: The region's major rivers, including the Yangtze, Ganges, Mekong, and Indus,
provide crucial water resources for irrigation, hydropower generation, and transportation. Water
scarcity, pollution, and transboundary water disputes are key issues affecting the sustainable
management of water resources. The concepts of hydro-politics and water security can be applied to
understand the complex interactions between states and the challenges they face in resource
management.

c) Energy Resources: The Asia-Pacific region is a significant contributor to global energy production
and consumption. It possesses abundant reserves of coal, natural gas, and renewable energy sources
such as solar and wind. Energy demand and the transition to cleaner energy systems present
opportunities for regional cooperation and sustainable development. Theories like the Energy
Transition Theory can help analyze the shift towards renewable energy and its implications.

IV. Social and Economic Dynamics:

a) Economic Growth: The Asia-Pacific region is characterized by diverse economic systems, ranging
from centrally planned economies (e.g., China, Vietnam) to market-oriented economies (e.g., Japan,
South Korea, Australia). Economic globalization, trade liberalization, and foreign direct investment
have fueled rapid economic growth in several countries. The theories of modernization and
dependency can be employed to examine the region's economic development paths and the
impacts of globalization.

b) Urbanization and Industrialization: The region has experienced significant urbanization and
industrialization processes, leading to the growth of manufacturing sectors, industrial zones, and
urban agglomerations

Theories to be incorporated in this answer:

1. Lee's Push-Pull Model: Developed by E.W. Lee, this model explains the factors that
influence migration patterns. According to the theory, migration is driven by push
factors, such as lack of job opportunities, political instability, and environmental
degradation, which compel individuals to leave their place of origin. Simultaneously,
pull factors, such as better economic prospects, political stability, and improved
quality of life, attract migrants to specific destinations. In the Asia-Pacific region, this
theory helps elucidate the migration patterns resulting from economic disparities,
political conflicts, and environmental changes.
2. Ravenstein's Laws of Migration: Proposed by Ernst Georg Ravenstein, these laws
provide insights into migration trends and patterns. They include principles such as
the
 distance decay effect (the likelihood of migration decreases as distance
increases),
 step migration (migration occurs in stages rather than all at once), and
 the gravity model (migration is influenced by population size and distance
between locations). These laws are applicable in understanding migration flows
within the Asia-Pacific region, considering factors like urbanization, rural-urban
migration, and movement between neighboring countries.
3. Hydro-politics: Hydro-politics refers to the study of water-related conflicts and
cooperation between states. In the Asia-Pacific region, where numerous
transboundary rivers traverse different countries, the allocation and management of
shared water resources have significant geopolitical implications. Hydro-political
 theories explore how water scarcity, pollution, and competing demands impact
relations between nations. Understanding hydro-politics is crucial in comprehending
water-related challenges and the potential for cooperation in managing water
resources in the region.
4. Energy Transition Theory: The Energy Transition Theory examines the shift from
fossil fuel-based energy systems to renewable and sustainable energy sources. In the
Asia-Pacific region, where energy demand is high and concerns about climate
change are increasing, transitioning to cleaner energy is a significant focus. This
theory explores the drivers, barriers, and implications of the energy transition,
including policy frameworks, technological advancements, and socio-economic
impacts. It helps in understanding the dynamics of renewable energy adoption and
the energy landscape in the region.
5. Modernization Theory: Modernization theory suggests that societies progress
through stages of development, transitioning from traditional agrarian economies to
industrialized and urbanized societies. It emphasizes economic growth, technological
advancement, and social change as key components of development. In the Asia-
Pacific region, modernization theory provides a lens to examine the processes of
industrialization, urbanization, and economic transformation experienced by
countries in the region.
6. Dependency Theory: Dependency theory posits that developing countries are
structurally disadvantaged and dependent on more developed nations. It argues that
historical and structural inequalities perpetuate the dependence of less-developed
regions on more powerful states, leading to uneven development and persistent
poverty. In the context of the Asia-Pacific region, dependency theory helps analyze
the relationships between developed and developing countries, exploring issues of
economic dependency, global trade dynamics, and regional disparities.

By incorporating these theories, we can gain valuable insights into the complex
geographical, social, and economic dynamics within the Asia-Pacific region. These
theories provide frameworks to understand migration patterns, resource management,
energy transitions, and socio-economic development, enabling a comprehensive
analysis of the region's population and resource

What is meant by urbanization? Give a brief history and present

pattern of world urbanization.

Urbanization refers to the process of the population shifting from rural areas to urban centers,
leading to the growth and expansion of cities. It involves the physical, economic, and social
transformation of rural settlements into urban areas. This phenomenon is driven by various
factors such as industrialization, economic opportunities, improved infrastructure, and social
change. In this response, we will explore the history of urbanization and the present pattern of
world urbanization, incorporating relevant geographical and social sciences theories and
concepts.

I. History of Urbanization:

1. Early Urbanization:
 The earliest urban centers emerged in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus
Valley, and China, where agriculture and surplus production supported the
development of centralized settlements.
 The cities of Ur, Mohenjo-daro, and Thebes are examples of early urban centers
that flourished due to trade, governance, and religious activities.
2. Urbanization in the Middle Ages:
 The decline of the Roman Empire and the feudal system contributed to the
dispersal of urban populations during the Middle Ages.
 However, the growth of medieval towns and cities, facilitated by trade, guilds,
and the rise of merchant class, led to the revival of urbanization.
3. Industrial Revolution and Urbanization:
 The Industrial Revolution, starting in the 18th century, marked a significant
turning point in urbanization.
 Technological advancements in manufacturing and transportation spurred the
growth of industrial cities, such as Manchester, Birmingham, and Pittsburgh.
 The migration of rural populations to cities in search of employment
opportunities resulted in rapid urbanization.

II. Present Pattern of World Urbanization:

1. Urbanization Trends:
 The world's urban population has been steadily increasing. In 1950,
approximately 30% of the global population lived in urban areas, whereas by
2020, it reached 56%.
 The rate of urbanization is particularly high in developing countries due to factors
like rural-urban migration, natural population growth, and economic
opportunities in urban centers.
2. Regional Disparities:
 Urbanization rates vary across regions. Developed regions, such as North America
and Europe, have higher levels of urbanization compared to Africa and Asia.
 However, the absolute number of urban dwellers is higher in Asia due to its large
population.
3. Megacities and Metropolises:
 Megacities, defined as urban agglomerations with populations exceeding 10
million, have become prominent features of urbanization.
  Cities like Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, and São Paulo exemplify the challenges and
opportunities associated with high urban population densities.
4. Urbanization in Developing Countries:
 Rapid urbanization in developing countries often leads to the formation of
informal settlements and slums due to inadequate infrastructure and limited
access to basic services.
 The push and pull factors contributing to urbanization in these countries include
rural poverty, lack of employment opportunities, and the desire for a better
quality of life.
5. Concentric Zone Model (Ernest Burgess, 1925):
 The Concentric Zone Model proposes that cities grow outward from a
central core in a series of concentric rings.
 The model suggests that cities develop in a predictable pattern with
distinct zones radiating from the central business district (CBD).
 The zones, from the innermost to the outermost, include:

 a. CBD: The central business district, characterized by high-density

commercial activities and transportation hubs.

b. Zone of Transition: Surrounding the CBD, this zone typically

experiences a mix of industrial, commercial, and residential land uses. It is
often marked by social and physical deterioration.

c. Zone of Working-Class Homes: This zone houses older, low-income

residential areas with modest housing.

d. Zone of Better Residences: This zone consists of middle-class

residential areas with more spacious and well-maintained housing.

e. Commuter Zone: The outermost ring, comprised of suburban areas

where residents typically commute to the city for work.
6. Sectorial Model of Urban Settlement (Homer Hoyt, 1939):
 The Sectorial Model builds upon the Concentric Zone Model but
emphasizes the development of sectors rather than concentric rings.
 The model suggests that cities expand outward in pie-shaped sectors
along transportation routes and major corridors.
 The sectors, from the city center outward, include:
a. CBD: Similar to the Concentric Zone Model, the central business
district forms the core.

b. Transportation/Industrial Sector: This sector extends along

transportation routes and often houses industries, warehouses, and
transportation infrastructure.

c. Low-Class Residential Sector: This sector includes older, lower-

income residential areas adjacent to industrial zones.

d. Middle-Class Residential Sector: This sector consists of newer, middle-

class residential areas with better housing and amenities.

d. High-Class Residential Sector: The outermost sector, it features

affluent residential areas, often characterized by larger houses,
open spaces, and prestigious neighborhoods.
7. Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris and Ullman, 1945):
 The Multiple Nuclei Model challenges the notion of a single CBD and
proposes that cities have multiple centers of activity.
 The model suggests that cities develop around various specialized
nuclei or activity centers, each with its own unique characteristics and
functions.
 These nuclei can emerge due to factors such as transportation routes,
economic activities, cultural amenities, or topography.
 Examples of nuclei include the CBD, industrial districts, university
campuses, entertainment zones, residential suburbs, and ethnic
enclaves.
III. Theoretical Concepts:

1. Urban Transition Theory:

 The urban transition theory, proposed by Kingsley Davis in 1963, suggests that
urbanization follows a predictable pattern as societies undergo economic and
social changes.
 It outlines a four-stage model: pre-industrial, early industrial, mature
industrial, and post-industrial, characterized by shifts in economic activities and
urban development.
2. Central Place Theory:
 The central place theory, developed by Walter Christaller in 1933, explains the
spatial distribution of cities based on their functions and market areas.
 According to this theory, larger cities provide a broader range of goods and
services, while smaller towns cater to more localized needs.
Central Place Theory, developed by German geographer Walter Christaller in 1933, seeks to
explain the spatial distribution and hierarchical arrangement of cities and towns. This
theory provides insights into the patterns of economic exchange and the relationship between
urban centers and their hinterlands. Let's explore Central Place Theory in detail:

1. Basic Assumptions:
 Central Place Theory assumes a flat, uniform landscape with no physical barriers
or variations in resources.
 It assumes a rational economic behavior where individuals seek to minimize
travel costs and maximize accessibility to goods and services.
  The theory assumes a homogeneous population with similar purchasing power
and demands across the entire region.
2. Central Places and Hinterlands:
 According to Central Place Theory, a central place is a city or town that provides
goods and services to both its local population and the surrounding hinterland.
 A hinterland refers to the surrounding area that depends on a central place for
its economic activities and consumption needs.
 The size and range of goods and services provided by a central place determine
its functional level and hierarchy within the urban system.
3. Central Place Hierarchy:
 Central Place Theory proposes a hierarchical arrangement of central places
based on their size, function, and market areas.
 Larger central places at higher levels have a higher threshold population
and offer a more extensive range of goods and services compared to lower-
level central places.
4. Hexagonal Market Areas:
 Central Place Theory assumes that central places serve circular market areas,
which are divided into hexagonal shapes to avoid overlap.
 The hexagonal shape ensures that every consumer within a market area has the
same distance to a central place, minimizing travel costs.

5. Range and Threshold:

 The range of a central place refers to the maximum distance consumers are
willing to travel to access a particular good or service.
  The threshold population is the minimum number of consumers required to
support the provision of a particular good or service in a central place.
 Larger central places at higher levels have a larger range and higher threshold
population, enabling them to offer more specialized and higher-order goods and
services.

6. Market Forces and Competition:

 Central Place Theory recognizes that central places compete for consumers within
their overlapping market areas.
 Intense competition can lead to the establishment of new central places or the
expansion of existing ones to capture a larger market share.
 Competition influences the spatial distribution of central places and the size of
their market areas.
7. Criticisms and Modifications:
 Central Place Theory has faced criticisms for its simplified assumptions and its
failure to account for factors such as historical, cultural, and political influences on
urban development.
 Some modifications to the theory have been proposed to incorporate the impact
of transportation networks, variations in topography, and the presence of
specialized economic activities.

Central Place Theory remains a valuable framework for understanding the spatial organization
and hierarchy of cities and towns. While it may not fully capture the complexities of urban
systems, it provides a foundation for analyzing the relationships between central places, their
hinterlands, and the distribution of goods and services within a region.

3. Urban Political Economy:
 Urban political economy focuses on the relationship between economic
forces, political power, and urban development.
 This approach, influenced by scholars such as Manuel Castells and David
Harvey, highlights the role of global capitalism, neoliberal policies, and
urban governance in shaping urbanization processes.
4. Gentrification:
  Gentrification refers to the process of middle-class residents moving
into previously working-class or deteriorated neighborhoods, leading
to urban renewal and displacement of lower-income residents.
 This concept, popularized by Ruth Glass in 1964, highlights the social and
economic transformations occurring within cities and the impact on
marginalized communities.
5. Sustainable Urbanization:
 Sustainable urbanization emphasizes the need to develop cities in a
manner that balances social, economic, and environmental considerations.
 This concept, aligned with the principles of sustainable development, aims
to create inclusive, resilient, and resource-efficient cities to meet the needs
of present and future generations.

Causes of Urbanization

1. Industrialization and Economic Opportunities:

 Industrialization and the growth of manufacturing industries have
historically attracted rural populations to cities in search of employment
opportunities.
 Urban areas offer a wider range of job options, higher wages, and the
potential for upward social mobility, drawing people away from traditional
agrarian livelihoods.
2. Rural-Urban Migration:
 Rural-urban migration occurs when people move from rural areas to cities
in search of better living conditions, educational opportunities, healthcare,
and improved infrastructure.
 Factors such as poverty, limited access to basic services, land degradation,
and agricultural changes can push individuals and families to seek a better
quality of life in urban areas.
3. Population Growth and Natural Increase:
 Natural population growth, where birth rates exceed death rates,
contributes to urbanization.
  High birth rates in rural areas, coupled with improvements in healthcare
and declining mortality rates, lead to population growth that outstrips the
capacity of rural economies to provide for the growing population.
4. Infrastructure Development:
 The availability of better infrastructure in urban areas, including
transportation networks, communication systems, healthcare facilities, and
educational institutions, attracts people seeking improved services and
amenities.
 Urban areas tend to have better access to electricity, clean water,
sanitation facilities, and other essential services that are crucial for a higher
quality of life.
5. Social and Cultural Factors:
 Urban areas often provide a wider range of social and cultural
opportunities, including access to diverse communities, entertainment,
arts, and cultural events.
 The allure of a more cosmopolitan lifestyle, increased social interactions,
and exposure to diverse ideas and experiences can be strong pull factors
for individuals seeking a vibrant urban environment.
6. Government Policies and Planning:
 Government policies and urban planning play a significant role in shaping
urbanization patterns.
 Policies promoting industrial development, infrastructure investment, and
urban growth often attract population influx to designated urban areas.
 Conversely, policies that restrict rural-urban migration or promote
balanced regional development can influence urbanization rates.
 Discuss man-environment relationship in the light of Physical
determinism and possiblism. Analyze the concept of environmentalism
as well in detail.

I. Physical Determinism/Environmentalism: A. Definition and Basic Concepts: -

Physical determinism posits that the natural environment shapes human behavior,
cultural development, and societal outcomes. - It suggests that environmental factors
such as climate, landforms, and natural resources exert a dominant influence on human
activities.

B. Proponents and Examples: 1. Friedrich Ratzel: - Ratzel's work on environmental

determinism emphasized the concept of Lebensraum, which argued that societies'
expansion and development were influenced by their natural environment. - For
example, Ratzel believed that the availability of fertile land and favorable climates would
lead to the success and growth of civilizations.

B. Proponents and Examples: 1. Rachel Carson: - Carson's book "Silent Spring"

highlighted the detrimental effects of pesticides on the environment and raised
awareness about the need for environmental protection. - Her work contributed to the
environmental movement and the eventual banning of the pesticide DDT in the United
States.

Effects of environmentalism on Man:

1. Human Settlements

People have a difficult time living where:

 Climate is too hot

 Climate is too cold
 Where there is no water

People don’t want to live on poles or in deserts where harsh climate prevails.

2. Housing materials

People make their houses out of available materials.

a) A desert or arid region

 b) An area with lot of snow
c) A jungle

Corresponding material for above cited areas would be:

a) A house made of dirt or mud

b) A traditional igloo in polar regions
c) A house made on top of a tree

3. Agricultural Activities

Agricultural activity can be affected by:

1) Topography
2) Climate

Criticism on Environmental Determinism

 Main criticism is that although environment influences man yet man also
influences the environment too. Carl Sauer criticized the idea of environmental
determinism as sadi that it leads to pre mature generalizations about an area’s
culture. Because of this criticism geographers developed the theory of
Environmental possibilism to explain cultural development.

2. Ellsworth Huntington:

- Huntington's theory of climatic determinism suggested that variations in climate directly affected human
races, cultures, and social progress.

- For instance, he argued that harsh climates could limit agricultural productivity and economic
development in certain regions.

II. Environmental Possibilism: A. Definition and Basic Concepts: - Possibilism

emphasizes that human societies have the ability to adapt, modify, and overcome
environmental constraints. - It argues that human agency and cultural factors play a
significant role in shaping human-environment interactions.

B. Proponents and Examples: 1. Paul Vidal de la Blache: - Vidal de la Blache

emphasized the importance of human activities and cultural factors in shaping
landscapes, arguing that societies have the ability to overcome environmental
constraints through technology and innovation. - For example, the Dutch have
reclaimed land from the sea through the construction of dikes and polders,
transforming a challenging natural environment into productive agricultural land. Also
drip irrigation and all agro tech

2. Carl Sauer:

- Sauer's concept of cultural landscape highlighted how human activities, including agriculture and
settlement patterns, transform the natural environment, leading to distinct landscapes.

- An example is the terraced farming practices in the mountainous regions of Southeast Asia, where
communities have altered the landscape to create agricultural terraces for cultivation.

How humans impact their environment?

1. Deforestation: Humans clear vast areas of forests for agriculture, logging,

urbanization, and the expansion of infrastructure, leading to habitat destruction,
loss of biodiversity, and changes in local and global climate patterns.
2. Urbanization and Land Use Change: The rapid growth of cities and urban areas
results in the conversion of natural landscapes into built environments, altering
ecosystems, and causing habitat fragmentation.
3. Industrial Pollution: Human industrial activities release pollutants into the air,
water, and soil, contributing to air pollution, water contamination, and soil
degradation. Examples include emissions from factories, chemical spills, and
improper waste disposal.
4. Agricultural Practices: Intensive agricultural practices, such as the use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, monoculture farming, and irrigation, can lead
to soil erosion, water pollution, and depletion of natural resources.
5. Overfishing: Unregulated and unsustainable fishing practices, including
overfishing and destructive fishing techniques, deplete fish populations, disrupt
marine ecosystems, and impact the livelihoods of fishing communities.

6. Reforestation and Afforestation: Individuals and organizations undertake

reforestation and afforestation projects, planting trees to restore ecosystems,
combat deforestation, and mitigate climate change.
7. Sustainable Agriculture: Practices such as organic farming, agroforestry, and
permaculture promote sustainable land use, soil conservation, and biodiversity
preservation, reducing the environmental impacts of agriculture.
8. Renewable Energy Transition: Humans are increasingly adopting renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower, reducing reliance on fossil
fuels and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
 9. Environmental Education and Awareness: By promoting environmental
education and awareness campaigns, individuals and organizations raise public
consciousness about environmental issues, fostering a sense of responsibility and
encouraging sustainable practices.
10. Green Infrastructure: The integration of green spaces, green roofs, and
sustainable drainage systems in urban planning helps mitigate urban heat island
effects, improve air quality, and provide habitats for wildlife.

III. Environmentalism: A. Definition and Basic Concepts: - Environmentalism recognizes

the interdependence and mutual influence between humans and the environment,
emphasizing the need for sustainable and responsible interactions. It says that an
area’s physical characteristics like climate have strong influence on psychological
mindset of individuals. For example, people living in tropical climates does not work
hard because of hot weather, they first want to survive themselves-

2. Aldo Leopold:

- Leopold's book "A Sand County Almanac" advocated for a land ethic that recognizes the intrinsic value
of the natural environment and calls for responsible human interactions with nature.

- His ideas influenced the development of conservation ethics and the establishment of protected areas
such as national parks.

3. Wangari Maathai:
 - Maathai was an environmental activist who founded the Green Belt Movement in Kenya, promoting tree
planting and environmental conservation.

- Her efforts led to the planting of millions of trees, restoration of degraded landscapes, and
empowerment of local communities.

In conclusion, the perspectives of physical determinism, possibilism, and environmentalism offer

different insights into the relationship between humans and the environment. While physical
determinism emphasizes