Forum
CON SORDINO:
The Art of the
Mute
By Kenneth Sarch, Violin Forum Editor
The string mute is a device placed upon the bridge to soften
and alter the tone color for quiet passages. Nobody has defined
the mute in more artistic terms than Leopold Mozart in his
eighteenth century violin treatise: the mute is “to be put on
the bridge of the violin in order to express better something
quieter and sadder” (Mozart [1756] 1963). According to David
Boyden (1965, 205), the earliest mention of the mute is by the
French theorist Mersenne, who describes the violin mute in
1636. However, we do not find the mute called for in surviving
scores until the end of the seventeenth century—for example,
in Lully’s opera Armide (1686) and Purcell’s Fairy Queen
(1692). There is no known use of the mute in the advanced
music of the Italians and Germans before the eighteenth
century, when it begins to appear in solo pieces (Vivaldi)
having been used prior in ensemble and opera music of the
seventeenth century (339).
As early as Leopold Mozart’s time, string players could
choose mutes made of various materials. Mozart ([1756]
1963, 322) mentions wood, lead, tin, steel, or brass.
Contemporary string players tend to choose mutes for
reasons of convenience and expediency (and sometimes
price) over artistic reasons—not choosing a mute for its tone
quality and dynamic level. Because a mute can change the
volume, timbre, and quality of an instrument’s tone, an artist
performer needs to know how each type and design of mute
will affect the sound of the instrument in different settings—
that is, in a large hall with piano or orchestra, or a smaller
venue and in the recording studio.
The most notable example of the search for the “right” mute
comes from the great Jascha Heifetz. When Heifetz tried
available mutes for muted passages in solo works, for example
the Tchaikovsky concerto slow movement, he was frustrated
that available mutes dampened too much for concert halls with
orchestra and changed his violin tone. He found a craftsman-
inventor, Henryk Kaston, in Brooklyn, New York, who
worked with him to develop a solo mute consisting of a metal
clip overlaid with rubber designed with a single prong that
produced a muted but full and rich tone—what we know today
as the Heifetz or Solo mute. (More on the Heifetz mute later.)
Few violin treatises mention the mute; I don’t find any
mention in Galamian or Menuhin, for example. However,
good old detailed and thorough Carl Flesch ([1924] 1939,
103) has several comments in The Art of Violin Playing: “The
sordino . . . may be made of wood, bone or metal. Wood,
as experience teaches, sounds the best.” “In general, the
dampening effect must be accounted one of the cheapest of
the violinist’s art, and hence it is used by violinists of high
24 | American String Teacher | November 2017
Some examples of the mute for strings.
artistic standing only when prescribed by the composer.”
Flesch continues to issue a warning about practicing with a
mute on (practice mute): “The customary muted practicing
should be repudiated, since the artificial tone production
deceives the ear, gives it a false impression, and makes the
tone appear more beautiful than it really is.” Except for
the article you are now reading, you will not find much
information, advice, or recommendation for the artistic use
of mutes!
Mute Materials
The material from which the mute is made is of vital
importance. The ability to partially dampen the vibrations
produced on a string instrument by clamping the bridge to
diminish the tone, while still allowing the rich quality of tone
from a fine instrument, depends partly on the material and
partly on the design. For example, metal being denser and
heavier dampens sound more than most woods. Given that
tone quality and projection is important, then using a mute
made of the right material is essential. Mutes are made of:
•• Wood: Rosewood, ebony, and boxwood, for example.
Consider also that ebony is a denser, harder wood than
rosewood, so ebony of the same design will dampen the
tone more.
•• Metal: Tin, steel, brass, aluminum, lead, copper, and
alloys. Consider, for example, that aluminum is lighter
than steel and so will allow the bridge to vibrate more
fully than steel. This is why we find an aluminum mute
(and not a steel mute) with two or three prongs offered as
a Solo mute—a mute with a fuller tone that projects more.
•• Rubber: A number of popular mutes on the market
today are manufactured from rubber or a chemically
produced synthetic rubber. Rubber is both firm and
flexible and can be formed easily into useful designs.
Rubber is also less costly than other materials.
•• Plastic: Low-cost plastics can also be easily molded into
desired designs and can be lighter in weight than wood
or metals.
American String Teacher
Vol. 67, No. 4, November 2017, pp. 24­–29
DOI: 10.1177/0003131317735028
Copyright © 2017, American String Teachers Association
 •• Leather: Several mutes have been offered made of
leather. The leather must be held in shape by a metal clip
or form, and the tone quality is warmer than mutes made
of harder material.
•• Bone: We used to find mutes made from ivory. Today,
this practice is outlawed; therefore, an ivory mute today
is a collector’s item.
Mute Factors
•• Material
•• Design—Number of contact points or
prongs
•• Weight or density
•• Ease of use
•• Location on bridge
•• Price
The Four Functions of Mutes
1. Solo Mute: For large concert halls and solos with
orchestra and concert grand pianos. The solo mute
provides a muted effect, but with a full sound—without
damping the overtones so that the tone quality of the
instrument is not changed.
2. Orchestra Mute: Provides damping of volume (less
volume than the solo mute) with quality of tone and
clarity. Permanent storage on the instrument for ease
of quickly placing mute on and taking it off is often a
desired feature.
3. Sonata, Chamber Music, and Contemporary Music
Mute: A mute that provides the desired tone color and
volume according to the musical requirements of the
composition. Unless there is not enough time to place
or remove the mute, this mute does not need to be
attached to the instrument. The tone quality of the mute
selected—nasal, mellow, less volume, more volume,
shrill, warm, metallic, clear, foggy—can be different as
needed for the particular music.
4. Practice Mute: The main purpose of this type of mute
is to dampen the volume to a very, very soft level so
as not to disturb anyone nearby: hotel room, someone
sleeping, apartments, close to a rehearsal going on, and
so on.
Too often today, I see string players choose mutes for
reasons of convenience and price and not for tonal quality or
dynamic level. Following I will list and describe many of the
available mutes, along with some no longer on the market. I
hope to encourage my string colleagues to choose mutes for
tonal qualities and dynamic level.
My experience is that most string players today own
one or two mutes, chosen usually to avoid two common
frustrations: (1) as a mute is a small object, it is frequently
lost or misplaced, and (2) there is often not enough time
in the music to take the mute out of a pocket or other
convenient place and get it fastened on the bridge in time,
or there is not enough time to remove the mute from the
bridge and put it away. For these reasons, string players will
purchase one of several mutes on the market which fasten
onto the back of the bridge ready for immediate use. It
cannot then be misplaced, lost, or difficult to retrieve when
needed during rehearsal or performance. The quality of tone
that results or the dynamic level of these attachable mutes is
sometimes not considered. Only the ease of use, along with
the price, often determines their use and popularity.
It is pertinent to note that the design and material of a mute
directly affects the tone and dynamic level of the tone of the
instrument. Today mutes are manufactured of many more
and varied materials than in Leopold Mozart’s time, so that
many more types and tonal possibilities exist for today’s string
player. It is important for the string player (as well as the
composer and the conductor) to know that each type of mute
results in a strikingly different tone quality and volume.
It is well worth the time and effort to go to the string shop,
or to acquire a collection of various mute types as I have,
and try each one on your instrument so that the “right”
muted tone can be achieved for different musical needs and
requirements and for various concert halls and performance
setups. For example, I wonder how a muted string section
would sound if all the players used the same type of
mute! I also feel it would be valuable for the composer
who is sensitive to a spectrum of tonal qualities related to
his composition to select a mute of a certain design and
material, and to recommend this mute for performance in
the score to be sure that the special tonal quality which he
had in mind is achieved. Why should the string player insist
on playing on an instrument with fabulous tonal qualities,
and then stick a mute on the bridge that squashes that
special tonal quality?
List of Mutes
String mutes are designed to attach to the bridge either by
prongs that clip on, or by sliding until contact is made. Nearly
all the mutes on my list are violin mutes, but nearly all (unless
otherwise noted) are also available for viola, cello, or bass.
Classical string instruments have four strings. This means a
mute that is placed between the strings can have one to five
prongs, if not the sliding type. Basically, the more prongs that
clip onto the bridge, the less volume we have. This is why solo
mutes are designed with one or two prongs and why practice
mutes are designed with four or five prongs.
As we search for the right mute, I will list the mutes I have
collected—some no longer available—by the number of
prongs or by a sliding design. I do not intend to recommend
or to present a rating of any mute. The order of listing
has no significance; the choice of which mute or mutes
a player uses must be an individual choice based on the
factors I have listed and the priorities of the player, whether
artistic or practical. Each individual player must try
mutes on the instrument and judge the convenience, tone
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Nearly all the mutes on my list are violin mutes, but “
nearly all (unless otherwise noted) are also available
for viola, cello, or bass.
quality, damping effect, and aesthetics based on musical
requirements and artistic taste.
One-Prong Mutes
Heifetz solo mute (Figure 1A).  A one-prong rubber
supported by a metal clip. Inserted onto the bridge between A
and D strings. Creates a slightly muted but full tone without
altering tone quality. This mute has much flexibility: pushed
halfway down onto bridge results in only a slight damping;
pushed all the way down creates a fuller muted effect. If
inserted on the right side between the E and A strings, it mutes
the upper register more, and if inserted on the left side
between the D and G strings, it mutes the lower register more.
It can be stored behind the bridge by inserting the mute onto
one of the strings. The original Heifetz mute is no longer
made; a redesigned (better clip) mute was reintroduced in
1989. Original Heifetz mutes are collector items worth around
$50, and the actual mute that Heifetz used on his Strad
(certified by the Heifetz Estate) is selling for $25,000!
Function: solo mute. Price: $10 to $15.
Tourte one- or two-hole mute (Figures 1B and 1C). A
one-prong or lip, rubber. The one hole attaches to a string or
two hole attaches to two strings (usually second and third) in
back of the bridge through a slit so that the string passes
through the hole. The player lifts the mute (the knob on top of
the one-hole mute is used to lift the mute), and slides it up to
the bridge so that the mute lip overlaps the edge of the bridge
and then is pushed down to secure it. When not in use, the
mute is designed to be pushed down on the string into a
narrow slit to prevent rattling. However, if the mute comes
loose, it will rattle. The lightweight rubber and one-prong
design gives a full tone which is softer and more dampened
than the Heifetz mute. Function: solo mute; orchestra mute; or
sonata, chamber music, and contemporary music mute. Price:
under $5.
The Bech magnetic mute (Figure 1D).  This mute is basically a
rubber two-hole Tourte style mute with an added magnet to
secure the mute and prevent rattling when not engaged for
muting. A metal insert is placed in back of the mute which
“sticks” to a magnet attached to a small plastic clip that attaches
26 | American String Teacher | November 2017
”
Figure 1. One-prong mutes.
to the tailpiece. The mute is fastened to the middle strings
through the holes and when slid back off the bridge is secured in
place with the magnet. Function: solo mute; orchestra mute; or
sonata, chamber music, and contemporary music mute. Price: $5
to $10.
Sliding Mutes
Alpine Menuhin solo mute (Figure 2A).  Molded plastic with
brass insert described as a “shield type,” the mute attaches in
back of the bridge between the middle two strings. The mute
slides up to the bridge so that the shield with the brass insert
presses against the back of the bridge to restrict vibrations. It
slides back when not in use. The professional model comes in
black, with a white alternative which is described as “slightly
brighter sound than the black.” The manufacturer describes
the mute as producing a “warm tone without changing the
instrument colour.” The mute weighs a mere 0.3 ounces.
There is also an artist model described as the “budget choice.”
I found that the Alpine mute reduces volume somewhat,
allowing a bright, vibrant tone to come through. The mute
does not mellow or sweeten the tone! Function: solo mute. The
professional price: $25+; the artist price: $15–$25.
Sihon sliding mute (Figure 2B).  Plastic tube metal reinforced
on a wire frame. The mute permanently attaches to the middle
strings and slides up so that the tube rests on top of the bridge
to dampen the sound. The wire frame does scrape the string,
eventually affecting the wrapping. Muting creates a bright,
open solo tone, somewhat mellow. Function: solo mute;
orchestra mute; or sonata, chamber music, and contemporary
music mute. Price: $5 to $10.
Spector sliding mute (Figure 2C).  Made of synthetic rubber
(neoprene—a hard material that maintains flexibility over a

Figure 2. Sliding mutes.
wide temperature range)—designed for the Super-Sensitive
Company by Fred Spector, former Chicago Symphony
violinist. Attaches to the middle strings and slides up to bridge
so that the protruding lip rests on top of the bridge. Slides back
when not in use. The design is similar to the Finissima mute;
the tone produced, however, is stronger. The “copper”
description refers only to its color—also available in black.
Function: solo mute; orchestra mute; or sonata, chamber
music, and contemporary music mute. Price: $5 to $10.
Finissima artist mute (Figure 2D).  A plastic sliding mute
that attaches with grooves to the middle strings, so that the
mute slides up to the bridge and the protruding lip moves on
top of the bridge. Slides back when not in use. Invented by
violinist Calvin Sieb, an American who lived, taught, and
performed in Canada and France. The mute dampens tone
about halfway while still maintaining the instrument’s tone
quality. Tone is a bit softer than the Heifetz or Alpine mutes.
The design is similar to the Spector. The Finissima mute is
endorsed and was used by Isaac Stern. The mute is not
designed for viola or cello. Function: solo mute; orchestra
mute; or sonata, chamber music, and contemporary music
mute. Price: $10 to $15.
Polly mute (Figure 2E).  A sliding type of mute made of
polymer synthetic rubber material which is both tough and
flexible. Available in red, black, and clear (white). The design is
shield shaped like the Alpine mute, but smaller, different
material, and with no metal insert. The Polly mute attaches by
grooves to the middle strings and slides up to the bridge so the
small protruding lip slips on top; it slides back when not in use.
The Polly mute is modeled after the Fawick black rubber mute
popular in the 1960s. The mute dampens and gently mellows
the tone which remains open and full. Price: $10 to $15.
Two-Prong Mutes
Aluminum two-prong solo mute (Figure 3A). Lightweight
metal mute placed on top of the bridge between the strings.
Tone is round, full, smooth, open with muted quality.
Function: solo mute. Price: not currently offered for sale.
Figure 3. Two-prong mutes.
Leather two-prong solo mute (Figure 3B).  Two sides of
leather held together by metal pins. Mellow, warm, full tone.
Leather mutes are made in Boston by Paul Wiessmeyer and
designed with deep grooves on one side and shallow grooves
on the other. The mute stores vertically between the strings
and can slide up on the grooves to the back of the bridge to
obtain a half muted solo tone, or it can be placed on top of the
bridge and pushed down with the prongs touching both sides
of the bridge for a fully muted tone. The leather allows more of
the overtones to sound for a clear tone that is not distorted yet
somewhat muted and warm. Function: solo mute; or sonata,
chamber music, and contemporary music mute. Price: $25+.
Three-Prong Mutes
I experimented with three-prong mutes in my collection
on my concert violin to make a comparison. All of the three-
prong mutes are designed in a similar way, so the material is
the main difference. I tried wood mutes (ebony and rosewood),
metal steel mutes, a leather model, and a light clear plastic
model. The plastic and the leather mutes had the most volume
and fullest tone, the metal mutes had medium volume, and the
wood mutes, especially the ebony, had the least volume. Each
mute must be tried individually on an instrument to assess its
quality of tone, volume, ease of use, and aesthetic.
Wood three-prong mute (Figure 4A).  Ebony muted the tone,
but the result was a pinched, somewhat nasal sound. The
rosewood mute, being lighter and less dense, had a richer tone
quality that was full, yet still somewhat muted.
Metal three-prong mute (Figure 4B).  The metal will
determine the resulting muted tone. For example, a steel alloy
mute will mute softer with instrument tone somewhat altered,
whereas an aluminum mute, being lighter and less dense, will
have more volume and less damping of the overtones. On my
violin, the steel mute seems to allow the lower tones to come
through with deeper resonance.
Leather three-prong mute (Figure 4C).  Leather designed
with three prongs dampens the tone, but the tone is full and
Figure 4. Three-prong mutes.
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not as nasal as wood. One might say that leather allows a
smoother tone quality.
Plastic three-prong mute (Figure 4D).  As plastic is strong yet
lightweight, the plastic mute created a tone closer to the
original of the instrument—that is, it did not dampen as much
of the overtones, yet still produced less volume.
Practice Mutes
The sole purpose of a practice mute is to drastically
dampen the sound of the instrument, so the sound does
not disturb anyone in a hotel, sleeping, or who might be
disturbed nearby. Therefore, practice mutes are designed
with four or five prongs, and heavy or hard material to
prevent the bridge from fully vibrating. Heavy metal mutes,
because of the rigid metal and the excess weight, produce
the maximum damping of the sound. Hard rubber mutes
come close, have somewhat better tone quality, and are less
likely to damage the bridge or the instrument. It is best not
to make a habit of practicing with such a mute because, as
Flesch has pointed out, it stops the normal tone and shuts
it down to almost nothing. This can confuse the player who
needs to hear the true result of the physical motions used to
bring out the sound.
Two-prong practice mutes
Metal two-prong practice mute (Figure 5A).  It is listed for
cello as different brands: String Centre, Meisel, Uxcell, Yibuy,
and BQLZR metal cello practice mute. The description reads,
“Heavy metal for maximum damping of sound.” This mute is
made from either a heavy zinc alloy or chrome plated machine
brass. Although I have not examined this mute, I include it as
an example of a heavy metal two-prong practice mute. Price:
$10 to $25.
Three-prong practice mutes
Chrome metal three-prong practice mute (Figure 5B). The
Silencer by WOGOD. Red copper color three-prong metal
mute with added weight and thickness on top designed
to function as a practice mute. Even with three prongs, it
dampens the sound way down. Also, another three-prong
metal practice mute is manufactured by LANEYLI called “The
Violin Mute Silencer.” This mute is made from polished zinc
Figure 5. Practice mutes.
28 | American String Teacher | November 2017
alloy with an electroplated overlay; it weighs 1.1 ounces and
claims to mute 90 percent of the sound. Price: $5 to $10.
Four-prong practice mutes
Metal four-prong practice mute (Figure 5C).  A heavy mute
that is placed on the bridge to dampen the sound level to
almost nothing. Some musicians worry that the metal can
scrape the string or mar the instrument if accidently dropped.
Price: $10 to $15.
Otto Musica Artino four-prong practice mute (Figure 5D). A
heavy metal black practice mute with a protective plastic
coating, which dampens the sound way down but protects the
instrument. It weighs two ounces. This mute sits high on the
bridge so that the view of the strings is blocked. The mute is held
together with two screws. I found that this mute has the slots
made too narrow to go all the way down—the mute stops about
halfway. One customer who found that this mute did not go
down all the way on the bridge took a screwdriver, loosened the
screws, and twisted the screwdriver blade between the prongs to
widen the space so that the mute would go down all the way. This
mute produces slightly less damping than a regular metal practice
mute; the tone becomes somewhat tinny. Price: $10 to $15.
Five-prong practice mutes
Five-prong rubber practice mutes (Figure 5E). Rubber
practice mutes offer somewhat better tone quality than metal.
The rubber material offers some protection, and the extreme
damping requirement is met by having longer prongs that are
set further down on the bridge to restrict vibrations. The same
basic five-prong rubber practice mute is sold under different
names and companies: Ultra, Glaesel, Knilling, Senkary, and
eBoot are examples. There are both “heavy” and “lightweight”
rubber five-prong mutes, and some are offered in different
colors. Price: under $5 to $10.
Five-prong metal practice mutes (Figure 5F).  The added fifth
prong along with the heavy metal weight provides the most
muting. This design places two prongs on both sides of every
string on the bridge. Metal needs to be used with care around
fine instruments made of wood. Price: no longer available.
Homemade Mutes
The clothespin mute (Figure 6A).  The clamping feature of a
wood or plastic clothespin can be used as a mute in a pinch! Even
a paperclip can be attached to the bridge top if a regular mute is
unavailable. The only other advantage I can see, besides saving
the day in an emergency when no mute is present, is that the
clothespin can also be used to prevent music from blowing off
the stand! Function: emergency use only. Price: market value.
The dollar bill mute (Figure 6B).  Invented by my stand
partner at a rehearsal when she left her mute at home! The
dollar bill is folded into a narrow band and woven in and out
of the strings in back of the bridge. This ingenious mute can be
slid up to the bridge to function as a mute and then slid back

Figure 6. Homemade mutes.
when not in use. It produces quite a nice, acceptable muted
tone, and the only investment is $1.00, which is retrieved after
the performance (although it wrinkles the bill terribly)!
The Encore: Novelty Mutes
The Baroque Bling violin mute (Figure 7A).  For those
inspired by flashy entertainers, this is a two-hole Tourte rubber
mute decorated on top with Swarovski crystals—golden or
black “diamonds.” My guess is that, as the TV cameras pan
around the string section of the orchestra, this mute would
draw attention in the same way as a diamond ring! Function:
flashy decoration. Price: $25+.
Animal mute (Figure 7B).  Now something for the kiddies—
the Mouse-Tro plastic orchestral violin/viola mute! This is a
novelty item described as “an orchestral violin/viola mute
captured as a mouse dressed in a tuxedo! Hand painted!” Cute
and silly, but fun for the very young. Unfortunately, this mute
is no longer made. Artino makes a three-prong black rubber
practice mute with a rabbit or a whale on top. Price: $5 to $10.
Metal mute with tuner (Figure 7C).  This is a metal three-
prong mute. Mounted on top is an A-440 metal tuning pitch
pipe. This was a three-for-one deal: the player can blow into the
pitch pipe to secure a tuning A, slide a graduated slit between
the prong upon a string to measure its diameter (thicker-
thinner), and then have a metal mute handy for musical
purposes. If only the inventor had found a way to attach a small
cake of rosin, then all of the string player’s prep needs would
have been covered! Function: tuning and calibrating string
diameter; orchestra mute; or sonata, chamber music, and
contemporary music mute. Price: no longer for sale.
The vibrato mute (Figure 7D).  This mute turned up in an old
violin case. It may be a singular invention by a clever craftsman,
or it may have once been for sale. The vibrato mute consists of a
one-prong metal base that fits on top of the bridge, a thin metal
band protruding upward, on top of which is soldered a metal
ball bearing. When the mute is in place and the violin is played,
the metal ball shakes and a muted, vibrating, pulsating tone is
Figure 7. Novelty mutes.
produced that sounds something like an electric Wurlitzer organ
with the vibrato stop out. Function: novelty. Price: priceless.
Conclusion
Now that most available mutes have been listed and described,
I am urging string players to try out as many mutes as practical
and select the mute or mutes that fulfill both artistic tonal ideals
and practical ease-of-use requirements. Certainly, the orchestral
musician as well as soloists and chamber musicians need a mute
that attaches to the instrument and can be placed on or at the
bridge and removed in very quick time. But when tone quality,
more or less volume, and aesthetic value are desired, then a
thorough search and trial resulting in a selection of mutes of
different materials and designs are called for by the artist who
must find the “right” sound by just the “right” mute!
I have never known a composer or a conductor who
requested that the strings all use a specific type or design
of mute made of a specific material to achieve a uniform
artistic sound quality and dynamic. I can only imagine how
wonderful the aggregate tone of a string section or string
ensemble would sound if each player used the same mute to
obtain the same quality and volume of sound! Yet each string
player will choose the mute or mutes that satisfy his or her
own artistic nature. If Flesch swore by wood mutes, Heifetz
the one-prong metal/rubber solo mute, Menuhin the plastic
with metal insert shield mute, and Stern found his karma in a
specially designed plastic sliding mute—then your mute that
expresses your soul is out there waiting for you to discover it!
Acknowledgment
The author thanks Jeffrey Judd of JR Judd Violins in
Williamsport, Pennsylvania, for reviewing this article and
making some valuable suggestions.
References
Boyden, David. 1965. The History of Violin Playing from Its Origins to
1761. London: Oxford University Press.
Flesch, Carl. (1924) 1939. The Art of Violin Playing: Book One.
New York, NY: Carl Fischer.
Mozart, Leopold. (1756) 1963. A Treatise on the Fundamental
Principles of Violin Playing. Translated by Edith Knocker. London:
Oxford University Press.
Kenneth Sarch enjoys a legacy of international
accomplishments as violinist, conductor,
composer, and teacher. He is currently violin
professor at Lycoming College in Pennsylvania.
He previously taught at Mansfield University, New
England Conservatory, Shenandoah University
Conservatory, and eight years as assistant to
Roman Totenberg on the faculty of Boston University. He is a graduate
of The Juilliard School where he studied with Ivan Galamian, Sally
Thomas, and Dorothy DeLay, earning the artist diploma from New
England Conservatory and his doctorate from Boston University. He has
extensive recital appearances throughout the United States, Europe,
Canada, Central and South America, and the Middle East.
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