Plate tectonics is a theory that explains the surface of the earth is broken into large and small lithospheric

plates which are moving slowly. The size and position of these plates change as years pass by. They move
against each other at their edges causing intense geologic activity, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and
mountain building.

Plate tectonics is a theory that explains the different processes that cause the formation of different
geologic features and phenomena.

In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, and geophysicist hypothesized, he proposed, and
suggested that all the continents were once joined in a single supercontinent, called PANGAEA.

Alfred Wegener published two articles about a concept called continental drift in 1912, and also suggested
that all the continents were once joined.

Trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground that is generally deeper than it is wide.

The plate tectonics theory suggests that the lithosphere is divided into fragments known as plates.

The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized
by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.

PHILVOCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology)

There are 53 active volcanoes in the Philippines characterized by two major N-S trending arcs – the Luzon
and Mindanao Volcanic Arcs.

Earthquakes release different types of seismic waves. The primary and secondary waves travel within the
interior of Earth and are responsible for the detection of the epicenter of an earthquake. Waves such as
long surface waves and Rayleigh waves are surface waves. We will look into these waves as we go along.

Seismologists make use of seismographs to record earthquake waves. The records generated are called
seismograms.

We describe volcanoes as dormant and active based from their frequency of eruptions. Those that erupt
regularly are called active and those that have erupted in the past and are inactive are called dormant.

The Himalayas are a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the
Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest.
Over 100 peaks exceeding 7,200 m in elevation lie in the Himalayas.

These plates are all moving in different directions and different speeds the place where two plates meet
called a plate boundary.

Lithosphere - The brittle, solid part of Earth.

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES- this is where two plates are colliding

Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust. The
denser plate is subducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate being forced under is eventually
melted and destroyed.
 DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES- this is where two plates are moving apart each other. Divergent boundaries can
form within continents but will eventually open up and become ocean basins.
*transform
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES - This is where plates slide passed each other. The relative motion of the plates is
horizontal. They can occur underwater or on land, and crust is neither destroyed nor created.

Convection current is thought to be the driving mechanism for plate movements. Even though the mantle
is solid, a part of it called the asthenosphere flows like a soft and pliable plastic. Convection currents are an
important form of heat transfer.

Convection occurs when heat cannot efficiently be transferred through radiation or thermal conduction.

The shaking of the ground caused by the tremendous release of energy due to pressure in Earth's crust is
called an earthquake.

An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another. The surface
where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface where the
earthquake starts is called the hypocenter or focus, and the location directly above it on the surface of the
earth is called the epicenter

The instrument that detects and measures seismic waves is called a seismograph. The internal part of a
seismograph is called the seismometer.

The Richter scale is the most common scale for the magnitude of an earthquake. It is sometimes called the
local magnitude (M).

Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale- first scale used in identifying earthquake intensity, which becomes the basis for
the development of the now widely used scale known as the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.

The largest, main earthquake is called the mainshock. Foreshocks are the energy release and ground
shaking before an earthquake and aftershocks are the energy release and ground shaking after an
earthquake. While foreshocks occur around the same time of the main quake, aftershocks may occur until
days or weeks later.

GROUND MOTION - This process is called “pancaking” because the resulting debris resembles a stack of
pancakes.

TSUNAMI- Is a water train or series of waves generated by vertical motions of the seafloor of a body of
water that moves the whole water column.

Storm surge is the abnormal rise in seawater level during a storm, measured as the height of the water
above the normal predicted astronomical tide.

Frequency, in physics, the number of waves that pass a fixed point in unit time; also, the number of cycles
or vibrations undergone during one unit of time by a body in periodic motion.

Wavelength, distance between corresponding points of two consecutive waves. “Corresponding points”
refers to two points or particles in the same phase—i.e., points that have completed identical fractions of
their periodic motion.

TYPES OF EM WAVES
Radio waves has the lowest frequency of the seven bands of waves on the electromagnetic spectrum,
which also means they have the least amount of energy.

Microwaves are used for high bandwidth communications, radar and as a heat source for microwave
ovens and industrial applications.

Infrared waves occur at an even higher frequency than microwaves. Infrared waves are used to power
television remote controls and for thermal imaging, like when using a pair of night vision goggles.

Visible light is found in the middle of the EM spectrum, between IR and UV. Visible light is defined as the
wavelengths that are visible to most human eyes.

Ultra Violet light is a component of sunlight; however, it is invisible to the human eye. It has numerous
medical and industrial applications, but it can damage living tissue. Ultraviolet radiation can kill bacteria
that are present in water - this sterilizes the water and makes it safe to drink. Ultraviolet radiation is also
good for the skin as it helps to make Vitamin D.

X-rays are roughly classified into two types: soft X-rays and hard X-rays. Soft X-rays comprise the range of
the EM spectrum between UV and gamma rays. Hard X-rays occupy the same region of the EM spectrum
as gamma rays. The only difference between them is their source: X-rays are produced by accelerating
electrons, while gamma rays are produced by atomic nuclei. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be
utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy.

Gamma radiation causes damage to living tissue, which makes it useful for killing cancer cells when
applied in carefully measured doses to small regions. Uncontrolled exposure, though, is extremely
dangerous to humans.

Exposure to the sun causes:

• Pre-cancerous (actinic keratosis) and,

• Cancerous

- basal cell carcinoma,

- squamous cell carcinoma and

- melanoma

Skin lesions - due to decreases in the skin's immune function

Discolored areas of the skin, called mottled pigmentation

Sallowness - a yellow discoloration of the skin

Telangiectasias - the dilation of small blood vessels under the skin

Elastosis - the destruction of the elastic and collagen tissue (causing lines, wrinkles and sagging skin)

A ray is an idealized model consisting of a thin beam of light that travels in a straight line.

A wave front is an imaginary surface that represents points in the wave that vibrate in unison.
The law of reflection states that the angle of reflection (Ө ) is the same as the angle of incidence (Ө𝒊 )

Real images are formed in front of the mirror, whereas virtual images are those formed behind the mirror.

Converging Lens - A lens that converges rays of light that are traveling parallel to its principal axis.
Converging lenses can be identified by their shape; they are relatively thick across their middle and thin at
their upper and lower edges.

Diverging Lens - A lens placed in the path of a beam of parallel rays can be called a diverging lens when it
causes the rays to diverge after refraction. It is thinner at its center than its edges and always produces a
virtual image. A double concave lens is diverging on both of its refracting surfaces

For convex or diverging mirrors, there is no real focus. Convex mirrors always produce upright, virtual
images that are smaller than the actual object. The image is located behind the mirror.

Observe the light bends as it passes from one medium (air) to another (prism/object). This bending of light
is called REFRACTION.

With the use of prism, this angle is emphasized for each color, displaying the seven colors. This is called the
DISPERSION OF LIGHT.

Willebrord Snellius (Snell) 1580- 1626, a Dutch physicist, as he described the relationship of the angle of
the incidence to the angle of refraction.

The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal; denoted as ‘i’. The angle of
refraction is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal; denoted as ‘r’. Laws of refraction state
that:

1. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface of any two given mediums; all lie in the
same plane.

2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and sine of the angle of refraction is constant.

Lenses are transparent materials made of either glass or plastic. Lenses refract incoming light rays. Lenses
can be either converging or diverging lenses.

A concave lens always produces upright images that are virtual and smaller than the objects. As the object
move away from the lens, the images gets smaller and smaller..

OPTICAL PHENOMENA

Mirage - When you believe you see water in the road/desert when it isn't really there. An optical
phenomenon in which light is refracted through a layer of hot air close to the ground, giving the
appearance of there being refuge in the distance.

Rainbow - A meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in
water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multicoloured
circular arc.

Halo - an optical phenomenon produced by light (typically from the Sun or Moon) interacting with ice
crystals suspended in the atmosphere. Halos can have many forms, ranging from colored or white rings to
arcs and spots in the sky.
ELECTRICITY – is the presence and flow of electric charge. Its best-known form is the flow of electrons
through conductors such as copper wires.

MAGNETISM - is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and
the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents
and magnetic moments.

Hans Christian Oersted - He noticed that when the circuit was turned on, the compass deflected and
remained steady as long as the circuit was on. Upon turning off the circuit, the magnetic compass
returned to its original position before the circuit was turned on.

Andre Marie Ampere stated that the source of all magnetic phenomena is the motion of electric charges.

Electricity can exist without magnetism, but magnetism cannot exist without electricity.

Speed: High speeds produce high voltages

Magnetism: Strong magnets produce high voltages

Shape of Wire: Many coils in the wire produce high voltages

Testes – testicle- Paired structures which is small, pinkish and oval. They are about 5cm in length, 2.5 in
width and 3cm in thickness.

The testes are situated in a sac like structure made up if folds skin, called scrotum which are situated
between the tights.

EPIDIDYMIS - a coiled the located around the outer edge of the posterior side of the testes.

The last part of the epididymis continuous into vas deferens which is a duct through which the sperm
travels from the epididymis to the urethra.

The penis is the erectile organ in males for;

• ejaculation, copulation and urination.

• a muscular, cylindrical structure, rod shape and, located between thighs.

The penis is made up of erectile tissue which gets filled up by blood when the male gets sexually
stimulated.

The Urethra is urinogenital duct passing through the penis. It is no longer in males and is about 20cm in
length. It is the common pathway for the ureters as well as the semen.

PROSTATE GLAND - The prostate gland is located under the bladder and produces milky fluid. The size of
the gland is that of the golf ball which is spongy in texture. The secretions of this gland are called prostatic
fluid which contains substances that nourish and activate the sperms to swim.

COWPER’S GLAND - The Cowper’s gland, also known as bulbourethral gland, are tiny, pea-shaped paired
glands, located beneath the prostate gland. They are about 1 centimetre in length. The Cowper’s gland
produce an alkaline fluid containing mucous. This acts as a lubricant for the urethra as well as the penis.
The semen which is secretion of the male reproductive gland is a whitish, slimy, secretion containing
sperms. The sperms in the semen fuse with the gamete leading to fertilization.

The sperm has head. Middle piece and tail called flagellum.

EJACULATION - passage of seminal fluid (semen) during sexual intercourse/coitus - caused by contractions
of muscles in the seminal vesicles and vas deferens - average contains 200 – 400 million sperm - retain
mobility for several days, though the ability to fertilize the egg is limited to about 24 hours.

PERINIAL LACERATION - Vaginal tears during childbirth, also called perineal lacerations or tears, occur
when the baby's head is coming through the vaginal opening and is either too large for the vagina to
stretch around or the head is a normal size but the vagina doesn't stretch easily.

OVARIES / FEMALE GONADS - paired oval structures lying close to the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity.
Source of female gametes (ova) and females hormones.

FALLOPIAN TUBES - tubes which carry the ovum to the uterus - approx. 12 cm. long with proximal end
open to the uterus and distal end having an expanded fringed border (fimbriae) next to the ovary

Uterus - highly elastic organ whose main function is to contain the developing embryo - simplex shape in
humans. Bipartite in cat - muscular, pear-shaped, lies in the pelvic cavity between bladder and rectum.

Cervix - external opening of the uterus, largest, most powerful sphincter muscle in female, protrudes into
the upper end of the vagina.

Vagina - highly elastic canal which receives the penis during coitus, also serves as the birth canal.

Ectopic Pregnancy- also called extra uterine pregnancy, is when a fertilized egg grows outside a woman's
uterus, somewhere else in their belly.

Menstrual Cycle - occurs in non-pregnant women from puberty (12-14 yrs) until menopause (45-55 yrs).
Cyclic changes that occur on the average every 28 days (range 21 to 35 days) to the endometrium
correlating with cyclic changes in the ovaries as regulated by female hormones .

OVULATION - release of a mature egg from the ovary normally on day 14.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID - This fluid serves as a shock absorber that protects the brain and the spinal cord
from mechanical injury.

Brain is soft, delicate organ found inside the cranial cavity.

Cerebrum- is the largest part of the brain and is concerned with higher brain functions.

Cerebellum- provides instructions for coordination of skeletal muscle movements, proper balance, and
posture.

Brain Stem - connects the brain and the spinal cord.

Spinal Cord - contains long, thin masses of bundled neurons, which carry information between the brain
and the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - includes all the other parts outside the brain and the spinal cord such as
the sensory receptors, cranial and spinal nerves, and the ganglia.
2 SUBDIVISION OF MOTOR NEURON

1. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- This system is associated with the voluntary control of body movements and has two main parts:

Spinal Nerves – the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body

Cranial Nerves – the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.

2. Autonomic Nervous System

- This system is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and has two subdivisions:

Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and
breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating, etc.)

Parasympathetic - it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode

The basic unit of the nervous system are called neurons.

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to
each other. They're responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

Pituitary gland - The major endocrine gland. A pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain, the
pituitary is important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine
glands.

Thyroid - regulates body metabolism and causes storage of calcium in bones, located below the voice box,
thyroxin, Calcitonin

Parathyroid Glands - Controls the calcium levels in your body and normalizes bone growth

Thymus - Enables the body to produce certain antibodies.

Adrenal Glands - also known as suprarenal glands, that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline
and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol.

Fossils provide evidence of how life has changed over time.

TYPES OF FOSSILS

Petrified Fossils - Greek word petra meaning “stone”. Fossils in which minerals replace all or part of an
organism.

Molds and casts - Both copy the shape of the organism. A mold is a hollow area of sediment in the shape of
the organism.

Carbon films - Leaves extremely thin coating of carbon film outline on rock. All organisms are made of
carbon.

Trace fossil, also ichnofossil, is a fossil record of biological activity but not the preserved remains of the
plant or animal itself.
Index fossils are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods.

Preserved remains, or traces of remains, of ancient organisms. Fossils are not the remains of the organism
itself! They are rocks.

Paleontology - The Study of Past Life

Paleontologists is a scientist who studies fossils, which are the remains of organisms preserved by geologic
processes.

ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE – provides support to evolution by comparing the body structures of different
organisms.

MOLECULAR CLOCK - Evolutionary changes can be measured.

Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerlandl – in 1960s introduced the concept of molecular clock which measures
the number of changes and mutations that occur in the gene sequences of different species from the past.

Lamarck and Darwin – became famous for their theories of evolution. They have their own share of ideas
about evolution, which then created more questions about evolution.

Microevolution - It happens when the frequencies of alleles in a group undergo changes.

Genetic Drift - A change in the gene pool of a group. It happens usually by chance or by an accidental
change in the frequency of the genes.

Gene Pool - total collection of genes in a population.

Mutation - A change in the DNA of an organism, resulting in the formation of new allele.

Gene Flow - the movement of alleles in a group of organisms. It occurs when fertile organisms move in or
out of a specific group.

Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg (1908) independently proposed a principle that states that the
frequency of alleles in a gene pool will remain constant unless one or more factors or other agents will
cause the frequency to change.

Macroevolution - It refers to the large-scale changes that lead to an evolution of organisms from simple to
complex.

Geologic Time Scale – shows how macroevolution happens for a long period of time. It also shows the
transitions that occur in the life- forms and the changes that divide eras into periods.

Extinction - Process in which species of an organism ceases to exist.

ENVIRONMENT – is described as anything that affects an organism in its lifetime. These influences can be
either biotic and abiotic.

ECOLOGY- branch of biology that studies the interactions between organisms and environment.

Ecosystem - Composed of the organisms in an area that are interacting with both biotic and abiotic factors.
They are characterized by dynamic processing of energy and matter.
NATURAL ECOSYSTEM - interaction between organisms and their environment. It is composed of biotic and
abiotic components.

ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM -are human-made structures where biotic and abiotic components are made to
interact with each other for survival. It is not self-sustaining and can perish without human help.

Freshwater - a precious resource on the Earth's surface.

The series of gradual changes that occur in an ecosystem over time is called ecological succession. It
describes how biological communities reassemble and change over time due to natural or anthropogenic
(human-caused) disturbances.

Primary succession occurs in an environment without previous life, or a barren habitat. Secondary
succession occurs in an area that had previously been inhabited but experienced a disturbance, such as a
wildfire. In this scenario, there still would be soil.

Population Ecologists- examine the different factors that influence population in size, density, distribution,
and growth.

Limiting Factor - Any condition of the environment that limits the size of a given population.

Age Distribution refers to the number of organisms of each age in a given population.

FECUNDITY refers to the number of offspring of a given individual or a population over time.

Population Density is described as the number of organisms of a given species per unit area.

Population Growth is the increase in the number of people in a population or dispersed group.

Carrying Capacity of an area determines the size of the population that can exist or will be tolerated there.

Other gases such as nitrogen and noble gases are some of the components of the atmosphere that
blankets Earth.

LUDWIG BOLTZMANN & JAMES CLERK MAXWELL - they explained the physical properties of gases. They
found out that we can understand the behavior of gases in terms of the motion of individual of molecules.
The movement of these molecules is due to the kinetic energy that they posses.

The random motion of gas molecules is one of the assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) of
gases.

Volume - is defined as the space occupied by a sample of matter BIG, In this case, the gas molecules are
the sample matter.

Temperature - is another physical quantity that affects the behavior of gas particles or molecules. At a
higher temperature, gas molecules move rapidly; at a lower temperature, these molecules move slowly.

Amount of substance - this physical quantity is measured in moles (mol).

Pressure - is defined as the force exerted per unit area.

Take note of the following conversion:

1 atm = 760 mmHg

1 atm = 760 torr

1 atm = 76 cmHg

1 atm = 101.325 kPa

1 atm = 14.7 psi

1 atm = 101325 Pa

Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA).

The relationship between the pressure and the volume of gases was first investigated by an Irish chemist
named Robert Boyle.

The symbol “∝” means “proportional to.”

French scientists Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay- Lussac investigated that, at constant pressure, the
volume of a gas contracts when cooled and expands when heated. Their findings showed how the change
in temperature affects the volume of the gas.

The graph clearly depicts that, as the temperature of the gas approaches absolute zero, its volume also
approaches absolute zero.

This graph shows an inverse relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature.

Temperature Conversion Formulas

Celsius to Kelvin:

K = C + 273.15

Kelvin to Celcius:
C = K - 273.15

Fahrenheit to Celsius:

C = ( F - 32 ) x 5/9

Celsius to Fahrenheit:

F = C ( 9/5 ) + 32

Fahrenheit to Kelvin:

K = ( F - 32 ) x 5/9 + 273.15

Kelvin to Fahrenheit:

F = ( K - 273.15 ) x 9/5 +32

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GOODLUCK AND GODBLESS!