Achievers Junior Secondary Agric 8

J
~-nit 1: Agriculture In Zambia 1

'hat is agriculture? 1
portance of agriculture in Zambia 1
_bm agro-ecological regions of Zambia 5
Zambia agro- ecologial regions 6
Factors that influence agricultural development 6
Diversification of crops and livestock prodution 10
c-~:istance to farmers 10
_) '-pes of farmers 11
Unit 2: Soil science 14
erinition of soil 14
:J formation 14
Composition of soil 15
[mportance of soil components 19
il profile 20
'" il texture 22
Trpes of soil 23
~ Ian ures and fertilisers 27
Fertiliser application 29
Unit 3: Crop production 32

Classification of vegetab1es 33
Seedbed preparation 36
Preparing compost manure ...0
? anting vegetab1es -1:3
-r 'eed contro1 46
Pest contro1 48
Methods of application 51
Disease contro1 53
Ha....,. ':1= 55
: a ready vegetable 55
_ {meting 57
{;Tnit 4: Forestry 60
Importance of trees 60
Poles and handles 61
Preparing a tree nursery 62
Unit 5: Conservation farming · ·· · ·.. ··.. ·· 65
Intercropping 66
Mixed farming ·.···················································

..·· 68
Land clearing and preparation 69
Fertiliser and manure application ······ 71
_) Sowing/planting correctly 72
Unit 6: Livestock production 75
Importance of livestock 76
Digestive system of a bird 77
Reproductive system 79
Breeds of chicken 81
Rearing chickens ·································

..························· 82
Incubation 85
Broo.iing 85
Brooder for fifty chicks ······································ 86

Preparation for arrival of chicks 86
Pests and diseases 87
Poultry pests ~ 87
Poultry diseases 88
Records 89
Preparing birds for marketing 91
Cnit 7: Farm structures 93
Appropriate storage facility for vegetables 93
Houses of poultry of different ages 95

l:nit 8: Farm machinery 100
Hand tools ······· 100

rhinery tools 103
cimal-drawn implements 106
"nit 9: Farm management 117
"anation in farm performance 117
icultural economics 118
portunity cost 119
uction decision 119
of credit available to a farmer 120
erest _1_0
ords 121
:::: erprise 124
ssary 128
J
AGRICULTURE IN ZAMBIA
Specific learning outcomes L'- J
the end of the unit, you must be able to:
explain the importance of agriculture in Zambia
describe the role of agriculture in the economy of Zambia
outline the main agricultural activities in Zambia
identify on a map of Zambia areas that are not suitable for dairy farming and
ranching
identify on a map of Zambia the main agro-ecological regions of Zambia
identify on a map of Zambia the areas that may not be very suitable for growing
maize
identify factors that influence the development of agriculture
explain the effects of factors that develop agriculture
explain the need for farmers to diversify the production of crops and livestock
investigate agencies and organisations that assist farmers in input procurement,
marketing and agricultural extension
explain the differences between small scale and commercial farmers and investigate
the main commercial farming areas in Zambia.
hat is agriculture?
_ gnculture is an applied science. It takes scientific knowledge and puts it to work for us.
_- can be defined as the cultivation of crops and rearing of animals to give products of
'·-ect value to human beings.
Then what is Agricultural science? Agricultural science has three important parts. These
xe the existing knowledge, discovery of new knowledge and using it for production.
-:-0 learn Agricultural science, we need to gain agricultural knowledge and experience
, me processes of discovering and using existing knowledge. This means that the more
·~rrners know about science the better they understand sustainable crop and livestock
roduction,
Importance of agriculture in Zambia

."7>gTIcultureis an important factor in the economy of the country. A large proportion of
Zambia's population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture .
./
• early half of Zambia's population live in rural areas where agriculture is virtually the
only occupation or source oflivelihood.
1. Form groups of five and identify the importance of agriculture in Zambia.

2. Discuss the importance of agriculture in Zambia.
3. Record and report your findings in a class discussion.
Agriculture is important to Zambia because it is a source of food, employment, foreign
exchange and raw materials for industries.
Food
It is the duty of each country to provide food to its people. A well-fed nation is a healthy
nation. Except in cases of prolonged drought, Zambia is self sufficient in its staple food,
maize. However, the country also imports some foodstuff. Zambia's population rate is
estimated to be 3.5 per cent per annum. This means high demand for food. There is need,
_) therefore, for the country to cope with the growing demand for food and this can only be
achieved by increasing agricultural production in the country.
Food security
Food security can be said to be the availability of different types of food sufficient at family
or national or global level. When various types of food are available, they provide the family,
nation and the world with required nutrients (proteins, carbohydratres, fats, vitamins,
minerals) that can help to maintain health and enable the young to grow at appropriate
rates.
Fig. 7.7 A combine har~ester at work

ture plays an important role in food security. As population grows, there is
eeE- food productiongrowing at the same pace with population. This can be done
mostly through agriculture. More advanced sustainable farming techniques will be needed
cope with projected population increase worldwide if food security is to be achieved and
maintained. This means there is need to train people to adopt proper farming practices.
Employment
.'lgriculture provides employment directly or indirectly It 'provides employment directly for
people hired to work on farms and ranches. It provides employment indirectlv for people
employed in food processing industries, confectionary companies, fertiliser companies and
'1
many other industries manufacturing for or using produce from agriculture.
In addition, agriculture earns the government revenue from taxes imposed on business
people who sell locally or export agricultural produce or products.
Raw materials
me agricultural products require processing before they can be utilized. Examples of
_ .h products are sugar, tea, coffee, skins and many others. Agriculture generates industry
and trade and can increase job opportunities for Zambians.
j
Exercise
Name five things that make agriculture important in Zambia.
State the meaning of the statements 'food security' .
" gricultural activities in Zambia

-=:'lereare many agricultural activities in Zambia. Some of the agricultural activities in
Zambia are fish farming, bee keeping, dairy farming, ranching, food crop production,
rticulture (vegetables, flowers and fruits) farming and forestry.
Activity t.z
Form small groups and identify agricultural ctivities practiced in Zambia.
Discuss why the agricultural activities in Zambia are important.
Record and report your findings in a class discussion.
-'Sh farming
This takes place in many parts of Zambia. The fish reared are sold and earn the fanner and
e family an income. Fish are an important source of proteins for the country.
See keeping
is takesplace in some parts of Zambia. It is common in the North-western province. The
oney obtained from this type of farming is in most cases sold. Honey produced is used
~ r many purposes. Honey is an important and rich source of carbohydrates.
_/
Dairy farming
This takes place mostly on commercial farms. The milk obtained is sold by farmers. Milk
is an important source of protein to people who take it. It is is also used in the production
of various dairy products such as cheese and butter.
Ranching
This takes place mostly on commercial farms. Beef animals reared are slaughtered when
ready to provide beef. Beef is a rich source of protein. Beef cattle are sold at an appropriate
time when they have gained the right weight for slaughter.
Food crop production

This is undertaken by most farmers in the country. There are both small-scale farmers and
commercial farmers whose activities are on a larger scale. The crops produced are sold to
earn the farmers income. Food crop farming is undertaken by most people in rural areas
and could be their only source of livelihood.
\
These activities provide farmers with a source of livelihood. The activities can also
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earn the country foreign exchange if appropriately supported. In addition, they provide
employment to the farmers and employees in agro-industries.
Areas not suitable for some agricultural activities

Some areas of Zambia are not suitable for some agricultural activities because they may be
infested with tsetse flies, for example, the Luangwa Valley, some parts of western, Luapula,
southern and central psrovinces. Tsetse flies transmit trypanosomiasis to livestock and
human beings.
•
Key
Unsuitable for dairy
for dairy farming and
ranching
fig. 1.2 Areas that are not suitable for dairy farming and ranching in Zambia
- me parts of the country have infertile soils and some crops cannot be grown successfully
cader average investment in such soils.
Some of the examples of such soils in Zambia are found over most of the Northern
_.ateau , Luapula and Copperbelt provinces as well as parts of North-western province.
ultivation is only carried out where the soil is fertile. In most places soil erosion has taken
ace and nutrients have been leached from the soils.
Stony soils of valley sides found on the sides of main valleys stretch from valley sides
7 to the plateaus and they are very shallow with a lot of stones. The soils are oflittle value
- r agriculture.
wesem Zarnbezan qrasslaocs _[ Zarnbezian Hooded grasslantt Soubem R~

Cryptosepahm
dtvforsas
Zarnbez:an
Balklaea woodlands
_)
200 km
Fig. 1.3 Infertile soils of Zambia
ain agro-ecological regions of Zambia

2a.mbia can be divided into three main regions I, II and III.
egion I
~ region covers Luangwa and Zambezi Rift Valleys. The region has unpredictable rainfall.
- an average rainfall of more than 800mm per annum. The region has recurrent droughts
-.; rloods. Temperatures in summer (rainy season) can be more than 38"C.
eglon II - Zone lIa

- region consists of the central and eastern plateaus of the country. It contains the most
. e soils in Zambia. They receive 800-1000mm rainfall and temperature in summer
• ny season) can be between 20°C and 33°C.
Region II - Zone lib
This includes the semi-arid plains of western province. It has sandy and alluvial soils.
Rainfall can be more than 800mm per annum.
Region III
This region covers the northern parts of Zambia. It has acid-leached soils of relatively low
fertility. It receives more than 1200mm of rainfall per annum. Temperatures in summer
(rainy season) can be 18°C- 30°C. It has extended cloudy periods.
Zambia agro- ecologial regions
_)
D Region I
o Region II a
D Region II b
II Region III
o 200 400
Fig. 1.4 Agro-ecological regions of Zambia
Exercise l'--_--J
1. List six main agricultural activities in Zambia.
2. State the importance of the main agricultural activities in Zambia.
3. Shade on a map of Zambia areas that are not suitable for dairy farming and
ranching.
4. Shade the main agro-ecological regions on a map of Zambia.
Factors that influence agricultural development

The goyernment makes policies that are intended to improve agriculture.
Activity '.3
Investigate the role climate, marketing, roads, transportation, research, credit,
education and land tenure can play in agriculture.
Record your findings in your notebooks.
Report your findings in a class dicussion.
lunate
imate is important in agriculture. Different types of crops grow well under different
peratures and rainfall ranges. Crops like sugarcane need a lot of water while sorghum
- not need a lot of water to grow well. Some crops may not germinate when the
perature of the soil is below lODe. Others may not grow well when temperatures are
·-18°e.
Tropical crops grow well" -hmate-~, t4at of Zambia, while temperate crops
_ ,- well in cold countries. MMiei~Qws:..v~n liIk.the.tr~p~.cal/·limate, while apples grow
" Qt;-!"H;et- h
m temperate climate. _ ~ 'F'ON .t.
j p:~ft. -
_ '" 0~;J ., ') r--"" .,,, . 2r.!r
arketing .~': " r :» 11.,0,) ;1";''';'1
rder to improve effici ~6
mGrJ). ." - : ~tputs and products during
~ colonial days and the cod~~QYS-llg,qfih'~Mg~lfilll1i§.ations were set up to handle
i'ffKx. i!M'G7'l '-r.. ~V1.n
~~ marketing of commodities. ar_ of agricultural inputs and
. - ducts were controlled.
The provision of markets and control of prices had an advantage because a larger
portion of the farming communities could afford them.
e disadvantages of price control

At times the farmers sold their agricultural products but could not be paid on time due
to lack of funds.
_ At times prices were fixed so low that it was not profitable to sell agricultural produce
and inputs. The results of this was reduced production and shortage of inputs.
-~ere was a change in the Third Republic when most of the marketing of agricultural inputs
J produce was liberalised. In other words, demand dictated the price system. Production
ras to be undertaken for profit and when an agricultural input or product was relatively
scarce, consumers would bid up its price. When the price of the input or product ro-e,
,~ zits would increase and so more of it would be produced.
On the other hand, when consumers did not want a particular input or product, its price
uld fall and losses would be made. In this case the price mechanism would indicate the
ishes of consumers and allocate the inputs and products accordingly .
--
.
Transport
Transport is needed to move inputs and produce to where they are needed. Even if an area
has good roads it will need a means of transport that farmers in the area can use to access
inputs and the markets for their produce.
If the farmers do not have means of transporting inputs and produce they will find it
difficult to improve their production. This will result in the poor development of agriculture
in the area.
Roads
Roads are very important in the transportation of agricultural inputs and products. It is
easy to collect produce or deliver inputs in an area that is well served with good roads. An
area with good roads can have increased agricultural production because the farmers can
easily access inputs and the market to sell their produce. An area with a poor road network
will have problems in accessing markets and inputs. This can result in the area failing to
develop in agriculture.
_)
Research
Research is very important in agriculture. Methods of communicating new findings to the
farmer have been improved and expanded. The mass media; radio, television and some
newspapers have programmes on agriculture. Research stations pass information on latest
developments in agriculture to farmers through the mass media. This way farmers benefit
from the findings, thereby improving agricultural production.
Research is mostly carried out by the goyernment through its research stations in the
country.
Credit
Capital is require ! yewry -anner .or inve tment in the development of his/her farm.
Capital is re •uire . for many thing- such as buying seeds, chemicals or fertilisers, paying
for labour on the farms and rnanv others.
I
Farmers obtain their capital as loans. The sources of a farmer's capital are commercial
banks and government credit agents.
It is important that fanner access credit to make their farms productive. If credit is
easy to access, farmers get appropriate inputs for their enterprises and this helps them to
increase production. This way agriculture develops in their areas.
Education
Education is important in the development of agriculture. In the past, due to low levels of
education, farmers did not practise the recommended crop and animal husbandry. This
resulted in the farmers planting late, failing to control pests and failing to sow certified
seed.
These and many other problems that resulted in low yields and losses. Agricultural
ai cation is currently being expanded from primary, secondary, college and university
c. This, to a large extent, is provided by the government.
nd tenure
,,_ s is a state of occupation ofland and conditions governing land ownership, Where land
" -ned either by a tribe or a clan, an individual has no real incentive to look after such
2.properly, for example, to prevent soil erosion or to invest in long-term programmes
.::~as Sinking boreholes.
On the other hand, where the farmer owns the land, he/she is able to use its title deed as
_C!Iltyfor a bank loan. The loan becomes capital for developing agriculture and getting
.'. vields.
opulation
r-.d population growth can affect the development of agriculture since it may affect land
j iership and result in reduced quality of arable land.
_ :any renewable resources can restore themselves after they are over used or degraded
<: • are given enough time. Grasslands can take a year to grow again after overgrazing
~ ~op soil takes hundreds of years to be replenished.
-=- raditional farming systems involved clearing and burning vegetation on a piece ofland,
_:."ating it for a short period and then abandoning the land to fallow for a long period
- 'me to regenerate itself before returning to it for further use. The length offallowing
d depended on the amount of land available, the pressure of population, the level of
_ .....:.!ty
and the rate of re-growth of land under fallow.
:bese farming systems were affected by rapid population growth. Rapid population
_ • 1:h meant reduced fallow periods since some of the pieces of agricultural land
:::..'TIe residential areas. This resulted in the exploitation of arable land faster than it
z.d regenerate. The result of this was poor yields and the need to practise sustainable
_-.:ulture.
There is need to develop agriculture in Zambia and there are many ways this can be
Farmers can be allowed to borrow money to invest on their farms and improve them
for higher production.
Farmers can be provided with the appropriate education which can inform them of
better methods of farming and new supplies.
Increased agricultural extension can help inform the government of the farmer's real
needs.
• ere is need for proper government policies that provide necessary facilities for the
rarmer and national plans that would give the allocate enough funds for agriculture
in the economy. These and many others would help agriculture to develop in the
country.
Diversification of crops and livestock prodution

There is need for the farmers to diversify the production of crops and livestock. This means
growing of various crops and probably even rearing animals. This would help the farmers
to survive any decline in prices or demand for the crops. Diversification also saves farmers
when one enterprise is attacked by a disease. In mixed cropping, the farmer is not seriously
affected by the drop in market price of any commodity because they receive an income
from various crops and livestock. A disease may affect crops only and not livestock or it
may affect a certain group oflivestock or crops and leave out the rest of them, for example,
swine fever will attack pigs and not chickens. The farmer who gets such loses will then
depend on other animals or crops.
_)
Exercise l..___ ---,
State whether true or false for each of the following:
1. True/false - Climate cannot affect the development of agriculture.
2. True/false - Roads can affect the development of agriculture in a country.
3. True/false - Culture cannot affect the development of agriculture in Zambia.
4. True/false - Religion cannot affect the development of agriculture in Zambia.
5. Comment on the following statement: "Education cannot affect the development of
agriculture":
6. List SL,( factors that can affect the development of agriculture.
7. Explain the effect credit has on agriculture.
Assistance to farmers
Government makes deliberate policies that are intended to accelerate the development of
agriculture in Zambia.
Activity J.4
1. Form groups of five.
2. Investigate government departments, organisations and companies that participate
in the development of agriculture.
3. Report your findings in a class discussion.
The main function of the Ministry of Agriculture is to improve animal husbandry and
crop husbandry methods among Zambian farmers and introduce improved crops and
livestock, To carry out its work, it consists of several sections.
Extension
This involves officers from the Ministry visiting the farmers to demonstrate and instruct
.hern on methods of increasing the production of crops and animals.
Training
This involves short courses given to farmers through extension workers, who interact
. 'ith farmers.
Research
-:his section aims at improving agriculture productivity through finding out the ways that
. 'ork and encouraging farmers to adopt them. Zambia has several provincial research
centres and the central station has been moved from Mount Makulu to Golden Valley
research station on the way to Kabwe.
arketing
The main functions are marketing supervision, advice and research. It also advises on
j
J demand for requisites, inputs and supply of produce from farmers.
In the Third Republic the Food Reserve Agency and other organisations such as private
.:c mpanies buy produce from farmers.
In the liberalised economy, individuals and private companies provide services that some
i:> vernment departments and agencies can provide. These can buy agricultural produce or
.c] agricultural inputs in the local area.
f Exercise L...___ J
How can the following assist farmers:
• banks
• extension
• marketing.
Discuss how reaserch lead to the dveiopment of agriculture.
ypes of farmers
Tl e building of the rail line some years ago from Livingstone to the Copperbelt facilitated
e movement of people from other countries into Zambia. Most of these people worked
- mines while others started farming along the 'line of rail'. Some of those people brought
te
;}L_.J.., them tractors, ploughs, planters and many others. These enabled them to cultivate
~""geareas ofland. In addition, they introduced new crops in Zambia. These people helped
lay the foundation for Zambia's agricultural development.
ctivity J.5
In groups of five, list the types of farmers found in Zambia.
2. Discuss types of farmers that can be found in Zambia.
There are three main types of farmers in Zambia. These are subsistence farmers, small-scale
farmers and the commercial farmers.
Subsistence farmer
This type of farmer has a small piece of farm. The farmer's main focus is to grow food
enough to feed themselves and their families. This type of farmer is the most common in
Zambia. The farmer grows crops primarily for domestic consumption. However, the farmer
may occasionally sell some produce. Subsistence farmers are found all over the country,
especially in rural areas.
Small-scale farmer
This type of farmer grows crops to be used by family and the rest is sold to generate
income. The farmer mainly relies on labour supplemented in some cases by draft power
_) and tractor hiring. This type of farmer produces more than half the agricultural produce
in the country. In addition, the farmer uses improved seed and substantial quantities of
fertiliser and pesticides.
Commercial farmer
The commercial farmer uses a large-scale of land for the production of plants for sale
and they are distributed widely. The farmer relies on permanently hired labour and draft
power. In addition, she/he uses machines and high technology inputs. The farmer markets
practically all the produce. The commercial farmer may cultivate maize, soya beans, irrigated
wheat, seed crops or horticultural crops. In addition, the farmer may keep beef and dairy
cattle.
The commercial farmers are
found on the plateau areas and
some other parts of the country,
for example, Eastern and Western
provinces. The map of Zambia
alongside shows some places
where some commercial farmers
can be found in Zambia.
The following are some of the
reasons why most commercial Suitable for maize growing
farming takes place along the line D Unsuitable for maize growing
of rail. The areas are:

• where it is easy to transport
Fig. 1.5 Map of areas that may not be suitable
market produce and acquire
for growing maize in Zambia
inputs
• in the region of the country with most fertile soils
• where rainfall is adequate and the climate is cooler (favourable for both crops and
livestock production)
• relatively free from tsetse flies,
Exercise L...____ __.J

Name the three types of farmers found in Zambia.
'1 Describe who a small-scale farmer is.
Continuous assessment L...__ J

What are the benefits of practising agriculture?
Which of the following are the main agricultural activities in Zambia?
a) Employment and income. c) Economy and crop production.
b) Food security and dairy farming. d) Ranching and bee keeping,
_) State whether true or false
f (i) True/false - Research influences the development of agriculture in Zambia.
(Ii) True/false - Transportation does not influence the development of agriculture
Zambia.
(iii) True/false - Food security influences the development of agricultural in
C'
Zambia.
i
Describe a commercial farmer.
Explain why most commercial farming takes place along the of railway line.
SOIL SCIENCE
Specific learning outcomes 'l..___---J
By the end of the unit, you must be able to:
i) explain the meaning of the term soil and describe the factors that are involved in soil
formation
ii) demonstrate the composition of soil and explain the importance of soil
components
iii) identify and explain the soil profiles
iv) identify different types of soils and demonstrate water retention of different soils
v) explain the differences between manure and fertilisers
vi) distinguish between straight and compound fertilisers
vii) classify fertilizers according to their period of application
viii) interpret the composition of fertilizers using the information on their containers
ix) determine quantities of fertilisers required by a crop given various crops
x explain the advantages and disadvantages of manure and chemical fertilisers.
Definition of soil
il is a medium for plant growth and supplies the gro\\ing plants with essential elements.
It is orne for soil living organisms. The animals range from microscopic ones to
bigger anim
Agric turai s . is me loose layer of materials covering the earth's crust which supplies
anchorage an . nutrients 0 oth plants and crops.
It is believed that millions or year- ago the earth consisted of bare rock. Where did the
bare rock go? What happ ene to the bare rock?
Soil formation
Activity 2. r Experiment
1. Collect various samples of rocks.
Strongly heat the rocks one at a time.
., Pour cold water on each heated rock and observe. What happens? Why? Write down
:J.
your observation.
Soil comes from rocks. It is formed by the process of weathering. Weathering is a
combination of breaking up of rocks and building up of elements to form soil. In other
words, weathering is the process by which the parent materials change to soil. It makes
physical and chemical changes to soil. It is caused by factors responsible for breaking up
of rocks and these include water, plants, wind, animals and changes in temperature.
Water usually collects in cracks in rocks after it has rained. It freezes when it is very
cold. When water freezes it expands about nine times its original volume. The expansion of
J water in the rock cracks causes rocks to develop cracks and later break. The broken pieces
of rock are further acted upon by weathering agents.
When it rains, water hits rocks with great force. This causes some rock particles to break
from the main rock. These particles may be carried by flowing water. As they are carried
away they hit against each other and other rocks and break into smaller particles in the
process. In addition, they may remove rock particles from the rocks they rub against.
Wind blows from a region of high pressure to a region oflow pressure. As wind blows,
it carries away small particles of rock with it. The particles rub against the rocks they come
into contact with and this may cause some particles of rocks to break from the main rock.
.-\whirl wind is so strong that it can lift some rocks from one place to another. As the rocks
rall in their new places they break into smaller pieces.
Animals walk on rocks and as they step on them they exert pressure which breaks them.
This makes rocks in some cases to develop cracks or break into tiny pieces.
Changes in temperature affects rocks. When the temperature rises, the rock, though a
?Oor conductor of heat, expands slightly. When temperature falls suddenly, the outside
art of the rock contracts while the inside is still expanded. This causes the rock to develop
cracks and later the surface layer peels off. Rocks contain minerals. Some minerals contained
cr. rocks expand and contract at different rates causing the rock to develop cracks and later
reak into pieces. This leads to the formation of soil.
Exercise L'---__ ___,j

List five factors responsible for breaking up of rocks.
Explain how water breaks up rocks.
Composition of soil
ie materials that make up soil are called components or constituents of soil. These can
~ .dentified by carrying out an experiment.
tivity 2.2 Experiment
Collect a soil sample from a garden.
Put the soil in a transparent container.
Ell the transparent container holdmg soil with water unt\l it is three q_uarters full.
Thoroughly mix the soil with water by stirring.
5. When the contents of the container are thoroughly mixed, allow them to settle and
observe.
6. Write down what you have observed.
Sand particles
Silt rticles
CI
Pore ces
Fig. 2.1 Inorganic particles of soil

This experiment has showed us that soil consists of 45% of mineral matter. Soilalso consists
of other substances that we have to find out by carrying out further experiments.
We see a lot of organisms in some soils. These organisms need air to respire. How can
we find out if soil contains air?
Activity 2.3 Experiment
1. Collect a sample of soil from the garden.
2. Pour SOml of water in a graduated clear container and 50mi of garden soil and
ob erve.
3. \ nat happens? What is the total mixture? Is it lOOml?
4. What i the percentage of air in the oil?
Air is irn rtant in the soil, oil organisms need air for respiration. Air in the soil varies
depending on me season or type or "oil. In the dry season, most types of soil are dry and
they contain a lot of air. In the rain' season, most of the soil is wet and does not contain
as much air as when they are dry.
1. Collect a sample of soil from a garden (moist soil).
2. Collect another sample of soil from the garden and heat strongly then let it cool.
3. Find two pieces of cloth with very fine pores.
4. Collect some strings and rubber bands.
5. Pour equal amounts oflime water (about 2cm3) in each combustion tube.
6. Tie the pieces of cloth with strings as shown in the diagram.
d Cover the mouths of the test tubes with rubber bands as shown in the diagram. Wait
for a day or so. Lime water is used to test for the presence of living organisms. During
respiration microorganisms release carbon dioxide which causes a white precipitate in
clear lime water. What is your observation?
irferent types of soil have different sizes of pore spaces. This results in some soils having
ore air than others. However, the average amount of air in a sample of soil is 25%.
~e need to find out if there are living organisms in the soil.
After some time has passed it is usually noticed that the combustion tube with trongly
eared soil does not show a white precipitate, the lime water remains clear showing that
carbon dioxide has been released in it.
The lime water in the combustion tube with fresh soil turns milky showing that living
rganisms are present in the soil because they release carbon dioxide, which turns the clear
me water into a white precipitate .
.-\ compost heap can be worked on by microorganisms to convert it into humus in the soil.
~ imus in the soil is derived from the decayed tissues of plants and animals. Materials
ch as urine can be broken down by microorganisms (very small living organisms) to
:-:;"Lducenitrates. When the plants and animals die, microorganisms break them down
ecay) and nutrients are released in the soil for use by growing crops. Some organisms
ch as earthworms move humus down in the soil.
11
Collect a small quantity of dry soil (lOOg).
Put the dry soil sample in the tin and heat strongly, while stirring occasionally.
Continue doing this until smoke is seen and the soil changes colour. Write down your
d
observation. Are there any changes in colour as the soil as it is heated?
After all the organic matter (humus) has been burnt, cool and weigh the soil.
Subtract the mass of the heated soil from that of the dry soil. What is the difference
between the mass of dry fresh soil and that of burnt soil? What is your conclusion?
'1
Fig. 2.2 Compost heap
Soil also contains air. This can be determined by performing the experiment below.

1. Collect a sample of soil from the garden (25g).
2. Find a source of heat, watch glass, tripod stand, wire gauze and desiccators.
3. Gently heat the soil. Keep stirring and then cool in desiccators.
4. Weigh it when it cools. Keep doing this until the mass is constant. The soil should not
be hot. What is the percentage of water that was in the soil? Do different soils hold
different amounts of water? \\l1y!
Water is important in the soil. It gets in the
soil through rain water or irrigation.
There are different types of soil so they hold
different amounts of water. We shall find out
more about this later in the course. However,
the average amount of water that can be held
by any type of soil is 25%.
We now know what soil constituents are.
In any sample of soil there are also mineral
salts. Soil is composed of inorganic particles
or mineral matter such as gravel, sand, silt
and clay. It also contains mineral salts, water,
living organisms, air and humus.
Fig. 2.3 Soil components

Importance of soil components
Mineral matter
Mineral matter in the soil can come from rocks with minerals. The type of mineral nutrients
a soil type has depends mostly on how rich in minerals the parent rocks were.
Activity 2.7
1. Identify the components of soil in a group discussion.
2. Discuss why soil components are important.
The fine and medium textured soils, such as the clays, clay loams, silty clay loams and sandy
silt loams are generally more desirable because of their superior retention of nutrients and
water. On the other hand, where high rates of infiltration and good drainage are required
. such as areas where irrigation is practised - sandy or coarse-textured soils are preferred.
Mineral salts are needed by plants in varying amounts and for various purposes.
Air
Air in the soil is important for the respiration of the living organisms. If air is inadequate
In the soils, some plant roots may die, resulting in inadequate water and nutrients uptake
by plants. The plants will then wilt with their leaves turning yellow. Adventitious roots may
also develop at the base of the stems in some plants.
On the other hand, when there is adequate air in the soil, microorganisms work on
organic matter to produce humus and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur
that are released in the soil to help growing plants.
Nater
. 'hen water in the soil is not adequate, plants show symptoms of wilting, yellowing of
.eaves and stunted growth.
Living organisms
Lring organisms such as some bacteria and fungi are important in the soil. The big organism-
make holes as they pass through the soil, thereby aerating it. Most microorganisms cause
"-e decomposition of organic matter into humus. As they decompose the organic matter
~ey cause the release of nutrients that might have been locked up in the organic matter
~ r use by plants.
Raw organic matter is the freshly ploughed in material and it helps to aerate soils,
.pecially, clay soils. It also helps drainage and allows water to run through the soil. Since
-15 raw organic matter, it encourages the activity of microorganisms while also providing
-:x d for them. The microorganisms use the dead plant materials in the soil for food and
.~- produce carbon dioxide, water and energy which they use for their growth and
""-=production. Large amounts of nutrients are released into the soil from these materials
- thev are converted into humus.
Humus
Humus is a complex mixture of very fine organic material formed from organisms which
once lived in the soil. It is no longer recognised as plant or animal material as it consists
of very fine particles that are thoroughly mixed with the mineral particles of the soil. It is
dark in colour and contains carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potassium and phosphate. Humus
is mainly found in the topsoil and rarely in the subsoil. Humus helps soil to retain air, water
and nutrients. It also helps to improve the structure of the soil and the heat-absorbing
capacity.
Exercise L._____ ___,J

1. Which of the following is derived from rocks?
a) Mineral matter b) Living organisms c) Humus
2. Which of the following is derived from living things?
a) Air b) Humus
c) Mineral matter d) Bacteria
3. Which of the following are constituents of soil?
a) Humus and living organisms b) Inorganic particles and fungus
c) Particles and air d) Worms and humus
4. List six components of soil.
5. State the importance of each of the following in the soil:
a) living organisms b) humus.
Soil profile
When you dig a pit, what do you see on its sides? What do we call the vertical section of
the pit? What does a road cutting through hills reveal?
ActiYity 2.8 Prepare a soil profile.
1. Find a suitable place in the garden.
• Dig a pit of about Srn deep. • Examine the sides of the pit.
• Measure the ide of the pit. • Measure the depth of each layer .
2. Write down your observation. Draw the oil profile and compare it with the illustration
of a typical soil profile on this page.
A soil profile is a transverse or vertical section of soil from the surface down to the parent
rock. A soil profile is made up of horizontal layers. The number oflayers vary, but in general
there are at least three, each of which is called a horizon.
O-horizon is characterised by organic matter. It may also contain leaves and stem litters/
twigs and this is common in forests. It is also referred to as the organic horizon .
- - - ,. .
A-horizon contains partly decayed
plant materials and humus that make
'1
soil dark. The A-horizon includes roots
S
of plants growing on the soil. It has plenty
of nutrients. It is called the topsoil. This
S
horizon usually contains loam soil and it
.r
!
is not very deep.
.r
::> B< B-horizon contains either sand or
clay. The colour of this horizon varies
J ,
in profiles of different places. Its colour
depends on the nature of the parent
c-' material and the amount of organic
matter present. However, it is usually
lighter in colour than the A-horizon. This
R .•.
(Bedrock) horizon is deeper than the A-horizon. It
is also called the subsoil and its lower part
Fig. 2.5 Typical soil profile
L made up of small pieces of rock from the rock beneath. Some nutrients that are carried
v water (leached) from the top layer are deposited in the B-horizon.
C-horizon is the parent rock. Most of the soil in the A and B- horizons was formed from
the parent rock through a process called weathering.
R-horizon consists of solid rock. This is the rock that has not undergone the weathering
rrocess.
\'II e need to understand that soil profiles are not universal. A hilly area subjected to
aeavy erosion may have a few millimetres of topsoil. It is common on such an area to see
cks outcropping over a large area. However, some soils might have very deep topsoil,
• r example, dambos or wetlands common in Zambia.
mportance of layers of a soil profile

. ils can be classified mainly by the kind of profile they have, for example, well drained,
moderately drained and poorly drained.
Activity 2.9
Form groups of five and identify the layers of a soil profile.
Discuss the importance of A-horizon, B-horizon and C-horizon to crop
production.
Report your findings in a class discussion.
The topsoil is usually more fertile because of weathering and cultivation operations. It
also usually better aerated and has more active soil organisms.
soi; is usually more compact and less aerated than the topsoil. An impermeable layer
ar pan) may be found in some layers of the subsoil. The hard pan impedes drainage
and resists root penetration. It needs to be broken down by cultivation to facilitate water
percolation as well as root growth.
The parent material is the bedrock from which the soil came from. It is still intact and
unweathered.
It is important to study soil profile for the following reasons.
• A farmer can know how suitable a soil is for agricultural purposes. The thicker the
topsoil, the more nutrients the soil has for crop production.
• The subsoil should not be compact to allow easy penetration of roots and also for good
drainage and aeration.
• The farmer can tell how seriously eroded his/her soil is and take measures to correct
and prevent further erosion.
Choice of crop in relation to soil layers

Crops have different types of roots. Some crops have shallow root systems while others
have deep root systems. Crops with shallow root systems can grow in shallow soil layers.
For example, crops with fibrous root systems such as maize and rice can grow in shallow
soil layers.
Crops with tap root systems such as oranges, guavas and other citrus fruits grow better in
deep soil layers as they absorb nutrients that are deeper in the soil.
Exercise L J
1. Draw a fully labelled diagram of a typical soil profile.
') Explain why it is important to study the soil profiles of your field.
Soil texture
Every fanner is aware that a soil can be 'light' or 'heavy' when ploughing or hoeing. Some
soils are eas:.' to cultivate while others are difficult. What makes soil 'light' or 'heavy' to
cultivate?
Activity 2. J 0
1. In your groups, discus' what soil texture is.
2. Record your findings in your notebooks.
Soil texture depends on the proportion of different sizes of mineral particles present in the
soil. Soil that contains a lot of sand will have a loose feel to it while soil with a lot of clay
will feel sticky. Texture is the property used to classify soil types.
Activity 2. J J
1. Investigate the texture of different soils in groups of five.
2. Collect samples of soil from different places.
3. Mark the samples 1,2 and 3.
4. Put some soil from sample 1 in your palm. Mix the sample with a little water.
5. Place a little of the mixture between your thumb and one of the fingers and rub the
finger and thumb. Write your observation.
Name of particle Size of particle in diameter

Coarse sand 0.50 - 1.00 mm
Fine sand 0.10 - 0.25 mm
Silt 0.002 - 0.05 mm
Clay Lessthan 0.002 mm
Table 2.1 $oil texture
Types of soil
Soil texture can be said to be the proportion of sand, silt and clay in a sample of soil.
The type of soil found in a field or garden can be identified by feeling a sample of it.
I What to look for Inference
Gritty (greater than 70% sand) (less than 20% clay) Sand
Granular material (Fine bits of clay and sand) Silt
Smooth, sticky, moulds into shapes, shines (greater than 40% clay less than
Clay
40% sand)
No one particular particle is dominant (40·70% sand) (20·40% clay) loam
Table 2.2 Types of soil

-=nereare many types of soil. The most common are sand, silt, clay, loam, sandy loam.
andy clay, silt clay, clay loam, silt clay loam, silt loam, sand silt loam, loamy sand and
andy clay loam.
Drainage, capillarity and aeration
Drainage
the amount of water the same indifferent soils? What happens to water in the soil?
Activity 2. J 2 Experiment
1. Collect two samples of soil (clay and sand) of the same mass.
Plug two necks of two funnels with cotton wool of the same mass.
3. Put one sample of dry soil in each funnel (three quarters).
4. Place a transparent container under each funnel.
5. Carefully add equal amounts of water to each sample of soil at the same time. Note
the time the water starts draining in each soil and when it stops. Write down your
observation.
DEPTH
INCHES,..... •.•..•.••...
Fig. 2.6 Drainage of soils

The amount of water in the soil varies depending on climate.
Is there a difference between the rates of drainage of the two types of soil? Why?
Remember what you learnt about soil particles. We should consider that the spaces between
the mineral particles are of various sizes and shapes. The larger pores easily drain water
while smaller pores hold water for a longer time. The size of pores in soil indicate whether
soil will drain easily or hold (retain) water or moisture for a longer time.
In some soils, the size and amount of the stones cannot be ignored as they can have an
influence on the suitability of the soil for agriculture. It is a well known fact that as the stone
content increases, the soil will hold less water than stoneless soil of the same fine texture,
making crops susceptible to drought. On the other hand, the drainage of such soil may be
better under wet conditions.
The fine and medium textured types of soils such as the clays, clay loams, silty clay loams
and sandy silt loams are generally more desirable because of their superior retention of
nutrients and water. However, where high infiltration and good drainage are needed, sandy
or coar e-textured soils are preferred.
Capillarity
Does water move up in soils at the same rate? //," ZAMIj,~'O 1
~~)fipY;C
Activity 2. J 3 Experiment
1. Collect a sample of dry sandy soil.
~~~f-7~~;T~~~ERAL
~~ l ., J .;;., 1.016
2. Collect a sample of powdered clay (dry).
. '"
fl 0 D
•• .NATURAL scrssc
t·
3. Collect two long glass tubes. j l')Or.~ ~oy.S
SECONDARY SC~t
4. Fill the two glass tubes with the two sampreg'bI~ttP~~~metres from the
top.
5. Plug the bottom of the two glass tubes before filling them with the samples of soil.
6. Place the glass tubes with samples of soil into a basin containing water.
7. Observe what happens. Write down your observation.
It":' F
i--
I " i
Fig. 2.7 Capillarity of sand and clay
The rate at which water rises in soil depends on the size of the soil particles and the size of
the spaces or pores between them. When water enters the pores of clay by capillarity the
- ·ater rises higher than in sand soil because the holes are very small.
Aeration
r
_·\lrin soils usually occupies the moisture-free or water-free spaces in the pores.
Is the composition of air in the soil different from the atmospheric air? What can you
- -. about the information in this table?
'1
e Percentage of gases
Gas
Soil air Atmospheric air
rygen 20.3 21.0
I ·rogen 70.0 79.0

's
[:::rbon dioxide 0.5 0.03
Table 2.3 $oil air and atmospheric air

There is a difference between soil air and atmospheric air. The difference is that the carbon
dioxide content of soil air is much higher than in the atmospheric air. This is so because there
are many living organisms in soil that produce carbon dioxide. If the pore space was freely
open to the atmospheric gases, the presence of gases will tend to even out. If the amount
of carbon dioxide gets too high, say about 10%, roots of crops will be damaged and might
die. In well-aerated soil there is an easy escape for this carbon dioxide as well as entry of
oxygen. This can be facilitated by improving soil structure to make it better aerated.
Soil infertility
There are many ways soil becomes infertile. Some of these are exhaustion of nutrients by
crops, erosion by wind and running water, leaching and so on.
We all know that for crops to grow well they need nutrients, which they obtain from the
soil. When ready crops are harvested for eating or other uses, the soil loses some nutrients.
Small amounts of nutrients are removed from soil as crops are grown over and over and
as time passes, the original store of the nutrients is exhausted.
Nutrients dissolve in water. As the water percolates the soil, it carries the nutrients deeper
J
in the soil. Plant roots may not reach the depth where the nutrients are deposited and they
become unhealthy and less productive. The process in which such nutrients are carried deep
into the soil is called leaching. Leaching is high in high rainfall areas and sand soils.
Burning vegetation also causes loss of some nutrients in gaseous form. In addition,
organic matter that absorbs many nutrients is destroyed. Furthermore, nutrients left in
the ashes are easily carried away by running water.
Runoff water
Rain water tends to flow on the surface of soil in areas that are overgrazed or deforested.
This runoff water removes the top fertile soil leaving the soil bare and poor for growing
crops.
Wind blows and carries the topsoil from areas that have been left bare. This reduces
the fertility of the soil.
Exercise 1."--- J
1. The proportion of sand, silt and clay in a sample of soil is called
a) Soil structure b) Soil texture
c) Loam d) Soil nutrients
2. Which soil has its soil fractions 0.2 - 0.02 mm in diameter?
a) Silt b) Clay
c) Sand d) Loam
3. In which of the following soils is capillarity of water lowest?
a) Clay b) Silt
Loam d) Sand
How does crop removal (harvesting) reduce fertility?
Outline experiment you would use to find out drainage rates of different soils.
Explain how the following would help to reduce the fertility of soil in a field.
Run off water
ii) Wind
iii) Clearing fields by burning vegetation
anures and fertilisers

~_good soil is alive - it contains millions ofliving organisms, many of which are too small
'Y be seen by the unaided eye. This vast population of organisms is vital to the soil. The e
re the materials that make up soil. In the process of using materials that make up the soil
'e - r their food, the organisms produces chemical and physical changes in the soil that are
s, ecessary for crop growth. To support this vast population ofliving organisms, the presence
d ; decayed and decaying organic matter in sufficient quantity is essential.
Activity 2. r 4
;r
J _v
In your groups, list the types of manures.
Discuss different types of manure and effects of manure on soil.
p
Report your findings in a class discussion .
. Ianure is plant matter that has decomposed. This can be in the form of dung from
1,
--estock, vegetable matter that is rotting in a compost heap or vegetable matter that has
'1
ceen ploughed into the soil while still green.
Manure contains large amounts of organic matter and reasonable amounts of nutrients.
_Ianure is important because it:
J • improves the structure of soil
• increases the ability of the soil to absorb and retain water
• reduces surface runoff water
:5 • supports soil organisms .
There are many types of manure, some of them are shown on the table below with their
-arious element levels.
J ~e_o_f_man_u=-r_e __ --+I Name of element ;.:;dits LP_e_rc_e_n_t_a"'9!!..,e _
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
- --
Rabbit manure 2.4
-
1.4
-
0.6
-
>- -- -- -
2. Chicken manure 1.1 0.8 I 0.5
___. 0.1
>-
3. Sheep manure 0.7 0.3

----
t.. Duck manure (fresh) 1.1 1.4
--
0.5 I
5. !cattle manure 0.6 0.2 0.5
6. I Pig manure 0.5 0.3 0.5 ~ 1
Table 2 4 Some type of manure
Ianure contains more than three nutrients. It contains nearly all the nutrients required
by a crop to grow.
The breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms produces acids such as carbonic
acid and sulphuric acid that may result in the soil becoming acidic, especially, if too
much manure were applied to the field. Very low soil pH has a negative effect on some
microorganisms and may kill them.
On the other hand, runoff water may carry manure away to a water source (river). If
very large amounts of manure accumulate in water sources, it may cause de-oxygenation
of the sources and some aquatic organisms may die.
A fertiliser is an artificial chemical containing nutrients in concentrated amounts with
little or no organic matter. In addition, a fertiliser contains conditioners that serve as
separating agents for particles and coating agents for granules. These help to control the
supply of nutrients and to reduce leaching and seed injury.
Activity 2. J 5
l. Form groups of five.
2. Discuss basal dressing fertilisers and straight or simple fertilisers.
3. Record your findings in your notebooks and report the findings in a class
discussion.
Fertilisers can be divided into two groups: straight and compound fertilisers. A straight
fertiliser is one that contains only one major crop nutrient. For example urea, ammonium
nitrate, phosphorus etc. On the other hand, compound fertiliser is one that contains more
an one major plant nutrient. Some compound fertilisers are listed in the table below.
Name of nutrient and content

Compound
fertilisers Of I
%P %K %S %B
0
1. C--_::;.."':: - 2 18 15 10 0.1
Cc'C:rx:--..:-r:: C 6 18 12 10 0.1
2.
3. Compound X 20 10 5 10 -
Compo, c V 6 18 12 10 0.1
4.
20 0 10 -
5. Compound R 20
Table 2.6 Some compound fertilisers
In most cases, bags of fertilisers have percentages of nutrients printed on them, for example,
34% indicates that there is 34% nitrogen in the bag and 10:20:10:5 indicates there is 10%
nitrogen, 20% phosphorus, 10% potassium and 5% sulphur in the fertiliser.
Fertiliser application
When should we apply fertilisers? Some fertilisers are applied to a crop that is already
c
growing. This is called top dressing. After applying the fertiliser, it is immediately covered.
o
with soil to reduce loss of nutrients through oxidation. Top dressing fertilisers should not
be broadcast since they may fall on the crop and scorch it.
If
Activity 2. J 6
11 1. In your groups, identify the different types of chemical fertilisers.
2. Discuss how chemical fertilisers are applied to crops.
3. Record your findings in your exercise books.
4. Discuss your findings in a class discussion.
On the other hand when fertiliser is applied in the field and the crop has not yet been sown or
planted, this is called basal dressing. Basal dressing fertilisers may be broadcast and worked
in the soil. This prevents the fertiliser from being washed away by water. Broadcasting is
_)
the spreading of fertiliser on top of the soil during or when crops are already growing.
However, application of some chemical fertilisers has a negative effect on soil. It is
55
estimated that acidification due to fertilisers may result in the loss of 15% of arable land
in the next 20 years in northern province. Although the use of nitrogen fertiliser increases
':1t biomass production that should increase soil organic matter, there are cases where
_:n continuous use of some nitrogen fertilisers destabilises the clay in the soil and enhances
re pan formation that impairs crop root growth while reducing nutrient exchange between
the soil and crops.
Determine quantities of fertiliser required by a crop given various ratios

\; e can determine the quantities of fertiliser (nutrients) required by a crop given various
ratios for various fertilisers and the recommended quantities of fertilizer.
The quantities of fertiliser required by a crop can be calculated using the following
torrnula.
Nutrient content x Total weight offertiliser
100
Example:
-le, Compound A: 2: 18:15

1% Compound C: 6: 18: 12
CompoundD: 10: 20: 10
Compound X: 20: 10: 5
culate the amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium if 500kgs of compound D
recommended per hectare are applied to a tomato garden?
11 e calculation can be as follows:
a) Nitrogen 10/100 x 500kg = 50kg
b) Phosphorous 20/100 x 500kg = 100kg
c) Potassium 10/100 x 500kg = 50 kg
Total nutrients = 200kg.
The total amount of nutrients does not add up to 500kg because the other materials are
filler materials that hold the nutrients and reduce scorching of plants by the fertilisers.
Advantages of manure
1. It improves the structure of the soil.
2. Increases the ability of the soil to absorb and retain more water or moisture.
3. Reduces runoff water.
4. Supports soil organisms.
5. Manure contains more than three nutrients. It contains nearly all the nutrients
required by a crop in appreciable amounts.
j Disadvantages of manure
1. Runoff water may carry manure applied to a field and into a source of water
such as a river thereby causing pollution.
2. If large amounts of manure accumulate in a water source, it may cause de-
oxygenation of the water and some living organisms in the water may die.
Advantages of fertilisers
1. Fertilisers contain conditioners that serve as separating agents for particles
and coating agents for granules. These help to control the supply of nutrients
and reduce leaching and seed injury.
Fertilisers release nutrients in the soil quickly. This way, nutrient deficiencies
can quickly be corrected.
Disadvantages of fertilisers
1. Fertilisers lead to acidification of the soil leading to loss of arable land.
2. Continuous use of soil destabilises the soil causing pan formation and this
impairs the growth of roots.
3. Excessive use of fertilisers reduces nutrient exchange between the soil and the
crops.
4. If acidic fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate or urea are applied in very large
quantities over a number of years in a field the soil becomes acidic.
:J. When too much lime is applied to the soil, the soil may become very alkaline.
Very high pH causes lack of some essential nutrients available to crops and it
encourages bacterial diseases on crops.
6. Inappropriate use of fertilisers has a negative effect on the environment such
as loss of plants or crops. This leads to food insufficiency.
ercise
List six ways of applying fertilisers.
Describe the following:
i) straight fertiliser
re u) compound fertiliser
iii) manure.
ntinuous assessment
Which of the following is a soil constituent?
a, Earthworm b) Oxygen
c' Living organisms d) Particles
Which of the following is an agent of soil erosion?
ts
a Wind b) Trees
.:: Millipedes d) Degrees
J In which soil horizon are you likely to find a hard pan?
a) C b) A
er
c 0 ~ B
In which soil horizon are you likely to find most nutrients?
e- a) C b) A
c) 0 d) B
Which of the following soils have particles of 0.1 - 0.25mm in diameter?
a) Gravel b) Fine sand
eS c) Clay d) Silt
ts In which of the following soils are you likely to lose most ground water in dry
season?
eS a) Loam b) Sand
c) Silt d) Clay
What percentage of humus does normal soil contain?
a) 45% b) 25%
c) 5% d) 50%
IS
Which of the following helps to decompose plant material in the soil?
,-
a) Macroorganisms b) Microorganisms
c) Earthworms d) Bacteria
le
Which of the following is a straight fertiliser?
a) Compound D b) Urea
c;e
c) Compound X d) Compound A
What is a compound fertiliser?
e. Why is compound D called a compound fertiliser?
it Why is urea called a top dressing fertiliser?
.h
CROP PRODUCTION
Specific learning outcomes L..... ___.J
i) classify vegetables according to groups and list factors that make a site suitable for
vegetable growing
ii) explain the importance of factors that make a site suitable for vegetable growing
iii) choose a suitable site for vegetable growing and draw a simple plan for vegetable
growing
) explain the importance of vegetable rotation and demonstrate how to prepare plots
iv)
and seedbeds for vegetable growing
v) calculate and apply recommended quantities of manure and fertilisers for a particular
vegetable
vi) demonstrate how to sow seeds correctly and how to transplant seedlings correctly
vii) explain the importance of weed control and describe the various methods of weed
control
identify the safety rules to observe when applying chemicals in the garden and explain
the effect of herbicide: on the environment
IX escribe a pest and identify pests in relations to crops they attack
x exp am 'a - in rhich pe-t- cause harm to crops and demonstrate correct methods
of contro ing named pests in crops grown
xi) describe natural pest control methods and demonstrate the correct mixing and
application of pesticides
xii) explain safety rules when storing pesticides and explain the effects of prolonged use
and excess pesticides on the environment
xiii) identify the symptoms of diseases on crops and the crops attacked by those
diseases
xiv) explain methods of preventing disease attack on the crops and demonstrate harvesting
and preparation of vegetables for marketing
xv describe the pricing of vegetables grown and calculate the profit or loss
~ describe the correct storage of vegetables.
Classification of vegetables
Vegetables can be grouped into many classes depending on the system of classification
adopted.
Irrespective of the system used, each group will normally have certain factors in
common.
Activity 3. J
J 1.
')
Form small groups of five.
In your groups discuss why it is important to know and understand the various kinds
of vegetables.
)r
3. Record and report your findings in class.
Vegetable groups
It is important to know and understand the various groups of vegetables because the
requirements for growing one vegetable in a given group will in most cases be applicable
) to the other members of the group. Classification:
• tells us the relationship between certain vegetables
ar enables the vegetable growers to forecast the susceptibility of vegetables in the same
•
family to disease and insect pests
• indicates the climate requirements of the vegetables in a given group.
ed Vegetables can be classified according to their botanical relationships, temperature
requirements, time it takes the crop to complete its lifecycle or part of the vegetable
ain eaten
In our study, vegetables will be grouped into the following classes.
Group Vegetables
I" . Cucurbit vegetables Cucumber, pumpkins, marrows, watermelons
md -- Leafy vegetables Cabbages, chomollier, kale, lettuce, oilseed rape
- Legume vegetables
~ Beans, peas
Root vegetables Beetroot, carrots, radishes, turnips

1-
~ egg plant, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes

Jse - Solanaceous vegetables
:. ''''iscellaneous vegetables Celery, leaks, onions
ing
Table 3.1 Classes of vegetables
egetable classification can also be done within a type of vegetable such as cabbage. This
.~"1icular emphasis must be laid on choosing a suitable variety for growing in certain
-=.ditions. It is useless just to buy, say tomatoes, when there are hundreds of varieties
most of which will not give good yields in your area. It is important to get a variety that
can do well in your area.
Exercise l'--_--J
1. List six groups of vegetables.
2. Why is it important to know various groups of vegetables?
Cr('losing a garden site

A garden can be said to be a piece ofland usually around or at the side of a house that may
be planted with flowers, fruits, and vegetables. What makes a place suitable for a garden?
Activity 3.2
Form groups of five and list the factors that make a site suitable for vegetable
growing.
Discuss factors that make a site suitable for vegetable growing.
Draw a plan of a garden and what to plant in a garden.
Indicate what to plant in the garden.
Discuss your findings in a class discussion.
It is important that a garden is in a suitable place where it would be easy to work on it.
The garden site should be:
near the home - so that it is easy to protect and cultivate it
• near a source of water - during the dry season, vegetables will need extra water (they
should be grown near a stream, lake or piped water)
• on deep fertile soil - a site with loam soil should be used, this is the best soil for most
\'egetables
• fenced - this helps to keep out livestock
• where there are no big trees - these may use up nutrients needed by vegetables
• on flat land or slightly sloping to the east - this will enable vegetables to receive early
morning sunshine.
Planning is important if vegetable growing is to be successful. It is important that we
make careful plans before starting.
A plan for a garden should first be on paper. The plan should have paths,
composition areas, nursery areas, north and south drawn. Each type of vegetable placed
in order of importance to facilitate crop rotation.
What to consider when planning a garden:
market value of each vegetable
• demand for each vegetable
• suitability of each vegetable to the soil
• suitability of each vegetable to climate
.t • nutritional value of each vegetable
• portion of the garden to grow food for the farmer's family .
J ) ) ) J ) ) )
')) ) )
) ) ) ')) ) )
) ) ) ») ))
1 Cabb.Jg@ 9 Gref"n eeens
rs onsoos
.y
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) ) )
))}
••
••
I
f r
f r
r r r r
,( r r
t
r
f
f
," '"" ,••

4 teuuce 32 Green Onion)
I srccccn 9 Green Beans
-le 1 1t 1
1 11 1
"" ••
1 11 1
) ~
'" l l 1 1
,
a teuuce te cencu
1 Cauliflower 16 Beers
.,. .,.. , '"

'f'f~T1 lT l1 'l'* t
••••
·
. . ··
,
•••• •••• ••••
t t
••••
-''f'f 1111 •••• •••• ••••
, Chert Tomato
~'f" 1 1l
16C4rrou
t
. .,-
••••
·
••••
Fig. 3.1 Plan for a garden
Importance of vegetable rotation
5t .. egetable rotation is important in the following ways.

It helps to control diseases and pests since vegetables of different classes are alternated
and attacked by different diseases and pests.
Leguminous vegetables that help to improve soil fertility are included in the
·ly rotation.
Less demanding vegetables are alternated with high demanding vegetables. This way
both groups of vegetables benefit from the nutrients available in the soils.
Vegetables that utilise nutrients from different soil levels are alternated. This helps to
economically utilise nutrients available in the soil.
j
Weeds are controlled because vegetables that suppress weeds due to their growth
habits are alternated with those that are not weed suppressors.
portance of a legume in vegetable rotation

_-. egume vegetable included in a rotation helps to improve soil fertility. A legume plant has
_ dules on its roots in which are found bacteria (rhizobium bacteria) that fix nitrogen in
_~ form of nitrates in the nodules. Nitrates are released into the soil. When the legume is
:: oved, the nodules with their nitrates remain in the soil, hence replenishing the soil.
Exercise L J
six factors that make a site suitable for growing vegetables.
'hat should a garden plan have?
Seedbed preparation
After a site for a garden is found, it should be cleared of bushes and trees. It is important
that the site is fenced to prevent animals destroying the garden. Which type of bed can
you make in a garden?
Activity 3.3
1. In groups of five, discuss how to prepare a site for a garden.
2. Identify and describe the types of beds.
3. Record your findings.
Bed preparation in the garden

After a garden site is cleared and fenced it should be dug up or ploughed. After this the
beds can be prepared.
There are three main types of vegetable beds and these are:
• flat beds
• raised beds
• sunken beds
Flat beds
If the soil where vegetables are to be
grown i well drained, vegetables can be
grown on t1at beds. Some vegetables can
be grown on a flat bed in a large area.
These include tomatoes, cucumbers,
gourds, pumpkins and watermelons.
Legume vegetables such as peas and
beans can also be grown on flat or raised
beds.
\ Vhen vegetables are grown on flat
- the land is ploughed or dug. The
- =- : :..: clods are broken to make the
Fig. 3.2 Flat bed
~ ready.
J Raised beds
These types of beds are
common in high rainfall
areas, however they are
also used in some low
rainfall areas as well.
-it Leafy vegetables such
as cabbages, lettuce,
rape, spinach and kales
that need a lot of water.
At the same time they
need well drained soils
and so they do well on
raised beds.
Raised beds are Fig. 3.3 A raised bed
)
made in such a way
that they are higher than the ground around them. This is done to improve drainage. It
ensures that vegetables are not flooded with water. The beds have their edges raised higher
than the rest of the bed. The rest of the bed may be raised as high as 10-20cm above the
surrounding ground. The beds should be 1m wide but can be made to any length. Paths
between beds can be made into channels for water. This can be done by putting soil from
the paths on the beds. The paths should be about 30cm wide. Channels can help to carry
excess water away from the garden. Soil erosion is reduced as the speed of water is broken
by the channels built across.
Sunken beds
These types ofbeds are used
.n places where rainfall is
ow and soil moisture
need to be conserved.
The beds in this case are
sank to a depth of 7cm to
I-cm below the paths or
surrounding grounds. The
dimensions of the beds
may be smaller or can be
made the same with those
of raised beds.
Fig. 3.4 Sunken bed
ursery bed
T "hy use a nursery bed? Some vegetable seeds
are very small and need to be raised on a small
area for greater care and protection from the
heat of the sun and being washed away by
heavy rains. The small area on which they are
raised until they have developed into young
seedlings when they can be transplanted is
called a nursery bed.
What is a nursery bed? A nursery is where Fig 3.5 Drills in a nursery bed
seeds and young plants are raised and given
special care.
Adivity3.4
1. Discuss what a nursery bed is and discuss them in your groups.
)
2. Discuss how to determine an area suitable for a nursery and how to prepare it.
A site for a nursery should:

• have good loam soil • be where the soil is well cultivated
• have well drained soil • have a good supply of water
• be free from pests • be on level ground
• have a shade.
e of a nursery bed for our purpose should be 1m x 2m. It is usually better to make
~ r , This helps to control soil erosion.
- r repare the nursery bed, collect the dried plant materials and burn all of them
terilise the soil and destroy the seeds of weeds. Then water the bed and make
- ith your finger or a stick. This is after you have mixed manure and
- sphorus with soil in the bed.
Seed box
Insomec - ran be used instead of seedbeds for sowing vegetables whose seeds
are tender an r cc greater care than that provided on nursery beds. Seedlings of
such vegetable- are ~ - seed boxes with special soil mixtures and are transplanted to
their permanent plac _ ey are a few centimetres tall.
eed boxes are us ? - • under sheds to protect seedlings from the scorching sun
an attering rains.
11 e size of the seed box can ~.:m X -lOcm x 1Oem or 38cm x 22cm x Scm and it should
have some opening for drainage ~ - e bottom. The soil mixture for the box should be:
I. one part loam soil, one part fine sand and about 670g wood ash.
2. three parts topsoil, two parts compost/manure, one part fine sand and about
453g superphosphate.
" i
J Fig. 3.6 A seed box

Place the seed box in a partial shade, under trees, on a convenient veranda, or a nursery
shed,
- owing in a nursery bed or seed box (nursery) has the following advantages:
~tis easier to look after vegetables in a small area
• germination of some vegetables is so low that they cannot be sown directly
• seedlings are nt strong enough to push their roots down through ordinary soil
::
• sensitive seedlings can be exposed gradually to the full strength of the sun's rays
• there is a chance to reject weak or diseased vegetables before they are planted out in
the main garden
;.
::
• it is possible to grow vegetables in the main bed for a shorter time after
transplanting
1
• chances of seeds being washed away by water are reduced
• chances of some seeds being picked up by birds are reduced.
Exercise L._____ _..J

.- L List three types of beds used in Zambia.
/ In what circumstances would you prepare a raised bed for vegetables?
3. Why are some vegetables grown in nursery beds?
Explain when you can use a sunken bed?
Preparing compost manure
If farmyard manure is not available, a farmer can prepare compost. Various materials can
be used to make compost manure. However, fresh vegetation is better than dried vegetation
because it contains more nitrogen and decays faster.
Activity 3.5
1. Form small groups and discuss the process to follow when preparing compost
manure.
3. Your teacher will demonstrate how to make compost manure.
4. Practice preparing compost manure.
• Dig a trench 1m wide, 1m deep and 1m long.

• Put a 30cm thick layer of plant materials at the bottom.
• Sprinkle some water on the material making it moist. Do the same to the rest of the
J materials.
• Put a layer of soil or animal manure of about 10cm thick.
• Alternate plant material and soil until the materials reach a height of 1.Sm.
• Cover the top of the compost with about 1cm thick layer of soil or plastic. This is
intended to prevent smells escaping from the compost.
• Leave the layers of the compost loose to improve aeration.
• Push a strong stake into the centre of the compost.
Materials with a lot of nitrogen result in increased microorganisms and rapid
decomposition of the compost materials.
This is a result of a good supply of food for the microorganisms. Some of the materials
with a lot of nitrogen that can be added to the compost during preparation are poultry
manure, vegetable waste and nitrogen fertilisers.
Animal manure or topsoil included in a compost contains microorganisms that can
help to start the decaying process of the compost. Some farmers add special substances
that contain microorganisms to the compost.
A compost should be made near the garden and water supply. This makes it possible for
the finished materials to be carried to the garden and the unfinished compost to be kept
at the right moisture level.
Where can a compost be made?
It can be made in a bin, a box or in a trench. However, many farmers make their
composts in trenches. Trenches for compost making can be 1m wide, 1m to l.5m deep to
any length as required.
The composting process produces heat due to the respiration of microorganisms. After
a few days the temperatures of the compost should rise. The heat produced heats the stake
in the middle. When you touch the end of the stake it should fell warm. It may be necessary
at times to water the compost, especially, in dry season. The compost should be moist. If
can .t is too dry or wet, it will not produce heat and the process will have failed.
on It is necessary to turn the compost to speed up decomposition and produce a finished
compost in a short time. Turn the compost at intervals of 14 days and only when the stake
feels cold. When turning, materials that were outside should be put inside. If the compost
,5 well aerated, but is not producing heat as expected, add about 5kg of urea per 1m3 of the
ost
compost. This will help speed up decomposition in the heap.
After a second turning, the compost should be properly broken down, but it should not
be used until it is mature. During this time it should be ready for use in about six weeks.
At the second turning, it is dark and crumbly.
Manure and fertiliser application

.egetables obtain their nutrients from the air, water and soil. Carbon dioxide and some
oxygen are obtained from the air. On the other hand, hydrogen, some oxygen and possibly
some carbon are taken from the soil solutions. Vegetables such as legumes, which have
j
oacteria in their nodules obtain some of their nitrogen from the air. Other nutrients are
.aken from the soil by vegetables. Which materials are used to add plant nutrients to the
:-oil?
:5
Activity 3.6
Investigate the fertiliser you can apply to tomatoes, rape, chomollier, cabbages, onions,
beans and peas.
.:i Record your findings in your exercise books .
Report your findings in class.
_ lanures and fertilisers that can be applied to these vegetables are as follows:
Manure/fertiliser applications
1 Vegetable Basal
Top dressing Rate per hectare
dressina
Compound D
. 500kg
"ornotoes Farmyard
manure or - 50,OOOkg
compost
Potassium 90kg - apply every month, s c wnen

chloride fruits are 30cm in diorneter.
90kg - apply when ':'e, produce

Ammonium
the first flowers or 3 .veeks from
nitrate/ urea
transplanting.
Farm yard
'Irish manure or - 10,00- 20,000 kg
potatoes compost
- 800 -1 OOOkg
Compound D
Farm yard - 50,OOOkg
manure or - 800kg
Rape compost
Ammonium 300kg, apply three weeks from
Compound D nitrate/urea transplanting
50,OOOkg
Farm yard -
Chomollier 300kg, apply three weeks from
manure or Ammonium
(kales) tra nspla nting.
compost nitrate/urea
Farm yard
- 50,OOOkg
Cabbage manure
- 800kg
Compound D
) 300kg, apply in two installments
Ammonium When the crop is three weeks from

nitrate/urea tra nsplanti ng.
Three weeks after the first application
Compound D - 800kg
Onon
Ammonium 150kg, apply two weeks after
I nitrate/urea transplanting.
I
Compound D
- 300kg
Form yord
-c w e or - 110.000kg
oe-=- ...
_:::::-~::Cs:
- .......
..-0 ......
250-500kg
-- C"S _"eo
Cc --c_-:: ~
- 600kg
Peas Fe - -
ma
-
_ ;:;:::- - 500-600kg
cornoos:
650kg. Thin out at 4 weeks to 8cm
Carrot Compo nc -
apart
p
Compound D I- 200kg double phosphate
.pkin Ar=rnoniurn
1OOkg. 7 weeks to mature
su ohate
Table 3.4 Manures and fertilisers

Calculating recommended quantities of chemical fertilisers and manure
The recommended quantities of manure and chemical fertilisers required per hectare for
each listed vegetable are provided in the Table 3.4. We can use it to calculate manure or
fertiliser required to be applied on any given area.
Example
How much:
a) Compound D can be applied to a quarter of a hectare of irish potatoes?
b) Farm yard manure can be applied to a quarter of a hectare of irish potatoes?
\\' e can calculate these using the information from the Table 3.4.
a) Compound D on a quarter of a hectare of irish potatoes, we can use 800-1000kg given
in the table.
I4 x 800kg =200kg
Farm yard manure on a quarter of a hectare of irish potatoes, we can use the 10,000
j - 20,000kg from the same table.
I4 x 10,000kg =2,500kg
Exercise
l'-- J
Why is fresh vegetation better than dried vegetation when making a compost?
a) Decay slowly b) Is acidic
c) Decays quickly d) Is alkaline
Why should a compost be turned? To _
a) Speed up decomposition b) Slow down decomposition
c) Allow water in the compost d) Kill most of the organisms
3. Name the manures and fertilisers you would apply to cabbages and carrots.
"%. How much manure and fertiliser that you have mentioned in question 3, can you
apply to cabbage and carrots growing on a two hectares piece of land each?
Planting vegetables
iow are seeds sown? Some vegetables have tender seedling stages and require great care
hile others do not require to be nursed and transplanted. The tenderness of some vegetable
eedlings has brought about the need for nurseries while the less tender ones are rai ed
.::....rectlyin the permanent garden because they are larger, more hardy and can withstand
- arsh weather conditions. How are seeds sown?
ctivity 3.7
- :n your groups, list the methods of sowing seeds.
Discuss the methods of sowing seeds you have listed.
Record your findings in your exercise books.
Methods of sowing seeds
Vegetable seeds can be either broadcast or dribbled.
Broadcasting is the scattering of seeds on the surface of a nursery bed. The seeds are later
covered with a thin layer of soil. If you broadcast seeds, some of them may:
• not be covered with enough soil and could dry out in the sun
• fall too close together and become thin because of competing for nutrients, water and
light
• stick out in the soil and could be eaten by birds or ants
germinate very close together and are difficult to transplant later.
Dribbling seeds is better than broadcasting because:
• seedlings have enough space between each other and competition for nutrients and
light is minimised and as a result healthy seedlings are produced
• transplanting seedlings is easier, since they are grown in an orderly manner.
• many seeds germinate hence there will be less losses through surface runoff and birds,
) seeds are sown at a good depth and covered with soil.
Very small seeds for sowing should be mixed evenly with fine sand or ash (one part seed to
eight parts sand) before dropping them in the nursery bed or seed box. The sand reduces
the number of seeds falling in one place. Cover the seeds with sand or find soil, then water
the seedbed. Use a watering can with a fine rose and keep the soil in the bed moist, all the
time. As a guide, push a finger into the soil to a depth of over 2.Scm. If the soil feels moist
at the depth, do not water. If it feels dry, water. To keep the soil moist, cover the seed box
with a board and remove it each day to check on germination.
A soon as the first seedlings emerge, remove the board completely otherwise it will cause
rotting of the seedlings. When seedlings are heavily shaded they can't reach out for the sun
and may be destroyed by the dampness.
Fig. 3.7 A complete nursery bed

Raising seed boxes off the ground minimises the danger of insect attack. Spraying with
appropriate insecticides or sprinkling wood ash all over the seedlings also helps to stop
insect attacks.
later
Seeds that are sown directly in their permanent positions need to be sown closer together
than the normal sowing distance. They will be thinned out later to the required spacing
while removing the weak and diseased ones.
and
It is important to bear in mind that it is necessary to dig in compost or any form of
organic manure two weeks before the seed or seedlings are planted on the garden.
Transplanting seedlings
Transplanting is an important and sensitive operation that needs tender care. Transplanting
means to move seedlings from the nursery to another place. It involves moving a plant from
.md
the seedbed or seedling box to the place where the plant is to grow permanently. What are
the advantages of transplanting?
eds, Activity 3.8

) 1. In pairs, explain what transplanting is.
ito Discus the advantages of transplanting.
ces Record your findings and present them in class.
ter Some advantages of transplanting are as follows.
:he
Seeds are saved. It is economical to sow a few seeds in a seed box or nursery bed
1St
where most seeds will likely germinate and transplant later to get a full stand in the
'ox
garden.
Space and time are saved. Time and much garden space can be saved by first growing
_se
seedlings in a seed box or nursery and later moved when they are big enough. Seeds
.In
can be sown before the previous vegetable is harvested and the seedling can be ready
for transplanting when the field/garden is ready for them.
Stronger vegetables are obtained. Most vegetables that can be transplanted have fibrous
roots and transplanting them stimulates growth. Most vegetables with tap roots do
not respond well to transplanting. On the other hand, leguminous vegetables are not
normally transplanted.
Transplanting helps the seedlings to get enough space, light, air, nutrients and wa er
when removed from the crowded nursery bed.
Hardening off
.nce we do not want seedlings to die when we move them to their permanent bed. ····~e
must
:'repare them for the new bed by 'hardening' them. This is a treatment that makes plant
. sues tough and firm before transplanting so that the young plants can with stand the shock
:-transplanting. This is done by exposing the seedlings to less favourable conditions that
:II check rapid growth. The best way to do this is by direct exposure to sunlight (reduce
L~\' shade over such seedlings for 5-10 days) and gradually reduce in water both in amount
2"en and frequency (5-10 days).

... - gs that are well grown are transplanted when they are aged 4-6 weeks after so",
t .",·-e 4-6 true leaves.
On the day of transplanting, the following operations must be carried out:
l. rake the bed surface to even it out
2. tread the surface soil to make it firm
3. peg your planting distances
4. water the bed thoroughly - three to four hours before transplanting
5. transplant seedlings with a ball of soil around the roots
6. water the bed lightly and make a shelter where this is required
7. remove superfluous seedlings or unwanted seedlings two weeks after transplantii
Thinning
Crops such as carrots are in most cases sown directly in their permanent positions and;
not transplanted. If such crops are allowed to grow as they are sown, they will be too clr
together, hence some vegetables have to be pulled out. This process is called thinning. Sal
)
vegetables are removed from the rows to allow each one that is left in the bed to have
the necessary nutrients, air, light and water.
Thinning should be done carefully so that roots of vegetables that are left in the be
are disturbed as little as possible. During thinning the soil on the bed should be moist t
not wet. Place a little soil against the vegetables that tend to fall over.
It is important to remember that suitable seeds are vital to success. Try to get see
that are fresh and viable or certified and is guaranteed to be free of many of the serio
diseases.
Exercise
L ----:
1. Describe the following methods of planting seeds:
i) broadcasting
ii) drilling
2. What are the advantages of
i) broadcasting
ii) drilling
Weed control
A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted. Some of the plants we call weeds may l
used as livestock feed and so on.
\Veeds are pests because they compete with desired crops for moisture, nutrient
space and light. They also harbour other pests such as insects and diseases. If weeds ai
not controlled, they can reduce the yield of a crop by 15 per cent or more or even destrc
everything.
rwing The first planting rain brings with it the first flush of weeds and there may be numerous
t1ushes of weeds during the season. It is important that the weeds are destroyed within 10
days of the first planting rainy season. This can be done by using hoes and so on.
If weather allows, hand labour may follow the initial cultivation to clean up anything
that may have been left out. The inter-row cultivation can also be done.
Weed control methods

There are four broad classes of weed control. They are mechanical, biological, cultural and
chemical methods.
Mechanical removal means physically pulling out or destroying the weeds, for
+ing. example, hoeing, harrowing, hand pulling or using a cultivator.
Biological involves the use of biological organisms to help control weeds; for example,
the use of insects and geese .
.::are
Cultural removal of weeds involves the use of crop management practices that favour
Jose the crop to the detriment of weeds; for example; correct planting/sowing date, crop
)me
) rotation, correct planting rate and so on.
;: all
Chemical weeding involves the use of a herbicide that is toxic to weeds.
Weeding is important. A weekly shallow hoeing will keep the garden free of weed .
"'eds This process also creates a thin dust mulch on the surface of the ground, ··bch helps
but in the conservation of water, You need to be careful when hoeing near the roots of
your crops so as not to damage them .
.eds
'us Importance of weed control in vegetables
'\' eed control in vegetables is important because of the following reasons.
_j Weed control helps to reduce the competition between vegetables and weeds for
moisture, nutrients, space and light.
Weed control helps also in the control of pests and diseases and thus lead to the
increase in yields and quality of vegetables produced.
.'. Weed control also makes the farming operations to be much easier and faster therefore
increasing efficiency.
Weed control helps in elimination of poisonous weeds which may cause poisoning
to animals or even human beings.
Effective weed control
The first sowing rains bring up the first flush of weeds. There may numerous species
of weeds as different weeds germinate under different conditions. Thi flush of weeds
can be effectively controlled if it can be destroyed within 10 days of the start of the
sowing rain. Equipment like rotary hoes or spike tooth harrows can be used. This
can be made feasible because the first sowing rains are usually followed by sufficient
sunny days. Where the weather may not allow, this may be done within 3-4 days
during of the sowing rains.
") Hand cultivation, if labour is available, may follow. This involves clearing up any
weeds that may have been left out. When this is done early, weeds are effectively
controlled.
3. When weeding the rows is needed, hand cultivation is carried out. This is meant to
clean up any weeds that may have germinated later.
Effects of herbicids on the enviroment

It is important to observe the safety rules when spraying herbicides in the garden. A person
spraying should:
• use protective clothing (mask, overalls, goggles and gloves)
• wash after spraying
• not eat/smoke while spraying
• store spray in original container
• take care while washing equipment used in spraying.
However, unnecessary spraying of herbicides can cause a build-up in the soil. Instead
) of killing weeds, soil organisms (decomposers) and useful insects such as bees may be
destroyed. Some chemicals remain in the soil and may also be washed into water courses.
These are poisonous to fish and become concentrated in the food chain such that birds
that eat the fish are also affected.
Activity 3.9
Demonstrate how to control weeds:
• using chemicals
• mechanically
• culturally
Demonstrate effe tive weed control for any vegetables of your choice.
Pest control
A pest is an animal ilia' cau es damage to crop plants by feeding on them.
Activity 3. r 0
1. In your groups, investigate pests that attack tomatoes, irish potatoes, rape, chomollier,
cabbages, onions, beans, peas, carrots and pumpkin.
2. Discuss how the pests which attack these vegetables can be controlled.
3. Record your findings in your books.
-1. Report your findings in a class discussion.
\Tegetables are susceptible to pests when they are unhealthy for some reasons. They can
al 0 become susceptible when:
the natural vegetation is cut down, upsetting the local balance of nature
any failure to practice crop rotation causes pests to build up on one site, for example, pests
vely can build up on perennial crops and they become hard to control. It is advisable to deal
with any pests as soon as they appear
it to insects may be introduced in an area from another area or countries when crops with
pests are imported.
The following are some pests and suggested methods of
.rson Pest Crop Signs of attack
Spray Endosulfan 50%

American bollworm Tomato.
W. P.
Tomatoes,
irish potatoes, Many green flies.
rape, cabbage, Portions of leaves Spray with Rogor
Aphid
chomollier, onion, with the flies may (dimethoate).
~ead peas, carrot, be deformed.
) be pumpkin.
ses. e Pick them and crush
- rds Beans, pumpkin, them or drown them .n
Eaten flowers.
peas.
water.
Caterpillar Cabbage, Holes in leaves SprcyCorboryt (85% W.P.

chomollier, and edges of
or Sevin) Malathion 25%
leaves may also
rape, pumpkin. W.P.
be eaten.
Cabbage, rape,
chomollier,
Cut seedlings Spray a mixture of
Cutworm pumpkin, beans,
lying on the soil. Thiodan and water.
peas, tomato, irish
potato.
Roots of Sterilise the soil with

Tomato, irish vegetables have D-D, E-D-Bor applying
potato, carrots swellings. If you Furadan granules.
lier, :elworm and vegetables of try to remove the Sterilise by burning
the solanaceous swellings you organic materials' cr
family. break the affected will generate enoug
root. heat to kill the worms.
Pin-sized
punctures on the Spray malathion 25% W. P.
.an Pumpkin and all fruit. collect and bury infected
r ,Jitfly cucurbit family of fruits to a depth of 1em,
vegetables. Young fruit may burned or cooked to
turn yellow and destroy the larvae.
drop.
Chewed leaves of
Mostly the grass
plants,especially Spray a 10m band of
family but some
the grass family, bush adjacent to the
Grasshopper attack a wide
but some attack crop with Carbaryl 85%
range of other
a wide range of W.P.
crops.
other crops.
Tomato, potatoes Chewed leaves,

Ladybird beetle and all vegetables stems and fruits of Spray with malathion.
of cucurbit family. vegetables.
Minute red or
yellow mites
feeding (sucking)
sap under surface
of leaves can Spray with Rogor
Red spider mite Tomato, beans.
cause defoliation. (dimethoate).
) Shrivelled leaves
covered in a
mesh of fine
webbing.
Semi-looper Irish potato,

caterpillars Holes in leaves Spray Carbaryl (85% W.P
cabbage,
and edges of or Sevin. Malathion 25%
chomollier, rape,
leaves. W.P.
pumpkin.
On young plants
the first two (seed)
Ridging up plants can
levels turn yellow,
help when they are
wilt and plant
Stem a99O's Bean, peas. 15cm high. Dress the
dies. Small brown
seeds. Spray the soil with
swellings 2-4 cm
Malathion.
long at the soil
level C.
Thrips
0 io s. Scrapped leaves. Spray malathion 50% E.C.
Apply a preplant
Tubers have eaten application of Malathion.
out large, shallow The chemicals should
White grubs Irish pota oes.
circular holes on be harrowed into the
them. soil soon after they are
applied.
Apply a pre-plant
application of say
Bore into the roots
Wire worm Carrots. Malathion. This should
of the crops.
be harrowed in the soil
35%
soon after it is applied.
Table 3.6 Pests and their prevention/control
Methods of application
Solution sprays are applied on the plant surface. An oily solution is dependent on soap to
make a fine emulsion. This is better than a powder, it is not easily blown off by the wind.
Dusts are shaken on plants when their leaves are wet with dew and when there is no wind
that can blow them away.
Pest control methods
There are natural and chemical methods of controlling pests. Chemical control can also
be referred to as the direct method, while crop rotation and parasitism are some of the
) natural methods of pest control.
The direct method requires knowledge on how to spray effectively, preparing the
solutions and applying the prescribed quantity per hectare.
Crop rotation helps to break lifecycles of pests. Allowing a fallow period by leaving a farm
IP to rest for some seasons can be used to do this. This makes the environment unfavourable
;0,1
_ 0 for the pests to multiply quickly.
Parasitism involves the use of predator species (parasites) to eat up the destructive pests
e.g. the use of a certain virus that affects semi-loopers and lady bird beetles that feed on
aphids and one type of wasp that lays eggs in aphids. This method does not eliminate the
pest completely, but it reduces pests to manageable levels.
Natural pest control methods
•"l
There are different methods of controlling pests. Pests are normally controlled by spraying
them with pesticides. A pesticide is a poisonous chemical used to kill pests.
Pesticides can be made from local materials in the environment. Some of the natural
pest control methods are using:
• ash and red pepper
• ash
garlic.
Ash and red pepper - pepper is pounded and then mixed with ash and added 0 seeds. This
mixture prevents pests from boring into the seeds.
Asn - ash is sprinkledon green leafy vegetables. It blocks the spiracle of insects causing
them to suffocate and die. Ash can also be used on stored seeds. It kills storage pests.
Garlic - solution of salt, powdered soap, paraffin and pounded garlic is used to spray
vegetables.
Activity 3. J J
2. Your teacher will demonstrate how to make solution sprays.
3. Make a solution of water and Rogor (dimethoate) to spray vegetables.
4. Use 20 litres of water. The rate of Rogor (dimethoate) is 4 to 6 ml! Slitres of water.
NB: Your teacher will guide you on how to do this activity. Do not do it if the teacher is
not available to guide you.
Spraying chemicals
It is important to take precautions when applying chemicals to reduce the chances of
poisoning by pesticides and their effect on the environment. Some of the precautions on
spraying chemicals are:
• use protective clothing (masks, overalls, goggles and gloves - do not use bare hands
to mix chemicals)
)
• washing after spraying
• not eating/smoking while spraying
• storing spray chemicals in their original containers
• following instructions on intervals before harvest
• not spraying on windy days
• washing equipment after spraying.
Some precautions to be taken to protect the environment are
• avoid contamination of water sources
• avoid contamination of domestic water supplies
• care in disposing of excess chemicals
• are !...'1 disposing of empty containers.
Safety ru es when storing pesticides

The follox ing rules need to be followed when storing pesticides.
Keep the pesticides away from the reach of people and especially children.
• Do not keep the pesticides in the same place with food stuffs. They can be mistaken
for food and accidentally consumed thereby causing death.
• Do not keep pesticides in food containers or bottles for drinks as they can be mistaken
for food or drinks.
• Keep pesticides in lockable stores.
• Keep pesticide containers clearly labelled.
Effects of prolonged and excess use of pesticides on the enviroment

Unnecessary spraying of pesticides has caused a build up in the soil. Instead of killing only
pest organisms on or in the plant, soil organisms (decomposers) and useful insects such
as bees may be destroyed. The threat is greatest when chemicals most commonly used are
organochlorine (DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin and BHC). These are persistent and take many
vears to decompose. They remain in the soil and are also washed into water courses. These
are poisonous to fish and become concentrated in the food chain such that birds that eat
the fish are also affected.
:er.
-,er is Disease control
A. crop disease is any abnormal or physiological condition in the crop that is detrimental
to the crop or leads to a reduction in its productivity. A healthy crop is that which has
.es of desired inherent characteristics when it is grown under the best conditions with res; c-
-;s on to light, temperature, moisture, soil, nutrients and kept free from injury and attack from
pathogens.
-ands Activity 3. J 2
1. In your groups, state the effects of diseases on crops.
) Discuss the effects of diseases on crops.
There are many effects of disease on crops some which may cause extermination of crops,
may make a certain area unfavourable to grow particular crops in or cause losses in crop
production.
What causes crop diseases? Some crop diseases are caused by parasites while others are
not. Parasitic diseases are caused by the action of a parasite on a crop. Some of the causes
of parasitic diseases are fungi, bacteria and viruses.
The following are some vegetable diseases and suggested prevention/control.
Disease Crop(s) Sign(s) Prevention/ control
Angular, dark
brown lesions
across a vein,
which later
become numerous.
Angular leaf spot Beans, peas. Spray Zineb.
Dark grey mould
_en
on the leaf
underside. Mould
en may cover petioles
and stems.
Dark brown, more

I Practice crop ro.orion.
or less circular
Spray Oithcoe 1145
dead ar~as on
Blight Potato, tomato. throughout 'he rainy
leaves. Severe
season and the beginning
during rainy
ely of the dry season.
seasons.
.::h
Stems become soft
and narrow at soil
level. Seedlings
fall over and die.
Small dark brown Soil sterilisation by heat or
Carrots and spots edged with with Methylbromide. Add
Damping off seedlings of yellow colour Captasan Mar Thiran in
other crops. along leaf margin. water in a watering can.
Crop may appear
as if it has been
scorched by heat.
This is common in
the rainy season.
Leaves have pale

green areas all
over. Spots later
change to yellow
angular spots Spray Zineb/Maneb.
Downy mildew Beans. bounded by leaf
veins. Leaves die
quickly. Common
in the rainy
season.
Infected leaves roll

upwards towards Remove infected plants
Leaf roll virus Potatoes. the midrib. Leaves from seed crops.
become hard.
Diseased leaves
have a mottling
of green areas
and dark green
Bean, peas. patches. Affected Grow resistant varieties.
Mosaic virus
leaves develop
irregularly - leaf
edges are cupped
downwards.
Older leaves curl
up and their edges
start drying. Plant
eventually dies.
Small fruit size.
Plant resistant varieties:
Tomato. Fruits drop.
Bacterial canker elgl manapal.
Diseased fruits
have circular
creamy white spots
with a red dot in
the centre.
I
Wilting of foliage.
I Use certified seeds. Grow
Vascular tissues
non-susceptible crops
Bacteria wilt Potato, tomato. become pale
on infected la nd, for
to dark brown
example, maize.
~Jt or discolouration.
.:._dd - -
- in -"p.fable diseases
:n.
Exercise \.__-----)
1. Which of the following crop is attacked by American bollworm?
a) Cabbage b) Rape
c) Chomollier d) Tomato
2. Signs of attack by blister beetle are --------
a) Eaten flowers b) Holes in leaves
c) Eaten edges ofleaves d) Bored fruits
) 3. Eelworms can be controlled by --------
a) Spraying soil with Rogor (dimethoate)
b) Sterilising soil
c) Injecting soil with Malathion
d) Picking them and crushing them
•
~. Leaf roll virus attacks --------
a) Cabbage b) Rape
c) Irish potato d) Tomato
A vegetable with leaves that have mottling of green areas and dark green patches is
infected with --------
a) Mosaic viruses b) Downy mildew
c) Blight d) Angular leaf spot
6. What is a weed?
Give three methods of controlling weeds.
Why is it important to give vegetables a good watering once or twice a week?
Harvesting
Signs of a ready vegetable

How are vegetables harvested? What should be done with vegetables when they are ready
-,)[consumption? Whether vegetables are for sale or for eating at home they need to be
:arvested.
Activity 3. J 3
For small groups of five.
J In your groups, discuss how often vegetables should be picked.
Picking vegetables
Vegetables need to be picked regularly. This encourages a much bigger crop to form in
the case of some vegetables since they are encouraged to produce more in an attempt to
reach seed production stage.
It is important to harvest vegetables at the correct stage of growth. When vegetables
are harvested before they are mature, a good deal of possible mass of the crop is lost. In
addition, an immature vegetable does not have the selling value of a vegetable that is properly
matured. The farmer should watch and harvest vegetables as they mature.
Furthermore, the farmer must, when picking vegetables, start with those that have made
the best growth and leave the smaller ones for a few days to grow bigger.
You should be careful when harvesting vegetables, do not throw them about since they
can get damaged. If they get damaged their tissues are spoiled and rotting may set in. To
prevent this, place harvested vegetables into containers. Damaged vegetables are not good
for eating. The farmer should also make sure that harvested vegetables are kept clean.
How are vegetables harvested?
Different vegetables have varying methods of harvesting.
Activity 3. J 4
1. Investigate how to harvest tomatoes, irish potatoes, rape, chomollier, cabbage, onions,
beans, peas, carrots and pumpkins.
2. Record each procedure in your notebooks.
There are many ways of harvesting vegetables. Some of them are given in this table. The
table also gives the expected yield of tomatoes, irish potatoes, rape, choumolier, cabbage,
onions, beans, peas, carrots and pumpkins.
Harvesting
Vegetable Time from sowing Method of Yield/hectare
in weeks harvesting
Pick ripe fruits and
those showing early
1. Tomato 13 weeks. 25-30 tonnes
signs of ripening
twice a week.
12-17 weeks when
foliage dies and the Dig tubers from the 600kg - 1.6
2. Irish potato soil. tonnes.
skin of the tubers is
thicker and tougher.
Pick leaves regularly
for about 8 weeks. 18 tonnes
3. Rape 8 weeks.
Pick leaves regularly 10 ·c--=s
4. Chomollier 8 weeks.
for about 8 weeks.
Cut heads when
they are firm,
:)rm in young and tender
5. Cabbage 12-16 weeks. 20-30 tonr-es
before they start to
empt to
crack. Cut cabbage
above soil level.
zetables 18 weeks .
.ost. In Reduce irrigation Dig the onions and
-operly when leaves start to put them in wind
fall. Start to harvest rows. The leaves
6. Onions when three quarters should cover the 30 tonnes
e made bulbs. Leave onions
of the leaves have
fallen. Stop watering like this for 10
-:c they two weeks before days.
you start harvesting .
.n. To
) -good 7. Beans 9 weeks. Pick regularly. 7 tonnes.
_'1.
Pick pods as often 6 tonnes.
8. Peas 8-12 weeks or less.
as possible.
Depending on the
10- 12 weeks after size required roots
9. Carrot 8-15 tonnes.
sowing. are dug out from
lions, the soil.
Pick fruits when the
3-4 months after skin becomes hard
10. Pumpkins 7 tonnes.
sowing. and loses its shiny
: The
I appearance.
Table 3.8 Methods of harvesting and yields of some vegetables
Exercise L...____ ~J
1. Why should vegetables be picked regularly?
')
Why should vegetables be harvested at the correct stage of growth?
3. Why should you be careful when harvesting vegetables?
-1. How much cabbage can you harvest from a two-hectares piece of landr
Marketing
Marry things need to be considered when preparing vegetable from - e ....
arden ior selling.
What should you consider when preparing vegetables for elling?
Activity 3. J 5
. Form small groups and discuss how you can prepare vegetables for selling.
_. Record your findings in your exercise books.
3. Practice preparing vegetables for selling in your groups.
Preparation of vegetables for selling

It is important that vegetables for selling are harvested with great care and placed, not
thrown in containers to prevent them getting damaged. Bruised vegetables are sold at a
lower price in the market.
Since vegetables are food, they should always be kept clean. Clean vegetables for selling
look attractive and fetch a better price. They should be washed, cleaned and placed into
groups. Grading vegetables can enable a farmer to obtain better prices. Vegetables should
be graded as follows: large, medium and small.
Record keeping
) Successful vegetable growing does not only depend on knowledge of vegetable growing,
but also on observation of the vegetables growing in the garden and knowledge of the local
weather conditions. However, for a farmer to handle vegetables correctly in the garden he/
she needs records. How can records help a farmer?
Activity 3. J 6
L Form grups and discuss what a vegetable farmer's records should contain.
Explain how the records can help the farmer.
Record your findings in your books.
Report your findings in a class discussion.
. 'ormation found in the farmer's records can include:
• • :. of planting • dates of germination
• manure/fertiliser application
• =: :r.:: g of vegetables
• da of attack by insects and diseases • dates of harvesting
• yields.
The records can ontain many things; for example the farmer might decide to sow tomato
seeds later than July because the previous seedlings were destroyed by frost in July. A farmer
can also use records to find out whether he/she is making profits.
Produce record
~ = produce record shows the value of the produce from the garden. The cash value is
___
.--~=~'::
. 'hether it is sold, eaten or stored. The value should be based on the market value
~==-able produced to show the total income if it had been sold. The price at which
zan be sold can be found by finding out the cost of production and adding an
unt to it. This would be the price of produce or the product.
Profit
The main aim of a farmer is to make a profit. The farmer can find out whether he 'she as
made a profit by finding the difference between the total cost of producing the vegetables
and the amount he/she has obtained by selling it.
Storage
Green vegetables do not store well- they are perishable. It is important that only enough
.ed, not
'Sharvested at a time to avoid wastage. Green vegetables can be stored in a cool place for
rld at a
some time. For example, light red tomatoes have to be eaten or sold soon after picking, lifted
carrots can be stored in a cool dry place out of the sun, hang them up tied into bunches by
selling
their old leaves in a cool dry place. Cabbages do not store well - they have to be eaten or
ed into
sold within a few days of cutting, dry beans for keeping in storage can be left on the plants
-hould
until they dry up in the garden, then dry beans are removed from the pods.
Exercise 1.. J
) -'wing, 1. Why should harvested vegetables always be kept clean?
;:> local What can a record on vegetables kept by a farmer include?
.en he/ How can records help a farmer
~. Draw a produce record.
Continuous assessment L__ --=-=--=- j

1. In which of the following vegetables can we get iodine?
a) Green beans b) Cabbage
c) Carrot d) peas
In which of the following can we get vitamin C?
a) Peas b) Tomato
c) Beans d) Raw cabbage
Which of the following is sown directly in the field?
a) Carrots b) Cabbage
c) Rape d) Chomollier
On which type of soil would you grow irish potatoes?
-.ato
a) Clay b) Silt
--"'1er
c) Sandy loam d) Sand
List three types of beds.
List six factors that make a place suitable for a garden.
~;:> is What would you consider before growing cabbages?
..ue What do the terms broadcasting and hardening mean?
What is a nursery bed?
O. Why should you know the classes of vegetables?
1. How much manure would you apply to two hectares of rape?
FORESTRY
Specific learning outcomes t.__ ___.J
i) explain the role of trees in soil erosion and infiltration of water
ii) state the role of trees in soil fertility improvement
iii) identify trees used to make handles and poles
iv) explain how you can ensure continued supply of poles and handles from the trees.
Importance of trees
Forestry is 'tree farming'. Trees are raised from seed in their special nurseries and cared
for until maturity.
Trees play an important part in maintaining the 'balance of nature'. Oxygen from
photosynthesis replaces that used up in respiration by animals.
Activity 4. J
1. Form small groups of five.
2. In your groups, discuss the importance of trees.
3. State how the trees can be grown.
Trees also control soil erosion through their leaves and branches. These reduce the impact
of rain drops on soil and enable more water to infiltrate the soil. The leaves that cover the
soil after they have fallen from the trees reduce runoff and allow a lot of water to infiltrate
the soil.
Roots of trees also hold soil together. Trees also act as a great reservoir of water, as they
slowly draw water from the soil and release it to the atmosphere by transpiration. This is
important as it has an effect on the amount and distribution of rainfall.
Tree leaves and some branches that fall to the ground are acted upon by microorganisms
to decay and contribute organic matter to the soil. The microorganisms cause most of these
materials to decompose in the soil increasing the amount of humus in it.
Some trees are leguminous and have nodules on their roots in which are found in the
rhizobium bacteria. These convert nitrogen from the air into nitrates that are left in the
soil for plants to use.
People and other animals also depend on trees for shelter. Trees provide us i~
to build and other forest products such as fruits, roots, leaves and shoots that carr oe
as food or medicine.
Exercise L...__ J
1. How do trees help the 'balance of nature'?
1
Explain how trees help to increase infiltration.
_) ~. How do trees help to increase humus in the soil?
Poles and handles
Name of tree Used for: Poles Handles
1. Eucalyptus grandis
"
ees. -
) 2. Monkey bread -
3. Acacias species
"
•.ared
4. Pod mahogany
" "
"-
-
"Tom
5. Sickle bush
6. African ebony "-

"
Table 4.1 Some trees used for poles and handles
There is a population explosion and demand for agricultural land, fuel wood and charcoal
..; high. As a result, large areas of land have been deforested. Therefore, as consumption
~.mtinues to rise above supply, planting of trees and the preservation of indigenous
oodlands must be done. This way a continous supply of poles and handles will be
ensured.
Exercise L...__ __ ~J
List down some trees used for making poles.
List down some trees used for making handles.
Explain why population explosion is a threat to forests.
'to How can you ensure that there is a continuous supply of poles and han esi
How does high demand for agricultural land threaten forests?
Factors that make an area suitable for tree growing

-:-rees are grown mostly in areas that are not good for crop production uch as on stony
ils and hilly sides. Trees are usually grown in soils that are also not very fertile and the
.rent rock is deep down in the soil.
There are some factors that make an area suitable for growing trees. The factors
nclude:
adequate rainfall of a minimum of 700mm of rainfall per annum
deep soil
• well drained soil that is free from water-logging
• levelland or flat land
• an area without heavy frost.
The importance of factors that make the area suitable for growing trees
1. The area for growing trees needs to have adequate water (minimum 700mm of rainfall
per annum) for the trees to grow well.
2. The soil needs to be well drained as water-logged soil would lead to the withering of
trees since they would not get adequate air from the soil.
3. The area needs to have deep soil so that there is good anchorage for the roots.
4. It area should be even to reduce soil erosion from wind and runoff water.
5. It should be free from heavy frost as frost can kill the trees especially young ones.
It is important to choose an appropriate site for a nursery for trees.
A suitable area for a nursery is that which can be watered and has a deep, fertile, well drained
soil. Flat land as well as a sloping land is just as suitable under irrigation.
However, an area that gets water-logged or susceptible to heavy frost must be avoided.
A nursery that is intended to supply people over a wide area should be close to the road,
so that vehicles can easily collect seedlings.
The site should be in the shade of trees. If this is not available construct a simple shade
from grass.
m tins /
in the soil
Fig. 4.1 Shade for tree seedlings
Preparing a tree nursery

It is important for the farmer to prepare nursery soil for the seeds. This is done by mixing
together some good black soil, compost/manure and course sand in the ratio 3: 1:1 - three
parts, soil and one part compost to one part sand.
rctors Unlike vegetables, trees are planted in small plastic bags or containers,
lightly be wetted a day before putting it into containers. The containers sho
at the bottom for water drainage.
Pack soil firmly into the lower third of the container and then into the upper -
of the container to avoid leaving empty spaces.
The nursery should be protected from animals by a fence or hedge.
Exercise l J
rrees 1. What factors make a site suitable for a tree nursery.
.infall 2. What would you do if the site for a nursery has no shade?
3. How is nursery soil prepared?
ng of -1. Explain how soil for planting tree seeds should be mixed.
J. How can you protect a tree nursery from animals?
Planting/sowing
.es. Seeds can be sowed late in October or early November. However, slow growing trees can
be sowed from July through September.
rined Some seeds may need pre-treatment and there are many ways of doing this. Some of them
are:
.ded. • Boil water a day before sowing the seeds. Take the water off the fire (heat) and allow
'oad, it to cool for one minute and then drop the seeds in it. After two minutes, drain
the boiled water from the seeds and pour cold water on the seeds. Leave the seeds
:-lade overnight and sow them the following morning.
• Scratch large seeds with a hard material such as a rock that has a rough surface. Soak
the seeds after scratching. They should be soaked in cool water overnight. Sow them
the following morning (day).
• Some seeds only need to be soaked in cold water overnight and sowed the following
morning (day).
Tree Seed pretreatment
Sesban Use hot water to treat the seeds before so

-
them.
Leucaena Use hot water to treat the seeds before sc -::

them.
Scratch the seed lightly and soak j'O_ :- coer
Mukwa/musangu
before sowing it.
Muringa Soak in cool water overnight oe;:::;e so ••••.

ng.
xing
nree
Table 4.2 Pre-treatment of some tree seeds
.:~ be sowed at a depth of about 1 - 2 times its width. Two to three seeds may be
ed in a container. The seeds can be covered with soil that is lightly pressed down. Then
ghtly watered using a watering can with a rose.
Care for the seeds

Water the seeds in the nursery daily. Remove weeds frequently from the nursery. Prevent
roots from growing through the holes of the container. It is important to lift the seedling
container every week to check for any roots that might have grown through the holes of
the container.
Before transplanting
In preparation for transplanting, seedlings are removed into a place where they can receive
direct sunlight or most of the mulch can be removed over them. Thin seedlings in their
containers and leave only one a few days before transplanting.
Exercise L...____ ____,J

1. How can you pre-treat large seeds?
2. Explain how tree seeds are sown.
3. When can you sow seeds for trees?
4. How can you pret-treat small seeds for trees?
o. How can you look after seeds in a container?
Continuous assessment
Which of the following is correct on the importance of trees. Trees _
increase run off. b) reduce fertility.
c reduce infiltration. d) increase soil erosion.
Seeds for trees can be sowed _
a) in December b) late in October
c) early in January d) in June
3. At what depth should tree seeds be sown?
4. How can you ensure a continuous supply of poles and handles.
5. How would you prepare seedlings for transplanting?
nay be
_ Then
CONSERVATION FARMING
event
-edling
res of
Specific learning outcomes
L'--- J
describe mixed cropping and explain the role of mixed cropping in soil fertility
~) describe intercropping and mixed farming
_':eive
u) state the role of mixed farming on soil fertility
. '"leir
.v) describe the use of a hoe in clearing the land for conservation farming
_j ) demonstrate how to make ridges in conservation farming using a hoe
i) apply fertiliser and manure correctly and plant correctly using a hoe
ii) control weeds appropriately in a crop grown under conservation farming
Iii) state how to control soil erosion using vetiver hedges and plant vetiver hedges
correctly.
Conservation farming means growing crops while also ensuring that the environment
md especially the soil is not degraded. Conservation farming offers a way to increase crop
.arrning safely and profitably without excessive soil damage. In addition, the farmers also
=row legumes in rotation with other crops that fix nitrogen, improve soil fertility and
t'rovide protein for the family.
Activity 5. J
In your groups, discuss the meaning of the following:
• mixed cropping
• intercropping
• mixed farming.
Record your findings and present them in a class discussion.
Mixed cropping
~is is the growing of two or more types of crops on the same piece of land at the same
me. Originally this type of farming was based on the best possible adar ations to the
,,-ironment.
Mixed cropping involves the growing of grains, legumes and cucurbits and was common
the past. However, because of the need to provide higher maize yieids, this practice was
zsccuraged.
The farmer benefited from this practice in the following ways:
• enjoyed the benefits of harvesting various types of crops grown at the same time on
the same piece of land
• the farmer was protected from complete loss in the event of an epidemic that could
wipe out a crop
• some crops benefited from each other, for example, cereal crops benefited from the
nitrogen left by a legume crop in the soil
• it provided a soil cover, which in turn reduced soil erosion.
However, this farming practice did not suit the use of machines and implements.
The reasoning that mixed cropping would reduce maize yields has been found to be
false and higher yields are now being produced from mixed cropping, supported by other
aspects of sustainability.
Mixed cropping involves two important principles of sustainability which are:
• plant diversity
• maximum biomass, which is the material produced by a living organism or a collection
of organisms expressed in terms of weight.
Role of mixed cropping on fertility

Mixed cropping plays a role on fertility. It provides the soil cover thus reducing loss of soil
through soil erosion. There are also mutual benefits that are derived from the two crops. For
example maize provides stakes for leguminous crops while leguminous crops will provide
nitrates in the soil for other crops to use.
Exercise L ------J
1. State the meaning of the term conservation farming.
')
tate the meaning of mixed cropping.
3. Wh . is mixed cropping a food farming practice?
Intercropping
This is the planting of crops in the same season on the same piece of land. Intercropping
refers to alternate rows of crops, for example, rows of maize with one or two rows of, soya
beans in between.
Activity 5.2
1. What is intercropping?
') Your teacher will demonstrate intercropping of two appropriate crops.
3. Practice intercropping of two appropriate crops in the school farm.
This farming practice has the following benefits:
~me on • distribution of losses in case of crop failure
• checking of weeds that could compete for nutrients and water
could • spreading out harvesting ensures a regular supply of food an r:= ar co .ering on
the land by plants for almost the whole year, which helps in protecting _
- m the erosion
• reducing the occurrence of insect pests, diseases and weeds.
In most cases, the shorter crops suffer from being shaded by the taller crops. In - Us rae ce
the ground cover is poorer than in mixed cropping.
However, intercropping combines crops that have different growth patterns an':
_ ~o be
the available air, water and nutrients to be better utilised.
vther
Importance of intercropping to soil fertility
.ntercropping plays a role on soil fertility. The ground is covered with growing plants for
nearly the whole year thereby giving protection to the soil against fast evaporation of water
.:aon J)' direct heat from the sun. Intercropping also protects the ground from soil erosion by
)
-,-ind and water.
soil
r or
Fig. 5.1 Intercropping
Exercise L..___ __ __,J

State the meaning of intercropping.
What are the advantages of intercropping?
Mixed farming
Mixed farming is the growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same farm. Sustainable
agriculture recognises that great opportunities for improving sustainability exist in this
practice. Integrating animals into the faming system can make the system more sustainable
because animals are part of the food web and they contribute to the energy and nutrient
cycles.
In this system of farming, some of the crops grown are used to feed the animals. At the
same time, the animals provide a reserve for times of stress. When crops fail, animals can
be sold to provide food to supplement low harvests.
Animals are also essential for the process of decomposition. They convert crop materials
into fertiliser that is turned into humus by microorganisms.
Activity 5.3
1. \ That is mixed farming?
2. Investigate why some farmers in your area are practicing mixed farming.
3. Present your findings in a class discussion.
Mixed cropping, intercropping and mixed farming are sustainable systems of agriculture
that can still be used today. The chitemene farming system, based on finger millet followed
by beans and cassava works well. Low and scattered human settlements and vast areas of
woodland enabled abandoned chitemene land to rejuvenate naturally over 20-25 years.
However, with the current rapid population growth, the concentration of human settlement
in places near towns and the introduction of maize as the main crop changed the farming
patterns where the chitemene system was practised over the past 30 years. The more intensive
agricultural systems based on maize as the main crop are unsustainable. These systems bring
about soil erosion, rapid soil acidification and the continuous encroachment by farms into
mature woodland resulting in the deforestation of land around urban areas.
There is need to change these systems of farming to adopt sustainable ones such as
conservation farming.
Conservation farming systems have many benefits to the soil. They enable sedentary
farming on sustainable basis, increase yields and returns to labour and improves soil
fertility.
Practising sedentary farming on a sustainable basis requires the introduction of systems
that enable farmers to farm the same land in perpetuity without having to move and cut
down trees because they have exhausted soil.
Increasing yields and returns to labour

This requires that farmers adopt conservation farming practices adapted to higher rainfall
areas enabling them to increase yields of their crops and maintain them every year.
Improving soil fertility
.istainable Through the practice of conservation farming, farmers should be able to _ a
~(1 st in this oil fertility in their fields without the need to increase application 0 - -
stainable
..! nutrient
Exercise l~__ ____..J
1. State the meaning of mixed farming.
. S. At the What makes mixed farming sustainable?
'11alscan 3. Why is mixed farming important to the farmer?
1. Why are animals an important component of mixed farming?
-naterials
Land clearing and preparation
Conservation farming has many underlying principles. These include residue retention,
reduced tillage, early sowing, precise applications of inputs and seed, early and continuous
. .eeding to reduce the soil weed bank and rotation with legumes.
) Activity 5.4
.:ulture Form small groups and determine the meaning of conservation farming .
Iowed Investigate how land is cleared using hoes where conservation farming is practised.
eas of Under the guidance of your teacher, practice clearing the land using a hoe.
ears.
Land clearing is important when a farmer wants to grow crops on a piece of land. It is
.rnent
.mportant that an appropriate method is used to clear the land while preparing it for
--::ling
?lanting crops.
ensive
ring Safeguarding residues
mto Farmers can use many types of implements to clear land. However, it is important to remind
:armers that they should not burn residues when clearing land. The more the residues remain
!1 the plot the better. Residues reduce sheet erosion and allow the rain to soak into the soil
.nd when they are worked on by termites, they add organic matter to the soil.
It is not necessary to incorporate residues into the soil before it has decomposed into
il 'iumus. Incorporating non-decomposed residues disturbs the soil, thereby oxidising e
soil where crops will be grown. Microorganisms utilise nitrogen in the process of breaking
down the plant materials and less is left for crop growth. This also exposes t.:. e - 0
:leavy rains and runoff, which removes the topsoil. Farmers should encourage a e to
incorporate residues in the soil.
To encourage nature to incorporate residues in the soil, small-scale farmers are
.ncouraged to clear land using hoes and place stoves in the spaces between where the rows
f the previous harvested crops were. These will allow rain to soak in the soil and later be
·orked on by organisms.
Exercise
t.,__ ___.J
1. State the principles of conservation farming.
2. Why should farmers not burn residues when clearing land?
3. Why is it not necessary to incorporate non-decomposed residues into the soil?
Land preparation
The northern part of Zambia receives annual rainfall of between 1000mm to 1500mm.
However, during some seasons it has received 900mm of rainfall. It is important to know
how to prepare soil for farming, especially in places with heavy rainfall.
Activity 5.5
2. Investigate how soil should be prepared in high rainfall areas where conservation
farming is practised.
3. Present and discuss your findings in a class discussion.
4. Make notes in your exercise books.
In high rainfall areas, it is important to plant crops on ridges rather than in basins to avoid
water-logging. The ridges are aligned on contours.To minimise the movement of rain water
and topsoil down furrows and between ridges, they should not run down the slope.
Furthermore, vetiver grass should be planted behind each 15th ridge. This grass reduces
the danger of gullies forming when heavy rains break down the ridges and flow down the
main slope in the plot. The grass hedges provide successive barriers that arrest or slow down
the flow of water and capture any soil that might have started to move.
Making ridges in conservation farming using a suitable hoe

A hoe is used in making of ridges in high rainfall areas. A suitable hoe should be used
in making the ridges depending on the type of soil in the area.
Activity 5.6
1. Form small groups and determine what ridges are.
3. Your teacher will demonstrate how to make ridges in conservation farming using an
appropriate hoe.
4. Practice making ridges in conservation farming using a hoe under the guidance of
your teacher.
The ridges once made are not destroyed in the next season. Instead, they remain in
the same place permanently and are built up before or immediately after the first rains
each year (rows of basins and ridges). This is intended to minimise soil disturbance and
oxidation of soil organic matter in the ridges that provide a medium in which young crops
establish themselves.
_J The ridges are built up on the contour. Ridges for maize houl
ridges made on the contour do not go in straight lines because they follow
e 90cm apart. The
ints of equal
altitude.
u? Exercise L. J
1. Why should crops be grown on ridges in high rainfall areas?
")
~OOmm. Why is vetiver recommended to be grown in afield?
) know 3. How should the ridges be made in high rainfall areas?
-t. How much rainfall do the northern parts of Zambia receive annually?
:1. Why is it advisable to build permanent ridges in high rainfall areas?
6. Why should ridges be aligned on the contours in high rainfall areas?
rvation
Fertiliser and manure application
It is important that basal fertilisers are carefully measured and applied where growing
) crops require them.
Activity 5.7
avoid
"1 water
1. Investigate how fertilisers and manures can be applied when following conservation
farming techniques.
-;:,duces Record this in your exercise books.
-1'0 the 3. Your teacher will demonstrate how fertilisers and chemicals can be applied when
down following conservation farming techniques.
-t. Practice applying fertilisers and manures.
Basal inputs
'c used If the fertilisers are available, they can be applied at any time before the beginning of the
rainy season. It is necessary to re-align ridges on the contour as this reduce the chance:
of applied fertilisers being washed away during heavy rains. Application of basa, Jl:
IS done in furrows made on the ridges. These furrows are made on top 0: the ri - :::~-
should be 15cm deep.
It is important to apply lime to the main field crops in Region III and an •0
;ngan where the soils are acidic. It is recommended that lime should be applied -0
field crops each season at 300kg/ha. It is important to use the right type of agri
'lee of on fields. Lime is used because of its qualities, which include:
• neutralising value of more than 90 percent
_in in • particle size of up to 0.01.
rains The quality oflime used is very important. The finer it is the better. However, any agricultural
e and lime is better than none at all.
_ .::rops
When applying lime, a 330ml can may be used. One can full oflime can be spread along
25 paces in a long furrow 15cm deep. This way 250kg of lime can be applied in a hectare
ofland. Other appropriate ways of applying fertiliser can be used by the farmer following
application instructions.
Basal dressing fertiliser or manure can also be applied at the same time lime is applied.
The 330ml can may again be used to apply fertiliser and manure. When the can is used to
apply fertiliser along a furrow of 25 paces; 200kg of fertiliser can be applied in a hectare.
However, when the can is used to apply manure, 2-3 cans would be needed per pace -
translating into 4 -5 tonnes of manure per hectare.
The applied basal inputs should be covered with about 5cm depth of soil. The remaining
depth of the furrow is where the seeds are sown.
Sowing/planting correctly
In the northern parts of Zambia, it is important to sow maize and groundnuts the day after
a heavy rainfall. This can be any time between the 8th and 31't of November. Do not sow
seeds into a dry field. When sowing, the soil should be moist enough to ensure germination
of the seeds even if it does not rain for the next two weeks.
Beans, soya beans and sunflower can be sowed between the 15th and 24th of December.
Beans can be sown in parts of the farm where maize failed to germinate.
Farmers can sow or plant correctly using a hoe by ensuring that the soil is left
undisturbed. Soil should only be disturbed by the hoe where the seeds are placed. A hoe
is used to dig appropriate holes where the seeds of the crop will be sown; leaving the rest
of the soil undisturbed.
Sowing distances between plants and sowing depths are as follows:
Sowing/planting
Crop Distance between Depth of soil fo

plants within the Sowing depth cover seed
row
5cm Covered with 5cm soil
Maize 20cm apart
Soya beans 5cm apart
Groundnuts 5cm apart
Beans 7-10 cm apart
20cm apart Covered with 2cm soil
Sunflower 2cm
2 seeds per station
Table 5.1 Sowing distance between plants in a row
Top dressing for maize can be applied when it is raining lightly. In sand soil it is important
to top dress twice with the first top dressing done when the crop is about 45cm (this is
about 30-35 days after sowing) high and the second time when the crop is about 90cm
":mg high. When the can is used to apply fertiliser at the top of the ridge alongside the growing
_:tare crop, every 25 paces, we would need 150kg offertiliser (urea/calcium ammonium nitrate
ing per hectare).
Weed control
ied.
It is important that early and continuous weeding is carried out during the crop growing
ed to
season. If weeds are prevented from seeding their population gradually reduces and the
time needed for weeding also gets reduced. Do not allow weeds to grow beyond 5-6 cm
high in the field before removing them.
ing Soil loss control

Soil loss is high on steeper slopes. In conservation farming, soil loss on steeper slopes can
be reduced by planting vetiver hedges.
On steep slopes where a hoe is used to make ridges, the establishment of contoured
vetiver hedges can be helpful. The vetiver hedge slows the flow of rain water, stops ridges
rter from collapsing and helps in retention of soil in the field.
<, _ )W
Vetiver is a fast growing deep- rooted perennial grass. This grass is palatable to livestock.
)
- n The grass is propagated by digging up the centre of big clumps that are more than 12 months
old. The leaves and roots are cut back and clumps are split to produce 20-30 tillers.
er. The tillers are planted into furrows along the side of every 15th ridge. Planting of this
grass should be done between mid December and mid January when there is enough
:noisture for the grass to grow.
~ft The soil around the slop' should be firmly pressed to make sure that the roots are in
good contact with the soil where thev are planted.
Once a few rows ofvetiver hedge: have been established in the field, dig up selected clumps
.he following rainy season, se ara e them and plant more hedges in the field.
Fig. 5.2 Planting vetiver grass in furrows

Exercise
1. When should basal inputs be applied to the field?
2. How much of the following can you apply per hectare?
a) Lime
b) Compound fertiliser
3. State the qualities of good agricultural lime.
4. How can a 330m1can be used to apply fertiliser and manure?
5. When and how should weeding be done in a field?
6. How useful is vetiver grass in the field?
l ----J
1. The growing of grains, legumes and cucurbits on the same piece of land is called
a) Mixed cropping b) Intercropping

c) Crop rotation d) Mixed farming
2. Intercropping is -----
a) Growing of two or more types of crops on the same piece of land at the same
time.
b) Raising cereals on the same piece of land at the same time.
c) Growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same farm.
d) Planting of crops in the same season, piece of land, in between each other and
the second crop harvested first.
3. Residues left in the plot -----
a Allow rain to soak and increase evaporation of water from soil
b Reduces sheet erosion and caping
c) Encourage runoff and infiltration
d) Drains water and nutrients.
4. Two underlying principles of conservation farming are -----
a) Reduced tillage and early sowing
b) Precise application of inputs and budgeting
c) Rotation with legumes and later sowing
d) Continuous weeding and increased tillage
5. In high rainfall areas it is advisable to plant crops -----
a) In basins
b) On contours running down the slope
c) On ridges
d) In barriers.
J
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Specific learning outcomes l..__ ~l
Bythe end of the unit, you must be able to:
i) describe the importance of livestock in Zambia
ii) identify parts of the digestive system of a bird
iii) describe the functions of the parts of the digestive system of the animals studied
iv) compare the digestive system of a bird and that of a pig
.alled v) explain the importance of the reproductive system of a bird and the functions of the
parts of the female reproductive system of a bird
vi) state the floor space to a house of poultry of different ages and list the equipment that
must be in a poultry house
vii) plan a simple poultry house and describe the principles of incubation
e viii) Brood day old chicks and identify pests of poultry studied
ix) explain ways pests cause harm to poultry and prescribe correct methods of controlling
pests in livestock studied
x) identify diseases of livestock studied and explain ways diseases can cause harm to
d
livestock
xi) prescribe correct methods of controlling diseases in livestock studied and how to
maintain proper poultry records
xii) collect, store and market eggs correctly and prepare birds for marketing.
:"'ivestockincludes domesticated animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, rabbits and
?oultry. In Zambia all these classes of livestock are kept. Some farmers also rear fish an
.-eep bees.
Activity 6. J
Form small groups.
Discuss what the management of domestic animals is called and what animal science
involves.
Record your findings in your notebooks.
Present your findings in a class discussion.
:'I.lanagement of domestic animals is called animal husbandry. Domesticated animals are also
called livestock. Animal science involves a study of methods relating to the management of
livestock including the care of young and mature animals, livestock improvement practices,
control of disease and parasitic pests, use of animal by-products and efficient marketing.
Importance of livestock
Why is livestock important? Since ancient times domestic animals have played various
important roles in the lives of human beings.
Activity 6.2
1. In your groups, list the importance oflivestock.
2. Discuss the importance oflivestock.
3. Present your findings in a class discussion ad take down notes.
1. The importance of livestock cannot be over emphasised. Livestock such as cattle,
) goats, chickens or their products such as milk, meat and eggs are sold to generate
income.
2. They are also used as food and since they are rich in proteins, they also help to fight
malnutrition in families.
3. The dung that collects in kraals and that of chickens is important. The chicken
droppings in chicken runs can be allowed to decompose completely and used as
manure to improve the fertility of soils in fields.
The diet for most Zambians traditionally consists of crop products. This was usually from
~-:;:e crop such as maize, cassava, sorghum or millet. Starchy foodstuffs are deficient of
- proteins necessary for growth and normal development. On the other hand, products
meat, eggs and milk contain all the proteins required by the body.
~u.. sicn of animal products in a diet can help correct protein deficiencies. However,
...•.
=._~
that the proteins that starchy foodstuffs are deficient of can be supplied with
eTO p ret ~-_ such as legumes. Although this is true, it must be appreciated that some areas
arms are unsuitable for crop production and only livestock can best use the
re ources a, - az Ie 1.'1. such areas. Naturally, good agricultural land will be used for crops
intended ior air cthuman consumption. Therefore, there is need to bridge the protein gap
that "ill be created. To achieve this and rapid economic development in the country, it is
important to cultivate crops and rear animals on the same farm. Each of these is a possible
_ urce of income. Livestock is kept for some of the following reasons:
-or sale
<- source of food (proteins) such as meat, milk and eggs
eans of transport, (draft oxen etc)
re and provision of hides and skins.
are also
.rnent of
Exercise L, J
.actices, State whether true or false for each of the following.
xeting. 1. True or False-poultry is livestock.
.,
True or False-management of domestic animals is animal husbandry .
3. True or False-inclusion of animal products in diet can help correct protein
arious deficiencies.
4. True or False-naturally good agricultural land will be used for livestock rrearing.
o, List four types of livestock reared on farms.
6. Why are livestock reared?
Digestive system of a bird

Domesticated birds (poultry) have a single form of stomach. The long oesophagus ends in
a crop. There is also a second grandular stomach, the proventriculus. The proventriculus
) cads into a lower portion called the gizzard which is thick walled and muscular. The internal
"'alls of the gizzard are hardened and horny. Some of the livestock with a stomach of this
•..pe are chickens, ducks and geese.
Activity 6.3
Form small groups of fie each.
Draw and label the digestive system of a hen .
s. Discuss the digestive functions of each part of the digestive system of a hen.
-a, Present your findings in a class discussion.
oesophagus
liver
mall intestine
rec
pancrease caeca
Fig. 6.1 Digestive system of poultry

A description of what happens in the various parts of the digestive system of poultry is as
follows.
Part of digestive What happens in the part of the digestive system
system
Beak Picks food up. Breaks down large food materials into smaller ones.
Stores and moistens food. Action of salivary amylase may take

Crop place.
Proventriculus Some enzymatic digestion takes place.
This grinds food. It turns food into a pulp through vigorous and
Gizzard powerful contractions of its walls, aided by small sharp pebbles
(stones).
Abomasum (true Further breakdown of food occurs. Here normal enzymatic digestion
stomach) starts. The stomach stores food and digestion of proteins starts.
Duodenum Major enzymatic digestion takes place.
The gall bladder releases bile, which emulsifies fats to make it

Liver possible for enzymes to digest fats.
Pancreas Releases most of the enzymes responsible for digestion.
Small intestines Absorption of end products of digestion takes place.
Absorption of water from the waste materials that have not been
Large intestines
digested takes place.
Caeca Waste products collect and Vitamin B synthesis takes place here.
Waste products pass out. Fertilisation and reproduction takes place

Cloaca/vent here. Outlet for eggs in the hen.
Waste materials are temporarily stored before they are removed

Rectum
from the body through defecation.
Anus Responsible for the release of waste materials outside the body.
Table 6.1 Digestion of food

ultry is as small colon
intestine
rectum
-0' ones.
anus
oesophagus
caecum
d
as
Fig 6.2 The digestive system of a pig
The digestive system of a bird can be compared with that of a pig. This can be done as
cestion follows:
) Chicken Pig
Beak Mouth
Oesophagus Oesophagus
Crop -
Proventriculus/gizzard Stomach
Duodenum Duodenum
Pancreas Pancreas
Liver liver
Small intestine Small intestine
Large interstine targe intestine
- :.
Caeca ectum
: ace Cloaca us
Table 6.2 Comparison betwee e d gestive system of a chicken and that of a
pg
Exercise L'-- ]
1. Draw and label the digestive sy em 0 a owl and state the function 0 ea art.
Reproductive system
------
Activity 6.4
1. In your groups, draw and label the the reproductive , tern of a hen.
2. Discuss how fertilisation takes place in a hen.
In poultry, the female produces ova from the ovary. The hen has only one functional ovary,
the one on the left. Unlike most other animals the ova produced are surrounded by hard
shells. The yolk of an egg is made in the ovary from food that a bird eats. At the same time,
an ovum is produced on one side of the yolk. When the yolk and ovum are ready, they
move from the ovary into the oviduct. As the yolk and ovum move down the oviduct, the
albumen of the egg is added. Before it reaches the shell gland (uterus), membranes are
added. Lastly, the shell is secreted round the rest of the egg from the shell gland. This is
also where pigmentation of the egg takes place. When the egg is complete and ready for
laying, it is inverted so that the broader end faces the caeca and moves down to the cloaca
(vent) which is the outlet for both eggs and droppings.
In poultry, it is important that fertilisation takes place as the ovum reaches the oviduct.
The egg develops whether fertilisation has taken place or not.
The table below gives parts of the reproduction system of a hen and their functions.
Part Function
Ovary Produces eggs.
Funnel Catches eggs from the ovary.
Oviduct:
Produces albumen
• upper most part next to funnel
Produces membranes
/ • middle part
J Produces shell
• t' ird region.
Keeps the egg for a few seconds on its way
Vagina out.
Table 6.3 Paris of a hen's reproducfive system and the funcfions

ovary,
v hard
A/lou"',
ie time, u:crtlt"!
,~t>O ••
.- they
~ct, the {wil"
J"/)ItHI¥
VI ;"c:ompi(,11:
'II)
"les are
This is
ady for
Il"dimml"""
- cloaca nth'i.lYid\lCI
-iduct.
)
Fig. 6.3 Female reproductive system of a fowl
Exercise l'---_--J
1. Draw and label the female reproductive system of a fowl and state the funtion of each
part.
Breeds of chicken
The poultry industry in Zambia is important although poor marketing, high feed cost and
many other problems have contributed to low production. However, poultry production
through the sale of meat and eggs can boost a family'S nutrition status and income.
NaY Activity 6.5

1. In your groups, discuss the most common types of poultry in Zambia, th
common breeds of chickens in Zambia and some of the breeders,
Chickens are the most common of all the types of poultry kept by farm
Although the introduction of exotic breeds have adversely affected indige
to their decrease in the country. But there are still a few indigeno
scattered around the country. Indigenous breeds are usually, sm
hardy, they are reasonable producers of meat and eggs. However
especially commercial ones, raise exotic breeds. Most of the -~ree
farmers are hybrids.
Hybrids are used for commercial egg and meat production. A hybrid is produced by
crossing two different breeds. Their offsprings are usually superior in performance to either
parent. They are capable of reaching a live mass of about 2kg in 8-11 weeks and layers laying
over 200 eggs per hen per year.
Some of the hybrid producers and breeds available are:
Breeder Day old chicks available
Caledonian Warren Standler Cobb's broiler

hatcheries limited
Hybrid poultry Arbor Acre "Hcrco" Arbor Acre 70' broiler

farm
Sykes 'H3'
F and G Sykes Syke 'Brown' Stabro broiler
(Zambia Ltd)
Shaver star cross
)
Table 6.4 Some hybrid poultry hatcheries in Zambia
Exercise L'--__ ___.J

1. Why are poultry hybrids used?
2. Why is there poor production in the poultry industry?
Rearing chickens
Poultry house
It is important to ensure that the house for poultry is appropriate. A good poultry house
should:
• provide protection for birds against animals
• provide protection from vermin and bad weather
• be well insulated and ventilated
• be oriented on an east-west direction to reduce amount of direct sunlight on side
walls during the hottest part of day
• prevent rain water from entering it
• have a concrete floor for easy clearing or hygiene reasons
• have enough space for birds to move around and exercise.
When selecting a poultry house to use, it is important to consider the floor space for the
birds.
_ced by Bird Age Floor Description of type of
either space in house
laying m2/bird
Chicks 1-4 days 0.02 Brooder house - house that has Drinkers
good ventilation, is weather (chick size
Brooder proof, has a concrete floor waterers
surround and is in an appropriate place or chick
(guard) is for easy movement. This is in drinkers)
extended. most cases a deep litter type of feeders
4 day house that will have litter on its (double
Brooder floor about 10-15cm high. sided chick
surround troughs).
(guard) is
removed.
7-10 days
)
Growers 3 weeks 0.2 Layers or broilers may be Tubular

moved to the chicken house. feeders
The chicken house should have adult c 'c. e-
the characteristics of a good drinkers
poultry house. A deep litter At around
house should be filled with litter 19 wee s
appropriate litter 10-15 cm of age layers
high. will need
nests and
perches in a
.)use in deep litter
house.
Layers From 0.53 Small moveable house Drinkers ::-:

around19 -foldpen. This can be 3.5m nests
weeks x 1 .5m x 1.5m. One third of
onwards the house is roofed to provide
side
shelter and laying area. The i
other two thirds is covered with
suitable wire netting. I
0.16 Battery cages - in this case -= I~
house is provided with cc:::=
-the These are made of Wire ~~-
are placed in tiers o-e ccc =
--
the other. The ho se: _
and ventilated. -r e - - - ::-
concrete
Broilers 3 weeks
age on-
0.16 Battery cages - in this case the
house is provided with cages.
Feeding and
watering may
I
words These are made of wire. These be automatic.
are placed in tiers, one above
the other. The house is well lit
and ventilated. The floor is of
concrete.
0.17 Deep litter house that has Tubular

the characteristics of a good feeders,
poultry house. It should be adult chicken
filled with appropriate litter 10- drinkers. The
15cm high. house can be
provided with
oerches.
Table 6.5 Appropriate houses for layers and broilers
Planning a simple poultry house

) In planning, construction and building a layer's house, the farmer needs to ensure that:
• a well drained area is chosen
• the site has plenty of natural air movements
• the house is oriented on an East- West direction to reduce direct sunlight on side walls
during the hottest part of day
• house does not allow water in
• house should be vermin-proof.
In hot, humid climate, the house design should be an open house as illustrated.
,")\..ICvlll;V UIIV
10'0· shuttered openings
j
roosts dro ppings
pit
1
wate-er hangmg tube teecer
o
....
@ ©
r--
b
...• 0
-- 60w light
--
nests
plast,,''',.®
storage bin "'11 "
--
--
(~
Nindow
Fig. 6.4 Design of a poultry house

Jnd
= 1l0Y
+ctic.
Exercise
1.
L...____ ~J
What are the qualities of a good egg for selling?
2. What are the qualities of a good layer?
3. How can you determine the quality of an egg for selling?
4. Why should culling be carried out in layers?
5. Why should a poultry farmer keep records?
Incubation
Incubation is the embryonic development of a fertile egg to a chick. For eggs to hatch it
takes:
• 21 days in chicken eggs
• 28-35 days in duck eggs.
Incubation can be achieved naturally or artificially.
)
Natural incubation
In this method a brooder or hen hatches 10-15 fertile eggs. She provides them with moisture,
warmth (heat), fresh air and turns them for 21days. A 'broody' hen is used to do this. This,
normally is a hen that has mothering qualities needed to care for the eggs. Usually, a simple
laying box is constructed and survival of chicks is high though only appropriate for rearing
chickens at a small-scale.
Artifical incubation
Artificial incubation i carrie out in an incubator. The incubator provides conditions
similar to those provided r the 'broody' hen. Inside the incubator, conditions are
maintained at an optimum level {or hatching:
temperature is 37 C (I" -0 - e:~ and 18th to 2151day)
moisture 55% (1 to the 1; day) and 00'0 (18th to the 21'1 day).
Turning rate 5 to 25 times ar an an.:. eo; LO'· during the 151to the 171hday. Thereafter eggs
are not turned.
Brooding
Chickens need a brooder house where rooding ran take place. The brooder house -
be built before the chicks arrive. 'here spare room- are available, one 0.-
converted into a brooder hou e.
A good brooder house should:
• have good ventilation
• be weather proof
• be in an appropriate place for easy management,
Fig. 6.5 Plan for a brooder
Activity 6.6
)
2. Your teacher will demonstrate how to make a simple plan for abrader.
3. Make a plan for a brooder for fifty chicks.
Brooder for fifty chicks

During the first eight weeks after a chick is hatched, it is kept in an enclosed area supplied
with some heat - brooder. A heater is used to keep chicks warm in the brooder. The
brooder should also be well ventilated and provided with water and food. During this
period, temperature is a critical factor. In the first few weeks, the temperature needs to be
as follows:
• 1st week - 33°C
• 2nd week - 27°C
• 3rd week - 21DC
• 4thweek - no heat provided (hardening off). However, this depends on the weather.
Preparation for arrival of chicks

The brooder house should be well prepared for the arrival of new chicks by:
• cleaning both walls and the floor
• sterilising two weeks before the chicks arrive (disinfecting)
• covering the floor with materials such as sawdust or straw.
The brooder should be erected 1-4 days before the chicks arrive. It should be circular.
The brooder guard (surround) should be of solid material. Surround (guard) is an enclosure
that -eeps chicks close to the source of heat in the brooder. In summer, a 1.2cm wire -
netting can be used as a guard. Each chick in the brooder will require 15cm x 15cm space.
The height of the brooder can be 30cm-50cm.
Shortly before the chicks arrive (6 hours) switch on the lamps and adj e temperature
to 2500 C. (One infra-red lamp of250 watts is enough for 100 chicks). When e tern erature
is:
• low - the chicks gather around the light or below it
• too high -the chicks spread out along the walls of the brooder
• low and there is a draught (cold wind blowing from one direction) - chicks g:l er on
one side where the temperature is favourable.
• right - the chicks are evenly distributed in the brooder.
Food is put in the brooder an hour before the chicks arrive. This reduces spoilage -
food through oxidation of its nutrients as it does not stay for too long before it is eaten
Terramycine chick formula is provided in the water founts (2.5g/water fount) twice a dar
during the first four weeks. This helps to reduce mortality rate in chicks brought about by
scouring bacteria.
)
The brooder surround is extended after 3-4 days and it is removed after 7-10 days from
the time the chicks arrived.
Exercise L'--- J
1. What should a good brooder house have?
2. State the meaning of incubation.
::>lied
3. How can you prepare the brooder house for the arrival of the chicks?
The
.::this
:0 be
Pests and diseases
Poultry pests
Parasites can be said to be organisms that derive their nourishment from another organism
while the host does not benefit from the association.
-zther, Adivity6.7
1. List the parasites that attack chicken. Do this in small groups of five.
2. Discuss parasites that attack chickens.
3. Describe the methods of controlling the parasites that attack chicken.
Mites sometimes attack poultry and may cause loss of:
• mass/weight
.ular.
• egg production
')sure
-.ire -
• feathers .
Mites can be controlled in poultry by disinfecting poultry pens with suitable
disinfectants.
Lice live on the skin and suck blood from the host. Fowls are attacked by head and feather
lice. Birds attacked by lice are of poor health and may eventually weaken and die.
These parasites can be controlled by spraying and dipping in suitable insecticides. In poultry
they can be controlled through:
• dry dipping
• dust bathing.
Fleas attack the comb and wattles of poultry. They can be controlled by spraying and dipping
in suitable insecticides. They can be controlled through dry dipping and dust bathing.
Poultry diseases
Diseases can be grouped according to their causal agents and of the way they spread. Those
caused by bacteria are called bacterial diseases, while those caused by fungi are fungal
) diseases. There are also viral diseases caused by viruses. Some of the diseases that attack
poultry are:
Symptoms Treatment
Disease
Vaccinate birds at yearly intervals. Start
Lack of appetite, thirst, high vaccinating when they are two or three
temperature, high breathing months old. This vaccine is applied to
Fowl
the leg. When live vaccine is used, they
typhoid rate and greenish yellow
can be vaccinated at eight weeks of
diarrhoea.
oqe.
Disinfection of pens can help. Disinfect
with a 10% solution of ammonia.
Wooden materials can be painted
with creosote. Treat birds using
Whitish - yellow blood Sulfamezathine for example 3 days on
stained diarrhoea. Poultry will treatment, 1 day off treatment, 3 days
Coccidiosis be anaemic and their feathers on treatment, 1 day off treatment and
stand out of their normal last 2 days on treatment.
position. However, the common practice is to
incorporate coccidiosis into the feed,
especially for young chicks. This is done
bv millina companies for the farmer.
Greenish blisters on the comb Vaccinate one to three days after

and wattles. Loss of appetite hatching and at 13 weeks of age (on the
Fowl pox
and decreased production. wing - wing stab).
_ui table
Respiratory problems, sudden

feather Newcastle reduction in egg production.
Birds may cough.
:,oultry
Table 6.6 Some diseases of poultry and their control
Exercise L..___ __ ~J
.::pping 1. List three diseases of poultry other than fowl pox.
ng.
2. Describe symptoms of fowl pox and how the disease can be treated.
3. Explain how you can treat Newcastle disease.
Those
Records
.ungal
zttack Record keeping enables the farmer to work out the profit and loss of an enterprise. Poultry
) records can be grouped into two classes, recurring and layers records.
Recurring records should contain information such as:
• number and cost of purchased chicks
:-::Jrt • daily food consumption

ee • cost of heating the brooder
• labour and medicine costs
ey
• number of dead chicks up to point of lay (POL).
Layers records can include:
• number and value of hens as they start laying
• number of eggs collected per day
• daily food consumption
• labour and medicine costs
• number of dead and culled hens.
Preparing eggs for marketing

Layers provided with high quality feed give eggs of high quality. There are many activities
that take place at the layers house.
Activity 6.8
1. Form small groups and discuss how you can prepare eggs for sale.
3. Report your findings in class.
Clean infertile eggs should be produced for commercial purposes.

Clean eggs can be produced if hens are provided with nests that are slightly slantin]
This makes it possible for the eggs laid to roll away. Eggs should be collected at least twice
day. This minimises breakages and dirt as hens may tend to sit on them for too long. Dirt
eggs should be cleaned with a moist piece of cloth and kept in a cool place (l30C),
Selection
Broken, deformed and soiled

eggs and those with bloodstains
are removed through candling.
Candling is the process of
placing an egg on the hole at the
corner of a special box to allow
light from inside the box to pass
through it so that the inside of
the egg can be.
) Eggs should be sold as soon

as possible. They should be
graded according to the colour
of shells, size and quality. This is
determined by the size of the air space. The smaller the air space the better the quality of
the egg. Eggs of different sizes are put in different trays with their sharp ends facing down.
This means the air space faces upwards. A good quality egg should:
• have strong/hard shell
• be regular - not too big and not too small
• be clean - no dirt or bloodstains
• have thick albumen (clear and firm)
• have a light coloured yolk (well-centred and free from blood and meat spots)
If eggs are stored, the storage room should have a temperature of l3°C and humidity of
about 12%.
Culling
The purpose of culling layers is to remove bad producers and non-producers. The following
guide can be used when culling layers.
Good layers
A good layer has:
• soft and red comb and wattles
• a large space between the pelvic and breast bone (four fingers fit if placed)
• a moist oval vent with few feathers around it
• pale beak, shank and eye ring.
.mting. Bad layers
- vice a
On the other hand, a bad layer has:
~ Dirty
• pale and rough comb and wattles
• small space between breastbone and pelvic bones (one or two fingers can il
there)
• a dry small vent with a lot of feathers around it
• yellow beak, shank and eye ring.
Preparing birds for marketing

Table birds can also be reared. These are chickens kept for meat production only. Ta e
birds are:
• broilers - birds slaughtered at 8-11 weeks of age after gaining a mass of 2kg
• roasters - birds slaughtered at 12-20 weeks (less tender than broilers)
• capons - castrated cockerels sold at 16- 22 weeks old after gaining a mass of 3kg (not
common in Zambia).
)
Activity 6.9
1. Form small groups and discuss how to dress the carcass of a broiler.
2. Record your findings in your exercise books.
tv of
3. Your teacher will demonstrate how to dress the carcass of a broiler.
.; vwn.
4. Practice dressing the carcass of a broiler chicken.
Preparing the carcass

After the chicken has been slaughtered, it can be hung in a cool place, head downwards for
24 hours. Feathers are removed soon after the bird is slaughtered.
Then drawing of the skin is done. The carcass is laid on its back and the head cut off. A
slit is made along the underside of the neck. The skin is then pulled towards the body.
~of
Fig. 6.7 Plucking a chicken Fig. 6.8 Closing the neck cavity
The neck can be cut off close to the body. Crop and oesophagus are removed as well. Push
the fingers through the neck opening to dislodge entrails. Enlarge the vent and pull out
the entrais.
The gall bladder is removed from the liver and the heart, gizzard and neck put aside. The
neck, liver, heart and gizzard are collectively called giblets. These are packed in a plastic
bag after they are cleaned and placed back in the body cavity.
Furthermore, the legs are also cleaned and placed in the body cavity. Make a slit around
each drumstick and expose tendons. Pull out the tendons, then push the end of the thighs
through the abdomen opening. Let them come out through the hole left by the removed
cloaca.
Exercise L'---__ ____.j

1. De cribe a brooder house.
How much space would 200 chickens need in a deep litter house?
3. Describe how the battery cages are arranged in the battery.
Continuous assessment t.,__ ____.J

1. Which of the following temperature ranges is suitable for incubation of hen eggs?
a) 40° - 41°C b) 38° - 39°C
c) 36° - SOoC d) 34° - 3SoC
Which of the following cannot affect the food conversion ratio of poultry?
a) Quality of feed b) Management practices
c) Cost of chicks d) Age of chickens
3 Study the diagram of a brooder and answer the question that follows.
What is the work of the the brooder guard?
a) Conveys heat from the brooder to the chicks.
b) Ensures that water in the brooder is clean.
c) Prevents other chickens from flying over.
d) Ensures that chicks do not move away from heat.
4. Complete this table.
Name of part Function
Crop
Proventriculus
l Grinds food
Duodenum
I
-Vhat is the purpose of giving chicks Terramycine soon after they arrive on the
farm?
'hy should layers be debeaked?
~.,. Push
:ull out
Ceo The
plastic
FARM STRUCTURES
zround
thighs Specific learning outcomes L..... -JJ
-:loved By the end of the unit, you must be able to:
i) describe an appropriate storage facility for vegetables and prepare vegetabl
storage
ii) list types of houses for poultry and describe appropriate houses for day old chic r
growers, finishers, point oflay and layers

iii) plan an appropriate house for a given group of birds.
) There are various important structures on a farm. This is because many production processes
are carried out under controlled conditions and not in the open. The structures help to
carry out operations in the right conditions to maximise output.
_s? Crops stored for food or for sale need to be protected from damaging elements such as
water, excessive temperature, insects and fungi. Livestock also need to be protected from
wind, rain and the sun. Crops need to be kept in conditions where diseases and parasites
are more readily controlled for production to be increased.
Activity 7. J
1. Form groups of five and list the structures needed on a farm.
2. Discuss each of the structures needed on a farm.
Machines on the farm also need to be protected. They should be protected from things
such as rain and dirt. In addition, farm machinery should be kept under condition- ere
corrosion, degradation and other negative processes are kept to a minimum.
Appropriate storage facility for vegetables

Different vegetables may require different ways of storing them. Green vegeta d
be stored for a short time since they are perishable. Therefore only enou~ vegeta le for
short term consumption or marketing should be harvested to avoid was age.
1. Green vegetables should be stored in a cool and well ventilated area \ ii high humidity
to reduce evaporation of water from the vegetables. Lettuce will do well in much drier
or open storage facilitie .
2. Lifted carrots should be stored in cool, dry and well ventilated facilities out of the
direct rays of the sun. The facility should have a provision for hanging them on after
they have been tied in bunches.
3. Beans should be mixed with ash and placed in bags and then be stored in a cool and
dry place with good ventilation.
Preparing vegetables for storage

Most vegetables are perishable - they do not store well. It is important to grow enough to
satisfy the demand and harvest only enough for selling or for food at a given time. Green
vegetables should be stored in a cool and well ventilated area. This reduces the development
of slimy rot, especially between the leaves of cabbages.
Onion bulbs can be left in the field on the soil surface (spread out) to dry and firm up.
They should, however be protected from the sun. Once dried, the bulbs are stored for a few
months in a cool, dry airy place. The leaves from several onion plants are plaited together
and hung under a roof until they are needed. They store well if the tops are allowed to
wither naturally, do not bend them as this may favour the development of diseases. They
can be dried off under cover in an airy place.
In wet periods, tomatoes can be harvested green and ripened by being kept in a warm,
dry environment for several days. They can be placed in boxes and kept in an appropriate
place to ripen.
Fresh beans or green beans do not store well and should be eaten as soon as possible
after harvest, although they may last for up to a week if placed in a cool place. Dry beans
can be stored in a cool dry place and
protected from weevils.
It is important to remember that
the harvested produce is usually used
to feed the family. However, if the
garden is \'ery productive, the harvest
may be too much to eat immediately.
The surplus can be sold directly to
people in the community or further
away. A gardener needs to realise that
in projecting the market possibilities,
it is important to investigate prices
and demand. It is important to know
- .hether it will be possible to supply
• e market regularly.
The surplus garden produce can
e processed. Processed food
Fig. 7.1 Onions stored under a roof
eaten at a later date or sold.
, the The processed food may command a higher price if it is for sale - it is .
after check the market price,
Some vegetables can be preserved by drying in the sun to be used in the ry--
and Furthermore, it is important to put up farm structures on infertile soils or places
meaningful cultivation can be done on the farm. Fertile soil can be used to grow
zh to
Exercise l...___ __ l
1. Most vegetables _
'een
a) Store well. b) Are perishable.
lent
c) Cannot be sold. d) Can be corroded.
2. Onions can be stored after drying and ripening.
up,
a) By drying them b) In a damp place
few
c) In a cool place d) Under an airy roof
-:her
ed to 3. Describe how onions are stored?
) -:bey 4. How can you store dry beans?
5. What type of storage room do green leafy vegetables need?
",rm,
There are two main systems of rearing poultry in Zambia and these are intensive and
riate
extensive.
ible Activity 7.2
~ans 1. Investigate into which groups intensive and extensive systems of rearing poultry can
be classified.
2. Your teacher will organise for you a visit to a poultry farm.
3. Observe the various types of poultry houses available on the farm.
4. Record what you have observed in your exercise books.
5. Discuss your findings with yur teacher in a class discussion.
Houses of poultry of different ages

Poultry can be reared under an intensive or an extensive system. The common systems
may be used are free range, fold system, deep litter and battery cages.
Activity 7.3
1. In your groups, investigate the kind of houses used for rearing po
area.
2. Discuss the poultry houses that you have listed.
Free range
Free range chickens at growing and laying stages are left to roam a given open area. Free
range is used where there is enough land. The open area may have a perimeter fence, then
a single shelter is provided where the chickens stay at night. About 200-300 chickens are
kept per hectare, which means about 50 square metres per bird.
Fig 7. 2 Simple shelter for free-range chickens
The fold
The fold is a simple method for rearing a limited number of birds, birds are confined in
small movable structures - the fold (arks).
The fold can be 3.5m x l.5m x l.5m to hold 10-15 birds. The fold is made in such a way
that one third of it is roofed. This provides a shelter and a laying space.
The remaining two thirds is open. It is covered with suitable wire netting. The fold is
moved to a fresh area every day.
Fig 7. 3 A fold for chickens

The fold has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are:
_;: Free
• manure is spread evenly on the area
.: then • feed cost is reduced

• worm and parasite build-up is reduced.
ens are
The fold has the following disadvantages:
• it is not durable
• many folds would be required for a large number of birds.
Deep litter house

When a deep litter house is used, birds are confined throughout their life in a house. A _
litter house is well ventilated and insulated. This helps to keep birds healthy.
The house should be in a well drained and easy-to-clean place. Its floor is lined wi •
litter up to 10-lScm high. The litter may be sawdust, wood shavings, crushed maize cobs,
chopped straw or other such material.
It is important that old litter is mixed with fresh ones so that bacteria are introduced to
break down the bird droppings. The process of breaking down the droppings by bacteria
releases heat that keeps the litter dry but warm.
However, the litter may become damp due to water spillage, droppings and high
humidity. This can be controlled by raking or using a garden fork constantly to turn the
litter and air it to dry.
It is important that old litter is removed when a new batch is introduced in the house.
The space in the deep litter house can be about 2-3 birds per square metre.
III
is
Fig. 7.4 Houses for the battery cage system and deep litter syste
In the deep litter house, layers need about one square metre floor space for e .e - ee
chickens, therefore, a building of 8m x 4m is big enough for 100 layers.
Broiler houses are constructed in the same way as layer houses, but broiler- need less
space - one square metre for 6-8 birds.
Battery cages
In battery cages, the birds are confined in cages. The number of cages may vary from one
to four. The cages are made of wire and are placed in tiers - one above the other. They
stretch the whole length of the house. The lowest tier of cages should be O.6m to O.9m
above the floor. This facilitates cleaning. In battery cages it is possible to keep 4-5 birds
per square metre.
Each battery cage has a sloping floor to allow easy flow of eggs. Droppings fall in a pit
beneath the floor and can be removed frequently.
The battery cage housing has many advantages such as:
• high stocking rate is achieved
• individual bird records can easily be kept
• absence of vices such as egg eating and cannibalism
• no contamination of food and water with droppings
• eggs are collected in a clean condition.
The disadvantages of battery cages are:
• high initial capital cost in constructing the cages
• requires a high level of management.
Brooder house
A brooder house is for chicks and should be built of bricks. This helps to keep the room
at a fairly even temperature and shelter it from - the wind. A brooder house needs good
ventilation and no spaces to prevent draughts.
Exercise l --J
l. Into which classes can the systems of rearing chickens be classified?
2. What are the advantages of the free range system of rearing poultry?
3. Describe the fold system of rearing poultry.
4. What are the advantages of the battery cage system of raring poultry.
5. Describe the battery cage system of rearing poultry.
l --J
1. Onions that have dried and ripened can be stored in a -----
a) Cool, dry airy place. b) Damp place.
c) Warm dry place. d) Hot place.
'here should a tool store be placed on a farm?
Near a source of water. b) In the garden.
Central place in the farm. d) Near the home.
3. A system in which growing and laying chickens are left to roam freeh -in an open area
is called?
11 one
a) Deep litter system. b) Battery cage system.
They
c) Fold pen system. d) Free range system.
O.9m
4. How many birds would you keep on a quarter of an hectare in a free range c..-.;:1'Pn"!
: birds
keeping chickens?
--:a pit
m
_ d
_j
FARM MACHINERY
Specific learning outcomes L.__ J
i) identify some hand tools used in the farm and demonstrate the proper use of hand
tools
ii) demonstrate the proper care for hand tools
iii) identify major parts of a hand sprayer and their functions
iv) identify animal drawn implements and the major parts of animal drawn
implements
Y) explain the functions of major parts of animal-drawn implements.
Machines are important on a farm. They make work easier. They can also enable the farmer
to manage waste or other unpleasant materials on the farm.
Hand tools
Tools make work easier. They are important for garden work to be done properly ..
Activity 8. 1
1. In your groups, identify the types of hand tools used in a farm or garden.
2. Discuss the common hand tools used in a garden or farm.
3. Record and report your findings.
It is important that a gardener has the best hand tools for use in the garden. It is better for
a gardener to have a few high quality tools than a large number of useless tools that may
break while she.he is using them.
Trowel Watering can

Mattock
and
Spade
Gardening fork
wn
Fig. 8.7 Some garden tools
Garden tools include axes, dibbers, gardens forks, hoes, mattocks, rakes, picks, plantings
lines, shovels, spades, trowels, and watering cans.
mer
Name
Used for
of tool
Axe Cutting or splitting wood.
Dibber Mal(ng planting holes for vegetables.
Garden fork ring litter, loosening soil, moving hay and many others.
Hoe :Jrimary and secondary cultivation (digging).
Mattock Digging hard ground and cutting wood.
Co ec"ng trash, weeds, hay, breaking soil clods and levelling soil in
Rake
for seec beds.
lay 3 ec i 9 stones and soil (its sharp point can be used to remove large
Pick
so es].
Planting line e-C5 r", g straight rows for planting.
Shovel - " 9 soil as well as digging.

Spade ::: -~ :0"1 as well as digging hard stony soil.
Trowel I-C:::-=-"-9 soil. digging holes and scooping seedlings r or: seea beds.
Watering can
I Fzs :::: -g '·0 er and watering (the rose fitted o· 'ec<Jcessoil
ere :- cr,c cc...,oge that can be done by wo er
a e 8. Some garden tools and theIr uses

Tools make work easier. However, before the farmer can choose the right tool, she/he
considers all the alternatives and their limitations. A tool should be used only for the
purpose for which it was made. They should also be held appropriately - for example,
when using a hoe, the left hand should hold near the middle of the handle and the right
one at the end of the handle.
Activity B.2
1. Demonstrate how to use garden hand tools, for example:
• rakes
• spades
• hoes
• watering cans.
One other garden tool is a hand sprayer. A hand sprayer is used to control pests and
diseases on crops. Many models of hand sprayers have a strap which enables the tool to
be strapped to the back of the operator. Essentially, sprayers consist of a tank into which
an appropriate pesticide is placed. The spray is released when the handle is moved up and
down, operating a pump that builds up pressure inside the tank containing the pesticide.
Pressing a trigger enables the pressure to move through a rubber hose and into the nozzle
releasing a fine spray.
Major parts of a hand sprayer

The major parts of a hand sprayer are a pump, strap, tank, handle, spray control and
barrel.
Activity B.3
1. Form small groups and identify major parts a hand sprayer.
2. Discuss the finctions of the major parts of a hand sprayer.
Functions of major parts of a hand sprayer

The functions of the major parts of a hand sprayer are as follows.
1. Tank/container - this is where the pesticide or any other chemical to be sprayed is
put into.
2. Handle - it is moved up and down to operate a piston that forces the pesticide up the
barrel and into the rubber hose.
3. Pump - it builds up pressure inside the tank or container in which the pesticide is.
-r , Strap - it is used for holding onto the sprayer or tying it on the back while
spraying.
:>. pray control - it is used to manage the amount or quantity of the pesticide that is
- emg released through the nozzle.
6. . ·ozzle - it is used for releasing a fine spray to the required target.
she/he
for the
ample,
"
e right
" tl1
, I,
j I'
'-1" r
\, .
and
pol to
Fig. B.2 A sprayer
and
ide.
Proper use and care of a hand sprayer is recommended. Carefully work out how to mix
zzle
the chemicals. Put the cap back on the tank and shake it to mix the chemical thoroughly
and break down any lumps. Adjust the nozzle to give the correct spray. Shake the tank
from time to time to keep the solution well mixed. If the nozzle gets blocked, remove the
and nozzle cover. Clear the blockage by operating the spray control once or twice. Clear the
hole in the cover and replace it.
When you have finished spraying, wash your spraying equipment. Clean the sprar
nozzles.
Exercise 1'---__ ----')

1. What are the following garden tools used for?
• Dibber.
• Garden fork.
2. Which tools can be used to:
• Scoop seedlings from the nursery?
• Dig hard stony soils?
Machinery tools
Machines can get damaged as they are used on the farm, therefore, to -
working conditions they need maintenance. For repairs to be CaITIe
farmer needs appropriate tools.
Activity 8.4
1. In your groups, identify the tools needed to repair machines on a farm.
2. Discuss the tools needed to repair machines on a farm.
Some of the common tools that can be used when repairing a machine on a farm are nuts
and bolts, hand pump, open-ended spanner, ring spanner, pliers and jack.
Fig. 8.3 Tractor

The following are some of the tools for repair of farm machinery and their uses.
Name of tool Used for
Pumping air under pressure into tubes of carts,
Hand pump
trailers and so on.
Jack Lifting tools or machines
Nuts and bolts Holding parts of metal or wood together.
Gripping the sides of nuts when tightening or

Open-ended spanner
loosening them.
Cutting wires and holding when a strong grip is

Pliers
required.
Gripping the top of a nut when tightening or

Ring spanner
loosening it.
Table 8.2 Some machinery tools

Exercise t., J
1. Explain how the following machinery tools can be used:
• jack
• nut and bolt
: nuts • pliers.
2. What can the following tools be used for?
• ring spanner
• open ended spanner
• hand pump.
Care of hand/garden tools

Tools are expensive and may be difficult to find. If they are damaged, or lost it is not easv
to buy new ones. Some tools are not found in this country and they may have to be bought
from other countries. This requires foreign currency. In addition, shops may not have some
of the tools we need, so we cannot buy them even if we have money.
Activity 8.5
1. Discuss how to take care of tools after using them.
2. Practice taking care of different hand tools in the garden under the guidance of the
teacher.
3. Brush dirt off some tools. Wash some tools and let them dry. Grease/oil some tools
and store tools carefully.
Taking care of our tools can help us to have and use them longer. Some ways of taking
care of tools are:
• keep all tools under cover to avoid damage from, for example, weather and animals
• using each tool for the purpose it was designed
• keep all tools clean, oiled and ready for use
• exposed, unpainted surfaces of spades, shovels, hoes, garden fork, and many others
should be smeared with a thin film of grease or oil when work for the seas n i:
over
• always keep tools in the toolbox after use (tool store) where they belong.
There are a number of important points that can be considered before a ore :room
for tools can be built. Some of these tools are the size of the store room. Thi cie~e - on
the type and number of implements to be stored. A commercial farmer is . cely 0 have a
larger tool store than a subsistence farmer.
The tools store should be at a central place where it is easy to get the tool for use as they
are needed. In addition, it should have shelves where small tools can be kept, these can be
divided into sections, for example a section for garden tools, brick layers tools, machinery
..
tools and so on. Furthermore, it should have racks where larger tools such as rakes, hoes,
garden forks and spades can be hanged.
How are tools repaired? As tools are used they are likely to be damaged and their efficiency
reduced. Buying new tools is expensive, so it is imperative that they are repaired.
Activity 8.6
1. Discuss what is involved in the following:
• soldering/welding
• riveting.
2. Discuss how a broken handle can be repaired.
There are many ways of repairing damaged hand tools, for example:
• oldering/welding - this is the common method of repairing metal tools or
metal parts of hand tools. In this method the two pieces of metal are rejoined
by use of a solder or welder..
• Riveting - in this method, a metal pin or nut and bolt are used to fasten metal or
wood together. Both ends of the pin are hammered flat to prevent slipping.
• Replacement of broken handles (wooden parts) these can be replaced by buying
handles that are available for sale or with handles made from wood on the
farm.
Exercise L ____..J
1. Why should we take care of our tools?

2. What should we do to make our hand tools last longer?
Animal-drawn implements
There are many types of animal-drawn implements. These can be primary tillage implements,
secondary tillage implements, planters, cultivaters, ridgers, and ox-carts.
Activity 8.7
1. Discuss animal-drawn primary tillage implements.
Primary tillage implements

Primary tillage is the opening of virgin soil, that is the first operation after the land has
been cleared. Which implements are used to open up virgin soil?
Implements that can be used for primary tillage are ox-drawn mouldboard plough and
the ripper.
akes, hoes,
efficiency
~d. Beam/frame
Wheel
11 tools or Lan ide share
e rejoined
Fig. 8.4 Ox-drawn mould board plough
metal or The most common ox-drawn primary tillage implement is the mouldboard plough. The
mouldboard plough is used for tilling land to prepare it for sowing/planting. The main parts
of the ox-drawn mouldboard plough and their functions are listed in the table below.
Part of implement Function of part of implements
Beam/frame Holds other parts of the plough together. I
Fixing parts of the plough that are adjusted before

I Hake and after ploughing.
I
Adjusting depth and width of ploughing is achieved
Depth rod by lowering the depth rod. To obtain a wide slice
the depth rod is moved to the right. II
ments, Draft rod For pulling the plough.
Link/hitch Linking the plough to a chain pulled by animals.
For adjusting ploughing depth and reducing

Wheel
resistance while ploughing.
Handles For stabilising the plough.
Frog For attaching parts involved in plouqhir-q.
Landslide For stabilising the plough when at wor _

.d has
Share For cutting furrow slices.
hand
Mouldboard For turning furrow slices and b -s ege olion.
Table 8.3 Main parts of an ox-drawn plough and their functions

Rippers
A ripper can be made by removing some parts of a plough and attaching appropriate parts
to the beam.
To make a ripper, remove the plough or ridging body from the beam. Detachable wings
are used for weeding if needed.
The type of beam to be used should be carefully selected. Only plough beams that have
smoothly curved shanks should be used. The plough beam should be laid on its back and
a ripper tine fitted to the body first.
Then the sub-wing should be attached to the ripper tine body. Now the ripper is ready
for use to make mall furrows in the field.
Beam
Detachable wings
Ridging body
fig. 8.5 Depth wheel and hitch of a ripper
Exercise L ---J
1. Which are the two ox-drawn implements that can be used for primary tillage?
2. What are the main parts of the following implements?
• Mould board plough.
• Ripper.
econdary tillage implements

- tillage refers to all operations aimed at refining the seedbed.
of five and identify secodary tillage implements.

ondary tillage implements.
rt your findings in a class discussion.
A harrow is used for breaking soil clods to make a fine tilth, levelling seedbeds, destroying
riate parts weeds and covering basal dressing fertiliser with soil. Some parts of a harrow and their
functions are as follows:
blewings
Part of a harrow Functions
that have Tines/spikes Breaking soil/clods.

ack and
Frame Holding tines/spikes.
~ready I Hitch/link
Linking the harrow to a chain pulled by
animals.
Table 8.4 Parts and funtions of a harrow
'ii:ch/link
Exercise L'-- ~,
1. What is a harrov . used nr on a farm?
2. List the main parts of an ox-dra rn arrow,
Ox-drawn seeders
Seeders are used to 0" see is, In orne cases, the arne implement ill - or
applying fertiliser attache to it, This would make it po ible for the .~.~_
for fertiliser application. In general seeders are sed to -prea
so that the required plant po ulatio :-er
deposit seeds at the correct dept in t e dirions.
Activity 8.9
1. In your groups, identify the major parts of an ox-drawn seeder.
2. Discuss the major parts of an ox-drawn seeder.
Seed plate
-Hitch/link
Press wheel
Fig. 8.7 Ox-drawn seeder

The main parts of an ox-drawn planter/seeder are as follows:
Part of implement Functions
Hitch/link Linking the planter to a chain pulled by animals.
Seed hopper Chamber where seed is placed.
Plate that picks up seeds and carries them forward

Seed plate
until they drop in a delivery tube.
Delivery tubes Tubes through which seeds pass into the soils.
Coulter Making furrows where seeds fall.
Drive shaft Rotating the seed plate.
Press wheel Pressing seeds into the soil.
Table 8.5 Main parts of ox-drawn planter and their functions.
Exercise L J
1. What is the use of a planter on a farm?
")
List down the main parts of a ripper.
Ox-drawn weeders
Ox-drawn weeders are used for weeding crops and they can al 0 o reak olid
clods after ploughing.
Activity 8. J 0
1. List the examples of ox-drawn weeders.
2. Discuss ox-drawn weeders common on farms.
4.
Wheel
Fig. 8.8 Cultivator

The main parts of an ox-drawn cultivator (weeder) and their functions are as follows:
Part of implement Functions
Hitch/link Linking the cultivator to a chain pulled by animals.
Wheel Depth control and reducing resistance while wor -

-
Handle lever Width adjustment.
Shallow cultivation, destruction of weeds and breaking soil
Tine clods.
Handle Controlling the cultivator.
Table 8.6 Main parts of a cultivator and their functions
Ox-drawn ridger
A ridger is an implement used to make ridges on which to plant some crops and may be
used to bury weeds by making ridges along the rows of the crops like maize.
Handle
Share
Wheel
Fig. 8.9 An ox-drawn ridger

The main parts of an ox-drawn ridger and their functions are as follows:
Part of implement Function{s)
Holds parts of the ridger together.

Beam/frame
Linking the ridger to a chain pulled by animals.
Link/hitch
Adjusting depth and reducing resistance of the

Wheel ridger while in use.
Handles Stabilising the ridger.
Breast plate Cutting soil vertically.
Wings (mouldboard) Turning soil and burying vegetation.

I Shore
Table 8.7 Main part of an ox-drawn ridger and their tu o s
Exercise L __Ji
1. What are ox-drawn weeders used for on a farm?

--be 2. List the main parts of a cultivator.
Ox-drawn cart
Agricultural produce and inputs may need to be transported to where they are sup
to be used or stored. An ox-drawn cart may be used for this.
Parts of implement Functions
Acts as a lever - force from draft animals is applied

Dissel boom
to it.
Hitch Connects the dissel boom to the yoke.
Wheel Facilitates movement of the cart by reducing friction.
Table 8.8 Main parts of an ox-cart and their functions.
The ox-cart is an improvement on the sledge and it is used for carrying materials on the
farm such as fertiliser, harvested crops and many other things.
Some advantages of ox-drawn implements are:
• they are not as expensive as buying a tractor
• they use oxen thus oil/fuel expenses are not eliminated
• they do not need advanced technical knowledge
• they use oxen on which no repairs are required
• easy to obtain.
Some disadvantages of ox-drawn implements are:
• oxen can work at one stretch for only 4 hours, which is slow
• oxen can only work well when the weather is cool
• after work, oxen have to be allowed to rest and feed
• oxen may fall sick or die.
Exercise L'---__ ~)
1. What is a cart used for on a farm?
2. List the main parts of a cart.
Storage for farm machinery

It is important that farm implements are prepared for storage. Tools are expensive and
may be difficult to find. If they are damaged or lost it is not easy to buy new ones. Some
tools are not available in this country and they may have to be imported. This requires
foreign exchange. Sometimes the shops may not have the tools we need even though we
may have the money.
Activity 8. J J
1. Form small groups and discuss how we can prepare hand tools for storage.
3. Identify the type of store rooms for hand tools and ox-drawn implements.
• Farm implements need to be prepared for storage.

• They should be kept clean, oiled and ready for use.
• Exposed unpainted surfaces of spades, shovels, hoes, garden forks and many others
should be kept smeared with a thin film of grease or oil when not in use, for example,
if the season of use is over.
• Mould board ploughs, harrows, planters, and weeders need to have all moving parts
greased and a rust preventive solution applied on them.
Simple implements can be stored under a roof on poles or on a hard floor. However, to
store the tools safely, they will need an enclosed building with good lighting, a concrete
floor and pit that is properly drained and a strong work bench so that simple machine
maintenance can be carried out when necessary.
The size of the store room will depend on the type and number of implements to be
stored. A regular work area can be about 7m x 6m. The building should have a 4.5m square
well drained concrete space outside for cleaning the machines to ensure that no harm is
done to the environment.
The tool store should be at a central place where it is easy to get the tools needed. The
tools store should have shelves where small tools can be kept, these can be divided into
sections such as:
• garden tools
• brick layers tools
rnachinery tools and so on.
Activity B. J 2
1. Visit a farmer with an appropriate storage facility for animal-dIaWII."~::::"
• find out from the farmer how animal-drawn implements are p~
are stored
• in class describe the appropriate storage facility for animal-drawn irnpllrB".1_
saw.
2. Take down notes in the course of the discussion.
CiS. 8.10 Tool store for small implements
Exercise L'---_-___.]
1. Where sho a re e located on a farm?
2. Describe ho ernent can be stored.
L.____- J
1. Which of e u e to drive nails and rivet tools?
a) b Plane
c) d Hand drill
FARM MANAGEMENT
Specific learning outcomes L'- ~J
i) describe the term farm management
ii) explain why it is not possible to produce goods indefinitely
iii) explain the meaning of the term opportunity cost and production decision in
agriculture
iv) explain the difference between simple and compound interest
v) explain the importance of various financial documents
vi) prepare production records and describe the term enterprise
vii) explain gross output and gross margins of an enterprise and choose an appropriate
enterprise
viii) explain the term grading and standardisation
ix) grade produce from an enterprise.
Farm management involves careful forward planning and utilisation of resources of land
and labour. It calls for a manager to have knowledge of the market. It is important to bear
in mind that regardless of the size of the farm, good management is important.
Activity 9. J
2. In your groups, discuss why there are variations in farm performance.
4. Present yourfindings in a class discussion.
Variation in farm performance
Farmers in Zambia have the ability to grow crops and raise livestock. Hov.ever
does not mean that the farmers have farm management knowledge.
Farm management is more than just the skills of growing crops ~~
However, some variations in farm performance can be attributed to -:=_
such as climate, soil, farm size, capital, labour and type of en e~ --__
However, even after these factors have been acco remains huge
differences in farm performance, which how- in -
wide range of income from different farm- o s constant, is due to
management.
Farm management is the art and science of organising and operating a farming business.
In farm management, there are two aspects involved and these are the technical aspect and
the business aspect. The technical aspect requires knowledge of the scientific principles
and practical skills of crop and animal production. On the other hand, the business aspect
requires decision making, planning, judgement and business ability to think and judge
accurately and fast.
When a farm manager is given a range of alternatives, she/he should be able to decide
what to produce, how to produce it and how much of it to produce to maximise profits
from the available resources on the farm.
Exercise L..____ __,J

1. State the meaning of farm management.
2. Explain why some farmers perform better than others.

3. What does a farm manager do?
4. What does farm management involve?
Agricultural economics
Agricultural economics is the study of how limited resources (land, capital and labour) are
used to produce crops or animals on a farm. It is not possible to produce unlimited supplies
of goods on a farm. This is so because the resources on a farm are limited. This makes it
imperative to make a choice about the use of the resources on the farm. The farmer needs
to choose what to grow on the available land, whether to use the available labour to clear
land for a new crop or for weeding the existing crops on the farm.
The farmer needs to realize that the production process takes time. Some crops may
take long before they are ready for harvesting and sellingand in that period the market
conditions may change and the prices may go down.
Growing such a crop may prove less profitable than was expected. The farmer faces
uncertainty in deciding what crops to grow. Furthermore, the crop produced will need to
be distributed to the markets. This needs a network of markets and vehicles to distribute
the crop. The prices in the market are very important. If prices are poor, profits will be low
and the farmer will be discouraged from growing the crop.
Exercise l..____ ___"J

1. State the meaning of agricultural economics.
2. Why is it not possible to produce unlimited supplies of produce or products on a
farm?
3. What factors does the farmer need to consider about the production process when
deciding what crops to grow?
usiness.
ctand Opportunity cost
nciples It is important to remember that resources are limited. Since resources are limited there
aspect is need to make a choice. This means that if we choose to grow groundnuts on a piece of
•judge land that could also be used to produce sorghum, then we miss or forgo the chance to
grow sorghum.
':ecide In the same way, if we only had enough money to buy either a bag of lime or a bag of
+rofits seed and we decide to buy a bag oflime, then we forgo the value of the seeds that were not
bought.
In both cases, we have missed the value of the forgone alternative, the value of the
sorghum and that of seeds. Opportunity cost is the value of the forgone alternative when
we make a choice.
Exercise L'-- J
1. State the meaning of opportunity cost.
2. Give an example of opportunity cost on a farm.
3. Why doe: a farmer make a choice of what to produce on the farm?

are
-':'e Production decision
It
The farmer' objective I to obtain maximum satisfaction, which is measured in terms of
profits. Profit i the ifference between the value of the resources used (input) and the value
ar of the produce or r ct output). The farmer's objective is to maximise profits.
For the farmer to maximise profits, she/he needs to make important decisions on:
• what to proo ze
• how to pr ce
•
• ell.
However, s political factors also matter in a farmer's choice of crop
livestock to pr - r le who, for instance due to their religion do not eat por - are
not likely to be :: _ rx producers. Farmer's whose production decisions are as on

ccept certain enterprises only when the whole COmID
_~"Go -ernment policies on taxation of profits, price:
" can influence a farmer's decision on s.hat 0
- encourages the growing of a certain -r!- .- giving
e enterpri e. If there is poor t: lirica' stability,
e terprises such a rearing roi ers rather than
Exercise L'-- J
1. What does the term profit mean?
2. What should a farmer do to maximise profit?
Types of credit available to a farmer

A business can run well when there is capital. Agricultural enterprises are businesses and
the farmer needs capital to invest on the farm. Capital is needed for many purposes on a
farm, for example, to buy food for livestock, fertiliser, pesticides, implements and many
others.
In most cases, farmers obtain their capital from banks, government credit agents and
cooperatives. In most cases, farmers are given credit by the agencies when they present
security against which the loan is given.
There are three types ofloans (credit). Short term, medium term and long term.
In groups of five, investigate where farmers get their credit and the types of credit
available.
A short term loan is repaid after one or two years. A short term loan can be used to buy
inputs such as seed and fertilisers. Medium term loans are repaid over a period of three to
five years. This type ofloan can be used to buy agricultural machinery.
Long term loans are repaid over ten to fifteen years. Such a loan can enable a farmer to
buy land.
Interest
When a fanner borrows money, she/he has to pay more money than she/he borrowed.
The extra money paid on top of the borrowed amount is called interest. Interest is a charge
imposed on borrowed money over a specific period of time. In most cases, this charge is
expressed as a percentage of the borrowed amount. It is also called the percentage rate per
annum. The following are the factors that determine the amount of interest to be paid
• Sum of money on which the interest is payable (principal).
• Percentage rate.
• Length of time over which the money is borrowed.
When the interest due is added to the principal, it is the same for each year and the total
can be found by multiplying the interest for one year by the number of years. For example,
find interest on ZMK5,OOO,OOOfor 2 years at 5% per annum.
ZMK5, 000,000 x 5/100 x 2 = ZMKSOO,OOO.
Simple interest is the interest earned on the principal alone as calculated above.
To calculate compound interest, the interest attracted by the loan in the previous
year is added to the principal and for the next and subsequent periods, the interest is
calculated as principal plus the interest of the previous period. In other words, the interest
is cumulative.
nesses and Exercise L..___ J

poses on a
1. List the type of credit availa le 0
and many
2. List the fa ors that ere interest to be paid.
.gents and 3. Describe a
!y present 4. State ~
rm.
Records
of credi
Activity 9.3
1.
e 'Pes of record - on a farm.
2. - on a farm.
3. that you have identified.
4.
The farmer ~
• To en
• Tom =-= \ rhich crops should be grown, with how
much
no
• Tom ~ ~ e costs and returns on the enterpri e.
. unplements or new farming me
•
• that he
• that h
• that h er rarm 0
• on the history of the farm
• that helps in making insurance claims
• that help in farm planning and budgeting.
Some of the records kept on a farm or any business are as follows:
Inventory
This is a complete list of all physical assets and liabilities at a specific date. In any inventory,
the value of all the assets and liabilities are clearly indicated. It also shows what amount of
capital accumulation may have gone into the business over time.
When taking an inventory, physical assets are examined and application of valuation
to the physical assets is done.
When an inventory is being taken, it is necessary to go around the farm to discover how
much of each asset is there. This is important for the verification of numbers, weight and
measurements. Losses and wastage are always taking place. This can cause considerable
errors if the inventory is not done carefully. An inventory is necessary at the beginning
and end of the accounting period, which could be a year.
Financial records are also kept on a farm. Some of the financial records used are invoices,
receipts and purchase orders.
Invoice
It is important that whenever there is a transaction made on the farm, a record is made
clearly to trace the history and operations of the farm. When farm produce or a product
is sold, it can be either on account (credit) or on cash basis.
If the product is sold on credit, then an invoice is given to show the product sold and
its value to the buyer.
This helps to keep a record of the amount owed to the farm. This type of receipt from the
seller to the buyer is called an invoice. This is made at the time of the sale of the produce or
product. If the produce or product is sold for cash, then a cash sale receipt is written. This
shows that the transaction has been completed between the two parties.
Activity 9.4
2. Discuss the information an invoice, receipt and purchase order should show given
the information below.
• If for example Mr. Mulenga bought 100 50-kg bags of maize for ZMK1O,OOO,OOO
from
Gonde Farm on credit then Gonde Farm would give Mr. Mulenga an invoice.
• Whenever a payment is received, a receipt must be made to keep the records straight.
If Mr. Mulenga bought the maize on cash basis, a receipt would be issued.
3. Come with an invoice and a receipt that Mr. Mulenga would receive.
4. Each group should display their receipts and invoices to other class members.
Purchase order
A purchase order is a request by a farm to the maize dealer or wholesaler to supply the input,
produce or product in the quantity specified. This may be inputs advertised and prices are
quoted to the maize dealer or wholesaler, the purchase order includes all the specifications.
Sometimes the order can be made through internet or phone.
PURCHASE ORDER
PO>
PO oee
To !Compatly N•.~l Ship To lComp.loy N.tlTl('j

ICornpa_ny Addreu] {Company Addrtss!
tow. ST ZIPCod~1 !Clty, ST ZIP Cod~l
AUn
Phon~
,,, Ph"."
f"
Ema,1 Ema,l
-~Sub-,,,,~.,--t -
3~ +
Fig 9.2 Purchase order
Delivery note
When goods are delivered to a farm they are accompanied with a delivery note. This shows
what has been delivered, The farmer checks it to see what has been delivered.
COMPANY NAME OEUYERY HOTE
'7 -.
.;-
.;-
- -
_-_-------_.-._._.",
Fig. 9.3 Delivery note
However, it is important to understand that a purchase order is only an offer to buy
and the seller can accept or reject it. Because of this no accounting entry is made upon the
issuance of the order by the purchaser or upon receipt of an order by the seller until the
seller sends the purchaser an invoice describing the inputs, produce or products and all
parties have accepted the liability.
Activity 9.5
1. In your groups, discuss what a production record should show.
2. Each group should come up with an example of a production record.
3. Presesnt your findings in class.
Production records
Production records are kept for each enterprise. The farmer writes down all the things
he/she buys or pays for as he/she starts the enterprise. In case of cabbage growing, the
amounts of lime, manure, fertiliser, and seed used have to be on record as these are the
inputs.
Exercise 1.'--_------J
1. What is an inventory?
2. What is a purchase order?
3. What does the farm need records for?
Enterprise
\\That is an enterprise? It is a business unit on a farm. Some of the examples of farm
enterprises are cabbages, beans, rape, broilers, layers and so on.
Activity 9.6
1. In your groups, discuss how to choose an enterprise on a farm.
2. Recordyour findings in your notebooks.
There may be need at the end of every enterprise to find the gross output, gross margin
and net margin (profit. Gross output of an enterprise reflects the total output regardless
of costs incurred to produce it and will depend on:
• yield • price
• sale of enterprise • valuation changes.
To calculate the profit of an enterprise, you must know the costs incurred. Costs can be
classified into variable and fixed costs. Variable costs are direct or allocable costs, which
rise with scale of enterprise, for example, feed, seeds, fertilisers, sprays, veterinary services
and so on.
fer to buy Fixed costs are not easily allocated to enterprises. They are not altered with small changes
! upon the in scale of enterprises; for example, labour, fuel, depreciation, overheads (money spent
. until the regularly; for example, on electricity, insurance to keep a business running).
:ts and all
At one stage, the farmer may look closely at the farm in general and discover that he/
she is planning his/her farming activities correctly, the farmer may now wish to look at
each enterprise separately, assuming he/she knows the income from each, but it is advisable
to find out all the costs of a specific enterprise. For a crop enterprise, this includes the
cost of the seeds, fertili er, pesticides and al 0 miscellaneous costs of fencing and so on.
A proportion of each of the e costs can be added to each enterprise. The results of these
calculations will be a erie of figure .It mar no e :mmediately obvious that one particular
enterprise may be very ro -ta le an 0 e e refits, because some costs will stay the
same whilst others change.
hings
Results of enterpri e- can ether it would be worth changing
ring, the
: are the
•
• eliminating an en e
• reducing or expan
Before any change is made e
A small change can be plann
Current enterprise
Cost of growing 1
onions
f farm
Seed . 20,000
280,000
Fertiliser .
100,000
Ploughing . 400,000
argin
idless Sale value 1,600,000 Sale value 3200,
Table 9.7 Plan for an enterprise
Gross margin from one hectare of cabbage is ZMK2,200,OOO and from one hectare E onion
is ZMKl,485,OOO. The effect of changing one hectare of onion to one hectare of cabbage is
a gross margin ofZ:\1K2,800,OOO - ZMKl,600,OOO = ZMKl,200,OOO.
How can one choose an activity mix? An activity mix can be cho en by using gross
margins. This can be done by selecting activities with the highe t gross margins per unit
oflimiting resources (land, capital, labour). Ifland is the limiting factor for the farmer he/
she will aim for an enterprise yielding the highest gross margin per hectare. The enterprises
should then be expanded until it meets some constraints; for example, availability oflabour.
The farmer should then choose an enterprise with the next highest gross margin per hectare
that can be fitted in.
Such a procedure is then repeated until all the available resources are used to the limits
of the constraints imposed on their use. However, the following precautions should be
taken when using gross margins.
There are many factors that need to be considered before an enterprise can be chosen.
For planning:
• Compare gross margins on the basis of a common denominator, for example, 10
hectares of cabbage or 10 hectares of tomatoes; gross margins should not be used as
a basis for planning change until technical efficiency has been assessed (one should
not replace an enterprise with a low gross margin until you are certain that the gross
margin cannot be taken into account (suitability of soil type, area available, availability
of market).
• Suitable labour must be available and in sufficient quantity to meet seasonal peaks.
• Capital limitations should be considered.
Grading and standardisation

Grading is the process of sorting agricultural produce or products into different classes
or grades according to type, colour, quality and size. It enables the produce or products of
the same class or grade to be sold in uniform parcels.
The base of good grading is made when the crop is being grown or when the livestock
are reared through good management.
Standardisation is the establishment and application of measurements. This can be for
quality or quantity. For example maize may be sold in bags of agreed mass such as SOkg.
It facilitates the establishment of criteria for inspection and control. This helps to ensure
safety and prevents exploitation of buyers as well as sellers. Grading and standardisation
facilitates buying and selling and especially the pricing of produce and products.
Activity 9.7
1. Form groups of five and discuss what grading and standardisation is.
3. Grade tomatoes and cabbages with the help of your teacher.
Exercise L.._____~J
1. State the meaning of enterprise.
2. State the meaning of gross margin.
3. What is meant by fixed costs.
Irises 4. What does gross output depend on?
xiur. 5. What is meant by variable costs?
ctare
mits
l. What is an enterprise?
L'---__ J
d be 2. State two meanings of each of the following:
a) gross output
isen. b) gro - margin
c) profit.
:, 10 3. Give three rea on why keeping record on a farm are necessary.
·das
mId
ross
ility
\___)
ks.
sses
5 of
for
kg.
He
Agents of weathering - forces that cause rocks to break down.
Artificial fertiliser - chemicals specially prepared for supplying nutrients to a crop - highly
concentrated in the specific nutrients.
Arable farming - growing or raising crops.
Basal dressing -a fertiliser put in the soil before or at the time of planting the crop.
Breed - a particular type of animal or plant.
Capillarity - the passing of water through very fine spaces between soil particles.
Carbohydrates - substances which contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Castration - removing the testes from a male animal to stop it from breeding.
Certified - tested to make sure something is of good quality.
Concentrates - food rich in proteins, given to livestock.
Compost - manure mixed with decayed organic material.
Compound fertiliser - fertiliser that contains two or more major elements.
Commercial farm - a large farm producing crops and food for sale.
Constituents - parts contained.
Control experiment - an experiment carried out alongside the main experiment in order
to prove that no conditions have affected the results other than the one being tested.
Cull- taking weak or unproductive stock out of the flock for slaughter/taking out old, poor
or weak stock.
Conversion - changing from one form to another.
Credit - not paying for goods until later.
Crop - a plant grown for a particular use; the part of a bird's digestive system where food
is stored.
Crop rotation - a planned system of growing different crops on the same land from one
season to another.
Cross-breed - an animal produced from the mating of one breed with another.
Diet - the different kinds of food required to give the body needed nutrients.
Drainage - water running oyer a surface or through the soil.
Dressed - a slaughtered chicken which has had its feathers and intestines removed and is
ready for cooking.
Drill - a row made in the soil for sowing.
Fertile - able to be productive.
Financial - something concerned with money.
Knapsack sprayer - a piece of apparatus worn on the back and -
protect them against pests and diseases.
Livestock - farm animals kept for production.
Manure - a substance added to the soil to enrich it with nutrients.
Minerals - any substance derived from rocks.
Nutrients - substances needed by plants and animals.
crop - highly Organic matter - substances coming from plants or animals, containing carbon.
Organism - a living thing.
Parasite - an animal or plant that lives on or in another animal or plant.
e crop. Pest - an animal or plant that is harmful to human beings or crops or livestock.
Profit - the amount of money remaining from a business after all the expenses have
:icles.
paid.
md oxygen. Protein - chemicals containing nitrogen found in plants and animals and a valuable part
g. of food.
Ration - a mea ured amount of food given to farm animals.
Records - note hov ~g progress made in a project.
Research - studying to rind out something new.
Rotation - moving ro in order, one after the other.
Soil profile - a W - cal cro s-section of the soil showing the different layers.
Sowing - placing: - - carefully in the soil.
nent in order Soil fertility - na richness of the soil to support the growth of crops.
g tested. Stakes - piece- 0- rood fixed in the ground to hold something up.
out old, poor Straw - dried ~ - 0 grass or crops.
Sterilising - fie 0- removing harmful organisms by killing them quickly.
Symptoms - '_
Tilth - the 0_ er 0 . :oil in which germination of seeds takes place.
n where food es on a cultivator.
Tines - blades
Thinning 0 .veak plants from a row so that the others grow better.
.nd from one dded to the soil while the plants are growing.
Top dressing - _
Variety - pa .
her.
Vitamins - - s ances found in microscopic amounts in plants and animals
a necessan' r , to enable normal growth.
Waterlogge - • - - , of water.
oved and is
Weathering - y caused by the action of the weather.
Yields - to al ~:!:rr:.::n:- • crop produced from a piece of land.

Achievers Junior Secondary Agric 8

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~-nit 1: Agriculture In Zambia 1

_bm agro-ecological regions of Zambia 5

Zambia agro- ecologial regions 6

Factors that influence agricultural development 6

Diversification of crops and livestock prodution 10

Unit 3: Crop production 32

Preparing compost manure ...0

? anting vegetab1es -1:3

Poles and handles 61

Preparing a tree nursery 62

Unit 5: Conservation farming · ·· · ·.. ··.. ·· 65

Mixed farming ·.···················································

Fertiliser and manure application ······ 71

Digestive system of a bird 77

Rearing chickens ·································

Brooder for fifty chicks ······································ 86

Pests and diseases 87

Cnit 7: Farm structures 93

Appropriate storage facility for vegetables 93

Houses of poultry of different ages 95

Hand tools ······· 100

Importance of agriculture in Zambia

1. Form groups of five and identify the importance of agriculture in Zambia.

Fig. 7.7 A combine har~ester at work

" gricultural activities in Zambia

Food crop production

Areas not suitable for some agricultural activities

wesem Zarnbezan qrasslaocs _[ Zarnbezian Hooded grasslantt Soubem R~

Fig. 1.3 Infertile soils of Zambia

ain agro-ecological regions of Zambia

eglon II - Zone lIa

Zambia agro- ecologial regions

Fig. 1.4 Agro-ecological regions of Zambia

Factors that influence agricultural development

e disadvantages of price control

Diversification of crops and livestock prodution

of rail. The areas are:

Exercise L...____ __.J

Continuous assessment L...__ J

Exercise L'---__ ___,j

Fig. 2.1 Inorganic particles of soil

Activity 2.6 Experiment

Fig. 2.3 Soil components

Exercise L._____ ___,J

mportance of layers of a soil profile

Choice of crop in relation to soil layers

Name of particle Size of particle in diameter

Clay Lessthan 0.002 mm

Table 2.1 $oil texture

Granular material (Fine bits of clay and sand) Silt

No one particular particle is dominant (40·70% sand) (20·40% clay) loam

Table 2.2 Types of soil

Fig. 2.6 Drainage of soils

rygen 20.3 21.0

I ·rogen 70.0 79.0

Table 2.3 $oil air and atmospheric air

anures and fertilisers

3. Sheep manure 0.7 0.3

Name of nutrient and content

Determine quantities of fertiliser required by a crop given various ratios

-le, Compound A: 2: 18:15

Exercise L...__ .J

Exercise L'--- _,j

Exercise L.___ _,J

Exercise L... ,J

Exercise L.._ __,J