Composite Materials Slides TA - Sandwiches - 2021

MECHENG 743: Composite Materials 1
Sandwich Structures
Dr Tom Allen
Tom.Allen@auckland.ac.nz
Structure of Lectures
This module will be presented across 7 Sections. The contents of which will be:
1: Background, Concept, Materials, Applications

2: Properties
3: Sandwich Theory
4: Example: Stiffness Design
5: Failure Modes
6: Example: Strength Design
7: Panel Analysis and Design
Sandwich 1:
Background, Concept, Materials

and Applications
Sandwich Structures
For more information:

Zenkert D., An Introduction to Sandwich
Construction, EMAS Ltd, UK, 1995
Zenkert D., The Handbook of Sandwich

Construction, EMAS Ltd, UK, 1997
Available for free

https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1366182/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Mmmm, Sandwiches
John Montagu
4th Earl of Sandwich
1718 –1792
Sandwich Structures
A structural sandwich is a special form of a laminated composite comprising of a
combination of different materials that are bonded to each other so as to utilise the
properties of each separate component to the structural advantage of the whole
assembly
Adhesive joint
Core material
Adhesive joint Face material
Potential Advantages
• Very high flexural stiffness and strength to weight ratios

• Integration of functions
• Thermal insulation
• Acoustic insulation
• High energy absorption
• Integrated manufacturing
Biggest one is design freedom (many variables)

The Sandwich Effect
Weight Flexural Bending

rigidity strength
1 1 1
t
2t ~1 12 6
t/2 (Typ. 1.03 to 1.15)
4t ~1 48 12
(Typ. 1.05 to 1.30)
Sandwich Composites
Unorthodox structural principle?

Wide range of materials can be used
Design and material selection closely integrated
Basic design relatively straight forward

Detailed theory and analysis more complicated
Local loads can cause issues Used in nature

Joining can be difficult
NDI relatively difficult
Face Materials
”Any material that comes in the form of thin sheets”
Materials Requirements
Metals High stiffness giving high flexural rigidity
Wood High tensile and compressive strength
Composites Impact resistance
Polymers Surface finish
Environmental resistance
(chemical, UV, heat, etc.)
Wear resistance
Sandwich structures can help compensate for

relatively low face stiffness properties
10
Core Materials
Materials Requirements
Balsa wood Low density
Honeycomb High shear modulus
High shear strength
Polymer foams
High through thickness stiffness
Natural foams and honeycombs (and strength)
Corrugated – many materials Thermal insulation
Metal foam Energy absorption
Metal pin topologies Acoustic insulation
Thicknesses typically 3-60 mm
Corrugated Honeycomb Cellular or balsa
11
Core Materials: Balsa
Earliest core material

Plantation grown
End grain blocks bonded together to make sheets
High aspect ratio cellular structure (typically 0.5-1mm x
0.05)
Anisotropic properties, also vary from block to block
Available as sheets, cut blocks for contoured surfaces,
planks
Typically 80-150 (sometimes 300) gm/m3
Core Materials: Balsa

Advantages Disadvantages
High stiffness and strength to weight ratios
Sensitive to humidity/moisture
Good resistance to crushing/localised loads
Limited range of densities
Claimed to be good for dynamic loads and
Variable properties
fatigue
“Brittle failure”
Positive floatation
Good thermal and acoustic insulation
Fire resistant
Applications include
Truck and rail bodies
Marine
Ballistics
Lightweight furniture
Architectural
Core Materials: Honeycomb

Range of cell shapes, most common is hexagonal
Range of materials, most common are:

Aluminium - High performance for aerospace
Phenolic impregnated aramid fibre (e.g. Nomex™), used in
aircraft and high performance marine
Thermoplastics – ABS, Polycarbonate, Polypropylene,
Polyethylene, bio-fibre reinforced
Paper for low performance applications such as building
Excellent mechanical properties:

Highest shear stiffness and strength to weight
High stiffness perpendicular to the faces
Disadvantages include:
High cost for aluminium and phenolic
Difficult handling/manufacturing
Small bonding area for skins
Can have corrosion issues with aluminium and carbon skins
Core Materials: Polymeric Foams

Wide range of products and properties
Generally lower specific properties than balsa or
honeycomb
Advantages include; low cost, range of densities and
properties, easy manufacturing (shaping, bonding),
closed cell (buoyant, not sensitive to moisture), high
thermal and acoustical insulation
Most common are
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN)
Polyurethane (PUR)
Polystyrene (PS)
Others include
Polyethylene-Terephthalate (PET)
Polymethacryl-imide (PMI)
Polyetherimide (PEI)
Polymer foams: Polyvinyl chloride

(PVC)
Most widely used structural foam

Dates back to late 1930s
Applications range from insulation through to
aerospace, very common in marine
Better mechanical properties than PUR or PS, but
more expensive
Good chemical resistance
Can get fire retardant grades
Typically 30-400 kg/m3
Restricted temperature range, cannot normally be
used for autoclave manufacturing (some
exceptions)
Available in different forms for manufacturing
Polymer foams: Polyvinyl chloride

(PVC)
Crosslinked (iso-cyanate modified) Linear
Strictly a hybrid of PVC and polyurea Excellent impact and fatigue performance
High strength and stiffness Moderate mechanical properties
Moderate to good toughness Sensitive to temperature - thermoformable
Reasonable temperature stability Typically used in impact situations
Excellent chemical stability AIREX R63
AIREX C51, C70, C71 Some hybrids, e.g. Divinycell HD
Divinycell H, HP
GURIT PVC & PVC HT
Polymer Foams: SAN

Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN)
e.g. Gurit Corecell: T, M, A, S Foams
Competitor to PVC foams

Generally slightly tougher than crosslinked
PVC
Typically better static properties than linear
PVC
Good temperature stability
Suitable for low-temp prepreg manufacture

Thermoformable
Chemically stable
Widely used in marine, transportation, wind

energy
Polymer foams: Polyethylene-Terephthalate

(PET)
Relatively new to market

Thermoplastic
Relatively low cost

Recyclable
Thermoformable
Excellent chemical stability
Excellent thermal stability – enable range of processes
Good Flame, Smoke & Toxicity (FST) properties
Moderate mechanical properties

Early versions were relatively brittle, newer better
Often used in transportation and building applications
AIREX T90, T92, GEN2, ArmaFORM PET FR and GR, Gurit G-PET and
others
Polymer foams: Polyurethane (PUR)
Relatively low cost and performance

Wide range of densities: typically 30 - 500 kg/m3
Many variations, from soft open cell through to more rigid high density
closed cells
Can be foamed insitu
Can be made fire resistant
Two main types

Polyurethane – structural applications
Generally good insulation properties
Mechanical properties lower than most other polymeric cores, low
toughness and elongation for rigid versions
Typically used for insulation and lightly loaded structural applications
Polyisocyanurate (PIR) - chemically and thermally more stable than

PUR but typically more brittle – primarily used for insulation/building
panels
Polymer foams: Polystyrene (PS)
Good insulation, low to moderate mechanical

properties
Low cost
Can be extruded or expanded in a mould
Easy to shape
Typically 15 - 300 kg/m3
Sensitive to solvents (particularly styrene), limits
resins that can be used as adhesives
Primarily used as thermal insulation, also in some
lightly loaded structural elements such as
refrigerated trucks and containers
Common for surfboards and some other sporting
goods
Core materials: Other

Polymethacrylimide (PMI) Foam , e.g. ROHACELL®
Highest performance foam cores, good for processing or
use at elevated temperatures. Expensive
Polyetherimide (PEI) Foam

Expanded polyetherimide/polyether sulphone, combines
excellent fire performance with a wide operating
temperature range
Others:
Syntactic cores – hollow spheres (typically glass) in a resin
matrix
Corrugated – paper, thermoplastics, wood, laminates
Solid woods – Cedar, plywood
Metal foam, Metal pin topologies
Sandwich 1b:
Materials and Applications

Relative Structural Performance
PET SAN PVC

Relative Performance
Applications: Marine
Most types of structural cores:
• Wood: Balsa, Cedar, Plywood
• PVC and SAN widely used throughout structure
• Linear PVC, SAN or Balsa in slamming regions
• Some PUR for insulation or forming stringers
• Some PMI foams in high temperature regions
• Nomex and aluminium honeycomb for high-
performance craft
https://emirates-team-new-
zealand.americascup.com/en/gallery/409_TE-AIHE-FLIES.html
Applications: Aerospace
Mainly Aluminium and Nomex Honeycomb

- Interior panels/floors, helicopter fuselage panels, rotor blades
PMI Foam – ailerons, pressure bulkheads
NDI and moisture issues limits sandwich applications
Applications: Land Transportation
Automotive
Processing speed important - high temperature cores
such as PMI foams or thermoplastic honeycombs
Nomex or Aluminum honeycomb for low
production/racing
Trucks/Trailers/Buses/Motorhomes/Caravans
Typically PVC, PS, SAN, PET, some Balsa
Require medium structural properties, insulation, good
durability and crash behaviour
Rail
Exterior and interior, floors
Crash and fire are issues
Aluminium, Nomex
Foam usage increasing due to manufacturing
advantages (Typically SAN, PVC, PET)
Applications: Building and

Infrastructure
Walls, facades, roofing panels, floors
Low cost
Good insulation
Thermal stability
Typically PUR, PS, PVC, PET
Metallic skins common
Wind turbines
High quality, good fatigue life, reasonable
cost, consistency of supply
Typically PVC, Balsa, SAN
NZ Building Applications
Marsden Cross Interpretive Centre
5m wide x 15m
28 E-glass/PET sandwich panels
Application of digital manufacturing:
infused as flat panel, cut to exact shapes
in 5-axis machine
Skypath
Proposed walkway /cycleway across
Auckland Harbour
Light, corrosion resistant
Applications: Sporting Equipment

Tradeoff between
cost/performance/manufacturing… and
(pseudo-science?) marketing!
Surfboards/SUPs/Windsurfers
Typically PS and PUR, some PVC
Skis/Snowboards
Wood/Balsa/Honeycombs/PVC/SAN/PET
Rowing Skiffs
Aramid Honeycombs/PVC/SAN
Medical + Communications
XRAY/MRI Scanner tables

Loudspeakers and
Antenna
Need high quality uniform foams

Typically PMI, PVC, PET
Sandwich 2:
Core Properties
Properties
Structural applications, primarily:
Density
Shear strength in the transverse direction
Shear stiffness in the transverse direction
Cost
Through thickness tensile and

compressive strength and stiffness can
also be important to maintain the
location and stability of the skin
Properties
Other properties that can be important for some applications include:
Shear elongation
Shear strength at high loading rates
Thermal stability
Thermal conductivity
Acoustic insulation
Creep
Outgassing
Ability to be formed to curved shapes
Fire performance
Dielectric loss
Range of processing temperatures
Damage tolerance - Impact strength, Fracture toughness
Fatigue shear strength
Resin absorption
Water absorption/permeability
Cell size for cellular materials
Manufacturer Data Sheets
Where do these come from?

What do they mean?
Test methods: Flexural beams

Four point beam
Shear and bending in outer thirds
Bending in centre span
Can be used to measure
Bending stiffness and strength (tension or compression of skins)
Shear stiffness and strength (or core and/or core/skin bond)
Design proportions of beam to suit required properties
Short span – shear
Long span – bending
Main problem is preventing failure at loading points
L1
P/ P/
2 2
P/ L2 P/
2 2
Block Shear
Bond core to steel blocks
Load in tensile or compressive shear
Measures shear stiffness and strength
Stress concentrations in corners
Not completely pure shear
Shear Through Thickness

Properties: Shear strength

Properties: Shear Modulus

Properties: Effect of loading rate

C70.130
16
0.3mm/s
14 180mm/s
360mm/s
12
540mm/s
10
Load (kN)
8
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection (mm)
R63.140
16
0.3mm/s
14
180mm/s
12 360mm/s
10 540mm/s
Load (kN)
8
0
0 10 20 30 40
Deflection (mm)
Sandwich 3:
Sandwich Theory
Sandwich Theory
Key concept:
Analyse bending and transverse shear separately
• Approximations
• Failure modes
• Beam deformations
• Bending stiffness
• Shear stiffness
• Design process
Sandwich theory
(principles of bending)
q(x)
Tx
x Mx Mx
x
Nx Nx
z
Tx
z,w
Ez 2 EI
M x = ∫ σ x zdz = ∫ dz = κ x ∫ Ez dz =
2
Rx Rx
Flexural stiffness EI = ∫ Ez 2 dz = D
Per Unit Width!
Sandwich theory: Bending
tf
Ef
d Ec ,Gc tc
Ef tf
Flexural stiffness
E f t 3f Ef tf d2 Ec t c3
D = ∫ Ez 2 dz = + + = 2 D f + D0 + Dc
6 2 12
Mx z
Direct strain εx =
D
Sandwich theory: Bending

Modulus of the cross section discontinuous ⇒ Direct stress also
discontinuous
If face thin and core weak

2 2
d d E t
f f d
3   > 100 or > 5.77 D=
tf  tf 2
M x zE f M x zE c
σf = σ c = ≈0
D D
Approximations not  t c tc  Ef Ef 
always valid: Check!  : 10 < < 50  and  : 50 < < 1000 
t
 f t f  E
 c E c 
Sandwich theory: Shear Stresses

Consider equilibrium of an element with direct and shear stresses:
τ xz
∂σ
σx + x dx
σx ∂x
z τ xz x
∂σ ∂τ
σx σx + x dx τ xz+ ∂ zxz dz
∂x
dx z
Core / Face Boundary
tf
tc
Tx  E f t f d Ec  t c2 2
 x
τ c (z) =  +  − z  Maximum Shear Stress
D 2 2 4  tf
Sandwich theory: Shear Stresses

and Strains
L1
P/ P/
2 2
A B
1.0
0.9 Low elongation core
A B
P/ L2 P/ 0.8 High elongation core
2 2
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40
Deflection [mm]
z
Core / Face Boundary
tf
tc
x
Maximum Shear Stress
tf
Sandwich theory: Approximations
Mx
σ f (z) = ±
tf d
Bending σc ≈ 0
τ f ( z) ≈ 0
Tx
Shear τc (z) =
d
No approximations Ec << Ef Ec << Ef and t c >> t f
Stresses in the faces are almost constant and causing all of the moment - Hence
core is essentially in a state of pure shear
Large moment, but core is weak in shear - hence high shear deformation
Deformations: Shear Beam Theory
Relaxes the assumption (or Kirchoff constraint) that plane sections

remain plane during bending: allows for a shear strain γxz.
Consider equilibrium:
q(x)
z
M Q x Q+dQ M+dM
dM x dx 2
dx
∑ M x = M x + dx dx − M x − Qx dx + q(x ) 2 = 0
dQx dM x
∴ − Qx = 0
∑ Fz = Qx + dx dx − Qx + q(x )dx = 0 dx
dQx
∴ + q(x ) = 0
dx
Sandwich theory: Deformations
w''dx
b
γc
w'dx w'b dx w's dx
(a) (b) (c)
Total Deformation = Bending + Shear

Sandwich theory: Shear stiffness
Consider deformed cross-section, with core shear strain assumed constant:
A'' dws/dx
A' A
γ -γ 0 γ0
γ0
γ tc = +
d
B
Compare strain energy for uniform shear strain to actual:
t 2
1 1 c Tx Tx Tx2 t c Tx2 Gc d 2
2
Tx γ = ∫
2 − t c 2 d Gc d
dz =
2 Gc d 2
=
2S
⇒S=
tc
S – shear stiffness
Shear Beam Theory
Using force equilibrium and the shear force vs strain relationship
dQ x  dz   d 2 z dφ x 
+ q(x ) = 0 Qx = S  + φ x  gives S  2 +  + q( x ) = 0
dx  dx   dx dx 
Then using the moment curvature relationship: dφ x

Mx = D
dx
Gives the basic moment curvature equation for SBT:
d 2z M x (x ) q(x )
2
=− −
dx D S
This can be integrated to determine the deflection (Z) as a function of
position (x) for imposed moment and transverse force distributions and
boundary conditions.
The total deflection is the sum of bending plus shear components

Sandwich Theory: Cantilever Beam
Total deflection is the sum of bending plus shear

2
P
d ws 1 dTx
2
=
dx S dx
Tx = P
Pure bending
dws P
= wb =PL3 /3D
dx S
x
P Px Pure shear
ws = ∫ dx = + constant
S S ws =PL/S
0
BC: ws(0) = 0 wtot=wb +ws

Sandwich 4:
Stiffness Design
Sandwich Example: Stiffness Design
Sandwich beam, Simply supported, Length L = 1000 mm

Core thickness, tc = 30 mm, Width W = 100 mm
Applied pressure, P = 100 kPa
GRP Skins, Ef = 20,000 MPa, σfc = 200 MPa, σft = 300 MPa
PVC Foam Core, ρ = 100 kg/m3, Gc = 40 MPa, Ec = 75 MPa, τc = 1.8 MPa
Maximum allowed deformation is L/50 = 20mm

Find the face thickness for the allowable deformation of L/50
(Standard bending eqn from handbook)
Need to find shear deformation
Solve for tf = 5.49 mm

For this case, Wb = 12.6 mm, Ws = 7.4 mm, Wtot = 20.0 mm

- Shear deflection is significant
Are the sandwich assumptions valid?
6.5 > 5.77 614 > 100

Sandwich 5:
Failure Modes
Sandwich Failure Modes
(a) Face yielding or fracture. (e) General (global) buckling of the

(b) Shear failure of the core. beam.
(c) Wrinkling (local buckling) of the (f) Shear crimping.
face into the core. (g) Face dimpling.
(d) Wrinkling of the face separating (h) Local indentation due to applied
from the core. loads.
Face yielding or fracture
Tension or compression
Use failure criterion for faces
Bending stress at face:
M x E f (d + t f )
> σ max
2D
Shear failure of the core
Common failure
For weak core, maximum shear

stress in the beam is:
Wrinkling (local buckling) of the face

into the core
Generally due to high in-plane

compressive stresses, from in-plane
loading or compression due to bending
σ f ,cr = 0.53 E f E c Gc
Wrinkling vs. Compression failure
Transition at increasing core stiffness
Compressivestrain(%)
1,00%
0,90%
0,80%
0,70% [0/90] 2
0,60%
0,50% [90/0] 2
0,40%
0,30%
analytical
0,20%
FEM
0,10%
0,00%
30 45 60 80 100 130 160 200 250
3
Coredensity[kg/m ]
Wrinkling of the face separating from

the core
Occurs when tensile strength of the core or

adhesive joint is lower than the
compressive strength, leading to peeling of
the face
Global buckling of the beam
Depends on boundary conditions, length of

beam, and stiffness
Long beam - Euler buckling, depends on D
Short beam - shear buckling, depends on S
Buckling load ”knocked-down” by shear

effects
Global buckling:
Length dependent shear effects
n 2π 2 D
2
L 2 n PE D
Pcr = = φ= 2
n π D 1 + n 2π 2φ
2 2
LS
1+ 2
LS
Dim [N] L=2m L=1m L = 0.5 m L = 0.33 m L = 0.25 m

Analytical 133 428 1075 1492 1726
FEM 133 428 1075 1492 1726
”pure bending” 134 534 2135 4813 8540
Shear crimping
Limit of the general buckling load in pure

shear when the faces are thin
S
σ crit
f =
2bt f
Face dimpling
Face sheet buckles between the walls of a

core cell
For a honeycomb:
2
tf 
σ cr
f = 2 E f  
s 
s is the inscribed radius of the cell
Local Indentation
Due to concentrated loads

Includes the effects of impact damage,
fittings and joins or corners
Crude approximation:
P
A=
σ core
crit
Sandwich Failure: Failure Maps
Pcr
Euler Buckling
Thick Faces
Wrinkling
Sandwich Beam
L
Sandwich 6:
Strength Design
Sandwich Example: Strength Design
Sandwich beam, Simply supported, Length L = 1000 mm

Core thickness, tc = 30 mm, Width W = 100 mm
Applied pressure, P = 100 kPa
GRP Skins, Ef = 20,000 MPa, σfc = 200 MPa, σft = 300 MPa
PVC Foam Core, ρ = 100 kg/m3, Gc = 40 MPa, Ec = 75 MPa, τc = 1.8 MPa
What is the required face thickness?

Is the beam strong enough in transverse shear?
Draw bending moment and shear force diagrams
Draw free-body diagram
Uniformly distributed load/unit width Q = P * L = 100 N/mm width
Determine maximum bending moment and shear force per unit width
= 50 N/mm
= 12500 Nmm/mm
Find required face thickness – from face strength allowable

σfc < σft so use σfc = 200 MPa
Using:
Solve for d = 31.96 mm, then tf = d – tc = 1.96 mm
Check shear strength of core – compare to allowable of 1.8 MPa
= 1.56 MPa
Okay: safety factor = 1.8/1.56 = 1.15
Also check other failure modes:

Skin wrinkling
= 224 MPa > σfc
Greater than skin strength, so skin will fracture before wrinkling
Be VERY careful about loads – are they per unit width?

Dimensional analysis can be a useful check
To apply a safety factor at the start of the analysis, reduce allowable by SF
i.e. for a SF of 4 against skin failure, σf = 200/4 = 50 MPa

Sandwich 7:
Panel Example
Sandwich Panel Example
Rectangular panel
Uniform pressure load = 100 kPa
Simply supported edges b
b= 700mm, a = 1400mm
Aspect ratio = a/b = 2 a
What is the required thickness of the core

material for the panel not to fail by skin
fracture due to bending?
For that core thickness, what is the safety

factor against core transverse shear fracture?
Approximate as a beam – which span?
Calculate maximum b
Reaction force = PL/2 = 35,000 N/m
Bending moment = PL2/8= 6125 Nm/m
a
Compressive strength is lower than tensile,
So allowable σx= 250 MPa
(what is wrinkling stress?)
For thin skins, z = d/2
Solve for d = 20.4mm, tc = d- tf = 19.2mm

Factor of safety against shear fracture
Shear force (Tx) = Reaction force = PL/2 = 35,000

N/m
d = 20.4mm
τxz= 1.71 MPa, allowable shear stress = 2.0 MPa

Why approximate as a beam?
Full panel formula:
Which approach do you think is easier?

Panel results from Zenkert
Maximum bending and shear deformations,

bending moments and transverse forces for a
simply supported rectangular sandwich plate
with flexural rigidity D and shear stiffness S.

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MECHENG 743: Composite Materials 1

1: Background, Concept, Materials, Applications

Background, Concept, Materials

For more information:

Zenkert D., The Handbook of Sandwich

Available for free

• Very high flexural stiffness and strength to weight ratios

Biggest one is design freedom (many variables)

The Sandwich Effect

Weight Flexural Bending

Unorthodox structural principle?

Basic design relatively straight forward

Local loads can cause issues Used in nature

Sandwich structures can help compensate for

Thicknesses typically 3-60 mm

Corrugated Honeycomb Cellular or balsa

Core Materials: Balsa

Earliest core material

Core Materials: Balsa

Core Materials: Honeycomb

Range of materials, most common are:

Excellent mechanical properties:

Core Materials: Polymeric Foams

Polymer foams: Polyvinyl chloride

Most widely used structural foam

Polymer foams: Polyvinyl chloride

Polymer Foams: SAN

Competitor to PVC foams

Suitable for low-temp prepreg manufacture

Widely used in marine, transportation, wind

Polymer foams: Polyethylene-Terephthalate

Relatively new to market

Relatively low cost

Moderate mechanical properties

Often used in transportation and building applications

Polymer foams: Polyurethane (PUR)

Relatively low cost and performance

Two main types

Polyisocyanurate (PIR) - chemically and thermally more stable than

Polymer foams: Polystyrene (PS)

Good insulation, low to moderate mechanical

Core materials: Other

Polyetherimide (PEI) Foam

Materials and Applications

Relative Structural Performance

PET SAN PVC

Mainly Aluminium and Nomex Honeycomb

Applications: Land Transportation

Applications: Building and

Applications: Sporting Equipment

XRAY/MRI Scanner tables

Need high quality uniform foams

Through thickness tensile and

Manufacturer Data Sheets

Where do these come from?

Test methods: Flexural beams

Shear Through Thickness

Properties: Shear strength

Properties: Shear Modulus

Properties: Effect of loading rate

Sandwich theory: Bending

Sandwich theory: Bending

If face thin and core weak