Curvature

1 Definition of Curvature
If you have a function y = f (x), how can you determine how quickly it bends or curves?

An obvious solution is to look at the angles that the tangent lines to the curve make with the x−axis.

If the angle changes along the function then it must be curving (or bending).

If the angle along y = f (x) is always constant then there isn’t any curvature.

E.g. 1. All tangent lines to the function y = 3 are parallel to the x−axis and the angle the
tangents make with the x− axis are constantly θ = 0. Thus there is not any curvature.

E.g. 2. All tangent lines to the function y = x + 1 are parallel to the function, the angle the
π
tangents make with the x−axis are constantly θ = . Thus there is not any curvature.
4

Figure 1: Functions without curvature.

E.g. 3. For the function y = x2 the angles the tangent lines make with the x−axis change, and so
there is curvature.
 Figure 2: Angle changes, there is curvature.

This leads to the definiton of curvature as the rate of change of θ along the function.
 
dθ dθ
Curvature = ρ = not where s is measured along the function.
ds dx

Figure 3: ∆s represents a small change over the function.

Notice that ∆s is the length of the hypotenuse, which is bigger than ∆x.

dθ dθ dθ dx
We want the curvature ρ = , but = · by the Chain Rule.
ds ds dx ds
dy
Recall that the gradient of the tangent is equal to the tangent of the angle of elevation, so tan (θ) =
dx
at the point of tangency.

dy
tan (θ) =
dx  
d d dy
[tan (θ)] =
dx dx dx
d dθ d2 y
[tan (θ)] · = 2
dθ dx dx
dθ d2 y
sec2 (θ) · = 2
dx dx
d2 y
dθ dx2
=
dx sec2 (θ)
d y 2
dθ dx2
=
dx 1 + tan2 (θ)
d y2
dθ dx2
=
dx dy 2


1 + dx
 By Pythagoras’ Theorem: (∆s)2 = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2
(∆s)2 (∆y)2
= 1 +
(∆x)2 (∆x)2
 2  2
∆s ∆y
=1+
∆x ∆x

df ∆f ∆f df
Recall that for any differentiable function f (x) , = lim , so if ∆x is small, ≈ .
dx ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x dx
As we want instantaneous curvature, where any change will be infinitessimally small, that means

 2 2 
ds dy
=1+
dx dx
s  2
ds dy
= 1+
dx dx
dx 1
=q
ds dy 2


1 + dx

dθ dθ dx
Since curvature ρ = = · we get
ds dx ds

dθ dθ dx
= ·
ds dx ds
" 2
# 
d y
dx2 1
= q 
dy 2


1 + dx dy 2


1+ dx
d2 y
dx2
=h ih i 12
dy 2 dy 2



1+ dx
1+ dx
d2 y
dx2
=h i 23
dy 2


1+ dx

d2 y
dθ dx2
Formula to calculate curvature: ρ = =h i 32
dx dy 2


1+ dx
2 Calculating Curvature - Examples
1. Find the curvature ρ of the line y = 3 x

Notice that since this function is a line, we would expect that there is not any curvature.

dy d2 y
y = 3 x =⇒ = 3 =⇒ =0
dx dx2

d2 y
dx2
ρ= h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
0
= 3
(1 + 32 ) 2
= 0 (as expected)

x3
2. Find the curvature ρ of the function y = at x = 0, 1, 2.
3

x3 dy d2 y
y= =⇒ = x2 =⇒ = 2x
3 dx dx2

d2 y
dx2
ρ= h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
2x
=  23
1 + (x2 )2
2x
= 3
(1 + x4 ) 2
2·0
When x = 0, ρ= 3 = 0.
(1 + 04 ) 2
2·1 2 √
When x = 1, ρ= 3 = 2. 3 =
(1 + 14 ) 2 2 2
√
2·2 4 4 17
When x = 2, ρ= 3 = 3 = .
(1 + 24 ) 2 17 2 289

3. Find the curvature ρ of the function y 3 − x y = 8 at the point (0, 2).

It’s not easy to get the equation in the form y = f (x), so we shouldn’t bother. We can
use implicit differentiation.

y3 − x y = 8
d d
y3 − x y =


(8)
dx dx
dy dy
3 y2 −y−x =0
dx dx

dy
3 y2 − x =y
dx
dy y
= 2
dx 3y − x
 dy 2 2 1
At the point (0, 2) , = 2
= = .
dx 3·2 −0 12 6
d2 y
We also need .
dx2

dy
3 y2 − x =y
 dx
d
dy d
3 y2 − x = (y)
dx dx dx

d2 y
 
dy dy dy
6y −1 + 3 y2 − x 2
=
dx dx dx dx

dy 1
At the point (0, 2) where = ,
dx 6

d2 y
 
1 1 1
6 · 2 · − 1 · + 3 · 22 − 0 =
6 6 dx2 6
1 d2 y 1
+ 12 2 =
6 dx 6
d2 y
12 2 =0
dx
d2 y
=0
dx2

Therefore

d2 y
dx2
ρ= h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
0
=
32
1
1+ 6
=0

4. What is the curvature ρ of a circle?

Due to the uniform curve of a circle, we would expect that ρ would be constant everywhere as
well.
Consider a general circle of radius R units centred at (a, b).

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = R2
d  d
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = R2


dx dx
dy
2 (x − a) + 2 (y − b) =0
dx
dy
(x − a) + (y − b) =0
dx
dy
(y − b) = − (x − a)
dx  
dy x−a
=−
dx y−b
Also

dy
(y − b) = − (x − a)
 dx
d dy d
(y − b) = [− (x − a)]
dx dx dx
d2 y dy dy
(y − b) 2 + · = −1
dx dx dx
 2
d2 y dy
(y − b) 2 = −1 −
dx dx
h
i
dy 2
d2 y − 1 + dx
=
dx2 y−b

Thus

d2 y
dx2
ρ= h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
dy 2
h i
− 1+( dx )
y−b
=h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
h i
dy 2


− 1+ dx
= h i 32
dy 2


(y − b) 1 + dx
1
=− h i 12
dy 2


(y − b) 1 + dx
1
=−  h  i2  12
(y − b) 1 + − x−a
y−b

1
= −   2  21
2 x−a
(y − b) 1+ y−b

1
= − 1
(y − b)2 + (x − a)2 2
1
=− 1
(R2 ) 2
1
= − , a constant.
R

1
So for example, a circle of radius 2 units has curvature ρ = − , or a magnitude of curvature
2
1
|ρ| = . The sign indicates which half of the circle we are on, curvature for the top semicircle
2
1 1
is ρ = − while curvature for the bottom semicircle is ρ = + .
2 2
3 Some Important Theorems
Lemma: Perpendicular lines have gradients that multiply to −1.

Proof: Consider any two perpendicular lines, with gradients m1 and m2 .

Figure 4: Two perpendicular lines.

Since the lines are perpendicular, one gradient is positive and one gradient is negative.

On the first line,there is a vertical length a and a horizontl lenth b. On the second line,
there is a horizontal length c and a vertical length d. Note that a = c and b = d. It can also
be easily seen from the facts that angles in a straight line add to 180◦ and angles in a triangle
add to 180◦ that the two triangles formed have the same angles and thus are congruent.

a
Gradient of first line: m1 =
b

d
Gradient of second line: m2 = −
c
b
= − since a = c and b = d
a
1
= −a
b
1
=−
m1

1
m2 = −
m1
m1 · m2 = −1

Therefore perpendicular lines have gradients that multiply to −1. Q.E.D.

Lemma: Any tangent line to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency.

Proof: Consider any circle of radius R centred at the point O, with a tangent line to the
circle at point T .

Assume that the radius is not perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of tangency
T . Then there must exist some other point S on the tangent line such that the segment OS is
perpendicular to the tangent line.

Figure 5: A nonsensical assumption.

So 6 OST is a right angle and 4OST is a right angle triangle.

OT is a radius of the circle, so OT = R. OT is also the hypotenuse of 4OST and must

therefore be the longest side of the triangle. So OT > OS.

But S is a point outside the circle, so the length OS > R =⇒ OS > OT .

We have OT > OS and OS > OT , a contradiction. Thus the original statement, that the
radius is not perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of tangency, must be false.

Therefore any tangent line to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency.
Q.E.D.

Figure 6: The tangent to the circle is perpendicular to the radius.

 4 Circle of Curvature
The curvature of a function y = f (x) at a point indicates   that the local behaviour of that
1
function at that point is similar to a circle of radius R =  .
ρ
5. Find the curvature of y = x2 + x at the point (1, 2) and then find the equation of the circle of
curvature at that point.

dy d2 y
y = x2 + x =⇒ = 2 x + 1 =⇒ =2
dx dx2

d2 y
dx2
ρ= h i 23
dy 2


1+ dx
2
= 3
1 + (2 x + 1)2 2
2
=  3 at the point (1, 2)
1 + (2 · 1 + 1)2 2
2
= 3
10 2
1
= √
5 10
√
10
=
50
√  
1 10  1  √
Since ρ = √ = , the radius of the circle is R =  1  = 5 10 units.
 
5 10 50  5 √10 
At the point (1, 2) the gradient of the tangent to the function and the circle of curvature
dy
is mT = |x=1 = 2 · 1 + 1 = 3.
dx
Call the centre point of the circle of curvature (a, b), then the gradient of the radius is
y2 − y1 2−b
mR = = .
x2 − x1 1−a
As we have seen, the radius is perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of tangency.
Perpendicular lines have gradients that multiply to −1, so

mT · mR = −1
 
2−b
3 = −1
1−a
2−b 1
=−
1−a 3
1
2 − b = − (1 − a)
3
The equation of the circle is

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = R2
 √ 2
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = 5 10
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = 250
(1 − a)2 + (2 − b)2 = 250 since (1, 2) lies on the circle.
 2
2 1 1
(1 − a) + − (1 − a) = 250 since we already found 2 − b = − (1 − a)
3 3
1
(1 − a)2 + (1 − a)2 = 250
9
10
(1 − a)2 = 250
9
9
(1 − a)2 = · 250
10
(1 − a)2 = 225
1 − a = ±15
1 ∓ 15 = a
a = −14 or a = 16

1
a = −14 : 2 − b = − [1 − (−14)]
3
1
2 − b = − · 15
3
2 − b = −5
2+5=b
b=7

1
a = 16 : 2 − b = − (1 − 16)
3
1
2 − b = − (−15)
3
2−b=5
2−5=b
b = −3

There are actually two possible circles, so how do we know which is the correct circle? An
obvious solution is to look at the graph, where it is clear that the correct circle is the one
centred at (−14, 7).

We can determine which is the correct circle without needing a graph. Note that for our
d2 y
function y = x2 + x we have = 2 > 0, which means that all gradients of the function are
dx2
increasing and thus function is convex. Then the correct circle is the upper circle and centre
of curvature must be the higher point, i.e. where b = 7.
 Figure 7: The function y = x2 + x with circle of curvature (x + 14)2 + (y − 7)2 = 250.

d2 y
We can always test which is the correct circle of curvature by looking at the value of at
dx2
the point in question on the function.

d2 y
If > 0 the gradients are increasing around the point in question, so the function is convex
dx2
there, and the upper circle of curvature is correct. So we choose the point with the higher y
value for the centre of the circle of curvature.

d2 y
If 2 < 0 the gradients are decreasing around the point in question, so the function is concave
dx
there, and the lower circle of curvature is correct. So we choose the point with the lower y
value for the centre of the circle of curvature.

6. Find the circle of curvature of the function defined by 2 x y + x + y = 4 at the point (1, 1).

d d
First derivative: (2 x y + x + y) = (4)
dx dx
dy dy
2y + 2x +1+ =0
dx dx
dy
(2 x + 1) = −2 y − 1
dx
dy −2 y − 1
=
dx 2x + 1
dy −2 · 1 − 1
= at the point (1, 1)
dx 2·1+1
dy −3
=
dx 3
dy
= −1
dx
  
d dy d
Second derivative: (2 x + 1) = (−2 y − 1)
dx dx dx
d2 y dy dy
(2 x + 1) 2 + 2 = −2
dx dx dx
2
dy dy
(2 · 1 + 1) 2 + 2 (−1) = −2 (−1) at the point (1, 1) where = −1
dx dx
d2 y
3 2 −2=2
dx
d2 y
3 2 =4
dx
d2 y 4
2
=
dx 3

d2 y
dx2
Curvature : ρ= h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
4
3
= 3
1 + (−1)2 2
22
= 3
3√· 2 2
2
=
3
  √
1 1 3 3 2
The radius of the circle of curvature is R =   = √ = √ = units.
ρ 2 2 2
3
dy
The gradient of the tangent line is mT = |(x,y)=(1,1) = −1.
dx
y2 − y1 1−b
The gradient of the radius is mR = = .
x2 − x1 1−a
Since the radius is perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of tangency, their gradi-
ents have a product of −1.

mT · mR = −1
 
1−b
−1 = −1
1−a
1−b
=1
1−a
1−b=1−a
a=b
 The circle has equation

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = R2
 2
2 2 3
(x − a) + (y − b) = √
2
9
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 =
2
2 2 9
(1 − a) + (1 − b) = since (1, 1) lies on the circle
2
2 2 9
(1 − a) + (1 − a) = since a = b
2
2 9
2 (1 − a) =
2
2 9
(1 − a) =
4
3
1−a=±
2
3
1∓ =a
2
1 5
a = − or a =
2 2
   
1 1 5 5
Since a = b the two possible points for the centre of curvature are − ,− and , .
2 2 2 2
d2 y 4
Since 2
= > 0 at the point in question, the function is convex there, so the upper circle is
dx 3  
5 5
correct. Thus the higher point , is the correct centre of curvature.
2 2
 2  2
5 5 9
Thus the circle of curvature is x − + y− = .
2 2 2

 2  2
5 5 9
Figure 8: The function 2 x y + x + y = 4 with circle of curvature x− + y− = .
2 2 2
7. For the function y = ex find the curvature ρ and the point at which the curvature is a maxi-
mum.

dy d2 y
y = ex =⇒ = ex =⇒ = ex
dx dx2

d2 y
dx2
ρ= h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
ex
= 3
(1 + e2 x ) 2

dρ
Maximum curvature occurs where = 0:
dx

ex
ρ= 3
(1 + e2 x ) 2
3 1
dρ ex (1 + e2 x ) 2 − ex · 2 e2 x · 32 (1 + e2 x ) 2
= 3
dx 
(1 + e2 x )2 2
1
ex (1 + e2 x ) 2 (1 + e2 x − 3 e2 x )
=
(1 + e2 x )3
ex (1 − 2 e2 x )
= 5
(1 + e2 x ) 2
ex (1 − 2 e2 x )
0= 5
(1 + e2 x ) 2
1 − 2 e2 x = 0
1 = 2 e2 x
1
= e2 x
  2
1
ln = 2x
2
 
1 1
x = ln
2 2
1
x = − ln (2)
2

1
y = e− 2 ln (2)
 1
ln 2− 2
=e
1
= 2− 2
√
2
=
2
√ !
1 2
So the maximum curvature occurs at the point (x, y) = − ln (2), .
2 2
5 Appendix - Differentiation Rules
dy
• If y = c f (x) where c is a constant, then = c f 0 (x).
dx
dy
• If y = f (x) ± g (x), then = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x).
dx
dy
• If y = u v, then = u0 v + u v 0 . (Product rule)
dx
u dy u0 v − u v 0
• If y = , then = . (Quotient rule)
v dx v2
dy du dy
• If y = y [u (x)] then = · . (Chain rule)
dx dx du

Function Derivative
Function Derivative
xn n xn−1
1
ex ex tan−1 (x)
1 + x2
ax ax ln (a)
sinh (x) cosh (x)
1 cosh (x) sinh (x)
ln (x)
x
tanh (x) sech2 (x)
sin (x) cos (x)
1
cos (x) − sin (x) sinh−1 (x) √
x2 +1
2
tan (x) sec (x)
1
cosh−1 (x) √
1 x2 −1
sin−1 (x) √
1 − x2 1
1 tanh−1 (x)
cos−1 (x) −√ 1 − x2
1 − x2