EE128 - Class 0

Welcome to the quantum world that you already inhabit!
Bootcamp: introduction to quantum mechanics
quantum literacy is essential to understand daily-life phenomena!

Clarice D. Aiello, Quantum Biology Tech (QuBiT) Lab
How it started: thermodynamics going wrong
everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates

like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament
Source: Nagwa
Quantization of energy
How it started: thermodynamics going wrong How it started: thermodynamics going wrong
everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates
like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament
charges that vibrate emit light charges that vibrate emit light
like the charges in the vibrating atoms like the charges in the vibrating atoms
Source: Nagwa Source: Nagwa
one can model the atoms

as springs (a.k.a., harmonic oscillators)
Source: Professor Dave Explains YouTube
How it started: thermodynamics going wrong How it’s going: a theory fix that not only worked,
but resulted in the most robust theory that explains our world
everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates
like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates
like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament
charges that vibrate emit light
like the charges in the vibrating atoms charges that vibrate emit light
Source: Nagwa like the charges in the vibrating atoms
Source: Nagwa
that can only have specific energies
problem: theory disagrees with experiments and (thus• ) emit light at specific energies
and predicts bad-bad results (‘ultraviolet catastrophe’:
too much light emitted at large frequencies)

How it’s going: a theory fix that not only worked, How it’s going: a theory fix that not only worked,
but resulted in the most robust theory that explains our world but resulted in the most robust theory that explains our world
everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates
like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament like the atoms of a heating coil or lamp filament
charges that vibrate emit light charges that vibrate emit light
like the charges in the vibrating atoms like the charges in the vibrating atoms
Source: Nagwa Source: Nagwa
one can model the atoms one can model the atoms
as springs (a.k.a., harmonic oscillators) as springs (a.k.a., harmonic oscillators)
that can only have specific energies that can only have specific energies
and (thus• ) emit light at specific energies and (thus• ) emit light at specific energies
amount of light emitted cannot be arbitrary, but only amount of light emitted cannot be arbitrary, but only
integer multiples of ‘quantum of energy’, E = h · f integer multiples of ‘quantum of energy’, E = h · f
h is the constant that Plank needed to introduce h is the constant that Plank needed to introduce
h ∼ 6 · 10−34 J · s; h̄ ≡ 2π
h
h ∼ 6 · 10−34 J · s; h̄ ≡ 2π
h
Source: Professor Dave Explains YouTube Source: Professor Dave Explains YouTube
f is the frequency of light f is the frequency of light
Sources: Chem LibreTexts, Macy’s, TeePublic
start of XX century: the atom is in great danger! start of XX century: the atom is in great danger!
‘charges going in a circular orbit emit light, thereby losing energy’ says Maxwell∗
start of XX century: the atom is in great danger! start of XX century: the atom is in great danger!
‘charges going in a circular orbit emit light, thereby losing energy’ says Maxwell∗ ‘charges going in a circular orbit emit light, thereby losing energy’ says Maxwell∗
vs. vs.
‘atoms are composed of negatively charged particles (electrons) ‘atoms are composed of negatively charged particles (electrons)
orbiting around a positively charged nucleus’ says Rutherford∗ orbiting around a positively charged nucleus’ says Rutherford∗
Plank∗ saves the day again, and Bohr∗ models the atom! (∗ all ol’ white dudes btw)
quantum objects can only

occupy discrete
Source: Berkeley Source: Berkeley
energy levels
How it’s going: a theory fix that not only worked,

but resulted in the most robust theory that explains our world
start of XX century: the atom is in great danger!
‘charges going in a circular orbit emit light, thereby losing energy’ says Maxwell∗
vs.
‘atoms are composed of negatively charged particles (electrons)
orbiting around a positively charged nucleus’ says Rutherford∗
Wave-particle duality
Plank∗ saves the day again, and Bohr∗ models the atom! (∗ all ol’ white dudes btw)
Source: Wikipedia
minimal orbit energy

quantum objects can only
is not zero!
occupy discrete • only specific light energies
Source: Berkeley
energy levels
can be absorbed/emitted!
Light waves or beams of light are composed of particles (meet the photon!) Light waves or beams of light are composed of particles (meet the photon!)
Einstein explained the ‘photoelectric effect’ Einstein explained the ‘photoelectric effect’
Source: forgive me, author, but I can’t find it anymore Source: forgive me, author, but I can’t find it anymore
some colors of light don’t kick out

electrons, even if beam very strong
some colors of light don’t kick out some colors of light don’t kick out
electrons, even if beam very strong electrons, even if beam very strong
number of electrons kicked out, if any, number of electrons kicked out, if any,
depends on beam strength depends on beam strength
energy of electrons flying out does not

change if light beam is weak or strong,
depends only on light color
‘quanta of light’ are called photons ‘quanta of light’ are called photons
each photon has energy E = h · f

some colors of light don’t kick out some colors of light don’t kick out
electrons, even if beam very strong electrons, even if beam very strong
number of electrons kicked out, if any, number of electrons kicked out, if any,
energy of electrons flying out does not energy of electrons flying out does not
change if light beam is weak or strong, change if light beam is weak or strong,
depends only on light color depends only on light color
each photon has energy E = h · f each photon has energy E = h · f

for light, c = λ · f , for light, c = λ · f ,
some colors of light don’t kick out c speed of light and λ wavelength some colors of light don’t kick out c speed of light and λ wavelength
electrons, even if beam very strong electrons, even if beam very strong E
momentum of massless particle is p = c
number of electrons kicked out, if any, number of electrons kicked out, if any, according to relativity
energy of electrons flying out does not energy of electrons flying out does not
each photon has energy E = h · f each photon has energy E = h · f

for light, c = λ · f , for light, c = λ · f ,
some colors of light don’t kick out c speed of light and λ wavelength some colors of light don’t kick out c speed of light and λ wavelength
electrons, even if beam very strong E electrons, even if beam very strong E
momentum of massless particle is p = c momentum of massless particle is p = c
number of electrons kicked out, if any, according to relativity number of electrons kicked out, if any, according to relativity
photon carries quantized momentum photon carries quantized momentum
energy of electrons flying out does not p = h·f h
c = λ , small energy of electrons flying out does not p = h·f h
c = λ , small
Sources: NASA, Nature Light
Tiny massive particles behave as waves Tiny massive particles behave as waves
Source: Science 2.0 Source: Science 2.0
cannon ball light wave cannon ball electrons (!)

a single tiny massive particle a single tiny massive particle

can ‘interfere with itself’ can ‘interfere with itself’
‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t

same be valid for massive particles?’
(deBroglie∗ ’s shortest Ph.D. thesis, ever)
Source: Science 2.0 Source: Science 2.0
cannon ball electrons (!) cannon ball electrons (!)
a single tiny massive particle a single tiny massive particle

can ‘interfere with itself’ can ‘interfere with itself’
‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t ‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t

same be valid for massive particles?’ same be valid for massive particles?’
(deBroglie∗ ’s shortest Ph.D. thesis, ever) (deBroglie∗ ’s shortest Ph.D. thesis, ever)
Source: Science 2.0 momentum of massive particle is p = m · v Source: Science 2.0 momentum of massive particle is p = m · v
cannon ball electrons (!) cannon ball electrons (!)
massive particle has quantized
wavelength λ = ph = m·v
h
, small
Tiny massive particles behave as waves Both matter and photons can be described in quantum mechanics
by wavefunctions
a single tiny massive particle

can ‘interfere with itself’
‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t

same be valid for massive particles?’
(deBroglie∗ ’s shortest Ph.D. thesis, ever)
Source: Science 2.0 momentum of massive particle is p = m · v

cannon ball electrons (!)
massive particle has quantized
wavelength λ = ph = m·v
h
, small
up to 2.000 atoms, the size of some proteins (Arndt group, TU Wien)!
A wavefunction is a function with a weird notation
y is said to be a function of x
e.g., cost of chocolate as a function of demand
Mathematical representation of wavefunctions
Source: AMSI
A wavefunction is a function with a weird notation A wavefunction is a function with a weird notation
y is said to be a function of x
e.g., temperature as a function of month
a wavefunction describes how the state of a quantum system depends,
e.g., on position, on time...
a wavefunction describing a quantum state is denoted by |Ai (read: ket A)
a wavefunction, like regular functions IRL, obeys:

◮ |Ai + |Bi = |C i
◮ |Ai + |Bi = |Bi + |Ai
◮ |Ai + | − Ai = 0
◮ |r · Ai = r · |Ai = |Di, for r ∈ R
Source: AMSI
A wavefunction is a function with a weird notation A wavefunction lives in the space of complex numbers
a wavefunction describes how the state of a quantum system depends, a wavefunction, unlike regular functions and vectors IRL, obeys:
e.g., on position, on time... ◮ |z · Ai = z · |Ai = |Di, for z ∈ C
a wavefunction describing a quantum state is denoted by |Ai (read: ket A)
i is the imaginary number, i 2 ≡ −1
a wavefunction, like regular functions and vectors IRL, obeys:
◮ |Ai + |Bi = |C i z = x + iy, x and y ∈ R
◮ |Ai + |Bi = |Bi + |Ai
z has a complex conjugate z̄ = x − iy
◮ |Ai + | − Ai = 0
◮ |r · Ai = r · |Ai = |Di, for r ∈ R |z|2 = z̄ · z = r 2 = |x|2 + |y|2 is a real number
Source: TopPR Source: TikZ.net
A wavefunction can have different dimensions A wavefunction has a complex conjugate wavefunction
the complex conjugate of |Ai (read: ket A) is hA| (read: bra A)
|Ai = A(x ) ∈ C
it could be that:
hA| = Ā(x ) ∈ C
|Ai = A(x ) ∈ C a1
|Ai = , a1 and a2 ∈ C
a2

hA| = ā1

a1 ā2 , ā1 and ā2 ∈ C
|Ai = , a1 and a2 ∈ C
 
a2 a1
a2 
 
|Ai = 
a3 , a1 , ..., a5 ∈ C
 
a1 hA| = ā1 ā2 ā3 ā4 ā5 ,

a2  a4  ā1 , ..., ā5 ∈ C
a5
 
|Ai = 
a3 , a1 , ..., a5 ∈ C

a4 
◮ |Ai + |Bi = |C i ◮ hA| + hB| = hC |
a5
◮ |Ai + |Bi = |Bi + |Ai ◮ hA| + hB| = hB| + hA|
◮ |Ai + | − Ai = 0 ◮ hA| + h−A| = 0
◮ |z · Ai = z · |Ai = |Di, for z ∈ C ◮ hz̄ · A| = z̄ · hA| = hD|, for z̄ ∈ C
A wavefunction and a complex conjugate combine A wavefunction and a complex conjugate combine
to give quantities that can be measured IRL to give quantities that can be measured IRL

a
hB|Ai = b̄1 b̄2 · 1 = b̄1 · a1 + b̄2 · a2 ∈ C
a2
dot product, similar to
dot product of vectors IRL:
a |hB|Ai|2 ∈ R
hB|Ai = b̄1 b̄2 · 1 = b̄1 · a1 + b̄2 · a2 ∈ C
a2 Source: TikZ.net
dot product, different from dot product of vectors IRL: wavefunctions |Ai cannot be measured or observed in IRL since they are complex
hB|Ai 6= hA|Bi
we can only measure real quantities such as |hA|Ai|2 or |hB|Ai|2
hB|Ai = hA|Bi, complex conjugates
if |Ai is normalized, |hA|Ai|2 = 1
(|hA|Ai|2 = 1 is usually used; |Ai is said to be normalized)
Source: CueMath |hB|Ai|2 is to be understood as the probability
(if hA|Bi = 0, |Ai and |Bi are said to be orthogonal)
that the quantum object |Ai is in quantum state |Bi
√ √
|Ai = 0.3|Bi + i 0.7|C i
|Bi, |C i normalized
√ and orthogonal
√ √ √ √
hB|Ai = hB|√ ( 0.3|Bi + i 0.7|C i) = 0.3hB|Bi √ + i 0.7hB|C i = 0.3
|hB|Ai|2 = | 0.3|2 = 0.3; similarly, |hC |Ai|2 = |i 0.7|2 = 0.7
Different waves have different mathematical equations
Evolution equation
Sources: FuelRocks, Physics Libre Texts, DAE notes
Waves of tiny massive objects can be described by the Evolution equation Waves of tiny massive objects can be described by the Evolution equation
h̄2 d 2 |Ai
− + V (x ) · |Ai = E · |Ai h̄2 d 2 |ψi
2m dx 2 − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2
|ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |ψi is ψ (x )
V (x ) ∈ R: potential energy of tiny massive object
E ∈ R: total energy of tiny massive object
|hψ|ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance!
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
|ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |ψi is ψ (x ) |ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |ψi is ψ (x )
V (x ) ∈ R: potential energy of tiny massive object V (x ) ∈ R: potential energy of tiny massive object
E ∈ R: total energy of tiny massive object E ∈ R: total energy of tiny massive object
|hψ|ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance! |hψ|ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance!
one example: electron trapped in a box (V (x ) = 0 inside, V (x ) → ∞ outside) one example: particle trapped in a box (V (x ) = 0 inside, V (x ) → ∞ outside)
Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
one example: particle trapped in a box (V (x ) = 0 inside, V (x ) → ∞ outside) one example: particle trapped in a box (V (x ) = 0 inside, V (x ) → ∞ outside)

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
electron could be in |ψ1 i with energy E1 electron could be in |ψ2 i with energy E2 = 4E1
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
electron could be in |ψn i with energy En = n2 E1 (note: hψn |ψm i = 0 for n 6= m: solutions of Evolution equation are orthogonal!)
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
most generic state: a combination (or superposition) of |ψ1 i and |ψ2 i and... |ψn i, |ψi = a1 |ψ1 i + a2 |ψ2 i + ...an |ψn i, with |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + ...|an |2 = 1
with a combination of the energies!
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
|ψi = a1 |ψ1 i + a2 |ψ2 i + ...an |ψn i, with |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + ...|an |2 = 1 |ψi = a1 |ψ1 i + a2 |ψ2 i + ...an |ψn i, with |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + ...|an |2 = 1
probability that |ψi is found in |ψn i is |hψn |ψi|2 = |an |2 probability that |ψi has energy En is |hψn |ψi|2 = |an |2
h̄2 d 2 |ψi
− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi
2m dx 2 − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2
one example: particle trapped in a box (V (x ) = 0 inside, V (x ) → ∞ outside)
another example: particle trapped in a ‘harmonic’ (parabolic) potential (V (x ) ∝ x 2 )
i.e., the quantum version of

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson
if electron quantum state is |ψi = |ψ3 i,

probability of electron being found as a function of x is |hψ3 |ψ3 i|2
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi
2m dx 2 2m dx 2
another example: particle trapped in a ‘harmonic’ (parabolic) potential (V (x ) ∝ x 2 ) another example: particle trapped in a ‘harmonic’ (parabolic) potential (V (x ) ∝ x 2 )
Source: MIT OCW Source: MIT OCW

h̄ω
allowed energies for the electron given by En = 2 ( n + 1 ) , E0 > 0!, equidistant
h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 ∂2 |Ψi ∂|Ψi

− + V (x ) · |ψi = E · |ψi − + V (x ) · |Ψi = E · |Ψi= i h̄
2m dx 2 2m ∂x 2 ∂t
|Ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |Ψi is Ψ(x, t )
|hΨ|Ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance!
another example: particle trapped in a ‘harmonic’ (parabolic) potential (V (x ) ∝ x 2 )
Source: MIT OCW
allowed energies for the electron given by En = h̄ω2 (n + 1), E0 > 0!, equidistant
(non-zero probability that the particle explores position x not allowed classically!)
2
h̄ ∂2 |Ψi ∂|Ψi h̄2 ∂2 |Ψi ∂|Ψi
− + V (x ) · |Ψi = E · |Ψi= i h̄ − + V (x ) · |Ψi = E · |Ψi= i h̄
2m ∂x 2 ∂t 2m ∂x 2 ∂t
|Ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |Ψi is Ψ(x, t ) |Ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |Ψi is Ψ(x, t )
|hΨ|Ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance! |hΨ|Ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance!
E·t E·t
general solution can be shown to be |Ψ(x, t )i = |ψ (x )i · e−i h̄ general solution can be shown to be |Ψ(x, t )i = |ψ (x )i · e−i h̄
E·t E·t E·t
|hΨ|Ψi|2 = |hψ|ψi|2 · |e−i h̄ |2 = |hψ|ψi|2 · (e −i h̄ · e +i h̄ ) = |hψ|ψi|2 ,
independent of time!
h̄2 ∂2 |Ψi ∂|Ψi h̄2 ∂2 |Ψi ∂|Ψi
− + V (x ) · |Ψi = E · |Ψi= i h̄ − + V (x ) · |Ψi = E · |Ψi= i h̄
2m ∂x 2 ∂t 2m ∂x 2 ∂t
|Ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |Ψi is Ψ(x, t ) |Ψi ∈ C: wavefunction of tiny massive object (e.g., electron); |Ψi is Ψ(x, t )
|hΨ|Ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance! |hΨ|Ψi|2 ∈ R, ≤ 1: quantity that is measurable and that has physical significance!
E·t E·t
general solution can be shown to be |Ψ(x, t )i = |ψ (x )i · e−i h̄ general solution can be shown to be |Ψ(x, t )i = |ψ (x )i · e−i h̄
E·t E·t E·t E·t E·t E·t
|hΨ|Ψi|2 = |hψ|ψi|2 · |e−i h̄ |2 = |hψ|ψi|2 · (e −i h̄ · e +i h̄ ) = |hψ|ψi|2 , |hΨ|Ψi|2 = |hψ|ψi|2 · |e−i h̄ |2 = |hψ|ψi|2 · (e −i h̄ · e +i h̄ ) = |hψ|ψi|2 ,
independent of time! independent of time!
Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia
(theory without noise as seen here cannot account for simple phenomena!
IRL: decoherence)
A quantum object can be in a superposition of quantum states

(equivalently, of energies)
Superposition
Source: forgive me, author, I can’t find it anymore
one electron in both orbits/energies, ‘more ways to encode information’

simultaneously: text
E t E t
|Ψi = a0 |ψ0 i · e −i h̄0
+ a1 |ψ1 i · e −i h̄1 text
to learn about the quantum state ‘before observation’,
you need to repeat the observation many times for statistics
(i.e., ‘prepare’ superposition state each time before measuring)!
Calling superposition ‘coherence’ is jargon and should be avoided!
you can assume superposition ≡ coherence

Measurement or observation of a quantum object
always ask the speaker: superposition of what?!
superposition can be of orbit, position, spin, polarization...
Even if a quantum object can be in a superposition of states, when you Even if a quantum object can be in a superposition of states, when you
measure/observe it, you only see one ‘classical’ state and its exact energy measure/observe it, you only see one ‘classical’ state and its exact energy
Source: forgive me, author, I can’t find it anymore Source: forgive me, author, I can’t find it anymore
Source: forgive me, author, I can’t find it anymore measuring the electron orbit/energy, you measuring the electron orbit/energy, you
get: |ψ0 i/E0 with probability |a0 |2 , get: |ψ0 i/E0 with probability |a0 |2 ,
one electron in both orbits/energies, |ψ1 i/E1 with probability |a1 |2 (i.e., one electron in both orbits/energies, |ψ1 i/E1 with probability |a1 |2 (i.e.,
simultaneously: ‘probabilistic collapse to classical state’: simultaneously: ‘probabilistic collapse to classical state’:
E0 t E1 t E0 t E1 t
|Ψi = a0 |ψ0 i · e−i h̄ + a1 |ψ1 i · e−i h̄ involves decoherence) |Ψi = a0 |ψ0 i · e−i h̄ + a1 |ψ1 i · e−i h̄ involves decoherence)
to learn about the quantum state before observation,
you need to repeat the observation many times for statistics
(i.e., ‘prepare’ superposition state each time before measuring)!
Two quantum objects are entangled
if you ‘instantaneously’ learn about one by learning something about the other
instantaneously? But nothing in nature travels fast than light!

entanglement does not happen faster than the speed of light!
Entanglement
not some weird communication/‘force’

among quantum objects
let’s go with the analogy of the boxes
containing 1 green, 1 red ball
Quantum concepts you can now qualitatively describe T’is end of the (quantum) world: measurement and decoherence
tiny ∼ quantum; but why don’t we see macroscopic quantum effects? (or do we... ?)
1. Quantization of energy
2. Wave-particle duality
3. Mathematical representation of wavefunctions
4. Evolution equation
5. Superposition
6. Measurement or observation of a quantum object
7. Entanglement measuring a quantum system yields a classical result: need probabilistic averaging
thermalization or ‘decoherence’ after some effects of quantum states still important

time: ‘measurement by the environment’ before they thermalize!

EE128 - Class 0

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EE128 - Class 0

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Welcome to the quantum world that you already inhabit!

Bootcamp: introduction to quantum mechanics

quantum literacy is essential to understand daily-life phenomena!

How it started: thermodynamics going wrong

everything that has a temperature > 0K vibrates

one can model the atoms

Source: Professor Dave Explains YouTube

Source: Professor Dave Explains YouTube

Sources: Chem LibreTexts, Macy’s, TeePublic

quantum objects can only

How it’s going: a theory fix that not only worked,

minimal orbit energy

some colors of light don’t kick out

energy of electrons flying out does not

each photon has energy E = h · f

each photon has energy E = h · f each photon has energy E = h · f

each photon has energy E = h · f each photon has energy E = h · f

Sources: NASA, Nature Light

Source: Science 2.0 Source: Science 2.0

cannon ball light wave cannon ball electrons (!)

a single tiny massive particle a single tiny massive particle

‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t

Source: Science 2.0 Source: Science 2.0

cannon ball electrons (!) cannon ball electrons (!)

a single tiny massive particle a single tiny massive particle

‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t ‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t

a single tiny massive particle

‘photon momentum p = hλ ; why wouldn’t

Source: Science 2.0 momentum of massive particle is p = m · v

up to 2.000 atoms, the size of some proteins (Arndt group, TU Wien)!

A wavefunction is a function with a weird notation

Mathematical representation of wavefunctions

a wavefunction describing a quantum state is denoted by |Ai (read: ket A)

a wavefunction, like regular functions IRL, obeys:

the complex conjugate of |Ai (read: ket A) is hA| (read: bra A)

Sources: FuelRocks, Physics Libre Texts, DAE notes

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson Source: Brooks/Cole – Thomson

Source: Professor Dave Explains YouTube

if electron quantum state is |ψi = |ψ3 i,

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 d 2 |ψi

Source: MIT OCW Source: MIT OCW

h̄2 d 2 |ψi h̄2 ∂2 |Ψi ∂|Ψi

Source: MIT OCW

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

A quantum object can be in a superposition of quantum states

Source: forgive me, author, I can’t find it anymore

Source: forgive me, author, I can’t find it anymore

one electron in both orbits/energies, ‘more ways to encode information’

you can assume superposition ≡ coherence

superposition can be of orbit, position, spin, polarization...

instantaneously? But nothing in nature travels fast than light!

not some weird communication/‘force’