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REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI

Reproduction is the formation of new individuals with all the characteristics typical of the
species. Two general types of reproduction are noticed in fungi. They are asexual and
sexual. In addition to this vegetative reproduction may also exist.

Vegetative reproduction takes place due to fragmented mycelium. A fragmented piece

of mycelium when falls on a suitable substratum grows in to a mycelium and thus
establishes itself in to a colony. E.g., Fusarium (a soil borne fungus) . This principle is
made use in the laboratory to grow a mycelial fungus. A small hyphal fragment is picked
up and inoculated into a suitable medium in an aseptic condition to obtain a fungal
colony.

Asexual reproduction is sometimes referred as somatic reproduction and does not

involve plasmogamy, karyogamy (Gr. Karygon = nut + gamy = marriage) and meiosis.
Sexual reproduction on the other hand, is characterized by the presence of three distinct
phases viz., plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis. Specialised sex cells are present in
ceratin groups of fungi and they are absent in the evolved group of the same.

During reproduction, either asexual or sexual, entire thallus may be converted into one or
more reproductive structure and hence somatic and reproductive phases do not occur
together in these fungi. Such of them are referred as holocarpic. In others, a part of the
vegetative thallus gets converted into reproductive structure and these fungi are called
eucarpic. In this case, a portion of the thallus continues to perform somatic activities and
another portion is restricted to reproductive expression.

Most of the fungi reproduce by both asexual and sexual method. Few fungi donot show
sexual reproduction and even when it is present in these fungi, the activity takes place
very rarely.

Asexual Reproduction:

As already mentioned to you, it is also called somatic reproduction or non sexual

reprodution. Broadly, asexual reproduction includes any method of propagation leading
to the production of new individuals and can be mainly taking place in methods
mentioned below:

• Fragmentation
• Fission
• Budding
• Sporulation

Fragmentation:
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Some fungi use fragmentation of hyphae as a normal means of propagation.

Fragmentation may occur accidentally by external factors. Bits of hyphae get separated
and under favourable conditions each separated stretch of hyphae is capable of
establishing into a new colony. Mycelial fragmentation technique is employed in the
laboratory to grow fungal cultures on suitable media. Using inoculation needle, a bit of
mycelium is separated and transferred to a fresh medium and after the incubation period,
a new fungal colony is established. (This method can also be called as vegetative
reproduction)

In some fungi, there is natural breaking up of the hyphae into their component cells,
These cells behave as spores and are known as arthrospores (Gr. Arthron = joint + spora
= seed, spore).

In certain species, some cells in the hyphae become enveloped in a thick wall before they
separate from each other or from the adjoining hyphal cells. These thick walled spores
are often called chlamydospores (Gr. Chlamys = mantle + spora). Chlamydospores are
commonly found in many soil fungi such as Fusarium, Trichoderma etc.

Fission

This involves the simple splitting of a cell into two daughter cells by the process of
constriction and formation of cell wall (Fig 1B). This is commonly seen in yeasts. For
example, Schizosaccharomyces sp.

Budding

This process involves the production of a small outgrowth from a parent cell. During this,
the nucleus of the parent cell divides mitotically and one daughter nucleus migrates into
the bud. The bud increases in size when it is still attached to the parent cell and
eventually breaks off and forms a new individual (Fig 1A). Sometimes, chains of buds
forming a short mycelium called as pseudomycelium is produced. Budding is commonly
seen in yeasts. For example, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

A B
Fig.1. Asexual reproduction in Fungi
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Sporulation

This is a common method of asexual reproduction. There is a great variation in the types
of spores produced by fungi. Mainly, they vary in their:

a) wall thickness: Some spores are thin and some others are thick.
b) Colour: Some are hyaliane (Gr. Hyalinos = made up of glass, transparent, i.e.,
colourless). Some may be coloured like green, yellow, orange, red, brown or
black.
c) Size: It varies from minute to large.
d) Shape: The variation observed here is from globose, oval, oblong, needle shaped,
helical to insect like appearance.
e) Number of cells in a spore: One to many.
f) The way in which spores are borne: Some are borne directly on the hyphae and
others are borne on elaborate structures.

Some fungi produce only one type of spore and some others produce upto four types.
Asexual spores are developed either endogenously i.e., inside sporangia (singular:
sporangium, Gr. Spora = seed, spore + angeion = vessel) or are developed
exogenously (at the tips or sides of hyphae) in different ways. When developed
endogenously, such spores are called sporangiospores (Fig.2 A&B). When developed
exogenously, conidia (sing. conidium, Gr. konis = dust + idion = suffix).

There are no standard methods of classifying the asexually produced spores. For the
sake of convenience, we will divide them as 1) endogenously produced 2)
exogenously produced and 3) spores formed directly from hyphal cells.

1) Endogenously produced asexual spores: As already mentioned to you, these are

borne inside sack-like structure. The entire content of this gets converted into 1 to
many spores which may be motile or non motile. Motile spores are known as
zoospores (Gr. zoon= animal + spora), whose structural details will be discussed
in block IV, unit 1.

Non motile spores are referred as aplanospores (Gr. A= not + planets= wanderer +
spora). The hypha bearing sporangium is called as sporangiophore.

2) Exogenously produced asexual spores: These spores are called conidia borne at
the tips of specialized hyphae called conidiophores which may be unbranched ( e.
g., Aspergillus) or branched ( e. g.., Penicillium). Conidia in these forms may be
developed from the tip of conidiophores or from bottle shaped structures called
sterigmata.
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Fig:2. Asexual Reproduction in Fungi

In many fungi, conidia bearing structures get aggregated to form a) coremium (pl.
coremia) also known as synnema (pl. synnemata) b) Sporodochium (pl. sporodochia) c)
Acervulus (pl. aervuli) and d) Pycnidium (pl. pycnidia).

a) Coremium (synnema): Here, conidiophores become loosely or tightly

intermingled into fascicles (Fig.3A) For example, Scopulariopsis,
Myrothecium.
b) Sporodochium:It has cushion like appearance. For example, Nectria,
Hypoxylon. In these forms, Conidiophores arise from a mass of
aggregated hyphae called stroma (Fig. 3B&C).
c) Acervulus :Its appearance is saucer shaped and it is made up of short
conidiophores growing side by side and they arise from a mass of hyphae.
(Fig.3D&E).These are usually formed in parasitic fungi. For example,
Colletotrichum.
d) Pycnidium: This is a globose, flask shaped structure. Its inner surface is
lined by a compact mass of fungal hyphae. At the tip of these hyphae,
conidia are developed (Fig. 3F&G). For example, Phoma, Phomopsis.
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Fig 3. Asexual reproductive structures in fungi. A: Synnema (Coremium), B: L.S.

Sporodochium, C: Sporodochium in surface view, D: Acervulus in surface view,
E: Acervulus in section F: Pycnidium, whole view ,G: V.S. of Pycnidium

1) Spores formed directly from hyphal cells: These spores are also referred as
thallospores. Oidia , Arthrospores and chlamydospores are types of
thallospores. Oidia are formed in powdery mildew fungi and chains of thin
walled spores are formed in series in a row produced on a short conidiophore (
conidia bearing axis). Arthrospores are formed by laying of transverse walls and
hence, hypha gets converted into short segments which get separated into
individual bits known as arthrospores (Fig.2C). Chlamydospores are developed
from hyphal cells either continuously or discontinuously. The cells become thick
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walled and become black or brown coloured (Fig.2D). These are resistant to
extremities of the environment. They are mainly seen in soil fungi such as
Fusarium. They can be terminal or intercalary.

Hyphal aggregation:

Sclerotia:

In some cases, as in Claviceps, the hyphae become interwoven to form a compact mass
and get surrounded by a hard covering or rind. Such structures are called sclerotia. They
remain dormant under unfavourable conditions and germinate into new mycelia on the
return of favourable conditions.

Rhizomorph:

In some higher fungi, several hyphae may become interwoven to form rope-like
structures called rhizomorphs. They can survive for long period of time. Whenever stress
condition arises they loose moisture and remain viable and with return of favourable
condition they resume growth to long distance in the soil.
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Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction in many fungi takes place only once a year. In other words, sexual
reproduction takes place only once during the life cycle of a fungus. This is unlike
asexual reproduction, which gets repeated several times during the same period. Sexual
reproduction results in a very high incidence of recombination of genetic material. This is
very much needed for the fungus to evolve newer characters. This in turn, enables fungi
to adapt readily to new or different environmental conditions. Fungi of class
Deuteromycetes are a major exception to sexual reproduction since sexual reproduction is
totally absent or not reported for this class.

Sexual reproduction involves the union of two compatible nuclei and the process involves
three different phases. These are: a) Plasmogamy b) Karyogamy and c) Meiosis.

a) Plasmogamy: (Gr. Plasma = a moulded object i. e., a being + gamos =

marriage, union). This results in the union of protoplasts surrounding two
compatible nuclei and brings these two nuclei close to each other within a
cell, thus facilitating the next phase, i.e., karyogamy. In fungi,
plasmogamy takes place by different methods which are given in section
1.3.1.
b) Karyogamy: (Gr. Karyon = nucleus + gamos). It is the fusion of two
compatible nuclei. In some species, karyogamy takes place immediately
after plasmogamy. In others like fungi belonging to basidiomycetes, the
two events are separated in space and time. Plasmogamy results in a
dikaryon where two nuclei remain close together without uniting. The
fusion of these two nuclei is delayed and takes place considerably later in
the life history of the fungus. During this time, simultaneous division of
the dikaryotic nuclei known as conjugate division takes place. This results
in the increase in the number of dikaryotic cells. Karyogamy is followed
by the third phase of the sexual reproduction, namely, meiosis.
c) Meiosis: (Gr. Meiosis = reduction): In this phase, the nucleus formed by
karyogamy undergoes reduction division resulting in the haploid status of
the resultant cells. Sexual reproduction ultimately leads to the production
of specialized sexual spores in different groups of fungi. For example,
oospores (class: oomycetes), zygospores (calss: zygomycetes), ascospores
(class: ascomycetes), basidiospores (class: basidiomycetes).

Methods of plasmogamy: Before we discuss the methods adopted in palsmogamy, let us

have an idea regarding the sex organs involved in the process. Fungal species producing
distinguishable male and female sex organs in the same thallus are hermaphrodite or
monoecious (Gr. monos = single, one + oikos = dwelling, home). When a fungal species
is capable of reproducing itself, it is said to be self-compatible. If male and female sex
organs are produced in different thalli in a species, it is said to be dioecious (Gr. dis =
twice, two + oikos, sexes separated in two individuals).
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The sex organs of fungi are generally called gametangia (Gr. Gametes = husband +
angeion = vessels, container; singular gametangium). These gametangia form different
sex cells called gametes or may contain numerous nuclei that function as gametes.
Isogametes and isogametangia are gametes and gametangia which are morphologically
similar. On the other hand, if they are dissimilar, they are called heterogametes and
heterogaetangia respectively. In the later case, male reproductive structure is known as
antheridium and the female gametangium is called oogonium or ascogonium. It is a fact
that majority of fungi donot have differentiated sex organs. When the need arises, hyphal
cells and nuclei behave as functional gametangia and gametes respectively.

The methods of plasmogamy. They are:

a) Planogametic copulation
b) Gametangial contact
c) Gametangial copulation
d) Spermatization
e) Somatogamy

a) Planogametic copulation: This method involves the fusion of two gametes. In

many cases, during fertilization, either male or both male and female gametes are
released from the gametangia. These gametes then fuse in water. Planogametic
copulation is seen in aquatic fungi belonging to the group mastigomycotina. In
this group, gametes are motile. Planogametic copulation is further classified into
isoplanogametic (Isogamous), anisoplanogametic(anisogamous) and
ooplanogametic (heterogamous).

i) Isoplanogametic (Isogamous): In this type, both the gametes are of similar

size and morphology. They are also motile (Fig.4A) This is common in
primitive and holocarpic fungi belonging to chytridiales. For example,
synchytrium, catenaria.
ii) Anisoplanogametic(anisogamous): In this type, gametes are morphologically
similar. They are different in sizes and also both of them are motile (Fif. 4B).
Usually, male is smaller and female is larger. This type is seen in Allomyces.
iii) Ooplanogametic (heterogamous): Gametes are morphologically dissimilar.
Female gamete is larger and non motile. The male gamete is smaller and
motile. Male gamete enters into the female gamete and fertilises the egg
Fig.4C). For example, Monoblepharis.

b) Gametangial contact: This can also be classified as heterogamous type. But it

defers in both the gametes being non motile. Gametes are enclosed in gametangia.
Male gametangium is known as antheridium and female gametangium is either
oogonium (class: oomycetes) or ascogonium (class: ascomycetes). In this type,
two gametangia i.e., male and female come into contact and a pore in the region
of contact (as in ascomycetes or a fertilization tube as in Albugo, Pythium etc) is
formed between gametangial walls (Fig.4D). This is accompanied by the
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movement of one or more male nuclei from antheridium to female gametangium.

For example, eurotium, Pythium, Phytophthora.

c) Gametangial copulation: This involves the fusion of the entire contents of the
two contacting gametangia and this may occur in two ways. They are i)
hologamy: This is seen in holocarpic forms where entire thallus acts
gametangium(Fig.4E) and ii) direct fusion.(Fig. 4F)

d) Spermatization: Minute uninucleate spore-like structures produced by some

fungi are equivalent to male gametes. They are referred as spermacia. They are
carried by agents such as wind, insects, water to female gametangia. At the point
of contact, a pore developes and contents of spermatium pass into the female
gametangium (Fig.4G). For example: Puccinia graminis.

e) Somatogamy (Pseudomixis): This phenomenon is of regular occurance in higher

fungi such as Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes, where there are no sex organs
i.e., gametangia. Vegetative hyphae anastamose with each other bringing the
compatible nuclei together (Fig. 4H). Somatogamy is considered to be a reduced
but highly efficient form of sexuality. A number of terms have been assigned for
fusion of two vegetative cells.

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Fig 4. Sexual Reproduction in Fungi (Methods of Plasmogamy): A: Isoplsnogametic

copulation B: Anisoplanogametic copulation C: Ooplanogametic copulation D:
Gamentangial Contact E:Gamentangial copulation in holocarpic forms F:Gamentangial
copulation in eucarpic forms G: Spermatization H: Somatogamy