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Nonreligious Spirituality, Mental Health, and Well-Being
Nonreligious Spirituality, Mental Health, and Well-Being
3
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
There have been significant changes in the American religious/spiritual (R/S) landscape
in recent years, with fewer than half of all Americans reporting church membership.
Nonreligious Spirituality (NRS) describes spiritual beliefs, experiences, and practices
that emphasize spirituality apart from religion, and serves as an alternative for many
individuals to engage in R/S beliefs and practices outside of traditional religions. It is
unclear if NRS provides individuals with similar mental health benefits when compared
to traditional religious beliefs and practices, or whether there might be important
differences. The present study examined the relationships between NRS and mental
health symptoms, emotional well-being, and meaning in life. Participants were compared
across three groups: (a) Spiritual-but-not-religious individuals, (b) traditionally religious
individuals, and (c) individuals who identify as neither religious nor spiritual. The overall
results suggested that individuals who identify with NRS showed relatively few
differences compared to traditionally religious individuals. Whereas NRS was associated
with some positive outcomes, including emotional well-being and meaning in life, it was
also related to some negative outcomes such as higher rates of depression. Limitations,
suggestions for future research, and practical implications are discussed.
Keywords: spirituality, religion, Nonreligious Spirituality, mental health, well-being
The past few decades have witnessed impor- revealed that the percentage of people who regu-
tant changes in the makeup of religious and larly attend church and other religious services
spiritual (R/S) involvement in the United States. have declined in recent years (Pew Research
Specifically, traditional religious involvement Center, 2015), and church membership in the
has been on the decline, especially among young U.S. has fallen below 50% for the first time
people, and the number of individuals who iden- (Gallup, 2021).
tify as spiritual but not religious (SBNR) has been In addition, recent research has revealed that
increasing. According to a Pew Research Center religious deconversion has increased over the years
(2015), about 27% of U.S. adults consider them- (Streib, 2021). Interestingly, despite no longer
selves as spiritual but unaffiliated with any tradi- identifying as religious, these “religious nones”
tional religious group, demonstrating an increase still exhibit a religious residue wherein they report
of 8% in just the past 5 years. Furthermore, a religious emotions, attitudes, and behaviors more
recent study of more than 35,000 U.S. adults consistent with currently religious individuals than
This article was published Online First October 25, 2021. Daryl R. Van Tongeren https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
Hansong Zhang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4036- 1810-9448
3784 Authors have no disclosures to report.
Joshua N. Hook https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2645- Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
7060 dressed to Hansong Zhang, Department of Psychology,
Adam S. Hodge https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0012- University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76201, United
6178 States. Email: HansongZhang@my.unt.edu
60
NONRELIGIOUS SPIRITUALITY AND MENTAL HEALTH 61
never religious individuals (e.g., Van Tongeren using measures specially tailored to NRS and the
et al., in press). Thus, some aspects of a transcen- practice of spirituality outside the context of
dent connection with the divine may persist despite religion is needed. The extant research that has
no longer categorizing themselves as religious. explored NRS and mental health symptoms has
Nonreligious Spirituality (NRS) has been attract- been mixed. Some research has found that NRS is
ing more attention from psychological research in associated with higher levels of specific mental
recent years (Aird et al., 2010; Buxant et al., 2007; health disorders such as delusions (Aird et al.,
Coates, 2012; Davis et al., 2015; Houtman et al., 2010), depersonalization (Demmrich et al.,
2009; Pretorius, 2014). Much of this research has 2013), and narcissism (Wink et al., 2005). The
yielded positive results. For example, some increasing prevalence of mental health symptoms
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
research has demonstrated that NRS is associated in general population (e.g., delusion-like experi-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
with positive mental health, such as lower levels of ences; Aird et al., 2010), as well as the key
depression (Smith et al., 2009). Some other benefits characteristic of conceiving the divine as immi-
of NRS include active exploration of self (Coates, nent and depersonalized force in NRS individuals
2012; Latkin, 1990) and a cultivation of a sense of (Woodhead, 1993), could suggest some connec-
belonging (Namini & Murken, 2009). tion between these experiences and embracing
However, the majority of the research on R/S NRS beliefs or practices. Therefore, these pre-
and mental health has explored individuals who liminary findings warrant replication, especially
are involved in traditional religious groups, and given sociological changes in religious involve-
this gap in the current literature calls for a deeper ment in the United States.
investigation into the impact of NRS on mental Depression and delusional ideation represent
health. Namely, although some literature has two common but distinct types of mental health
yielded a positive relationship between NRS and problems, and examining each may reveal helpful
emotional well-being, some negative and mixed patterns of mental health symptoms associated
effects on emotional well-being have also been with NRS. Thus, the first research question
found (e.g., Buxant et al., 2010; Pretorius, 2014). explores levels of depression and delusional ide-
In addition, although past research has found ation among individuals who identify with NRS,
that religious involvement is positively associ- traditional religion, and neither religion nor
ated with a sense of meaning (Koenig, 2012), spirituality. Specifically, we examined whether
the vast majority of this research has been prior findings regarding NRS would replicate—
conducted in traditionally religious participants; namely, we expected that individuals who iden-
less research has been conducted on NRS. How- tify with NRS would report (a) similar levels of
ever, since NRS and traditional religions both depression as traditional religious individuals,
involve the connection with something greater and lower levels of depression than non-R/S
than the self (Berghuijs et al., 2013), it may be individuals, and (b) higher levels of delusional
that NRS has similar effects on meaning in life as ideation compared to traditional religious indi-
traditional religious involvement. viduals and non-R/S individuals.
In addition, past studies have used a variety of
measures of NRS, assess a variety of mental Emotional Well-Being
health outcomes, and use a wide range of com-
parison groups (e.g., non-R/S individuals, tradi- Emotional well-being taps into the quality of
tionally religious individuals, patients with emotional experiences (i.e., frequency and inten-
mental health problems; Chambers et al., 1994; sity of those experiences; Kahneman & Deaton,
Waheed, 2020; Winocur-Craig, 1995). There- 2010), including joy, stress, and frustration.
fore, an investigation into this topic can further Although NRS beliefs, experiences, and practices
organize and structure the research on NRS differ from traditional religious organizations in
involvement and mental health. many ways (e.g., general focus on individuals
rather than groups; Nelson, 2011), past research
Mental Health Symptoms on the impact of NRS on emotional well-being
has been similar to research on participation in
Although some research has examined the impact traditional religious groups. Similar to traditional
of spirituality on mental health symptoms (Berghuijs religious involvement, research has linked NRS
et al., 2013; Coates, 2012; Latkin, 1990), research to positive emotional well-being, including
62 ZHANG, HOOK, HODGE, VAN TONGEREN, DAVIS, AND JIN
tension management in community (Coates, of NRS that are specifically related to mental
2012), religious sense of coherence (Namini & health and well-being.
Murken, 2009), and general life satisfaction We had three main hypotheses based on prior
(Latkin et al., 1987). At the same time, some research: Individuals who identify with NRS
research has found negative effects of NRS on would (a) report higher levels of delusional idea-
emotional well-being, including difficulty adjust- tion relative to other groups and (b) similar levels
ing to society after leaving the NRS group of depression as traditional religious individuals
(Pretorius, 2014). Taken together, the majority but lower levels of depression than non-R/S
of research has found positive effects of NRS on individuals (Hypothesis 1); NRS individuals
well-being. Thus, based on prior work, we ex- would report similar levels of well-being as tra-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
pected that individuals who practice NRS would ditional religious individuals and higher levels of
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
report similar levels of well-being as traditional well-being than non-R/S individuals (Hypothesis 2),
religious individuals, and higher levels of well- and; NRS individuals would report similar levels
being than non-R/S individuals. of meaning in life as traditional religious indi-
viduals but higher levels of meaning in life than
Meaning in Life non-R/S individuals (Hypothesis 3).
NRS Beliefs, Experiences, and Practices .92 for NRS beliefs, .88 for NRS experiences,
and .89 for NRS practices.
NRS beliefs, experiences, and practices were
assessed with items from a measure of new
spirituality (Berghuijs et al., 2013). The NRS Depression
beliefs measure consists of 46 items that assess
several categories of beliefs: Spiritual transfor- Depression was measured by the Center
mation (e.g., “To what extent do you find it for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale
important to pursue the development of your (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The CES-D is com-
higher or deeper Self?”), monism (e.g., “To posed of 20 items that assess the frequency of
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what extent do you agree that there is a force major symptoms of depression on a 4-point
Likert scale from (0 = rarely, less than 1 day to
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
and validity (Peters et al., 2004). For the current online questionnaires. After completing the ques-
sample, the Cronbach’s α was .95. tionnaires, participants were debriefed, and given
the contact information of the investigator should
Subjective Well-Being they have questions. Upon finishing the survey,
participants received a small monetary compensa-
Subjective well-being was measured using the tion of $.50 USD.
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener
et al., 1985). The SWLS contains five items Data Analysis
that measure one’s sense of satisfaction toward
life (e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my For each primary dependent variable (i.e.,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
ideal”). Items are rated on a 7-point rating scale depression, delusional ideation, subjective well-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
with “1” indicating strongly disagree and “7” being, meaning in life presence, meaning in life
indicating strongly agree. Higher scores indicate search), we analyzed the data in two ways. First,
greater satisfaction with life. The SWLS has we explored group differences. Specifically, we
demonstrated good psychometric properties categorized the participants into four groups as
such as adequate levels of reliability (e.g., Cron- follows: (a) NRS individuals, (b) traditionally
bach’s α was .87; test–retest reliability; Diener religious participants who identified as both spir-
et al., 1985) and convergent validity (Blais et al., itual and religious, and (c) non-R/S participants
1989; Pavot & Diener, 1993). For the current were those who did not identify as religious nor
sample, the Cronbach’s α was .88. spiritual. Although we did not have any specific
hypotheses about individuals who identified as
Meaning in Life (d) religious but not spiritual, we kept these
participants in the overall sample and reported
Meaning in life was measured with the Mean- their mean scores in Table 2, as more fully
ing in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger et al., understanding this group could be an important
2006). The MLQ consists of 10 items that mea- area for future research. For each dependent
sure 2 dimensions of meaning in life: (a) the variable, we conducted a one-way analysis of
presence of meaning (e.g., my life has a clear variance (ANOVA). We also explored differ-
sense of purpose) and (b) search for meaning ences between groups using post hoc tests with a
(e.g., I am seeking a purpose of mission for my Bonferroni correction.
life). Participants rate items on a 7-point rating Second, in all participants, we explored the
scale from 1 = absolutely untrue to 7 = abso- relationships between (a) the measure of NRS
lutely true. Scores on the MLQ have shown beliefs, experiences, and practices and (b) each
evidence for high reliability and validity dependent variable. For each dependent variable,
(Steger et al., 2006), high internal consistency we conducted a multiple regression analysis with
(e.g., MLQ-P and MLQ-S demonstrated α coef- three predictor variables (i.e., NRS beliefs, ex-
ficients of .81 and .84), and good test–retest periences, and practices). Because we ran 10
reliability (e.g., 1-month test–retest stability overall analyses (i.e., two analyses for each
coefficients were .70 for MLQ-P and .73 for dependent variable, we used a Bonferroni correc-
MLQ-S). For the current sample, the Cronbach’s tion and judged p values less than .005 as
α was .88 for MLQ-S and .76 for MLQ-P. significant.
Procedure Results
Prior to conducting the study, the research team We first checked the data for missing data,
obtained approval from Institutional Review outliers, and normality. Eighty-nine participants
Board (IRB) from the university. Participants did not respond more than 20% of data in their
were recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical-Turk survey and therefore were deleted from the study.
(MTurk). Mturk has shown to generate reliable There were a small number of outliers (less than
data (Shapiro et al., 2013) and a relatively diverse 3% per variable). We recoded outliers to three
participant pool (Buhrmester et al., 2011). After standard deviations above or below the mean. Our
reading the consent form and indicating consent to data did not display evidence of nonnormality.
participate, participants completed a series of Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations
NONRELIGIOUS SPIRITUALITY AND MENTAL HEALTH 65
among study variables are presented in Table 1. p = .023), NRS experiences were a significant posi-
Mean differences across religious and spiritual tive predictor of depression (β = .32, p < .001), and
(R/S) identification are in Table 2. NRS practices were a significant negative predictor
of depression (β = −.61, p < .001).
For delusional ideation, we hypothesized that
NRS and Mental Health Symptoms NRS participants would report higher levels of
delusional ideation than traditional religious par-
The first research question explored the relation-
ticipants and non-R/S participants. This hypoth-
ships between R/S identification and two measures
esis was not supported. The result of the ANOVA
of mental health symptoms (i.e., depression and
showed that NRS participants did not report
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Table 1
Descriptive and Intercorrelations of All Major Variables (N = 433)
Major variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Table 2
Mean Differences for Study Variables Across Religious/Spiritual Backgrounds
N 86 158 90 99 N/A
1. CES-D 1.32 (.61)ac 1.36 (.62)ab 1.26 (.58)ac 1.12 (.65)cd 3.40
2. PDI 1.46 (.34)a 1.54 (.34)a 1.55 (.34)a 1.74 (.31)b 12.56*
3. SWLS 5.48 (1.08)a 5.12 (1.06)abc 4.90 (1.27)bd 4.58 (1.52)d 8.42*
4. MLQ-Presence 4.88 (.96)ac 4.61 (.87)bc 4.65 (1.21)bc 4.25 (1.56)bd 4.81*
5. MLQ-Search 5.13 (1.21)ac 4.86 (1.10)bc 4.72 (1.29)bc 4.51 (1.33)bd 4.29*
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Note. CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale; PDI = Peters et al. delusions inventory;
SWLS = satisfaction with life scale; MLQ-Presence = meaning in life questionnaire presence of meaning; MLQ-
Searching = meaning in life questionnaire search for meaning. Means that share the same subscripts are not significantly
different from each other p < .005.
* p < .005.
well-being. We hypothesized that (a) NRS partici- meaning in life, including the presence of mean-
pants would report similar levels of subjective well- ing in life and search of meaning in life. We
being as traditional religious participants, and (b) hypothesized that NRS participants would report
both NRS participants and traditional religious similar levels of meaning in life as traditional
participants would report higher levels of satisfac- religious participants but higher levels of mean-
tion with life than non-R/S participants. This ing in life, both in presence and search of mean-
hypothesis was supported. The results of an AN- ing, than non-R/S participants. This hypothesis
OVA found that NRS participants’ satisfaction with was not supported. First, an ANOVA found that
life (M = 5.12, SD = 1.06) did not significantly NRS participants did not report any significant
differ from that of traditional religious participants difference in presence of meaning in life (M =
(M = 5.45, SD = 1.08, p = .189). NRS parti- 4.61, SD = .96) compared to both traditional
cipants reported higher satisfaction with life religious participants (M = 4.88, SD = .10, p =
than non-R/S participants (M = 4.58, SD = 1.52, .301) and non-R/S participants (M = 4.25, SD =
p < .001, η2p = .055). Traditional religious partici- 1.56, p = .070). Second, NRS participants did not
pants also reported higher satisfaction with life com- report any significant difference in search for
pared to non-R/S participants (p = .003, η2p = .080). meaning in life (M = 4.86, SD = 1.10) compared
We also hypothesized that NRS beliefs, ex- to both traditional religious participants (M =
periences, and practices would be significant 5.13, SD = 1.21, p = .358) and non-R/S partici-
positive predictors of satisfaction with life. pants (M = 4.51, SD = 1.33, p = .104).
This hypothesis was not supported. The overall We also hypothesized that NRS beliefs, ex-
model was significant. NRS beliefs, experiences, periences, and practices would be significant
and practices predicted about 19% of the variance positive predictors of the presence of meaning
in satisfaction with life, R2 = .19, F(3, 432) = in life. This hypothesis was partially supported.
34.60, p < .001. NRS beliefs were not a signif- The overall model was significant. NRS beliefs,
icant predictor of satisfaction with life (β = .01, experiences, and practices predicted about 10%
p = .861). NRS experiences were a significant of the variance in presence of meaning in life,
negative predictor of satisfaction with life R2 = .10, F(3, 432) = 16.42, p < .001. NRS beliefs
(β = −.25, p = .001). NRS practices were also were not a significant positive predictor of the
a significant negative predictor of satisfaction with presence of meaning in life (β = .22, p = .011).
life (β = −.27, p < .001). NRS experiences were a significant negative
predictor of the presence of meaning in life
(β = −.48, p < .001). NRS practices were not a
NRS and Meaning in Life significant predictor of the presence of meaning in
life (β = .02, p = .723).
The third research question investigated the Also, we hypothesized that NRS beliefs, ex-
relationship between R/S identification and periences, and practices would be significant
NONRELIGIOUS SPIRITUALITY AND MENTAL HEALTH 67
positive predictors of search of meaning in life. There were some group differences found
This hypothesis was partially supported. The between (a) NRS and traditionally religious par-
overall model was significant. NRS beliefs, ex- ticipants and (b) non-R/S participants. In general,
periences, and practices predicted about 17% of NRS and traditionally religious participants re-
the variance in search of meaning in life, R2 = .17, ported lower levels of delusional ideation and
F(3, 432) = 30.59, p < .001. NRS beliefs were not higher levels of subjective well-being (i.e., satis-
a significant predictor of search for meaning in faction with life) than non-R/S participants.
life (β = −.22, p = .007). NRS experiences were These findings are both similar and different
not a significant predictor of searching of mean- from prior theory and research. For example,
ing in life (β = −.06, p = .451). NRS practices, both NRS and traditionally religious participants
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
however, were a significant negative predictor of reported lower levels of delusional ideation than
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
search for meaning in life (β = −.20, p < .001). non-R/S participants, which may indicate that
NRS is not a risk factor for delusional ideation,
Discussion as previously considered (Aird et al., 2010; Smith
et al., 2009). Both NRS and traditional religious
The current psychological literature has estab- participation are related to increased subjective
lished a strong foundation regarding the relation- well-being, which is consistent with previous
ships between traditional religious participation research (Becker, 1999; Wink et al., 2005).
and emotional health and well-being (Koenig, In order to examine the role of NRS more
1998; Schieman et al., 2013; Ventis, 1995). specifically, we examined the relationship
However, much less research has investigated between specific aspects of NRS involvement
the psychological correlates of NRS, as well as (i.e., beliefs, experiences, and practices) with
possible mechanisms underlying these relation- the major variables. Compared to the previous
ships. The present study further investigated the analyses of group differences by R/S identifica-
relationship between NRS and emotional health tion, these regression analyses provide a more
and well-being by exploring the relationships finely tuned analysis for how NRS beliefs, ex-
between (a) people from different religious iden- periences, and practices are related to mental
tifications (i.e., NRS, traditionally religious, and health and well-being.
non-R/S), (b) salient components of NRS, includ- For the mental health symptoms, it is worth
ing beliefs, experiences, and practices, and (c) noting that the three components of NRS partici-
various aspects of mental health and well-being, pation (i.e., beliefs, experiences, and practices)
including symptoms of mental health, subjective had different associations with depression. Spe-
well-being, and meaning in life. cifically, whereas NRS practices were negatively
We first explored the differences between associated with depression, NRS experiences
participants who identified with three different were positively associated with depression. Since
religious identifications: (a) Spiritual but not NRS experiences can involve phenomena that are
religious (i.e., NRS), (b) traditionally religious beyond natural comprehension or understanding
(i.e., religious and spiritual), and (c) non-R/S (e.g., seeing a dead person, experiencing contact
(i.e., nonreligious and nonspiritual). The main with a dead person), going through one of these
conclusion from this set of analyses was that experiences could perhaps be mentally disorient-
there were relatively few differences between ing and concerning, and therefore contribute to
people who identified with NRS and people one’s depression. Another factor could be that
who identified as traditionally religious. Parti- whereas participants have more control to choose
cipants from these two groups showed similar their practices, they do not have as much control
patterns on all the major variables of depression, over their experiences, which could increase the
delusional ideation, subjective well-being, and sense of vulnerability for certain individuals. For
sense of meaning. These findings provide evi- example, the experience of finding oneself out-
dence that, at least psychologically speaking, side one’s body could lead to concern of that
NRS and traditionally religious participants may happening during activities such as daily driving,
be more similar than different. Furthermore, NRS which requires one’s full attention.
participants may be likely to experience similar Whereas NRS beliefs and experiences were
benefits to mental health and well-being as not significant predictors of delusional idea-
traditionally religious participants. tion, NRS practices were positively associated
68 ZHANG, HOOK, HODGE, VAN TONGEREN, DAVIS, AND JIN
with delusional ideation in participants. This (e.g., a loud and crowded coffee shop). Also,
finding is consistent with previous research that although the current sample included individuals
NRS involvement is linked to higher levels of of various genders, racial/ethnic groups, and
delusional propensity, including delusional con- religions, the participants were mostly White
viction (Aird et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2009). (72.2%), and Christian (73.1%). Future studies
Although having NRS experiences were not could consider exploring these variables in var-
linked to one’s experiences of delusional idea- ious racial and religious groups. Finally, it is
tion, practicing certain NRS rituals, including worth considering how the strategy for recruit-
consulting Tarot cards or horoscopes, may be ing participants impacted the results. We did not
an indicator of one’s belief in the paranormal. recruit from specific new religious movement
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When we explored the relationship between groups to explore NRS; instead, we recruited
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
NRS and life satisfaction, both NRS practices and groups based on religious identification (i.e.,
experiences were negative predictors of satisfac- religious and spiritual, NRS, religious but not
tion with life. This finding was interesting and spiritual, and neither religious nor spiritual).
was in the opposite direction of what was hypoth- There may be variability in the individuals who
esized. It could be related to the influences of identify as NRS. For example, some may be
participants’ current involvement with NRS. For heavily involved in a New Religious Movement,
example, research has indicated difficulty in func- whereas others may practice a more individual
tioning well in society after leaving certain new spirituality or simply experience a passive sense of
religious movement groups (Pretorius, 2014), connection with a higher power. Future research
and many of these groups emphasize spirituality should explore this group of individuals more fully
over religion (Clarke, 2006). More research on to investigate whether there are differences in
how NRS or involvement with new religious mental health and well-being.
movement groups is needed. Second, although the present study examined
Finally, regarding meaning in life, NRS ex- the relationship between NRS and mental health,
periences were negatively associated with the only two mental health symptoms were explored
presence of meaning in life. It could be that certain (i.e., depression and delusional ideation). Future
NRS experiences are beyond comprehension and studies could expand the range of mental health
may confuse the individual involved and there- symptoms to gain a more comprehensive under-
fore be associated with lower meaning in life standing of the psychological health of people
(e.g., having an out-of-body experience and see- who identify with NRS beliefs, experiences, and
ing one’s body from outside). NRS practices were practices.
also negatively associated with search for mean- Third, since the three components of NRS
ing in life. This reflected one salient feature of (i.e., beliefs, experiences, practices) had different
NRS: Some NRS individuals may be very in- kinds of relationships with the major variables, it
vested in their spiritual beliefs and community, could be helpful to keep exploring the individual
demonstrating strong conviction toward their components of NRS, rather than conceptualizing
spiritual view. This may explain their high com- NRS involvement as a broader construct.
mitment to their meaning in life and therefore the Fourth, it may be worth further exploring why
lack of need to search for meaning in life. NRS participants and traditional religious parti-
cipants shared a high degree of similarity across
the main variables. There are some possible ex-
Limitations and Directions for planations. First, it could be that specific NRS
Future Research beliefs, experiences, and practices (e.g., Hare
Krishna) share some of the same underlying
The findings of the present study should be mechanisms as those in traditional religions,
interpreted in light of its limitations. First, the therefore triggering similar results across the
present study recruited participants through psychological variables. Second, the sample
Amazon’s Mechanical-Turk, an online survey could have included people who left traditional
platform. Therefore, there was no control over religion and thus stopped being religious (e.g.,
the setting in which participants finished the did not go to church), but still maintained the
survey, which could impact participants’ ability connection with God or a sense of spirituality. In
to focus and maintain their attention over time this way, these people might identify with NRS,
NONRELIGIOUS SPIRITUALITY AND MENTAL HEALTH 69
but they may share some of the same psychologi- individuals reported higher levels of delusional
cal features as those participants who identified as ideation than traditional religious individuals, so
religious. Future research could aim to further this may be one example of a stereotype that is not
explore the specific characteristics and histories applicable to the majority of NRS individuals.
of those individuals who identify with NRS (e.g., Building understanding toward NRS beliefs
religious nones; Vernon, 1968). could improve attitudes toward the wide array
and diversity of religious individuals. Specifi-
Practical Application cally, counseling training programs could enrich
their trainees’ understanding of NRS individuals
Our findings shed some light on best practices by sharing more educational resources about
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for counseling clients who identify with NRS. NRS and implications for counseling NRS in-
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First, it is important to recognize that NRS in- dividuals (e.g., Matthews & Salazar, 2014).
dividuals are a diverse group. In addition to
having different religious histories, our results
Conclusion
suggest that there may be important differences
among the different aspects of NRS, such as The present research explored the relationships
beliefs, experiences, and practices. For example, between NRS and mental health, emotional well-
NRS experiences were positively associated with being, and meaning in life. The overall results
depression, whereas NRS practices were nega- suggest that NRS participants show relatively few
tively associated with depression. It may be differences compared to traditionally religious
important to assess for NRS beliefs, practices, participants in regard to their psychological pro-
and experiences, and explore the extent to which file. NRS participants report more differences
each is related to the client’s presenting problem, compared to participants who are neither religious
or could be used as a source of support. nor spiritual. In this regard, NRS was associated
Second, taking the time and energy to under- with some positive outcomes, including positive
stand some background information about NRS emotional well-being and lower levels of delusional
individuals may help counselors conceptualize ideation, compared with non-R/S individuals.
the client and design the treatment plan more Exploring the specific effects of NRS found
accurately. For example, if NRS individuals are differences among the three NRS components
negatively impacted by the groups they are a part of beliefs, experiences, and practices, and it may
of (e.g., losing sense of self or independence), be important to analyze each of these domains
counselors can provide psychoeducation and help individually. We encourage researchers to con-
clients realize the nature of the group dynamic tinue to explore NRS identification and participa-
and explore whether the group is meeting their tion and their relationships with other variables in
needs. At the same time, counselors may benefit different contexts.
from understanding the individual and subjective
nature of many NRS experiences, beliefs, and
practices, and therefore promote empathy and References
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