Educ 1 Module-Edited Wendell Pagon

Educ.
1- The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 1|

Page
Republic of the Philippines

North Eastern Minadanao State University
Lianga, Surigao del Sur, 8307
Telefax No. 086-214-4221
Website: www.sdssu.edu.ph
EDUC. 1
THE CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
AND LEARNING
PRINCIPLES
LEARNING MODULE
Name of Student: Wendell A. Pagon_______
Course and Year: BEED-1B ____________________________________________________
Class Schedule: ______________________________________________________
Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

Educ. 1- The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 2|
Page
PREFACE
In time of this pandemic, this module will serve as a Work Sheet on child and adolescent
development. This is centered on the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of the
pre-schooler, the primary, intermediate and high schoolers, the primary clientele of the would-be
teachers. While it focused on the four groups of learners in the four developmental stages, this
module also includes a discussion of the different topics as intended in the learning outcome of
this course.
Each Module contains the following parts:
 Learning Outcomes – This part contains the objectives of each Module.

 Introduction – This gives a brief background and overview of the module. It
enhances the understanding on the statement of purpose of each topic in the
Module.
 Activity – This is the beginning phase in the presentation of the lesson. It engages
the learners in a priming activity as individual output. Guide question/s will be
answered by the learners.
 Analysis – This phase is a thinking exercise and is deeper in context than the
Activity phase. In this phase of the lesson, the learners are helped to look back to
and think of the activity.
 Abstraction/Generalization – This phase connects the learners to information
and concepts with the help of guide questions.
 Application – This is the phase for transfer of learning. The learners show
evidence of the newly acquired competency and knowledge about the lesson.
 Enrichment – In this phase, the learners connect their acquired knowledge with
other disciplines and real-life situation. An enrichment task will be added to this
Module.
 Research Connection – This guides learners to read research/es related to the
intended learning outcomes. It introduces learners in the field of research.
 Reflection – In this phase of the Module, the learners are expected to have
reflection on the lesson presented and connect ideas and experiences to their
personal life.
 Worksheet for Every Module- This will serve as learners’ Answer Sheet in
which the learners are going to fill up at the end of the week and to be submitted
to the Course Instructor. The learners are expected to have this as part of the
Assessment of the learning outcome/s intended for the week.
Some parts of the activities, Lesson Presentation, and Assessment styles are taken from
the Course Reference/Textbook and acknowledging the authors in their contributions in the
making of this module possible.
- JcOropa

Page
Course Information
Course Name: The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles
Course Description: Focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current
research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of
development. Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development of the
learners and shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each development
level.
Contact Hours/Week: 3 hours/week
Course Instructor: DR. JANE CERVANTES OROPA

Contact Number: Globe # 09669355694
Email Address: janetejero0103@gmail.com
Consultation Time: 8:00-11:30AM & 1:30- 5:30 Wednesday Only

Course Requirements
• Major Exams
• Summative quizzes
• Per unit outputs as specified in the assessment
• End of course learning log (reflective journal) and portfolio
Course Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, the pre-service teachers can:
[1] Demonstrate content knowledge and its application within and /or across
curriculum teaching areas;
[2] Demonstrate an understanding of the different research-based theories

related to the broad dimensions of child and adolescent development and their
application to each particular developmental level of the learners;
[3] Demonstrate understanding of pedagogical principles suited to diverse

learners’ needs and experiences at different developmental levels;
[4] Demonstrate knowledge of laws, policies, guidelines and procedures that

provide safe and secure learning environments; and
[5] Demonstrate knowledge of positive and non-violent discipline in the

management of learner behavior.
Time Intended Learning Module Number & Content

Allotmen Outcomes (ILOs)
t
Week 1  Give a reaction  Orientation of the University
statement or a stand VGMO, Grading System,
about the University Course Requirements and
VGMO others
 Explain the 14 learner-  Part 1-Introduction Unit 1
centered principles. Learner-Centered
 Advocate for the use Psychological Principles
of the 14 principles in (LCP)
the teaching- learning
process.
 Identify ways on how

Page
to apply the 14
principles in instruction
as a future teacher.
Week 2  Define human  Unit 2 Basic Concepts and
development and Issues on Human
developmental tasks Development
 Distinguish between  Module 1- Human
the traditional and life- Development: Meaning,
span approach of Concepts and Approaches
development.  Module 2- The Stages of
 Describe the Development and
developmental tasks in Developmental Tasks
each developmental
stage.
 Come up with
research abstracts of
researches on
developmental tasks.
Week 3  Take a research-  Module 3- Issues on Human

based position on the Development
three (3) issues on  Module 4- Research in Child
development. and Adolescent Development
 Explain the basic
principles of research.
 Demonstrate
appreciation of the role
of teachers as
consumers and
producers of
developmental
research.
 Read researches on
child and adolescent
development and
make simple research
abstracts out of
researches read.
Week 4  Explain Freud’s views  Module 5- Freud’s
about child and Pychoanalytic Theory
adolescent  Module 6- Piaget’s Stages of
development. Cognitive Development
 Draw implications of
Freud’s theory to
education.
 Describe Piaget’s
stages of cognitive
development.
 Conduct a simple
Piagetian Task
interview with children.
 Match learning
activities to the
learners’ cognitive
stage.

Page
PRELIM Note: Schedule and Mode

in the conduct of the
Examination will be
announced through
Facebook Page, Group
Chat on Messenger, or Text
Week 5  Explain the 8 Stages  Module 7- Erickson’s
of Life. Psycho- Social Theory of
 Write a short story of Development
one’s life using
Erickson’s stage as
framework.
 Suggest at least 6
ways on how
Erickson’s theory can
be useful to future
teachers.
Week 6  Explain the stages of  Module 8- Kohlberg’s
moral development. Stages of Moral
 Analyse a person’s Development
level of moral
reasoning based on
his responses to moral
dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of
moral development
can be applied.
Week 7  Explain why  Module 9- Vygotsky’s
Vygotsky’s theory is Socio- Cultural Theory
called “Socio-cultural”  Module 10-
theory. Bronfenbrenner’s
 Differentiate Piaget Ecological Theory
and Vygotsky’s views
on cognitive
development.
 Explain how
scaffolding is useful in
teaching a skill.
 Describe each of the
layers of
Bronfenbrenner’s
Bioecological Model.
 Identify factors in one’s
own life that exerted
influence on one’s
development.
 Use the bioecological
theory as a framework
to describe the factors
that affect a child and
adolescent
development.
Week 8  Trace the course of  Part II- Development of the
the pre-natal Learners at Various Stages
developmental  Module 11- Pre-natal

Page
process per Development

experience.  Module 12- Physical
 Explain the most Development of Infants and
common hazards to Toddlers
pre-natal
development.
 Become more
appreciative of the gift
of life manifested in
anti-abortion stand.
 Identify factors that
enhance/impede the
physical development
of infants and toddlers.
Week 9  Trace the cognitive  Module 13- Cognitive
development of infants Development of Infants and
and toddlers. Toddlers
 Present own or other’s
research on the
cognitive development
of infants and toddlers.
 Draw implications of
cognitive development
concepts to child care,
education and
parenting.
 Describe the socio-
emotional
development of infants
and toddlers.
 Identify factors

Page
WORKSHEET/ANSWER SHEET for Week 2
Educ. 1-
The Child and Adolescent Learners Learning Principles
Course Instructor: Dr. Jane Cervantes Tejero
Name: Wendell A. Pagon Date: ____________

Course and Year: BEED-1B Rating: ______
Task #1
1. Research on the 14 Learner- Centered Psychological Principles (LCP).
•Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
•Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
•Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
•Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.
•Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
•Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks
of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.

Page
•Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion
•Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account
•Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
•Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
•Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.Learning and diversity.
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
•Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress — including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment — are integral parts of the learning process.
2. Identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future teacher.
—Based on the literature and the experience of the teaching were recommended:
1. Create an active learning environment.
2. Focus attention
3. Connect knowledge
4. Help students organize their knowledge
5. Provide timely feedback
6. Demand quality
7. Balance high expectations with student support

Page
8. Enhance motivation to learn
9. Communicate your message in a variety of ways
10. And help students to productively manage their time
Week 2 & 3
Module 1 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and

Approaches
Source: The Child and Adolescent Learners by Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Module, you are expected to:

Educ. 1- The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 10 |
Page
1. State the five characteristics of human development and their implications to child care, education and
parenting.
2. Differentiate between the traditional from life-span approaches to human development.
3. Identify the characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective through a graphic
organizer.
3. Define human development in your own perspective and its relation to your life.
Introduction
Every living creature is called to become what it is meant to be. The
caterpillar is meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full grown herb, bush or
tree; and a human baby into a mature person, the person “who is fully alive, the glory
of God” in the words of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn in our biology class.
We have seen it to be a fantastic process. So wonderful a process that we can’t help
but experience a feeling of awe for the Power or the Force or the Principle (theists call
this Power of Force or Principle (God) behind all these.
The process of development involves beginnings and endings. What
was this organism then? What will this organism be?
In this Module, you will be acquainted with human development as
a process, the developmental tasks that come along with each developmental stage
and relevant issues that are raised about human development. Do the task/s in every
part of the lesson. It is expected that at the end of this module, you will be provided
with a Worksheet where you will write your answer/s based on the given tasks. Enjoy
Reading and Learning!!!
ACTIVITY
Make your predictions!
1. Here are pictures of a one-year old Janeo Rein and a three-year old Joel Rey. Each one is a
bundle of possibilities. Describe what they were before birth (their point of origin) and who they
will possibly be after birth unto adulthood. What will they possibly become? Expound on your
answers.
—The pictures of Naschielle and Kenn shows a bundle of possibilities happen in the future.
Though they have different culture in life each of them will develop in different aspects. Human
development is a pattern of movement or change that begins in conception and continue through
the lifespan.
ANALYSIS
Let us explore to what you have predicted!

Page
Answer the following questions:
2. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child, adolescent and adult Janeo Rein and Joel
Rey may become and hypothesized on who they once were, you were referring to human development.
What then is development? Translate the meaning of development in your Mother Tongue.
—Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical,
economical, environmental, social and demographic components. Human development refers to the
biological and physiological development of the human being throughout the
lifespan.__________________________________________________________________________
3. Will a one-year old Janeo Rein be able to do all that three-year old Joel Rey can do? Why or Why not?
—No, because Janeo Rein is to young to do what Joel Rey able to
do__________________________________________________________________________
4. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Janeo Rein and Joel Rey? If yes,
what?
—Yes, if they come from a good home with loving ang caring parents they may develop into warm and
responsible children, adolescents and
adults.__________________________________________________________________________
5. Will the process of development take place very fast or gradually?
—The process of development will take place gradually, because when we say human development it is a
pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Then,
development includes the growth and declines, that would means that there is a negative and positive
development could
be.__________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACTIO
N
Let’s learn something about it!!!
Two approaches to human development

If you believe that Janeo Rein and Joel Rey will show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach to development is
traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place as it does
during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective? Paul Baltes
(Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Janeo Rein and Joel Rey will continue
developing even in childhood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible
throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “I am too old for that…”
Neither Janeo Rein and Joel Rey will be too old to learn something. Aging is associated with declines in
certain intellectual abilities. These declines can be prevented or reduced. In one research study, the
reasoning abilities of older adults were improved through retraining (Willies & Schose, 1994 cited by
Santrock J., 2005)
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-

emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,
cognitive and socioemotional processes (Santrock, 2002).
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The brains of Janeo
Rein and Joel Rey develop. They will gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal changes
when they reach the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood. All
these show the common biological processes in development.

Page
Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm) Janeo Rein and

Joel Rey will learn to sit, crawl then walk before they can run. The muscular control of the trunk and the
arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is the proximodistal pattern. During
infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top- the head- with physical growth in size, weight and
future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders,
middle trunk and so on). This is the cephalo-caudal pattern. These development patterns are common to
Janeo Rein and Joel Rey.
Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm) Janeo Rein

and Joel Rey won’t develop into simply teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. It
takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental
characteristics.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Janeo Rein and Joel Rey develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two words
becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in
every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher, or a pilot, playing chess and
solving a complex math problem. All these reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.
Socio- emotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationships with other people,
changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are inextricably intertwined. While
these processes are studied separately, the effect of one process or factor on a person’s development is not
isolated from other processes. If Janeo Rein and Joel Rey were undernourished and troubled by the
thought of father and mother about to separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and
consequently, they may lose face and drop out of school, revert to illiteracy, become unskilled,
unemployed and so on and so forth. See how biological process, affects the cognitive process which in
turn, affects the socio-emotional process.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals

respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s biological make up, physical
environment, cognitive processes, historical, social, and cultural contexts. (Santrock, 2002) Janeo Rein
and Joel Rey’s biological make up, social and cultural contexts may vary and therefore make them
develop differently from each other.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and

regulations are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among development
stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the
back stage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.
APPLICATION
6. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective and their implications to
child care, education and parenting.
Characteristic of human development from a Educational Implication to Child Care,

life-span perspective Education and Parenting
1. Development is lifelong. •This characteristic of life-span perspective
implies that development occurs even until our
last breath. In child-care, an individual in its
childhood is mostly a curious one, this curiosity
is brought until its education starts. As children
grow, their education leads them to
development, even until they are in parenthood.
Development occurs as long as a person lives.

Page
2. Development is plastic. •This characteristic of life-span perspective implies

that change occurs in development. In child-care,
children undergo drastic changes, and of course
that includes their needs. Those needs must be
provided for a child's welfare. In education,
learning means being subjected to change.
However small the change is, development takes
place, so regardless of age, changes through
development occurs. With that said, education
should not be discriminating.
3. Development is multidimensional. •This characteristic of life-span perspective implies
that development is established in the processes of
physical, mental, and socio emotional aspects of a
person. In child-care, to promote children's
physical development, external forces should be
done such as provision of healthy foods to eat and
inauguration of exercises. For the mental
development, they should be exposed in healthy
environment and teach them meditation. For the
socio-emotional development, they should learn
how to make friends,
4. Development is contextual. •This characteristic of life-span perspective implies
that development is based on a person's background
such as their culture, beliefs, and physical
environment. In child care, for example, most of
the time when a guardian is strict, the child
responds to them with fear. The child then will
probably develop into a parent who will do the
same to his or her children. See that child-care
reflects on what we experienced while being a
child. In education, we respond to challenges of it
differently.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and •This characteristic of life-span perspective implies
regulation. that development consists of growth, maintenance
and regulation, wherein child care growth is mostly
seen through physical changes, so the maintaining
and regulating the act of consuming healthy foods
should be implemented. In education, growth is
symbolized because of knowledge one has
acquired, so maintaining good study habits and
regulating the knowledge input is established. In
parenting, growth becomes obvious as one feels the
need to become a better parent, so maintenance in
terms of physical fitness and regulation for the
mindset becomes a necessity.
SYNAPSE
7. Interpret the following quotations in relation to human development:
a. “Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some other men, no other man.” (Murray,
H.A. & C. Kluckhohn)
b. “Man is an unfinished project. He is always in the process of becoming.”
EVALUATION
:
Page
Let’s check your understanding!!!
1. Give the meaning of human development in your own understanding or perspective.
—Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people's freedoms and

opportunities and improving their well-being. Human development is about the real freedom
ordinary people have to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.
2. What the differences between the traditional from the life-span approaches to human
development?
—The traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no
change in adulthood, and decline in late old age. The life-span approach emphasizes
developmental change during adulthood as well as childhood.
3. Fill in the missing piece in the graphic organizer below:
Characteristics
of human
development
4. In one sentence, write the characteristics of human development expressed in the above organizer.
—Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and
health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social
relationships.
____________________________________________________________________________________
REFLECTION

Page
5. Like you, each of your future students is also a bundle of possibilities. How should you look at them in
terms of development? Write down your reflections. Remember, there’s no wrong answer.
—Look at them as a child that are finding ways to get a knowledge your their leader to lead them to a
succesful paths.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Congratulations!!! You’re done this Module 1.
Content Focus: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

Course and Year: BEED-1B Rating: ______

Page
Week 4 & 5
Module 3 The Stages of Development and Development Tasks &

Issues on Human Development
Learning Objectives
1. Describe developmental tasks in each development stage.

2. Design a symbol that stands for each of the developmental stage.
3. Compare the descriptions of Santrock to Havighurst in terms of the presentation of the developmental tasks.
4. Generate one’s concept on the implications of these developmental tasks to one’s role as a teacher and or a
parent.
Introduction
For every development stage, there is an expected developmental task. Robert
Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “arises at certain period in our life, the
successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure
leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst, 1972)
In this Module, you will be acquainted with the stages of development and it is
expected that in every stage of development it is supported with development task.
Do the task/s in every part of the lesson. It is expected that at the end of this module,
you will be provided with a Worksheet where you will write your answer/s based on the given
ACTIVITY tasks. Enjoy Reading and Learning!!!
Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of pictures, and then answer the following
questions. Use the Answer Sheet provided at the end of this Module.
1. Do the pictures suggest the respective development stages?
—
2. Symbolize each developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands for the developmental task for each
stage.
—Pre-natal – giving birth.

Page
Infancy – 2 years
Early childhood – 3 to 5 years
Middle and late childhood – 6 to 12 years
Adolescence – 13 to 18 years
Early adulthood – 19 to 29 years
Middle adulthood – 30 to 60 years
Late adulthood – 61 years and above
3. If you were given a chance, which developmental stage would you like to be in? Why?
—If I would be given a chance, the developmental stage that I would like to be is the late childhood,
because despite being young at that stage the burdens, responsibility, and problems are very minimal and
the only thing you cared about is your family,your games, and school friends.
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/module2-160709093200/95/module-2-the-stages-of-development-and-
developmental-tasks-11-638.jpg?cb=1469182925

Page

Page
ANALYSIS
Let us explore to what you have observed in the images above!
Answer the following. Use the Answer Sheet provided at the end of this Module for your answers.
4. How many developmental stages were described? How do these stages compare to Havighurst’s
developmental stages given below?
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:
1. infancy and early childhood (0-5 year),
2. middle childhood (6-12 years),
3. adolescence (13-18 years),
4. early adulthood (19-29 years),
5. middle adulthood (30-60 years), and
6. later maturity (61 and above).
—Development stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst's six (6) developmental stages
only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood
while Santrock mention them as two (2) separate stages.
5. What is an outstanding trait or behaviour of each stage?

—Infancy and early childhood(birth till 6 years old) -in this stage, the child begins to learn different
physical activities like walking, crawling as well as starting to read and forming concepts.
6. What task/s is/are expected of each development stage?

—The concept of developmental tasks assumes that human development in modern societies is
characterized by a long series of tasks that individuals have to learn throughout their lives.
ABSTRACTIO
N
Let’s learn something about it!!!
Concepts of Developmental Tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual. Robert
Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “arises at a certain period in life, the successful
achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness,
social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst, 1972).
Development Stages
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8) developmental stages
cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did
not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned

Page
them as two (2) separate stages. These developmental stages are described more in detail in the next
images on slide presentation.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologynoteshq.com
The Developmental Tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Page
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/module2-160709093200/95/module-2-the-stages-of-
development-and-developmental-tasks-11-638.jpg?cb=1469182925
Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other people’s development.
These paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a
conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own
models of human development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues of human
development.
1. Nature versus Nurture- Nature refers to individual’s biological inheritance. Nurture refers to
environmental experiences.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity- Does development involve gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or
distinct changes (discontinuity).
3. Stability versus Change- Is development best described as involving stability or as involving change?
Are we what our first experiences have made of us or do we develop into someone different from who we
were at an earlier point in development?
Development is not all about these, but is characterized our life- span development. The key to
development is the interaction of nature and nurture rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as
quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of “both-and” not “either-or”. Just as the quote of
William Greenough: “The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that to ask which is
more important, nature or nurture, is like asking which is more important to a rectangle, height or
width.”
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to exist.
Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr and Weinberg,
1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment operate together or cooperate and
interact- to produce a person’s intelligence, temperament, height, weight…ability to read and so
on.
APPLICATION
Do the tasks below representing yourself as a reflective thinker who has a role in shaping the world to
make it a better place to live for.
7. What are the implications of these developmental tasks to your role as a teacher and or parent?
—School, teachers and parents play vital role in holistic development of the child. Parents are the first
mentor of the child and the teacher is the second. Parents play important role in encouraging and
motivating their kids to learn. Good parental support helps child to be positive, healthy and good life long
learner. By helping children when planning roles, encouraging children to talk to peers, posing open
ended questions, and becoming involved in play, the teacher extends and enhances learning.

Page
Complete the missing part of the statements below. (For your response, use the Answer Sheet provided
at the end of this Module).
Middle and Late Childhood
Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils by
Teachers encourage and establish behavioral rules and procedures to ensure children learn and maintain
order. They give student updates to guardians or parents on the child's progress, special needs, or
improvements. An elementary school teacher motivates students and encourages them to overcome
challenges in learning. Parents ought to help their children
Acknowledging their achievements and supporting them through mistakes and challenges. Encouraging
them and listening without judgment and seeking to understand their concerns and
challenges.Adolescence
High school teachers ought to help their students by
Helping them understand things that they need to understand and teach their student lessons so they'll
have wider knowledge about everything.Parents ought to help their teenage children by
Acknowledging their achievements and supporting them through mistakes and challenges. Also
encouraging them, listening without judgment and seeking to understand their concerns and challenges.
Early Adulthood College
Teachers ought to help their students by
They should be a good example or a good role model to the students. They should also prepare students
so that they will gain enough knowledge about what are the things that they should do and not to do, and
improve their selves. Parents can help their children who are now young adults by
Every Parents should guide their children even young or old, since they know much better than them.
Parents can help their children by decision making and any other actions, cause parents knows everything.
parents knows best.
Middle Adulthood
What should adults do to obtain satisfaction in their career? What should schools teach for
students to be prepared for middle adulthood?
In their retirement, adults should In their retirement,adults should knowledgeable about what there career
is, and teachers must teach to the students how your career and schooling is important to their lives
because at the end of the day, students will be successful in there career.
Late Adulthood
In their retirement, adults should
Take a break and have some time to their families because we didn't know when we will die. Spend their
special time to special occations with their families.
How should children relate to their parents in their late adulthood stage? What should teachers
teach to students on how they should treat and relate to parent, grandparents in their late adulthood?
—The children should understand or relate to the parents during this period because they are now able to
understand the problems that the family are facing. They should try to be with them during seasons of
hardship or during happy times.

Page
8. Compare the similarities of developmental tasks on the stages as presented by Santrock and
Havighurst. Use any of Graphic Organizers to present your perspectives.
SYNAPSE
9. Complete the unfinished sentence.
Developmental tasks are task that arises at or about a certain period in life. unsuccessful
achievement of which leads to inability to perform tasks associated with the next period or stage in life.
Developmental task is one that arises predictably and consistently at or about a certain period in the life of
the individual.
EVALUATION
:
Let’s check your understanding!!!
10. Instructions: Put a check (√) beside those statements that are correct and an (X) beside those that are
wrong. If your answer is an (X), explain why.
A. Developmental tasks are only for the first stages of human development.
B. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means failure for the learner to
master the developmental task in the next stage.
C. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
D. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
E. Teenage is middle childhood.
F. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.
G. Play is great need of children in middle childhood.
H. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of middle childhood.
I. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than environment.
J. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no longer be changed.
REFLECTION
Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood days. Were you able to acquire the
developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late and adolescence? What facilitated your
acquisition of the ability to perform such tasks? Write your reflections on the Answer Sheet provided
at the end of this Module.
Looking back to my early childhood, I can say that I was able to acquire the developmental tasks.
During my early childhood, I was able to acquire necessary skills in order to learn how to walk. I
started with the ability to crawl, the with a support I was able to stand by my own. After that, I started
stepping foot after the other. During this stage, it was expected also that I should learn how to talk
and start building a form of relationship with my friends. On my middle childhood, I was able to
acquire school related skills like writing letters, lines, shapes, colors and also reading. I was able to
learn how to value things and started having a conscience. On my late childhood, my emotions started
to become stable, I started thinking and acquiring needed skills in order to be productive and started
to establish a mature relationship with peers. I was able to acquire those tasks through the help of

Page
people around me. They supported me all throughout the process. Support should not be given in full
as we grow up. The older we grow, the lesser support given and received.
WORKSHEET/ANSWER SHEET for Week 4 & 5
Content Focus: The Stages of Development and Development Tasks &


Course and Year: BEED–1B

Page
Week 6 & 7
Module 4 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Piaget’s Stages of

Cognitive Development
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the three components of personality according to Freud.

2. Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
3. Draw a Concept Map on Freud’s stages of Psychosexual Development.
4. Describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
5. Conduct simple Piagetian Task interview with children.
6. Match learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.
Introduction
Freud’s views about human development are more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well-known psychologist because of his interesting theory about the
unconscious and also about sexual development. Although a lot of his views were criticized
and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier views). Freud’s
theory remains to be one of the most influential in psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in
the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the starting point of many other theories,
notable of which is Erikson’s Psychosocial theory in the next module.
On the other part of this Module is Piaget’s theory. Jean Piaget’s Theory of
Development is truly a classic in the field and educational psychology. This theory fuelled other
researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct
knowledge.
This Module provides you vast of information how these proponents of these theories
play a role in the educational setting. Do the task/s in every phase of the lesson. At the end of
the presentation of this module, you will be provided with a Worksheet where you will write
your answer/s based on the given tasks. Enjoy Reading and Learning!!!
ACTIVITY
Task # 1: Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate the
situation in your Worksheet provided in this Module. Indicate what the decision you made, the
factors that were involved, and how you arrived at your decision.
Task #2: Read this situation.
It’s Christmas and Uncle Boy is giving “aguinaldo” to the children. Three year-old
Princess did not want to receive the one hundred peso bill and instead preferred to receive
ANALYSIS
Page
four 20 peso bills. Her ten year-old cousins were telling her it’s better to get the one
hundred bills, but they failed to convince her.
Task #3: Answer these!
1. What factors influenced you in making your decision?
—There are several important factors that influence decision making. Significant factors include
past experiences, a variety of cognitive biases, an escalation of commitment and sunk outcomes,
individual differences, including age and socioeconomic status, and a belief in personal
relevance.
2. Which of the following did you consider most in making your decision? Elaborate your
answer.
a) What will make you feel satisfied;

—Get to know your self. I mean really get to know your self. When you can understand
why you do what you do, I mean like all of it, why did you say that, why do you want
that, why did you talk to this person and not that person, etc. You will have an immense
level of satisfaction with your self. You will no longer be a slave to your past influences,
mindlessly being driven from one moment to the next.
b) What is most beneficial or practical;
—Work hard. Doesn't matter what, work hard at something, it will make you feel good.
c) What you believed was the most moral thing to do.
—When you understand yourself you will no longer needlessly hurt others, or yourself.
You will be happier, and thus bring more light into this world. And if you also work
hard, you will do good deeds and thus change and make this world more beautiful.
3. On situation on Task #2, why do you think did Princess prefer the 20-peso bills?
ABSTRACTIO
N
Let’s learn something about it!!
Freud's psychoanalytic theories
Sigmund Freud (c. 1921)
Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September

1939) is considered to be the founder of the
psychodynamic approach to psychology,
which looks to unconscious drives to explain
human behavior. Freud believed that the
mind is responsible for both conscious and
unconscious decisions that it makes on the
basis of psychological drives. The id, ego,
and super-ego are three aspects of the mind
Freud believed to comprise a person's

Page
personality. Freud believed people are "simply actors in the drama of [their] own minds, pushed
by desire, pulled by coincidence. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power
struggle going on deep within us" From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia
Psychoanalytic theory
Main article: Id, ego and super-ego
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud. Freud believed that people could be cured by
making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining "insight". The aim of
psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the
unconscious conscious. Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety
disorders. It is only by having a cathartic (i.e. healing) experience can a person be helped and
"cured".
Id
The id according to Freud is the part of the unconscious that seeks pleasure. His idea of the id
explains why people act out in certain ways when it is not in line with the ego or superego. The
id is the part of the mind, which holds all of humankind’s most basic and primal instincts. It is
the impulsive, unconscious part in the mind that is based on desire to seek immediate
satisfaction. The id does not have a grasp on any form of reality or consequence. Freud
understood that some people are controlled by the id because it makes people engage in need-
satisfying behavior without any accordance to what is right or wrong. Freud compared the id and
the ego to a horse and a rider. The id is compared to the horse, which is directed and controlled,
by the ego or the rider. This example goes to show that although the id is supposed to be
controlled by the ego, they often interact with one another according to the drives of the id.
Ego
In order for people to maintain a realistic sense here on earth, the ego is responsible for creating
a balance between pleasure and pain. It is impossible for all desires of the id to be met and the
ego realizes this but continues to seek pleasure and satisfaction. Although the ego does not know
the difference between right and wrong, it is aware that not all drives can be met at a given time.
The reality principle is what the ego operates in order to help satisfy the id’s demands as well as
compromising according to reality. The ego is a person’s "self" composed of unconscious
desires. The ego takes into account ethical and cultural ideals in order to balance out the desires
originating in the id. Although both the id and the ego are unconscious, the ego has close contact
with the perceptual system. The ego has the function of self-preservation, which is why it has the
ability to control the instinctual demands from the id.
"The ego is first and foremost a bodily ego; it is not merely a surface entity but is itself the
projection of a surface. If we wish to find an anatomical analogy for it we can best identify it
with the ‘cortical homunculus’ of the anatomists, which stands on its head in the cortex, sticks up
its heels, faces backward and, as we know, has its speech-area on the left-hand side. The ego is
ultimately derived from bodily sensations, chiefly from those springing from the surface of the
body. It may thus be regarded as a mental projection of the surface of the body, representing the
superficies of the mental apparatus."
Superego
The superego, which develops around age four or five, incorporates the morals of society. Freud
believed that the superego is what allows the mind to control its impulses that are looked down

Page
upon morally. The superego can be considered to be the conscience of the mind because it has
the ability to distinguish between realities as well as what is right or wrong. Without the
superego, Freud believed people would act out with aggression and other immoral behaviors
because the mind would have no way of understanding the difference between right and wrong.
The superego is considered to be the "consciousness" of a person’s personality and can override
the drives from the id. Freud separates the superego into two separate categories; the ideal self
and the conscience. The conscience contains ideals and morals that exist within a society that
prevent people from acting out based on their internal desires. The ideal self contains images of
how people ought to behave according to society's ideals.
The unconscious
Main article: Unconscious mind
Freud believed that the answers to what controlled daily actions resided in the unconscious mind
despite alternative views that all our behaviors were conscious. He felt that religion is an illusion
based on human values that are created by the mind to overcome inner psychological
conflict.. He believed that notions of the unconsciousness and gaps in the consciousness can be
explained by acts of which the consciousness affords no evidence. The unconscious mind
positions itself in every aspect of life whether one is dormant or awake. Though one may be
unaware of the impact of the unconscious mind, it influences the actions we engage in. Human
behavior may be understood by searching for an analysis of mental processes. This explanation
gives significance to verbal slips and dreams. They are caused by hidden reasons in the mind
displayed in concealed forms. Verbal slips of the unconscious mind are referred to as a Freudian
slip. This is a term to explain a spoken mistake derived from the unconscious mind.
Traumatizing information on thoughts and beliefs is blocked from the conscious mind. Slips
expose our true thoughts stored in the unconscious. Sexual instincts or drives have deeply hidden
roots in the unconscious mind. Instincts act by giving vitality and enthusiasm to the mind
through meaning and purpose. The ranges of instincts are in great numbers. Freud expressed
them in two categories. One is Eros the self-preserving life instinct containing all erotic
pleasures. While Eros is used for basic survival, the living instinct alone cannot explain all
behavior according to Freud. In contrast, Thanatos is the death instinct. It is full of self-
destruction of sexual energy and our unconscious desire to die. The main part of human behavior
and actions is tied back to sexual drives. Since birth, the existence of sexual drives can be
recognized as one of the most important incentives of life
Psychosexual stages
Main article: Psychosexual development
Freud's theory of psychosexual development is represented amongst five stages. According to

Freud, each stage occurs within a specific time frame of one's life. If one becomes fixated in any
of the four stages, he or she will develop personality traits that coincide with the specific stage
and its focus.
 Oral Stage – The first stage is the oral stage. An infant is in this stage from birth to
eighteen months of age. The main focus in the oral stage is pleasure-seeking through the
infant’s mouth. During this stage, the need for tasting and sucking becomes prominent in
producing pleasure. Oral stimulation is crucial during this stage; if the infant’s needs are
not met during this time frame he or she will be fixated in the oral stage. Fixation in this
stage can lead to adult habits such as thumb-sucking, smoking, over-eating, and nail-

Page
biting. Personality traits can also develop during adulthood that is linked to oral fixation;
these traits can include optimism and independence or pessimism and hostility.
 Anal Stage – The second stage is the anal stage which lasts from eighteen months to three
years of age. During this stage, the infant’s pleasure-seeking centers are located in the
bowels and bladder. Parents stress toilet training and bowel control during this time
period. Fixation in the anal stage can lead to anal-retention or anal-expulsion. Anal
retentive characteristics include being overly neat, precise, and orderly while being anal
expulsive involves being disorganized, messy, and destructive.
 Phallic Stage – The third stage is the phallic stage. It begins at the age of three and
continues until the age of six. Now sensitivity becomes concentrated in the genitals and
masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware
of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict of jealousy and fear
which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys). Later the Freud scholars added
Electra complex (in girls).
 Latency Stage – The fourth stage is the latency stage which begins at the age of six and
continues until the age of eleven. During this stage there is no pleasure-seeking region of
the body; instead, all sexual feelings are repressed. Thus, children are able to develop
social skills and find comfort through peer and family interaction.
 Genital Stage – The final stage of psychosexual development is the genital stage. This
stage starts from eleven onwards, lasts through puberty, and ends when one reaches
adulthood at the age of eighteen. The onset of puberty reflects strong interest from one
person to another of the opposite sex. If one does not experience fixation in any of the
psychosexual stages, once he or she has reached the genital stage, he or she will grow
into a well-balanced human being.
Anxiety and defense mechanisms
Freud proposed a set of defense mechanisms in one's body. These set of defense mechanisms
occur so one can hold a favorable or preferred view of themselves. For example, in a particular
situation when an event occurs that violates one's preferred view of themselves, Freud stated that
it is necessary for the self to have some mechanism to defend itself against this unfavorable
event; this is known as defense mechanisms. Freud's work on defense mechanisms focused on
how the ego defends itself against internal events or impulses, which are regarded as
unacceptable to one's ego. These defense mechanisms are used to handle the conflict between the
id, the ego, and the superego.
Freud noted that a major drive for people is the reduction of tension and the major cause of
tension was anxiety. He identified three types of anxiety; reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and
moral anxiety. Reality anxiety is the most basic form of anxiety and is based on the ego. It is
typically based on the fear of real and possible events, for example, being bit by a dog or falling
off of a roof. Neurotic anxiety comes from an unconscious fear that the basic impulses of the id
will take control of the person, leading to eventual punishment from expressing the id's desires.
Moral anxiety comes from the superego. It appears in the form of a fear of violating values or
moral codes and appears as feelings like guilt or shame.
When anxiety occurs, the mind's first response is to seek rational ways of escaping the situation
by increasing problem-solving efforts and a range of defense mechanisms may be triggered.
These are ways that the ego develops to help deal with the id and the superego. Defense

Page
mechanisms often appear unconsciously and tend to distort or falsify reality. When the distortion
of reality occurs, there is a change in perception which allows for a lessening in anxiety resulting
in a reduction of tension one experiences. Sigmund Freud noted a number of ego defenses that
were noted throughout his work but his daughter, Anna Freud, developed and elaborated on
them. The defense mechanisms are as follows: 1) Denial is believing that what is true is actually
false 2) Displacement is taking out impulses on a less threatening target 3) Intellectualization is
avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on the intellectual aspects 4) Projection is
attributing uncomfortable feelings to others 5) Rationalization is creating false but believable
justifications 6) Reaction Formation is taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes
anxiety 7) Regression is going back to a previous stage of development 8) Repression is
pushing uncomfortable thoughts out of conscious awareness 9) Suppression is consciously
forcing unwanted thoughts out of our awareness 10) Sublimation is redirecting ‘wrong’ urges
into socially acceptable actions. These defenses are not under our conscious control and our
unconscious will use one or more to protect one's self from stressful situations. They are natural
and normal and without these, neurosis develops such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or
hysteria.
Totem and Taboo
Totem and Taboo (1919)
Freud desired to understand religion and spirituality and deals

with the nature of religious beliefs in many of his books and
essays. He regarded God as an illusion, based on the infantile
need for a powerful father figure. Freud believed that religion
was an expression of underlying psychological neuroses and
distress. In some of his writing, he suggested that religion is an
attempt to control the Oedipal complex, as he goes on to discuss
in his book Totem and Taboo.
In 1913, Freud published the book, Totem and Taboo. This

book was an attempt to reconstruct the birth and the process of
development of religion as a social institution. He wanted to
demonstrate how the study of psychoanalysis is important in the
understanding of the growth of civilization. This book is about
how the Oedipus complex, which is when an infant develops
an attachment for the mother early on in life, and incest taboo came into being and why they are
present in all human societies. The incest taboo rises because of a desire for incest. The purpose
of the totemic animal is not for group unity, but to re-enforce the incest taboo. The totemic
animal is not a symbol of God but a symbol of the father and it is an important part of religious
development. Totemism originates from the memory of an event in pre-history where the male
group members eat the father figure due to a desire for the females. The guilt they feel for their
actions and for the loss of a father figure leads them to prohibit incest in a new way. Totemism is
a means of preventing incest and as a ritual reminder of the murder of the father. This shows that
sexual desire, since there are many social prohibitions on sexual relations, is channeled through
certain ritual actions and all societies adapt these rituals so that sexuality develops in approved

Page
ways. This reveals unconscious desires and their repression. Freud believes that civilization
makes people unhappy because it contradicts the desire for progress, freedom, happiness, and
wealth. Civilization requires the repression of drives and instructs such as sexual, aggression, and
the death instinct in order that civilization can work.
According to Freud, religion originated in pre-historic collective experiences that became

repressed and ritualized as totems and taboos. He stated that most, if not all religions, can be
traced back to early human sacrifice including Christianity in which Christ on the cross is a
symbolic representation of killing the father and eating the father figure is shown with ‘the body
of Christ’, also known as Communion. In this work, Freud attributed the origin of religion to
emotions such as hatred, fear, and jealousy. These emotions are directed towards the father
figure in the clan from the sons who are denied sexual desires towards the females. Freud
attributed totem religions to be a result of extreme emotion, rash action, and the result of guilt.[
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life is one of the most important

books in psychology. It was written by Freud in 1901 and it laid the
basis for the theory of psychoanalysis. The book contains twelve
chapters on forgetting things such as names, childhood memories,
mistakes, clumsiness, slips of the tongue, and determinism of the
unconscious. Freud believed that there were reasons that people forget
things like words, names, and memories. He also believed that mistakes
in speech, now referred to as a Freudian Slip, were not accidents but
instead the "dynamic unconscious" revealing something meaningful.
Freud suggested that our everyday psychopathology is a minor

disturbance of mental life which may quickly pass away. Freud
believed all of these acts to have an important significance; the most
trivial slips of the tongue or pen may reveal people's secret feelings and
fantasies. Pathology is brought into the everyday life which Freud
pointed out through dreams, forgetfulness, and Para praxes. He used these things to make his
case for the existence of an unconscious that refuses to be explained or contained
by consciousness. Freud explained how the forgetting of multiple events in our everyday life can
be consequences of repression, suppression, denial, displacement, and identification. Defense
mechanisms occur to protects one's ego so in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Freud
stated, "painful memories merge into motivated forgetting which special ease". (p. 154)
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, sometimes titled Three Contributions to the Theory of
Sex, written in 1905 by Sigmund Freud explores and analyzes his theory of sexuality and its
presence throughout childhood. Freud's book describes three main topics in reference to

Page
sexuality: sexual perversions, childhood sexuality, and puberty. His first essay in this series is
called "The Sexual Aberrations." This essay focuses on the distinction between a sexual object
and a sexual aim. A sexual object is an object that one desires while the sexual aim is the acts
that one desires to perform with the object. Freud's second essay was explained," Infantile
Sexuality." During this essay, he insists that children have sexual urges. The psychosexual stages
are the steps a child must take in order to continue having sexual urges once adulthood is
reached. The third essay Freud wrote described "The Transformation of Puberty." In this essay,
he examines how children express their sexuality throughout puberty and how sexual identity is
formed during this time frame. Freud ultimately attempted to link unconscious sexual desires to
conscious actions in each of his essays.
Dreams
The Interpretation of Dreams was one of Sigmund Freud's best known published works. It set
the stage for his psychoanalytic work and Freud's approach to the unconscious with regard to the
interpretation of dreams. During therapy sessions with patients, Freud would ask his patients to
discuss what was on their minds. Frequently, the responses were directly related to a dream. As a
result, Freud began to analyze dreams believing that it gave him access to one's deepest thoughts.
In addition, he was able to find links between one's current hysterical behaviors and past
traumatic experiences. From these experiences, he began to write a book that was designed to
help others to understand dream interpretation. In the book, he discussed his theory of the
unconscious. Freud believed that dreams were messages from the unconscious masked as wishes
controlled by internal stimuli. The unconscious mind plays the most imperative role in dream
interpretation. In order to remain in a state of sleep, the unconscious mind has to detain negative
thoughts and represent them in any edited form. Therefore, when one dreams the unconscious
makes an effort to deal with conflict. It would enable one to begin to act on them. There are four
steps required to convert dreams from latent or unconscious thoughts to the manifest content.
They are condensation, displacement, symbolism, and secondary revision. Ideas first go through
a process of condensation that takes thoughts and turns them into a single image. Then, the true
emotional meaning of the dream loses its significance in an element of displacement. This is
followed by symbolism representing our latent thoughts in visual form. A special focus on
symbolism was emphasized in the interpretation of dreams. [14] Our dreams are highly symbolic
with an underlying principle meaning. Many of the symbolic stages focus on sexual
connotations. For example, a tree branch could represent a penis. Freud believed all human
behavior originated from our sexual drives and desires. In the last stage of converting dreams to
manifest content dreams are made sensible. The final product of manifest content is what we
remember when we come out of our sleep.
TAKEAWAYS

Page
Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development

Page
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/jeanpiaget-170421070206/95/jean-piaget-theory-of-cognitive-
development-20-638.jpg?cb=149275842

Page

Page
APPLICATION
TASK #4: Draw a Concept Map that will present the stages of psychosexual development by Freud.
Write one dominant characteristics on each of the stages.
TASK #5: Identify the three components of personality structure according to Freud. Explain each.
—ID, EGO, SUPEREGO.
•ID — is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. The id is a part of the unconscious that
contains all the urges and impulses, including what is called the libido, a kind of generalized sexual
energy that is used for everything from survival instincts to appreciation of art. The id is also kind of
stubborn, for it responds only to what Freud called the pleasure principle (if it feels good, do it), and
nothing else.
•EGO — is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world.'
•SUPEREGO — incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and
others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
The superego is seen as the purveyor or rewards (feelings of pride and satisfaction) and punishments
(feelings of shame and guilt) depending on which part (the ego-deal or conscious) is activated.
TASK #6: Generate a graphic organizer that will present the Stages of Cognitive Development by Piaget.
SYNAPSE
TASK #7: Complete the unfinished sentences.
Jean Piaget is — a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's theory of
cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget
placed great importance on the education of children.
Sigmund Freud views that the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and superego, and that the
interactions and conflicts among the components create personality. Freud proposed that we use defence
mechanisms to cope with anxiety and maintain a positive self-image.

Page
REFLECTION
From the Module on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, I
learned that both Freud and Piaget shared an interest in development. Both believe that understanding
childhood is a key to understanding adulthood. Both recognized the similarities between children and
adults. Freud suggested that even infants are sexual beings while Piaget found that young children reason.
Content Focus: Module 4 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development

Course and Year: BEED — 1B Rating: ______

Page
Week 8 & 9
Module 5 Freud’s Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of

Development
Learning Objectives
1. Illustrate and simplify the explanation on the 8 stages of Life.

2. Compose a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as a framework.
3. Develop at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.
Introduction
Erik Erikson is best known for his famous theory of psychosocial

development and the concept of the identity crisis. His theories marked an
important shift in thinking on personality; instead of focusing simply on early
childhood events, his psychosocial theory looks at how social influences
contribute to our personalities throughout our entire lifespans.
"Hope is both the earliest and the most indispensable virtue inherent
in the state of being alive. If life is to be sustained hope must remain, even
where confidence is wounded, trust impaired."—Erik Erikson, The Erik Erikson
Reader, 2000
This Module provides you vast of information on Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development its relevance to life as a continuous process involving
learning and trials which help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides
us and helps us to tell us why.
Do the tasks in every phase of the lesson. At the end of the presentation of this
module, you will be provided with a Worksheet where you will write your
answers based on the given tasks. Enjoy Reading and Learning!!!

Page
ERIK ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT Questionnaire
This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Cornelis Plug’s self-report questionnaire
assessing the personality dimensions associated with Erikson’s first 5 stages of psychosexual
development. It can serve to make the stages personally relevant to you.
TASK #1: Do this task in your own. Indicate how often each of these statements applies to you by
using the following scale:
0 = never applies to you
1= occasionally or seldom applies to you
2 = fairly often applies to you
3 = very often applies to you
Read the instructions

at the end before
putting score here.
Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust (Infancy and Early Childhood) Score
_____ 1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
_____ 2. I feel the world’s major problems can be solved.
_____ 3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
_____ 4. People can be trusted.
_____ 5. I feel optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage 1
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (Infancy and Early Score
Childhood)
_____ 6. When people try to persuade me to do something I don’t want to, I
refuse.
_____ 7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have made a mistake.
_____ 8.I am unnecessarily apologetic.
_____ 9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
_____ 10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score Stage 2
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt (Infancy and Early Childhood) Score

_____ 11. I am prepared to take risk to get what I want.
_____ 12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing something.
_____ 13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a successful conclusion.
_____ 14. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I have done.
_____ 15. When I have difficulty in getting something right, I give up.
Total Score Stage 3
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority (Infancy and Early Childhood) Score

_____ 16. When people look at something I have done, I feel embarrassed.
_____ 17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.

Page
_____ 18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really like to do in life.
_____ 19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I would fail.
_____ 20. I feel competent.
Total Score Stage 4
Stage 5: Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Adolescence) Score

_____ 21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
_____ 22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
_____ 23. My worth is recognized by others.
_____ 24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
_____ 25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.
Total Score Stage 5
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation (Early Adulthood) Score

_____ 26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
_____ 27. I have a feeling of complete “togetherness” with someone.
_____ 28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become committed to marriage
for life.
_____ 29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
_____ 30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
Total Score Stage 6
Scores for each subscale range from 0 to 15, which high scores reflecting greater strength on a
particular personality dimension.
1. The response to item 1 should be reversed (0=3, 1=2, 2=1, 3=0) and then added to the numbers
given in response to items 2, 3, 4, and 5 to obtain a trust score.
2. Responses to items 7, 8, and 9 should be reversed and added to items 6 and 10 to assess
autonomy.
3. Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 11, 13, and 14 to measure initiative.
4. Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and 20 to calculate industry.
5. Responses to 21 and 25 must be reversed and added to 22, 23, and 24 to obtain a measure of
identity.
6. Answers to 26, 28, and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give intimacy.
(Source: Ochse, R., & Plug, C. (1986). Cross-cultural investigation of the validity of Erikson’s theory of personality development.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1240-1252. Copyright 1986 by the American Psychology Association.)
TASK #2. Answer this question: (Write you answer in the Answer Sheet provided at the end of
this Module.)
1. What did you discover about yourself in this questionnaire?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Page
Have these scores in mind as you read about Erikson’s stages and see how the stages can guide
you in self-understanding and in understanding others as well.
ABSTRACTIO
N
Personality Psychology
The eight stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory are something that every psychology student
learns about as they explore the history of personality psychology. Much like psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages.
Erikson’s theory marked a shift from Freud's psychosexual theory in that it describes the impact
of social experience across the whole lifespan instead of simply focusing on childhood events.
While Freud's theory of psychosexual development essentially ends at early adulthood, Erikson's
theory described development through the entire lifespan from birth until death.
The eight key stages he described were:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: This stage occurs between the ages of birth and 1.5 years and is centered on
developing a sense of trust in caregivers and the world. Children who receive responsive care are
able to develop the psychological quality of hope.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: This stage takes place between the ages of 18 months and 3
years and involves gaining a sense of independence and personal control. Success in this stage
allows people to develop will and determination.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt: Between the ages of 3 and 6 years, children begin to explore their
environment and exert more control over their choices. By successfully completing this stage,
children are able to develop a sense of purpose.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority: The stage that takes place between the ages of about 6 and 12 years is
focused on developing a sense of personal pride and accomplishment. Success at this point in
development leads to a sense of competence.
5. Identity vs. Confusion: The teen years are a time of personal exploration. Those who are able to
successfully forge a healthy identity develop a sense of fidelity. Those who do not complete this
stage well may be left feeling confused about their role and place in life.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: The stage that takes place in early adulthood is all about forging healthy
relationships with others. Success leads to the ability to form committed, lasting, and nurturing
relationships with others.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: At the stage occurring during middle adulthood, people become
concerned with contributing something to society and leaving their mark on the world. Raising a
family and having a career are two key activities that contribute to success at this stage.

Page
8. Integrity vs. Despair: The final stage of psychosocial development takes place in late adulthood
and involves reflecting back on life. Those who look back and feel a sense of satisfaction develop
a sense of integrity and wisdom, while those who are left with regrets may experience bitterness
and despair.
SEE some illustrations below that will explain Erikson’s views on the 8 Stages.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.com%2Fpin
%2F138274651044793311%2F&psig=AOvVaw3qZGSGYr45Q58aRuIIAaNg&ust=1601703048303000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqF
woTCMi6koqXlewCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAT

Page
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.ca%2Fpin%2F46654546122435975%2F%3Famp_client_id%3DCLIENT_I
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2Fpsych_review%2Fstatus
%2F858819455333408769&psig=AOvVaw3qZGSGYr45Q58aRuIIAaNg&ust=1601703048303000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTC
Mi6koqXlewCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAh
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.com%2Fpin
%2F704743041672713322%2F&psig=AOvVaw20gA3jt_6Qs8x1n5V5pWaK&ust=1601704415961000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqF
woTCLjR6oqclewCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Explained
https://positivepsychology.com/team/jeremy-sutton/
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory proposes that our personality develops through eight
stages, from infancy to old age (Erikson, 1958, 1963).
He argued that social experience was valuable throughout life, with each stage recognizable by the
specific conflict we encounter between our psychological needs and the surrounding social environment.
To become fully-functional, confident members of society, we must successfully complete each stage and
resolve two conflicting states, for example, that of trust versus mistrust, and autonomy versus shame.
When successful, we acquire basic human virtues and a healthy personality; we become well-adjusted

and better prepared for challenges later in life.

Page
Failure, on the other hand, leads to difficulty navigating our future and a profound impact on our sense of
self, our personality. We are left feeling inadequate.
The diagram below represents Erikson’s eight psychological stages and the tensions most relevant at
particular stages of the lifespan (modified from Syed & McLean, 2018).
Note that the age ranges below are indicative of the stages described by Erikson and vary across the
literature.
Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust
In the first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial model, infancy is crucial

to our psychosocial development.
During our initial 18 months, we are uncertain about the world in

which we find ourselves and must develop basic trust.
After all, we are entirely reliant on our caregivers for warmth, love,
stability, and nurturing. If reliable, and predictable, we gain that
confidence, a sense of security, and a feeling of safety in the world
(Syed & McLean, 2018).

Page
If care is inconsistent and unreliable, then trust will fail. For example, where caregivers reject us, fail to
meet our needs, or are emotionally detached, we may conclude that we cannot rely on adults.
Failure in stage one results in the development of fear, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety, and ultimately a
belief that the world is unpredictable. We may become anxious, believing we have no control or influence
on our environment.
A good balance between trust and mistrust means we remain open to experience and yet aware of the
potential for danger. After all, it is unlikely, and ill-advised, for a child to become entirely trusting or
lacking in trust.
Success within stage one leads to the virtue of hope — the sense that whatever crises we meet, there will
be someone around to provide support and help.
Stage 2: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Stage two focuses on early childhood—18 months to three

years—and we are gaining independence, along with an
increased perception of control over our physical skills
(Erikson, 1958, 1963).
Though early on in development, we begin to develop a

heightened sense of personal control and acquire feelings
of independence.
Typically, around this time, parents, teachers, and

caregivers begin giving children some degree of choice,
letting them perform actions on their own. Therefore, we
become increasingly mobile and develop physically,
asserting our independence, putting on clothes, and playing
with other children and toys.
According to Erikson, potty training is crucial to learning

physical control and, ultimately, the development of autonomy.
Success over bodily functions and taking control of simple choices leads to a sense of personal power,
feelings of autonomy, increased independence, and a greater sense of being able to survive in the world.
During stage two, parents should expect and encourage their child to explore limits, gently stretching
them, while avoiding criticism when they fail. The resulting feeling of security and confidence are crucial
for our progress in subsequent stages and leads to the virtue of will.
However, if we are overly criticized and controlled, or prevented from asserting ourselves, we may feel
unable to survive, lacking in self-esteem, and excessively dependent on others. Indeed, feeling a sense
of shame over toilet accidents can impact our sense of personal control and increase levels of doubt.
An appropriate balance between shame and doubt, and autonomy is essential to the virtue of will – the
child believing they can act with intention, rather than experience a sense of inadequacy and doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt
Erikson’s third stage of psychosocial development occurs during

preschool, between the ages of three and five years.
At this point in our psychosocial development—where conflict

occurs between initiative and guilt—we learn to assert ourselves
and typically begin to direct play and social interactions.

Page
To our parents, our behavior may seem vigorous, overly assertive, or even aggressive, and yet we are
exploring our interpersonal skills.
If overly restricted from such exploration—either by parental control or through increased criticism—we
can develop a sense of guilt. Similarly, while constant questioning, at this time, can, at times, be tiring, if
curtailed by caregivers, we may see ourselves as a nuisance, inhibiting our interactions with others.
And yet, if we are successful in stage three, we learn to feel capable, secure, and able to use our initiative.
If we fail, we may suffer guilt and self-doubt and become less likely to lead.
Success in stage three is vital to building the virtue of purpose as opposed to feelings of guilt. However, a
balance between initiative and guilt remains key to developing a healthy mindset.
Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority
In stage four of Erikson’s psychosocial theory—aged five to

12 years—we are immersed in a world of education, learning
to read, write, and solve math puzzles (Erikson, 1958, 1963).
Teachers play an essential role in our continued growth

within this stage. At the same time, peer groups and social
interactions are increasingly relevant in the development of
our self-esteem, and feelings of pride arise as we
successfully perform or complete tasks.
Indeed, winning approval is a motivating factor, and we soon

learn to associate it with displaying specific competencies
valued by our peers and adults.
Over these years, demands on us increase considerably; it

becomes essential for us to learn how to handle the many social and academic expectations (Syed &
McLean, 2018).
If successful, development leads to the virtue of competence, while failure can result in a sense
of inferiority, where we feel unable to perform specific skills.
Balance in stage four leads to a sense of accomplishment and competence, where we start to believe in
our ability to handle existing and novel situations.
Indeed, learning to fail can be a crucial element in our maturation—leading to the development of
modesty—while success meets our basic psychological need for feelings of competence (Ryan & Deci,
2018).
Stage 5: Identity versus Role Confusion
Teenage years can be daunting, both to the

adolescents and parents.
New opportunities, experiences, and changes

to the body and mind in stage five are
crucial to our sense of which we are and
have a considerable bearing on our adult
years.
These formative years—aged 12 to 18—

provide a valuable and in-depth exploration
of beliefs, goals, and values while searching
for personal identity and a sense of self.

Page
The transition between childhood and being an adult is crucial. We become increasingly independent and
begin to consider careers, family, friends, and our place in society.
According to Erikson, the fifth stage of psychosocial development exists “between the morality learned
by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult” (Erikson, 1963).
As such, it is vital for us, as young adults, to learn the roles that we may adopt once mature—including
sexually—as our body image transforms.
Success leads to the belief we are staying true to who we are, expressed by virtue of fidelity. Erikson
claims that we grow into our bodies and begin to form our identity as a result of our on-going
explorations. And, with appropriate encouragement and reinforcement, we move towards increasing
independence, and a stronger sense of control and self (Marcia, 2010).
Otherwise, our inability to create a sense of identity within society—“Who am I?” “I don’t know what I
want to do when I am older,”—results in confusion and a poor sense of self. This failure can only lead to
insecurity, unsure of ourselves, our future, and where we fit.
Success in stage five, according to Erikson, leads to fidelity – alignment with the standards and
expectations of the social group to which we belong. After all, our conscious sense of self results from
this social interaction and is crucial in our balance between identity and confusion.
Ultimately identity provides us with our integrated sense of self—avoiding identity crisis—that will last
throughout our lives, guiding how we behave and what we believe.
Stage 6: Intimacy versus Isolation
As young adults, we are motivated to explore personal

relationships and our desire to form intimate relationships.
In the sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development

theory, young adulthood takes place between the ages of 18 and
40. During this time, major conflict can arise as we attempt to
form longer-term commitments outside of our family, with
varying degrees of success.
And yet, positive outcomes result in healthy, happy

relationships that are secure and enduring, developing the
virtue of love. Erikson’s view is that the ability to love marks the
ultimate success of stage six– when relationships are meaningful
and lasting (Erikson, 1963). Failure—whether beyond,
or within, our control—to form appropriate bonds or the
avoidance of intimacy, may result in loneliness, a sense
of isolation, and depression. Those with a poor sense of
self are typically emotionally isolated and less
committed to relationships.
The intimacy versus isolation stage builds upon the

success or failure of stage five. After all, a strong sense
of personal identity is crucial to developing relationships
that are intimate and strong.
Stage 7: Generativity versus Stagnation
The seventh stage of psychosocial development—

generativity versus stagnation—occurs between 40 and
65 years of age.

Page
During middle adulthood, we display our need for longevity, not necessarily in a physical sense, but life’s
continuation in our children or the long-term impact we have on others.
We aim to make a mark on the world, to nurture things, outside of who we are, that will outlive us. We
may look for ways to be more productive and valuable to our society, with an eye on the bigger picture.
Success is exemplified by virtue of care —the feeling of being useful in life, accomplishing something,
and contributing to society. We are proud of who we are, what we have achieved, our children, and who
they have become, along with a strong relationship with our partner.
Failure looks quite different. We feel we have had little impact on the world, failing to make that dent in
the universe as the late Steve Jobs described. If so, we feel unproductive, uninvolved, disillusioned, and
disconnected from the world in which we live.
Stage 8: Integrity versus Despair
Unlike previous theories, Erikson’s model covered the entirety

of life ‘from the cradle to the grave.’
Our final stage of psychosocial development takes us from 65

years of age to death — known as maturity.
This stage is one of reflection. We slow down, are less

productive, and spend time reviewing our accomplishments
throughout life.
Success is in the belief we have achieved our goals and found

happiness, leading to the feeling of integrity, “a sense of
coherence and wholeness” (Erikson, 1982). We feel we have
achieved much and are ready to meet our end with a sense of
peace. Success leads to the virtue of wisdom – a sense of
completeness.
On the other hand, failure may be experienced as despair and

regret over things not done, completed, or mistakes made. We
are bitter about past and present, frightened about coming to
the end of our life without a sense of having lived well
APPLICATION
TASK #3: Illustrate the 8 Stages of Psycho-social Theory of Development of Erik Erikson through a
concept map you want to create. Simplify your own understanding of the virtues being taught in each
stage.
TASK #4: Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as framework. Go
through each of the stages that apply to you. Ask information from your parents and other significant
persons in your life. Look at your old photo albums. Also, include the results of your questionnaire in the
Activity section of this Module. Write a narrative for each page.
Remember this TASK will serve as your PROJECT for the MIDTERM, You may choose to have this
project in PowerPoint slides and have it printed in any size of bond paper or in scrapbook style print outs.
For every psychological stage include pictures of yourself and significant persons in your life. Discuss
your own psychosocial development using Erikson’s theory. Consider the crisis and the virtues you have
experienced or you have been through.
SYNAPSE
Page
For additional information about this topic, read on Erikson’s ideas about the work he did with the Sioux
Indians and his research on Gandhi.(Note: This is only for your additional inputs. This is optional. You
may or may not it’s okay♥♥.)
REFLECTION
TASK #5:
From the Module on Erikson’s Stages of Psycho-social Theory of Development, I realized that …
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Congratulations!!! You’re done this Module.

Content Focus: Erickson’s Psycho- Social Theory of Development
Name: ______________________________________ Rating: ___________

Course & Year: ______________________________ Date: ____________

Page
Week 10
Module 6 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Learning Objectives
1. Apply the identification of the stages of moral development in the given situations.
2. Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral dilemmas.
3. Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher later
on.

Page
Introduction
Lawrence Kohlberg was such an interesting, if not intriguing

person. He was born wealthy, but chose to be a sailor and began to be
interested in moral reasoning. He helped smuggle Jews through a British
blockage in Palenstine during World War II. Kohlberg is known for his
theory of moral development which was influenced by Piaget and Dewey’s
theories. He believed that people progressed in their ability to reason
morally through six stages, with three levels largely by social interaction.
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive
theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg
believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a
series of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present
conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys
about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by
Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the
law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an
individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral
development.(Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development/)
This Module presents and explains the stages of moral development of Kohlberg. its relevance to life as
individuals when confronted by situations where there is a need to make moral decisions and how to exercise
one’s own ability to use moral reasoning.
There are tasks in every phase of the lesson. Do it as directed. At the end of the presentation of this module,
you will be provided with a Worksheet where you will write your answers based on the given tasks.
Enjoy Reading and Learning!!!
https://image3.slideserve.com/6883784/background-i-nformation-l.jpg
Task #1: Read the moral dilemma below and answer the questions asked after it.
Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert of rock band. His parents
have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with a rowdy crowd. The band is
notorious for having out-of-control audience who somehow manages to get drunk and stoned during
the concert. Ryan agreed not to watch anymore. But a day before the concert, Nic. 15-year-old brother
of Ryan, saw a corner of what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of Ryan’s bag. Nic
examined it and confirmed it was indeed a ticket. Looking at Ryan’s bag, Nic also found an extra shirt
and 2 sticks of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert after all. That night, Ryan told his
parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a classmate’s house for school requirement. Then later
that evening, he told Nic of his plan to go to the concert. Nic didn’t say anything, but he found it difficult
to sleep that night, thinking whether to tell their parents or not.
1. If you were Nic, what would you do?

__________________________________________________________________________
2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you considered in deciding what to
do?
ACTIVITY

Page
TASK #2. Examine the answers you gave. Compare it with the responses provided below. In which
of these responses is your answer most similar?
Stage 1 – “Yes. I will tell our parents. Because if they found out later that I knew, for sure they will get
angry and most likely punish me.”
“No, I will not tell because Ryan will make my life difficult and also punish me of telling.”
Stage 2 – “Yes, I will tell my parents because they will reward me for it. I will subtly ask for a new Ipod
that I’m wishing to have.”
“No, I will not tell. Ryan will surely grant me a lot of favors for not telling. He’ll not also squeal
on me.”
Stage 3 – “Yes, I will tell so my parents will think I am such an honest boy.”
“No, I will not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool brother!”
Stage 4 – “Yes, I will tell because we should follow the rules that our parents say.”
“No, because it’s been our rule to keep each other’s’ secrets.”
Stage 5 – “Yes, I will tell because he might be hurt or get in trouble and his welfare is top most priority.”
“No, because he is big enough to question my parents decision not to let him go.”
Stage 6 – “Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong and I want to be true to what I believe in.”
“No, because I believe brothers watch out for each other. If he trusted me with this, I should stay
true to him and not to say anything.”
In what level of moral development did your response to the dilemma fall? Reflect about
what this indicates about our moral reasoning in this moral dilemma.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
As you continue to read this Module, you will get to know more about the different levels of moral
reasoning espoused by Kohlberg.
ABSTRACTIO
N
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children
accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-

Page
conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right
or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is
perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act
is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the
individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs
of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch
yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
“what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their
belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed
on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one
is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need
for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—
thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain
at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from
society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional
moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as
life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own
moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can
sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated
that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

Page
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should
be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when
necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through
majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage
five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally,
the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or
respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow,
and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is
expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development/
TAKEAWAYS
https://www.filosofiaesoterica.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Kohlberg-and-the-Stages-of-Moral-Development.jpg
https:
//cdn.cleverism.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/kohlberg.png

Page
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/kolberg-1.png
APPLICATION
TASK #3: Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:
1. Janine allows her classmates to copy her answer in the examination so that they will think she is
kind and will like her to be their friend.
2. Joel does everything to get passing grades because his Mom will take his IPod away if he gets
failing grades.
3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that although the
government allows this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes
abortion).
4. Joela lets Janeo copy during their math test because Joela agreed to let her copy during their
Educ. 1 test.
5. Josh decides to return the money he found in the cabinet so that his family will praise his
honesty and think he’s such a good boy.
6. Jerry decides to return the money he found in the classroom because he believes it’s the right
thing to do.
7. Kian wears his uniform and his ID regularly because he likes to follow the school rules and
regulations.
8. A tricycle driver looks if there’s an LTO officer around before he u-turns in a no u-turn spot.
9. JM volunteers to tutor children-at-risk of dropping out from school in her place for free so they
will learn to love and stay in school.
10. Little Liz behaves so well in her class to get a star stamp from her Kindergarten Teacher.
SYNAPSE
For additional information about this topic, read the Moral Dilemma guide found in
(http://tigger.uic.edu/-Inucci/MoralEd/practices/practice3lindtext,html). Try out these guidelines with a
moral dilemma. (Note: This is only for your additional inputs. This is optional. You may or may not it’s
okay♥♥.)
REFLECTION
Page
Task #4: From this module of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, I realized that … people
develop the ability to know right from wrong. Kohlberg's theory of Moral Development is the
approach most widely used to examine moral reasoning. Kohlberg's ideas of moral development are
based on the premise that at birth, humans do not have morals, ethics, or a sense of honesty. His
theory is based on responses to scenarios that involve a moral dilemma that he broke down into
different levels and stages.
Content Focus: Module 6- Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Course and Year: BEED-1B Rating: ___________

Page
Week 11 & 12
Module 7 Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory &

Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Page
Learning Objectives
Lesson 1
1. Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory.

2. Compare and contrast Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.
3. Illustrate how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill through an explanation.
Lesson 2
1. Describe each of the layers of Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.

2. Identify factors in one’s own life that extend influence on one’s development.
3. Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child and
adolescent development.
Introduction
The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social

interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development.
He believed that individual development could not be understood
without looking into the social and cultural context within which
development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for
appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist learner
accomplish a task. Learn more about it as you do the activity.
Read on!
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/week7socio-culturaldevelopment2012-130228002852-
phpapp02/95/sociocultural-development-vygotsky-5-638.jpg?cb=1362011474
On the other hand, Brofenbrenner came up with a simple yet

useful paradigm showing the different factors that exert influence
on an individual’s development. It points out the ever widening
spheres of influence that shape every individual, from his/her
immediate family to the neighbourhood, the country,
even the world!
This Module presents two (2) lessons:

Lesson 1 explains Vigotsky’s Socio-Cultural
Theory; and Lesson 2 explains Brofenbrenner’s
Ecological Theory. There are tasks in every
phase of the lesson. Do it as directed. At the end of
the presentation of this module, you will be
provided with a Worksheet where you will write
your answers based on the given tasks.
https://image3.slideserve.com/6883784/background-i-nformation-l.jpg
ACTIVITY
TASK #1. Write your responses on this task in the Answer Sheet provided in this Module.

Page
Lesson 1
1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned well, through the help of
another person. (Like swimming, riding a bike, playing the piano, skating, etc.)
2. What made you interested to learn the skill?
3. Who taught or assisted you?
4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps or actions the person did in
order to help you learn.
Lesson 2
“Looking Back”
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask your parents for some
information. Write your answers on the graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
5. When I was 5 years old, my parents ____________________________________________
6. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were ____________________________.
7. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show ______________
8. I cannot forget my teacher who ________________________________
9. When I was in high school, I was close to _________________________________
10. The most important thing that I learned from my high school was _________
Task #2: Do the task as directed in each lesson.
Lesson 1
1. What factors in the environment influenced you to learn the skill?

2. Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of scaffolding? I yes, How?
Lesson 2
Write each answer you gave n the Activity on the circle where it belongs.
culture sub culture social class

Page
extended family
ffa
Family, church,
school
Me!
ABSTRACTIO
N
LESSON 1
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used Socratic Method.
This method was a systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current
thinking and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience, together with his interest in
literature and his work as a teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central
factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of
Development. Source: The Child and Adolescent Learners by Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the
1920’s and 30’s but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive development. Since Piaget
was taken up already in the preceding Module, it would be easier now to see how views compare with
Vygotsky’s.

Page
Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social.

Page
Zone of Proximal Development

Page
Source of the Images: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/week7socio-culturaldevelopment2012-130228002852-phpapp02/95/sociocultural-

development-vygotsky-21-638.jpg?cb=1362011474
LESSON 2 : Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment
https://
psychologydos.weebly.com/uploads/4/5/8/1/45813913/9312028.png?386

Page
Key Concepts
Nested Systems
Bronfenbrenner conceptualized four ecological systems that an individual interacted with, each nested
within the others. Listed from closest to the person to furthest:
1. Microsystem — The prefix “micro” comes from the Greek for “small,” and is the first and most
immediate layer of the nested systems. It encompasses an individual’s human relationships,
interpersonal interactions and immediate surroundings. An example of this system would be the
relationship between an individual and his or her parents, siblings, or school environment.
2. Mesosystem — The second layer from the individual, surrounding the microsystem and
encompassing the different interactions between the characters of the microsystem. For example, the
relationship between the individual’s family and their school teachers or administrators. In order for an
interaction to be considered part of the mesosystem, it has to be a direct interaction between two
aspects of the microsystem that influences the development of the individual.
3. Exosystem — The exosystem is the third layer, and contains elements of the microsystem which do
not affect the individual directly, but may do so indirectly. For example, if a parent were to lose their job
or have their hours cut back, this would affect their child in an indirect way such as financial strain or
increased parental stress.
4. Macrosystem — The prefix “macro” comes from the Greek for “large,” and is used because this
system was thought to be all-encompassing. The fourth and outermost layer of the bioecological model,
it encompasses cultural and societal beliefs and programming that influence an individual’s
development. Examples of this would include gender norms or religious influence.
Criticism of the early model
Bronfenbrenner’s early model of the bioecological system has sometimes been criticized for not
emphasizing the active role of the individual in his or her own development. As such, sometimes the
individual’s own biological and identifying characteristics, such as age, health, sex or gender are
considered the unofficial first layer of the nested systems.
In later iterations, a fifth stage is considered part of the bioecological model, called the chronosystem.
This system focuses on the interaction between the various systems and how they affect one another
over time. One instance of this would be parents scolding a child for disobedience, which is an instance
of microsystem-macrosystem interaction. While the parents are members of the microsystem, they are
reinforcing a cultural belief that children should always listen to their parents. The assumption is that
over time, the child would grow up to be obedient.
Later Models
Process — Person — Context — Time (PPCT)
This model was later adapted to include the chronosystem, based on four establishing principles and
their interactions which were Bronfenbrenner’s original basis for the bioecological theory:
Process — The developmental processes that happen through the systematic interactions mentioned
above. What Bronfenbrenner referred to as proximal processes functioned as the primary mechanism of
an individual’s development.
Person — This principle was establish to indicate the role of the individual and their personal
characteristics in social interactions and their individual development. These characteristics include age,

Page
sex, gender, physical or mental health, and others. Some of these characteristics are more visible than
others (such as age) and as such, are more easily measured over time.
Context — The (now five) systems of the bioecological model serve as the context for an individual’s
development — the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chronosystems.
Time — the most essential element of the bioecological model. Because this model measures an
individual’s development, these interactions occur on a measurable, chronological scale. Time influences
the systemic interactions within an individual’s lifespan as well as across generations, such as in the case
of “family values,” a set of morals or beliefs that are passed down between generations and shape
development. This would be an example of microsystem interaction over time.
Source:https://www.learning-theories.com/bronfenbrenners-bioecological-model-bronfenbrenner.html
Summary of Bronfenbrenner's work
Bronfenbrenner’s work was very important in understanding a systematic approach of

human and social development. His bioecological theory has provided links to why children each
develop differently and what aspects of development are in the child’s control and which are not. It
looks not only into the biological aspect of development, but also the ecology behind it and the
environment involved. His theory is important for educators to understand because it allows the
educator to build fundamental relationships with their students and create a communication rich
classroom that involves the parents. Bronfenbrenner’s work also displays how the community and
culture that the children are surrounded by greatly influence their development as well. Things such as
media, school and state policies, or a child’s neighborhood can shape how he or she develops.
Bronfenbrenner creates three separate systems (microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem) that can
all act individually on the child, but also can act in unison on the child. The child has control over the
events in his or her microsystem, but the exosystem and macrosystem are out of the child’s control.
Bronfenbrenner clearly states how each system is vital for every child’s development and from that, real
life events can be related back to a certain system. Events such as relationships between peers, parents,
and teachers all are shaped in a child’s microsystem. Events that take place in a child’s neighborhood or
community all are shaped in a child’s exosystem. Societal expectations and norms all are shaped in a
child’s macrosystem. From Bronfenbrenner’s theory, it has provided a framework for parents and
teachers to build effective relationships from and surround the child with a positive environment. With
immediate relationships and a positive environment, it will allow the child to develop and succeed to his
or her fullest potential possible.Source: https://bronfenbrenner3040.weebly.com/summary-of-bronfenbrenners-work.html
APPLICATION
TASK #3. Do it as directed.
Lesson 1. An exercise in scaffolding:
1. Choose a skill you are good in. _________

2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will benefit from
scaffolding. __________________
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.___________
4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will do to scaffold.
___________
5. Teach the skill to the individual. ________________
6. Describe how the learning activity went. __________________________

Page
Lesson 2:
Looking at your answers in the ACTIVITY phase of this Module, describe how these people or
circumstances have influenced your attitudes, behaviour and habits.
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
TASK #4: Create your own Concept Map using any of the graphic organizers that will show the
comparison and contrast of Vygotsky and Piaget’s views on their respective theories.
SYNAPSE
1. Vygotsky always emphasized the role of cultural factors in cognitive development. He also identified
intellectual tools of adaptation which enable individuals to acquire cognitive skills depending on what
tools their culture has made available for them. Read more about this and write a reaction paper.
REFLECTION
From this Module, I realized that…
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural theory is asserts that learning is an essentially social process in which the
support of parents, caregivers, peers and the wider society and culture plays a crucial role in the
development of higher psychological functions.
Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological theory is formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner and posits that human
development is a transactional process in which an individual's development is influenced by his or
her interactions with various aspects and spheres of their environment.

Page
Congratulations! You’re done of this Module.
Content Focus: Module 6- Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Page
Week 13 & 14
Module 8 Development of the Learners at

Various Stages (Pre-natal to Toddlerhood)
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial characteristics of learners that influence
learning at various stages of growth and development
2. Evaluate the role of a teacher in assessing stage-specific learner needs according to
maturational levels.
3. Draw implications of the different principles and processes to child care, education, and
parenting.
4. Generate appropriate teaching strategies effective for learners at different developmental
stages.

Page
Introduction
As educator one must carefully consider the characteristics of

the learners in the planning, designing, implementing an educational
program or innovation. It should focus on the educational program that
answers the needs of the diverse learners in the field.
Child development stages are the theoretical milestones
of child development, some of which are asserted in nativist theories.
This Module discusses the most widely accepted developmental stages
in children. There exists a wide variation in terms of what is considered
"normal," caused by variation in genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural,
nutritional, educational, and environmental factors. Many children reach some or most of these milestones at
different times from the
norm.(Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_development_stages) . All the
developmental theories which you have read in the previous
modules dwelt on the developmental process after birth.
To complete and make the description of human
development, this Module presents the development of learners at
various stages. There are 4 Lessons that will be presented in here:
Lesson 1 Pre- natal Development; Lesson 2 Physical Development of
Infants and Toddlers; Lesson 3 Cognitive Development of Infants and
Toddlers; and Lesson 4 Socio-emotional Development of Infants and
Toddlers. There are tasks in every phase of the lesson. Do it as
directed. At the end of the presentation of this module, you will be
provided with a Worksheet where you will write your answers based on the given tasks.
https://0901.static.prezi.com/preview/v2/dmxcnwket2ftmjtkbgjvu7g2ol6jc3sachvcdoaizecfr3dnitcq_3_0.png
https://www.babyteach.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Foreign-language.jpg
ACTIVITY
Task #1: Read the items presented in each Lesson of this

Module.
Lesson 1: Life before Birth
The development of the unborn child
The development of the unborn child The development of

human life in the womb was once a mystery, but science and
medicine have changed that. Abortion advocates still try to
dehumanize the developing baby in the womb by speaking of
the child as “a blob of tissue” or “uterine contents.” But

Page
ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and other advances in obstetrics are revealing the beauty and
wonder of life in the womb.
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these profound observations after his amazing
encounter with a tiny unborn baby boy: “Eleven years ago while I was giving an anesthetic for a ruptured
ectopic pregnancy (at two months gestation), I was handed what I believe was the smallest living human
ever seen. The embryo sac was intact and transparent. Within the sac was a tiny human male swimming
extremely vigorously in the amniotic fluid, while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord.
“This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and toes. The skin was
transparent and the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the ends of the fingers. “The baby
swam about the sac with a natural swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human was obviously alive! “When the
sac was opened, the tiny human immediately stopped moving and died." The point at which Dr.
Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby —eight weeks gestation—is the time when many abortions are
performed. (Source: http://www.mccl.org/Document)
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/how-a-baby-grows-in-the-mothers-womb-1205755114492357-2/95/how-a-baby-grows-in-the-mothers-
womb-1-728.jpg?cb=1261022974
Lesson 2: Take a look and study the Figures below. Look closely at the changes in the sizes of the human
body parts as person grows.
https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcRyCbnsAUgT7tOmAjysvPyHPmMC0V3aud3YhA&usqp=CAU
Task #2: Do the task as directed in each lesson. (Note: Limit your answer up to two (2) sentences only.
Write your responses in the Answer Sheet provided at the last page of this Module.)
1. What are proofs that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a living human being?
2. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the developing embryo/fetus?
3. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of the body as a
person grows older?
4. Does physical development begin from the top or below? From the side to the center?

Page
5. Do infants have an innate capacity to learn language? Even if they are not taught a language,
can infants and toddlers learn that language?
ABSTRACTIO
N
LESSON 1: PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Stages of Prenatal Development
While you might think of child development as

something that begins during infancy, the prenatal
period is also considered an important part of the
developmental process. Prenatal development is a
time of remarkable change that helps set the stage
for future psychological development. The brain
develops over the course of the prenatal period, but it
will continue to go through more changes during the
early years of childhood
The process of prenatal development occurs in three

main stages. The first two weeks after conception are
known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period, and
the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.
Germinal Stage
The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled
zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.
Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the
zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of
zygotes never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all zygotes surviving
less than two weeks.
Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain
characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply,
they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta,
while the inner cells form the embryo.
Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from fallopian tube to
uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three
layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body. 1
1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system
2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Page
Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known
as implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood
vessels. The connective web of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will provide
nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months. Implantation is not always an automatic
and sure-fire process.
Researchers’ estimate that approximately 60% of all natural conceptions never become properly
implanted in the uterus, which results in the new life ending before the mother is ever aware she is
pregnant.
When implantation is successful, hormonal changes halt the normal menstrual cycle and cause a whole
host of physical changes. For some people, activities they previously enjoyed such as smoking and
drinking alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of nature’s way of protecting the
growing life inside them.2
Embryonic Stage
At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week after
conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a
human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.
Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into the
central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along with an
area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the neural tube are the emergence
of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.
Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once this tube
is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center. The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form.
These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain.
Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth.
The blood vessels that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form
the arms and legs appear.
By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those of the
sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.
By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have
been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.
The production of neurons, or brain cells, begins around day 42 after conception and is mostly complete
sometime around the middle of pregnancy.
As neurons form, they migrate to different areas of the brain. Once they have reached the
correct location, they begin to form connections with other neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural
networks.
Fetal Stage
Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes
known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the brain. This
period of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by
amazing change and growth.

Page
The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop.
The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to form. Once these
neurons have formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections
between neurons, also begin to develop.
Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The
fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs. 4
During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the
month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces. The
fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs
in the later stages of pregnancy.
The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the second
trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become
further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form. Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus
increases about six times in size.
So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal development? The brain
and central nervous system also become more responsive during the second trimester. Around 28
weeks, the brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping
newborn.
During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight,
and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles
for breathing.
While development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems with
prenatal development occur. Disease, malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful
impact on how the brain develops during this critical period.
TAKEAWAY: A Word from Verywell
Brain development does not end at birth. A considerable amount of brain development takes place
postnatal, including growing in size and volume while changing in structure. The brain quadruples in size
between birth and preschool. As children learn and have new experiences, some networks in the brain
are strengthened while other connections are pruned.
(Source:https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073#:~:text=The
%20process%20of%20prenatal%20development,known%20as%20the%20fetal%20period.)
LESSON 2: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
Physical Developmental Milestones: Infants and

Toddlers
Young children rapidly grow, develop, and achieve

important milestones between birth and age 3,
creating the foundation for later growth. Physical
development is one domain of infant and toddler

Page
development. It relates to changes, growth, and skill development of the body, including development
of muscles and senses. This lesson will introduce developmental milestones in addition to influences on
early physical growth and development.
Physical Development from the Start
When healthy babies are born, some of their internal systems, such as those developed for
breathing and processing food, are developed and functional. However, infants require responsive care
from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriately stimulating environments to support the best
possible physical development. Infant and toddler physical development occurs quickly, and it is
essential to understand physical development during various stages.
From birth, infants want to explore their world. While each child has their own schedule for
development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager early on to move their mouths, eyes and
bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest them. They continue to practice skills that let
them move closer to desired objects. Ongoing observation and frequent conversations with their
families can help you learn what infants and toddlers are able to do, what they are learning to do, and in
what areas they could use your support.
Infants develop physically from the top down, starting with their heads and necks. At birth, an
infant has a very difficult time holding up their head because the neck muscles are not strong enough to
provide support. As infants and toddlers grow, their determination to master movement, balance, and
fine- and gross-motor skills remains strong. Rolling and crawling occur as infants develop skills in using
large-muscle groups. Grasping and picking up objects with fingers are signs of small-muscle skill growth.
Influences on Early Physical Growth and Development
There is no exact age at which all infants should be able to grasp objects or hold up their heads
without support. Physical development occurs at different times for all children depending on many
factors, such as the child’s unique characteristics, the family’s values and culture, and available
resources. However, many infants and toddlers experience developmental milestones at similar times.
The chart below outlines information about what infants and toddlers are likely experiencing and
learning during different periods:
Examples of Physical Development Milestones – Infants and Toddlers
2 Months
 Holds head up with support
 Begins to push up when lying on tummy
 Makes smoother movements with arms and legs
4 Months
 Holds head steady without support
 Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard surface
 Rolls over from tummy to back

Page
 Holds and shakes toys, swings at dangling toys

 Brings hands to mouth
 Pushes up to elbows when lying on tummy
6 Months
 Rolls over both from stomach to back and from back to stomach
 Begins to sit with support
 Supports weight on legs when standing and might bounce
 Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawls backward before moving forward
9 Months
 Crawls
 Sits without support
 Moves into sitting position with support
 Stands, holding on to adult or furniture for support
 Pulls to stand
1 Year
 Moves into sitting position without support
 Pulls up to stand and walks alone while holding onto furniture
 Takes few steps without support of adult or furniture
 Stands alone
18 Months
 Walks alone
 Runs
 Pulls toys while walking
 Helps undress self
 Drinks from a cup
 Eats with a spoon
2 Years
 Begins to run
 Climbs onto and down from furniture without support
 Walks up and down steps while holding on for support
 Throws ball overhand
 Draws or copies straight lines and circles
 Stands on tiptoes
 Kicks a ball

Page
Keep in mind that the milestones above are simply the average ages at which specific
development is observed.
Certain conditions must exist for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young child’s basic
needs, or physical needs, include:
 Food (nutritious and age-appropriate)
 Shelter (protection from harm)
 Warmth
 Clean air and environment
 Health and dental care
 Activity and rest
We also know that the way we ourselves were raised is important to our understanding of
how and in what contexts children develop. The values and beliefs held by our family and
culture contribute to our knowledge of growth and development.
Culture Affects How We See and Interpret Behaviors and Development
Because culture shapes so many parts of an infant’s and toddler’s development, you must
understand the practices, beliefs, and values of the families you support. Without this
understanding, it is difficult to interpret the infant’s or toddler’s behaviors and development. For
example, you may believe it is important to help toddlers learn to become independent and
begin to feed themselves using fine-motor skills. A family, however, may not view independence
as important because they believe it is more valuable to depend upon one another.
Other influences on infant and toddler physical growth and development are:
 Prenatal care and development, including genetic inheritance, family patterns, exposure
to drugs and alcohol, birth experience
 Prematurity (birth before the 38th week of development) and low birth weight, which may
bring respiration difficulties, vision problems, and feeding and digestive problems
 Temperament, or the ways an infant or toddler approaches his or her world
 Family’s composition, lifestyle, level of education, and housing
 Maturation, or the sequence of biological elements that reflect a pattern of growth and
development
 Developmental delays or special needs, including health concerns
You can also review the hand out, Infant and Toddler Physical Development (Learn attachment
below) to learn more about important milestones in physical development and variations in
timing and rate of physical development for infants and toddlers.
The Brain’s Role in Physical Development

Page
You can easily observe infants making movements with their bodies and refining their physical
skills. Thanks to advances in research and technology, we can now also see how the brain
changes and grows as young children develop. At birth, the brain is 25 per cent of its adult size,
and by age 5, it reaches 90 per cent of adult size. Early-life interactions and experiences of
infants and toddlers help them make sense of the world and form connections between different
parts of the brain.
These supportive experiences and connections help improve coordination and

strengthen muscles. Research tells us that as infants repeat and practice different movements,
such as turning their heads or reaching for an object, they are building and maintaining
connections between brain cells. The brain is busy making sense of the experience.
It is important for infants and toddlers to have time for these new experiences and to
explore the world around them with you, a trusted and caring adult caregiver. The repeated
experience of safely exploring together helps infants and toddlers learn they can trust you, while
also ensuring that their brains focus on learning, developing, and making connections. If infants
and toddlers do not have nurturing and responsive adults to help keep them safe, their brains
will instinctually focus on survival and they will have less opportunity to create and strengthen
connections for further skill development, including physical growth.
Supporting Physical Development for All Learners
Physical development, including gross- and fine-motor skills, consumes the interest of
infants and toddlers as they practice learned skills and look to develop new ones. Healthy
physical development is dependent upon several things: nutrition, development of the brain,
central nervous system, muscles, and bones, and the interactions and experiences that are
offered to infants and toddlers. By recognizing developmental delays during infancy or
toddlerhood, early intervention may be more effective than if the delays were not acknowledged
until childhood. Below are some characteristics of possible physical concerns or developmental
alerts:
Signs of Impaired Physical Development - Infants & Toddlers
By 3 months
Does not notice hands
Cannot support head well
Not using hands to grasp or hold objects
By 6 months
Difficulty sucking
Not gaining weight or growing in height
Not responding to sounds and voices

Page
Does not bring objects to mouth
Does not roll over from front to back or back to front
Stiff limbs (arms, legs)
Weak limbs (arms, legs)
Not using hands to grasp or hold objects
By 12 months
Not pointing to communicate needs or ideas
Not crawling or sitting on own
Not picking up small objects
By 18 months
Not imitating
Not playing with toys
Not scribbling or picking up objects to, for example, put in a container
Not self-feeding
By 24 months
Not physically active
Not scribbling or stacking blocks
Not showing interest in playing with toys
Extra sensitive to or avoiding a variety of textures
By 36 months
Clumsy or inactive
Not feeding self
Not helping dress or undress self
Not interested in playing with a variety of toys
Delays in physical development may affect more than gross- and fine-motor skills. For
example, if an infant is unable to smile at her or his parents or lift her or his arms to be picked
up, this could affect social and emotional development in terms of relationship building.
If you have concerns about an infant or toddler’s physical development, be sure to speak with
the child’s parent. They may wish to share your concerns with the child’s health-care provider.

Page
How can you make sure you are providing age-appropriate experiences to support infant and toddler
physical development?
Take a moment to read and review the sets of guidelines on the following webpage from SHAPE
America (Society of Health and Physical Educators, formerly known as the National Association for Sport
and Physical Education, or
NASPE): https://www.shapeamerica.org/standards/guidelines/activestart.aspx. Next, try one or more of
the following activities with the infants or toddlers in your care:
 When an infant is awake and active, offer tummy time — lay the baby on the floor on his or her
tummy while you interact with the infant. Remember; never leave an infant alone when they
are on their stomach.
 Hold an infant or dance with a toddler to music. Toddlers can also swing colorful scarves in the
air, dance or play maracas while the music is playing.
 Offer finger plays and other movement experiences in which mobile infants and toddlers can
use their bodies.
 Have toddlers experience kicking, catching, rolling, and bouncing balls.
 Encourage toddlers to scribble on paper with crayons.
Incorporate daily physical play into your daily routines. Infants and toddlers enjoy being active!
Source: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/fcc/physical-development/lesson-2
LESSON 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
In addition to rapid physical growth, young children

also exhibit significant development of their cognitive
abilities, particularly in language acquisition and in the
ability to think and reason. You already learned a little bit
about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and in this
section, we’ll apply that model to cognitive tasks during
infancy and toddlerhood. Piaget described intelligence in
infancy as sensorimotor or based on direct, physical
contact where infants use senses and motor skills to taste,
feel, pound, push, hear, and move in order to experience
the world. These basic motor and sensory abilities provide
the foundation for the cognitive skills that will emerge
during the subsequent stages of cognitive development.
Cognitive Development in Children

Page
In order to adapt to the evolving environment around us, humans rely on cognition, both
adapting to the environment and also transforming it. In general, all theorists studying cognitive
development address three main issues:
1. The typical course of cognitive development
2. The unique differences between individuals
3. The mechanisms of cognitive development (the way genetics and environment combine to
generate patterns of change)
Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence
How do infants connect and make sense of what they are learning? Remember that Piaget
believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or balance, between what
we see and what we know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this
balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc.
All this new information needs to be organized, and a framework for organizing information is referred
to as a schema. Children develop schemas through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.
For example, 2-year-old Deja learned the schema for dogs because her family has a Poodle.
When Deja sees other dogs in her picture books, she says, “Look mommy, dog!” Thus, she has
assimilated them into her schema for dogs. One day, Deja sees a sheep for the first time and says, “Look
mommy, dog!” Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Deja thinks all furry,
four-legged creatures are dogs. When Deja’s mom tells her that the animal she sees is a sheep, not a
dog, Deja must accommodate her schema for dogs to include more information based on her new
experiences. Deja’s schema for dog was too broad since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs.
She now modifies her schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.
Let’s examine the transition that infants make from responding to the external world reflexively
as newborns, to solving problems using mental strategies as two-year-olds. Piaget called this first stage
of cognitive development sensorimotor intelligence (the sensorimotor period) because infants learn
through their senses and motor skills. He subdivided this period into six sub stages:
Sensorimotor substages.
Stage Age
Stage 1 – Reflexes Birth to 6 weeks
Stage 2 – Primary Circular Reactions 6 weeks to 4 months
Stage 3 – Secondary Circular Reactions 4 months to 8 months
Stage 4 – Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions 8 months to 12 months
Stage 5 – Tertiary Circular Reactions 12 months to 18 months
Stage 6 – Mental Representation 18 months to 24 months
Sub stages of Sensorimotor Intelligence

Page
For an overview of the sub stages of sensorimotor thought, it helps to group the six sub stages into
pairs. The first two sub stages involve the infant’s responses to its own body, call primary circular
reactions. During the first month first (sub stage one), the infant’s senses, as well motor reflexes are the
foundation of thought.
Sub stage One: Reflexive Action (Birth through 1st month)
This active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes (sucking, grasping, staring, and
listening). A ball comes into contact with an infant’s cheek and is automatically sucked on and licked. But
this is also what happens with a sour lemon, much to the infant’s surprise! The baby’s first challenge is
to learn to adapt the sucking reflex to bottles or breasts, pacifiers or fingers, each acquiring specific
types of tongue movements to latch, suck, breath, and repeat. This adaptation demonstrates that
infants have begun to make sense of sensations. Eventually, the use of these reflexes becomes more
deliberate and purposeful as they move onto sub stage two.
Sub stage Two: First Adaptations to the Environment (1st through 4th months)
Fortunately, within a few days or weeks, the infant begins to discriminate between objects and adjust
responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements. An infant may accidentally
engage in a behavior and find it interesting, such as making a vocalization. This interest motivates trying
to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance. The behavior
is identified as circular and primary because it centers on the infant’s own body. At first, most actions
have to do with the body, but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects. For example,
the infant may have different sucking motions for hunger and others for comfort (i.e. sucking a pacifier
differently from a nipple or attempting to hold a bottle to suck it).
The next two sub stages (3 and 4), involve the infant’s responses to objects and people,
called secondary circular reactions. Reactions are no longer confined to the infant’s body and are now
interactions between the baby and something else.
Sub stage Three: Repetition (4th through 8th months)
During the next few months, the infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world
and takes delight in being able to make things happen by responding to people and objects. Babies try
to continue any pleasing event. Repeated motion brings particular interest as the infant is able to bang
two lids together or shake a rattle and laugh. Another example might be to clap their hands when a
caregiver says “patty-cake.” Any sight of something delightful will trigger efforts for interaction.
Sub stage Four: New Adaptations and Goal-Directed Behavior (8th through 12th months)
Now the infant becomes more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects and can
engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events. Babies may ask for help by
fussing, pointing, or reaching up to accomplish tasks, and work hard to get what they want. Perhaps
because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the infant becomes capable of having a
thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity such as seeking a toy that has rolled under the
couch or indicating that they are hungry. The infant is coordinating both internal and external activities
to achieve a planned goal and begins to get a sense of social understanding. Piaget believed that at
about 8 months (during sub stage 4), babies first understood the concept of object permanence, which
is the realization that objects or people continue to exist when they are no longer in sight.
The last two stages (5 and 6), called tertiary circular reactions, consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas
(stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking.

Page
Sub stage Five: Active Experimentation of “Little Scientists” (12th through 18th months)
The toddler is considered a “little scientist” and begins exploring the world in a trial-and-error manner,
using motor skills and planning abilities. For example, the child might throw their ball down the stairs to
see what happens or delight in squeezing all of the toothpaste out of the tube. The toddler’s active
engagement in experimentation helps them learn about their world. Gravity is learned by pouring water
from a cup or pushing bowls from high chairs. The caregiver tries to help the child by picking it up again
and placing it on the tray. And what happens? Another experiment! The child pushes it off the tray again
causing it to fall and the caregiver to pick it up again! A closer examination of this stage causes us to
really appreciate how much learning is going on at this time and how many things we come to take for
granted must actually be learned. This is a wonderful and messy time of experimentation and most
learning occurs by trial and error.
Sub stage Six: Mental Representations (18th month to 2 years of age)
The child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days
before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been moved even when
out of sight. Take, for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room with the door closed, supposedly
taking a nap. The doorknob has a safety device on it that makes it impossible for the child to turn the
knob. After trying several times to push the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental
strategy to get the door opened – he knocks on the door! Obviously, this is a technique learned from the
past experience of hearing a knock on the door and observing someone opening the door. The child is
now better equipped with mental strategies for problem-solving. Part of this stage also involves learning
to use language. This initial movement from the “hands-on” approach to knowing about the world to
the more mental world of stage six marked the transition to preoperational thinking, which you’ll learn
more about in a later module.
Development of Object Permanence
A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence.
Introduced during sub stage 4 above, object permanence is the understanding that even if something is
out of sight, it continues to exist. The infant is now capable of making attempts to retrieve the
object. Piaget thought that, at about 8 months, babies first understand the concept of objective
permanence, but some research has suggested that infants seem to be able to recognize that objects
have permanence at much younger ages (even as young as 4 months of age). Other researchers,
however, are not convinced (Mareschal & Kaufman, 2012). [1] It may be a matter of “grasping vs.
mastering” the concept of objective permanence. Overall, we can expect children to grasp the concept
that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old, but memory may
play a factor in their consistency. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered object
permanence, they enjoy games like hide-and-seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room
they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places
when you ask them to find objects.
Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants
Memory is central to cognitive development. Our memories form the basis for our sense of self, guide
our thoughts and decisions, influence our emotional reactions, and allow us to learn (Bauer, 2008) ,
It is thought that Piaget underestimated memory ability in infants (Schneider, 2015).
As mentioned when discussing the development of infant senses, within the first few weeks of birth,
infants recognize their caregivers by face, voice, and smell. Sensory and caregiver memories are
apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months, and then, at about 9 months, more complex
memories including language (Mullally & Maguire, 2014). There is agreement that memory is fragile in

Page
the first months of life, but that improves with age. Repeated sensations and brain maturation are
required in order to process and recall events (Bauer, 2008). Infants remember things that happened
weeks and months ago (Mullally & Maguire, 2014), although they most likely will not remember it
decades later. From the cognitive perspective, this has been explained by the idea that the lack of
linguistic skills of babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally represent events; thereby, reducing
their ability to encode memory. Moreover, even if infants do form such early memories, older children
and adults may not be able to access them because they may be employing very different, more
linguistically based, retrieval cues than infants used when forming the memory.
Language Development
Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be
an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might
seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. Skinner
(1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this
behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are
biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears
to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would
seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky,
1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language
acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people
age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989;
Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).
Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 1). In fact, it appears that this is
occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a preference for their mother’s voice and appear to
be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are
also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are
moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the
audio (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981). Stages of Language and
Communication Development:
Stage Age Developmental Language and Communication
1 0–3 months Reflexive communication
2 3–8 months Reflexive communication; interest in others
3 8–12 months Intentional communication; sociability
4 12–18 months First words
5 18–24 months Simple sentences of two words
6 2–3 years Sentences of three or more words
7 3–5 years Complex sentences; has conversations
Each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate morphemes, words, and
so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell
the difference between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in fission); early on, they can differentiate between
the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their
environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among
those phonemes that are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011;
Werker & Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).

Page
LESSON 4 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
This lesson will help you understand how infants and toddlers develop socially-emotionally. You
will learn about social-emotional milestones and what to do if you are concerned about an infant's or
toddler’s development.
Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social relationships.
Children who are emotionally healthy are better able to establish and maintain positive relationships
with adults as well as with peers. Social-emotional development is essential to a young child’s sense of
well-being. Their first relationships help shape who they are, who they become, and their understanding
of the world. The important people in young children’s lives help lay the foundation for a range of social-
emotional skills such as:
 Self-regulation
 Empathy
 Turn-taking and sharing
 Positive relationships with adults and peers
Social-Emotional Milestones
Through early relationships and with nurturing, responsive interactions, infants and toddlers
learn ways of being in relationships, how to get their needs and wants met, and how to identify and
regulate emotions. Because these skills develop together, this area of development is referred to as
social-emotional development.
Below highlights how infants and toddlers develop social-emotional skills at different ages. Keep
in mind that individual differences exist when it comes to the precise age at which infants and toddlers
meet these milestones. As highlighted in the Cognitive, Physical, and Communication courses,
milestones are not checklists with which to judge children’s development. Rather, they provide a guide
for when to expect certain skills or behaviors to emerge in young children so you are ready to meet their
needs. Think of milestones as guidelines to help you understand and identify typical patterns of growth
and development in infants and toddlers or to help you know when and what to look for as they
develop. You can continue to use your knowledge of these milestones to help meet the needs of infants
and toddlers in your care. Even though the skills highlighted in the chart develop in a predictable
sequence over the first three years of life, each infant and toddler is unique. Your goal is to
help all infants and toddlers grow and learn to their potential.

Page
It is helpful to remember that expectations about social-emotional milestones are driven by

cultural values and preferences. Theorist Lev Vygotsky said that adults share their cultural values and
beliefs with children through daily interactions. Ideas, beliefs and expectations about child development
are just some of the ways cultures are unique. Becoming aware of and respecting these differences can
help you better understand families’ experiences that help shape the infants and toddlers in your care.
Connection of Social-Emotional Development to Other Areas of Development
With our evolving understanding of brain growth and young children’s development, we
continue to learn about the ways adult caregivers can be supportive and most effective in helping
children develop and learn. This growing understanding also includes how adult caregivers can help
children develop social-emotional skills. Through nurturing and trusting relationships, infants and
toddlers learn about the world. Their brains mature through interactions, and they can learn that the
world is safe as adults are responsive to young children’s needs. They also learn how to form
relationships, communicate, respond to challenges, and how to recognize, experience, and regulate
their emotions from relationships with caregivers. When infants and toddlers feel safe and alert, they
are more likely to observe, explore, play, interact and experiment with people and objects. These
experiences lead young children to learn and remember new things. This foundation for learning
depends greatly on the quality of infants’ and toddlers’ early environments and relationships.
Understanding and Supporting the Social-Emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
Now that you have read the milestone chart, let’s revisit the definition of social-emotional
development according to Zero to Three:
Within the context of one’s family, community and cultural background, social emotional health
is the child’s developing capacity to form secure relationships, experience and regulate emotions and,
explore and learn.
Below, take a closer look at the components highlighted within this definition to identify
additional ways to understand and support the social-emotional development of the infants and
toddlers in your care.
Birth to 3 months:
 The first three months are a time all about helping an infant learn to feel safe, comfortable,
secure, and curious about his or her world. “Your smile and gentle touch help me to feel safe and
happy.”
 When caregivers respond to an infant’s cues with comfort and care, infants develop trust. “Your
soothing voice and touch helps me to feel safe, secure, and loved.”
 Infants use sounds, facial expressions, and body movements to tell caregivers what they need
and how they are feeling. “I am learning how to tell you what I need. Sometimes I look away
when I need a break. I yawn sometimes when I am feeling tired. Thank you for watching and
getting to know me.”
3 to 6 months:
 The infant is active, responsive, and increasingly in control of his or her body. “I stretch my arms
toward you when I want you to pick me up and hold me gently.”
 Infant offers smiles and communicates with a gaze and basic vocalizations. “I’m smiling to let
you know I am ready to communicate.”

Page
 Sense of security and well-being are totally dependent upon relationships with important
caregivers.
 Emphasis is on routine and exploration—showing caregivers what they like and dislike, and how
they prefer to sleep, eat, and play. “I’m beginning to notice daily routines and the things we do
together. When you turn the lights down, I know that it is time for sleep.”
6 to 9 months:
 Moving and exploring is the goal – infants become eager explorers who are thrilled to
discover that they can make things happen.
 Infants are learning to solve problems. “When a toy drops, I look to see where it went. I expect
you will help me to get it back. I then try it again to see if I can make the same thing happen
again.”
 An infant is beginning to understand that people still exist even when they are out of sight. “I
realize that my mommy is about to leave me. I will protest in hopes that she stays. Being
separated from her is hard for me.”
9 to 12 months:
 Infants are enjoying increased independence. “Please stay calm even when I demand to do
things on my own. It’s hard work for me to learn and figure out all of these new things and
sometimes I get frustrated, but I want to keep trying.”
 Infants can understand more than they can verbally communicate.
 Infants enjoy doing things over and over again. “Watch me practice and figure out how things
work! Repetition is also helping me build my memory!”
 Infants take action with a goal in mind. “When I crawl away from you quickly, I am not trying to
upset you. I am having fun and do not want my diaper changed right now. This is how I take
control of my world and let you know how I am feeling. Please talk to me and give me time to
transition from my activity, and let me know that when we’re done I can go back to what I was
doing.”
12 to 18 months:
 Infants and toddlers are watching others and imitate what they see. “I
have been watching and am able to use things the way they are
supposed to be used. Watch me talk on this toy telephone!”
 Infants and toddlers are using skills to explore and discover the
boundaries of what they can do. “I may get frustrated when you try to
feed me and I want to do it on my own.”
 Infants and toddlers are beginning to understand feelings of self and others. “My feelings can be
hard for me to handle. I may become frustrated and have tantrums. I need your help to calm
down.”
18 to 24 months:
 Toddlers work hard to be in control, explore the boundaries

of their experiences, and engage in problem solving. “I am

Page
beginning to sort things. Notice how I put my train cars in one place and all of my other cars in
another.”
 They are increasingly aware of themselves as separate from others and are becoming more
enthusiastic about playing with peers.
 They are starting to show negative behaviors (hitting, biting, and kicking) in response to
frustration. “I understand, ‘No,’ but cannot control my feelings and actions. Please be patient
and help me when I get frustrated.”
24 to 36 months:
 Toddlers are using language to express thoughts and

feelings. “When you started to put the blocks away too soon, I
yelled, ‘That’s not right!’ I wanted to make a path for the cows
before we put things away.”
 Toddlers are using enhanced thinking skills to solve problems. “I am

getting really good at playing pretend. I can act out my own stories
and use a bottle to feed my teddy bear. Sometimes, I feel scared
because I am not certain yet what is real and what is pretend.”
 Toddlers take pride in their accomplishments, such as, pouring

milk.
Supporting All Infants and Toddlers
Every child is born with her or his unique way of approaching the world. This is
called temperament. Some young children, for example, are constantly on the move while others prefer
to sit and watch the world around them. Some young children enjoy new experiences and meeting new
people while others are slower to warm up in new situations. Rothbart (1989) defined temperament as
the individual personality differences in infants and young children. As Murphy and Moon describe,
“infants and young children vary greatly in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of
their attention to sensory stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort,
familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur.”
Infants are born with a unique temperament. There is no right or wrong, good or bad
temperament. By understanding temperament, you can continue to use what you know about infants
and toddlers to encourage their strengths and support their needs. In the Apply section you will review
more information about temperament and consider what it means for your role as a responsive
caregiver.
No matter how well you understand temperament and are attuned and responsive, there will be
times that an infant or toddler in your care may not seem to be developing socially and emotionally.
Some infants and toddlers may experience social or emotional difficulties. These difficulties may be
related to inborn (nature) or environmental (nurture) influences. The caregiving strategies in this lesson
apply and relate to all children; however, some children may require an additional level of support.
Each infants or toddler’s relationship experiences and pattern of growth is different. In your
work, you observe and track each young child’s particular strengths and possible areas of need. Your
screening and assessment process is part of your ongoing routine, and it helps you to recognize and
celebrate infants’ and toddlers’ accomplishments. It also helps you to identify red flags—some aspect of
the infant’s or toddler’s development that is outside the expected age range.

Page
The following general strategies can help you care for infants and toddlers who are experiencing social
and emotional difficulties. You can also talk with your supervisor, trainer or coach about additional
community resources and specialists who support your program who may offer additional support.
 Observe and notice the infants or toddler’s cues and responses to environmental stimuli. Think
about ways to limit noise level, for example, or visual stimuli.
 Observe and ask yourself if you notice increased frustration or irritability in the infant or toddler
during particular routines or times of day.
 Think about ways to maintain physical closeness and offer gentle touch to help infants and
toddlers maintain a sense of control.
TAKEAWAY: You can promote social-emotional development of infants and toddlers in several ways:
 Respond to infant and toddler’s needs in caring ways.

 Acknowledge an infant's or toddler who points to a picture of himself or his family – “That’s right,
Bobby, that is a picture of you and your dad!”
 Model caring behaviors and empathy during all interactions.
 Read stories about and show infants and toddlers pictures of different emotions.
 Build strong relationships with the families of infants and toddlers in your care.
(Source: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler/social-emotional/lesson-2)
APPLICATION
Let’s Apply Your Understanding!
TASK #3: Do the tasks below as directed.
1. Here are 3 boxes for you to write the stages of pre-natal development.
2. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic organizer.

Page
Prenatal Development-
Zygote, Embryo, Fetus
3. Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestones of the various aspects of physical
development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns, height and weight during infancy
and toddlerhood). For details, refer to the Philippines Early Learning and Development
Standards. Cite implication/s of each milestone to parenting.
4. You have learned that past events recalled as early as two are those had personal
significance. Does this apply even after age 2? What do you think? If you think yes, what
does this imply to teaching?
5. Give your stand on this idea: “The hand that rocks the cradle, rocks the world.”
EVALUATION
Task #4: Choose the best answer that is appropriate for each of the items below.
1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is TRUE?

A. Development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs.
B. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs.
C. Simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs.
D. Development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers.

Page
2. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants and
toddlers?
A. Depressed environment
B. Early brain stimulation
C. Being the only child
D. Being a member of a big family
3. Which practice can enhance cognitive development among toddlers?
A. Shared reading
B. Early enrolment in found school
C. Making child compete with other toddlers
D. Buying expensive toys for the toddler
4. Which is /are TRUE of the infant and toddler socio-emotional?
I. Can self-regulate feelings/emotions
II. Capable of empathy
III. Develops healthy attachments to significant adults
A. I and II
B. II and III
C. I and III
D. I, II ,and III
5. Which does an infant learn when caregivers are neglectful or even abusive?
I. Learns mistrust
II. Learns trust
III. Learns that the world is hostile
A. I and III
B. II and III
C. I, II
D. I, II, and III
REFLECTION
TASK #5: Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and the first year of operational stage of cognitive
development, reflect on how you as a future teacher or parent can enhance infant and toddlers’
cognitive development.
you can enhance the development by setting up a stimulating space with well ordered and
thoughtfully selected to be age appropriate toys that require the child to notice various attributes
such as shape, color, texture, operational differences, so thete is variety but not clutter. you can
impede the infant by showing him how to play with each new object, or interrupting him as he tries to
figure it out. he needs to know you are close by and you are actively observing his safety and signals
to you for attention, but avoid trying to be what entertains him all the time. give the child time and
space to develop skills of observation, trial and error, cause and effect, and to use the body to reach
and stretch and feel the many densities and textures around him.

Page
Congratulations! You’re done with this Module.
Content Focus: Development of the Learners at Various Stages Part I

Page
Week 15 & 16
Module 9- Development of the Learners at

Various Stages
(Early Childhood to Late Childhood)

Page
Learning Objectives
1. Illustrate the description on the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of
early childhood to late childhood.
2. Apply concepts on pre-schoolers’ cognitive development in preschool teaching and in child
care.
3. Compare and contrast the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of the child
from pre-schooler to the intermediate schooler.
4. Design a simple exercise program appropriate for intermediate school children.
Introduction
The pre-schoolers years is commonly known as “the

years before formal schooling begins.” It roughly covers 3-5
years of age. Although it is known as the years before formal
school, it is by no way less important than the grade school
years. The preschool years are very important as it lays
foundation to later development. At this stage, pre-schoolers
achieve many developmental milestones. At such, pre-service
teachers who might be interested to teach and care for pre-
schoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly an
intentional and effective teacher.
On the onset of late childhood, this is generally defined
as ages of 9 through 12. Others may call this stage as preteens.
Physical changes during this stage are fairly unpredictable
among children in this age group.
Someone once wrote in his journal” “Childhood is a
world of miracle and wonder; as if creation rose, bathed in light,
out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end of
childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world
seems familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has
become an adult.”
(Source: The Child and Adolescent Learners by Bilbao et al.)
To complete and make the description of changes of our

learners in the field, this Module presents the development of
learners at various stages. There are 3 Lessons that will be presented
in here. Lesson 1 Early Childhood (The Pre-schooler) Physical,
Cognitive and Socio-emotional Development; Lesson 2 Middle
Childhood (The Primary Schooler) Physical, Cognitive, and Socio-
emotional Development; and Lesson 3 Late Childhood (The
Intermediate Schooler) Physical, Cognitive, and Socio-emotional
Development. There are tasks in every phase of the lesson. Do it as
directed. At the end of the presentation of this module, you will be
provided with a Worksheet where you will write your answers based on the
given tasks.
https://www.verywellmind.com/thmb/VEbSCODAvz1OFAbDZiky-FNcyEQ=/1333x1000/smart/filters:no_upscale()/2795457-article-piagets-stages-of-
cognitive-development-5a95c43aa9d4f900370bf112.png

Page
ACTIVITY
TASK #1:
Examine the pictures below. Think about the physical characteristics of the children. Put a caption
for the pictures.
A day with my family… (Photos by Ma’am

Jane)
Picture 1 & 2
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
Picture 3 __________________________________
__________________________________
Picture 4
__________________________________

Page
__________________________________
TASK #2
Paste a picture of yourself when you were an early-school age child (around Grade 1 to 3).
Write the description on the given areas.
Height
Weight
Pa
Body Shape
Activities you could do
TASK #3
Paste a picture of you when you were in Grade 4, 5, or 6. Recall a significant event that happened to
you. Write a very brief story of what happened.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
TASK #4
Write your understanding of the following statement.

Page
INTELLIGENCE is…
 The ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture;
 A set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve problems in life;
 The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves gathering new
knowledge.
-Howard Gardner
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Task #5: Do the task as directed in the following items below. Write your responses to the Answer
Sheet attached at the end of this Module.
1. From the captions you wrote for the pictures in Task 1, what physical characteristics came
out? Write them below.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Based on the observations you have indicated in your Task 2, what can you conclude are the
general physical characteristics of children in their primary school years?
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Looking at your story in Task 3, what do you think were the factors that contributed to make
you react or feel that way?
_________________________________________________________________________
4. From Task 4, what kind of intelligences is being referred to by Howard Gardner?
_________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACTIO
N
Lesson 1: Early Childhood (The Pre-Schooler)
Preschoolers’ Physical Development
The preschool years are a time of what seems like constant movement. Preschoolers
are busy moving in their environments, both indoors and outdoors. They spend large amounts of time
running, climbing, jumping, and chasing each other; they scribble, paint, build, pour, cut with scissors,
put puzzles together, and string beads. Their motor skills are significantly refined from the time they
were toddlers; they are more coordinated than toddlers and more purposeful in their actions. They
demonstrate speed and strength, and they become increasingly more independent.
Physical Growth and Appearance

Page
During the preschool years, there is a steady increase in children’s height, weight, and
muscle tone. Compared with toddlers, preschoolers are longer and leaner. Their legs and trunks
continue to grow, and their heads are not so large in proportion to their bodies. As preschoolers’ bodies
develop over time, the areas in their brains that control movement continue to mature, thus enabling
them to perform gross-motor skills such as running, jumping, throwing, climbing, kicking, skipping, and
fine-motor skills such as stringing beads, drawing, and cutting with scissors.
Influences on Physical Growth
Physical growth and development entails more than just becoming taller, stronger, or larger. It involves
a series of changes in body size, composition, and proportion. Biological and environmental factors also
affect physical growth and development. In this section, we will examine factors that affect physical
growth in young children.
 Brain development: Even though motor abilities in preschool emerge as a result of physical
growth and development, many new motor skills are also the result of brain growth. In other
words, movement involves more than simply using arms or legs. Think about a preschooler
kicking a ball back and forth with a peer or caregiver. Being able to do this task can be attributed
not only to skill mastery and development, but also to the brain’s ability to organize visual and
auditory messages that guide a child to help make decisions, such as adjusting movement,
deciding how hard or soft to kick the ball, waiting if needed and kicking the ball back
accordingly. As a family child care provider, you can enhance children’s brain development by
engaging children in meaningful interactions that enable them to form connections with their
environment and create understanding about how things work, how things are done, how to
treat others, how to deal with emotions, and how to go about their daily lives. Ultimately, in
doing so, you help children improve existing skills and acquire new ones.
 Heredity: Genetic inheritance plays a significant part in children’s physical growth. Nevertheless,
it is important to acknowledge that even though genes influence children’s development,
physical growth, like other aspects of development, happens as the result of the interplay
between heredity and the environment. Think about your role in creating rich and stimulating
environments that foster children’s optimal physical development.
 Nutrition: In order to reach optimal physical growth and development, especially at times when
their brains and bodies are developing so rapidly, young children require healthy, balanced diets
that provide vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. As a family child care provider, you serve as
a role model for children by promoting these healthy habits yourself.
 Cultural differences: Despite universal patterns in child development, there are variations, such
as how children develop motor skills. Children’s environments, places of origin, and particular
life circumstances can affect how they develop and master motor skills. Always be respectful
and sensitive about children’s backgrounds and prior experiences. Your goal is to help each child
reach their full potential.
Understanding developmental milestones is an important part of working with young children. Learning
about and understanding how preschoolers use their bodies will help you know how to support them in
developing their motor skills and will also help you decide what kinds of learning experiences to plan.
Keep in mind that each child is different and that you may have to adapt routines and activities to meet
children’s unique needs. Consider the following:
 Plan meaningfully: In your daily interactions with the children in your care, you can purposefully
plan activities that will enable you to gauge how children are developing and refining their
motor skills. For example, you can observe how children move around during free play, how

Page
they follow directions as you lead them through activities, or how they manipulate objects in
their hands as you play with them. You should use this valuable observational information to
plan activities that promote further development in children or to adapt activities to meet the
particular learning needs of individual children.
 Be sensitive to individual children’s needs: As you engage in these observations, remember that
each child is different and that sometimes children may not reach milestones as expected. If you
are unsure about a child’s development, talk to your trainer, coach or family child care
administrator. If you are concerned about a child’s development, talk with the child’s family. As
a family child care provider, your input can support the child greatly as you help the family find
any additional support they may need. You should share information with all families about
typical child development and let them know you are available to talk.
 Be responsive to families’ needs and preferences: If a family approaches you and shares
concerns about their child’s development, encourage them to talk to their child’s health-care
provider. A health-care provider can perform a developmental screening and possibly refer the
child to a specialist. Families of children over age 3 may contact their local public school district.
Most school districts can arrange a free developmental screening to learn more about the child’s
overall development.
https://www.virtuallabschool.org/fcc/physical-development/lesson-3
Why is cognitive development important?
Cognitive development: "The growth and age-related changes that occur over time in children's mental
processes related to attention, memory, perception, problem solving, emotional regulation, and
language acquisition." (Zobairi & Piotroaski, 2013)
According to livestrong.org ,“in preschool, children begin the basics for learning numbers, letters,
vocabulary, speech -- the skills necessary to learn to read in elementary school.” (Rodriguez, 2014). As
an educator or parent, this makes it very important to strengthen these skills as they are developing via
engaging activities, reading, and oral communication. The website goes on to add that “play promotes
healthy brain development and helps children build confidence, begin to solve problems and work with
others.” (Rodriguez, 2014). This helps young ones to achieve developmental milestones, which of course
promotes cognitive development!
Two characteristics of Preschool Cognitive Development:
Perception:
According to education.com, three and four year olds are pre-optional thinkers (Seefeldt,
2010). This means that they have not developed the ability to think abstractly yet and only think of what
they see in front of them. They tend to see things from their own point of view and no one else's
Preschoolers have a "what you see is what you get" understanding of the world. This is because they
have yet to develop the ability to use logic to correct a misconception involving the way things look or
sound. Example: If a teacher had two lines with ten blocks each, and one line appears longer in length, a
preschooler may have the misconception that the longer line has more blocks. As parents and teachers
we want to have the preschooler expand their visual horizon and logic outside their usual concepts and
schemas.
Classification:
Preschool children in the cognitive development stage begin learning to classify objects according to
their characteristics. As stated in Early Education: Three, Four, and Five Year Olds Go to School, children

Page
at this stage focus on only one attribute or aspect of an object and ignore all others. This is because they
have not yet developed to recall information from their memory or past experiences (Seefeldt,
2010). Seefeldt and Waski (2006) state that preschoolers may be able to group objects into categories
based on color, for instance, but they may have to think harder about organizing objects according to
their shape instead. They go on to say," four-year-olds are beginning to understand part/whole and
hierarchical relationships, they have difficulty grasping that objects can be in more than one class" (p.
2). Routine is very important for children of this age because they will be able to predicate what they are
doing and what is expected from them (Seefeldt, 2010).
Milestones in Preschool Cognitive Development
According to data released by the American Academy of Pediatrics a major cognitive milestone met by
children between three and four is the ability to accurately count to at least five. Preschoolers are going
from a “simple concept of quantity like ‘more’ and ‘less’ or vague measurements like ‘bigger’ and
‘smaller’ to” the more complex concept of counting and knowing exactly how many (Clare, 2013).
Preschoolers are also developing an increased capacity for memory and recollection as well which helps
them with things like numbers and colors. This helps them reach the other cognitive milestones for this
age group ie: following commands and engaging in imaginative and fantasy play (Gavin, 2011).
Preschoolers should be able to follow following simple, three-part commands, and be able to speak in
complete sentences that incorporate five words or more (Clare,2013).
These are the cognitive developmental milestones your child or student will experience from ages three
to five, according to the U.S Department of Health and Human Services:
3 years old (36 months)
o Makes mechanical toy work
o Matches an object in her hand or room to a picture in a book
o Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people
o Sorts objects by shape and color
o Completes puzzles with three or four pieces
o Understands concept of "two"
o Correctly names some colors
o Understands the concept of counting and may know a few numbers
o Tries to solve problems from a single point of view
o Begins to have a clearer sense of time
o Follows three-part commands
o Recalls parts of a story
o Understands the concepts of "same" and "different"
o Engages in fantasy play

Page
o Can count 10 or more objects
o Correctly names at least four colors
o Better understands the concept of time
o Knows about things used every day in the home (money, food, appliances)
Activities to Improve Cognitive Development in Preschoolers:
1. Senses: Obstacle courses, water tables
2. Problem solving: puzzles
3. Cause-and-effect: memory games, tic tac toe
4. Expression of ideas to others: Guess who
5. Properties of objects: matching/folding socks, putting away silverware
6. Questions: Go fish, Battleship
7. Symbolic thoughts (Imaginative play): trains, dolls, dress up
(Try this link for a sample video on how you will do some suggested exercises
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46vvpmTcaAk )
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/dapforteachers/home/preschool-tips-cognitive-
development
Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschooler
Children’s emotional well-being during their early years has a powerful impact on their
social relationships. Children who are emotionally healthy are better able to establish and
maintain positive relationships with adults and peers (Trawick-Smith, 2014). Consider some of
the children in your own life and the different stages in their social-emotional development as
they were growing up.
Preschool-age children are learning to talk about their feelings and the feelings of others.
Social-emotional development, however, involves more than just expressing emotions. It entails
taking turns, becoming independent in following routines, interacting more with peers, engaging
in meaningful relationships with others, controlling emotions, and developing a positive self-
image. These skills are crucial for children’s successful participation in school and home
experiences and for their overall growth.
Milestones

Page
The chart below provides a closer look at how preschoolers develop social-emotional
skills at different ages. Remember that individual differences exist when it comes to the precise
age at which children meet these milestones. Milestones should not be seen as rigid checklists
to judge children’s development, but rather as guides for when to expect certain skills or
behaviors to emerge in young children so you are prepared to meet their changing needs. Think
of these milestones as guidelines to help you understand and identify typical patterns of growth
and development in children. You can use these milestones to meet the needs of the young
children in your classroom. Although the skills highlighted in the chart develop in a predictable
sequence over the preschool years, each child is unique. Your goal is to help all children grow
and learn to their potential.
Social-Emotional Developmental Milestones in Preschool
Age 3
 Copies adults and friends

 Shows affection for friends without prompting
 Takes turns in games
 Shows concern for a crying friend
 Dresses and undresses self
 Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
 Shows a wide range of emotions
 Separates easily from family members
 May get upset with major changes in routine
Age 4
 Enjoys doing new things

 Is more and more creative with make-believe play
 Would rather play with other children than alone
 Cooperates with other children
 Plays “Mom” or “Dad”
 Often can’t tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
 Talks about what he or she likes and is interested in
Age 5
 Wants to please friends

 Wants to be like friends
 More likely to agree with rules
 Likes to sing, dance, and act
 Is aware of gender
 Can tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
 Shows more independence
 Is sometimes demanding and sometimes cooperative
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013). Developmental

Milestones. An electronic resource available
from: http://www.cdc.gov/NCBDDD/actearly/pdf/checklists/All_Checklists.pdf

Page
Remember that expectations about developmental milestones are driven by cultural

values and preferences. For example, in some cultures, children are not expected to feed
themselves independently until they are 3 or 4 years old. In other cultures, children are
expected to start eating independently in early infancy and toddlerhood. In your daily
interactions with children and their families, you should remind yourself that culture and family
priorities influence children’s social-emotional competence.
If you are concerned about a child’s development, talk with your trainer, coach, or
supervisor first. Share your observations of the child’s behavior and the reasons you are
concerned. Your trainer, coach, or supervisor may choose to observe the child and set up a
meeting with the child’s family. In some situations, families might be encouraged to contact their
local school district, which can arrange a free evaluation of the child’s development and can
help the child get any needed help and services.
Preschoolers and Social-Emotional Development
As you study the chart, you may notice that the milestones are associated with different
aspects of social-emotional development: Some are associated with children’s ability to engage
in relationships with others, whereas others are associated with positive self-awareness. Some
milestones relate to children’s ability to regulate or control emotions and others correspond with
children’s ability to perform various tasks independently. Let’s take a closer look at these
aspects of social-emotional development:
Relationships with others: Preschool-age children engage in pretend play with friends and
use words and sentences to express their feelings and thoughts. Even though they may still
need adult support to share toys and materials with friends, they improve on their own as time
passes. Preschoolers also improve in their ability to understand and appropriately respond to
their friends’ feelings. Children with healthy social-emotional development have a balance of all
of these components.
Self-awareness: Preschool-age children improve their ability to control their bodies during

different activities throughout the day (e.g., sitting at circle time or playing in the gym), take turns
and have conversations with peers, acknowledge and use their own names and the names of
others, and self-evaluate and know when they made appropriate or inappropriate choices.
Emotional regulation: Preschool-age children display a variety of emotions in different ways.

For example, they may say, “I’m upset,” they may match facial expressions to happy, mad or
sad, or they may laugh when excited. At the same time, they also improve their ability to
manage their emotions to match the situation and environment and to control their emotions
(e.g., separate easily from family members). Although preschoolers are better than toddlers at
regulating emotions, they still need a great deal of help and practice with developing these
appropriate behaviors.
Independence: Preschoolers with healthy independence will follow predictable daily routines

and activities at school and at home, start identifying a favorite friend and ask that friend to play,
independently play with toys and materials at home, school, or an outdoor playground, and
complete many self-care tasks, such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, eating snacks,
feeding themselves, or getting ready for bed. Independent preschoolers will also tell caregivers
about their day and learn and use new vocabulary daily.
Emotional Literacy

Page
Emotional literacy is children’s ability to label and talk about their own emotions or
feelings, as well as the feelings and emotions of others. This is an essential component of
social-emotional development because it helps children understand their own emotional
experiences and, at the same time, helps them to acknowledge and understand the emotional
experiences of others. Emotional literacy helps children solve problems and regulate their own
emotions; these skills are essential for success in preschool and beyond. Children who label,
talk about, and are aware of their emotions are more likely to focus on and engage in classroom
routines and activities and less likely to become easily frustrated, have excessive tantrums, or
act impulsively.
Many children learn to identify and discuss emotions through interactions or

conversations with responsive adults in the context of positive relationships and supportive
environments. In your work at a preschool program, you should embed opportunities for social
skill development throughout the day. For example, you can share your emotions about events
or experiences and encourage children to share their own emotions. You can also read books
that discuss emotions or social interactions. In the Apply section of this lesson, you will find
additional examples of resources and activities you can use to foster children’s emotional
literacy.
Supporting the Social-Emotional Development of Children in Preschool
Children learn social-emotional skills in the context of their relationships by watching,

imitating and responding to the social behaviors of others. Children also learn from the ways
others respond to their emotions. Social-emotional skills are closely connected to a child’s
family, cultural background and early experiences. Children learn by interacting and forming
relationships with members of their families, schools and communities.
As highlighted in Lesson One (Social-Emotional Development: An Introduction), social-

emotional learning begins in infancy and adults are the most influential models for young
children. Caregivers who understand their infants’ emotional cues and respond immediately and
sympathetically have infants who are less fussy and easier to soothe. The same happens with
preschoolers; if caregivers validate children’s feelings, address their needs, and are responsive
and supportive; preschoolers are better able to communicate their needs and emotions and are
more likely to demonstrate healthy social-emotional development.
Healthy social-emotional development is highly associated with responsive caregiving.

Responsive caregivers are supportive and positive, provide stimulating materials, play and
engage with children, share events and experiences, follow children’s lead, and support
children’s interests and learning. Responsive caregivers plan meaningful opportunities
throughout the day to help children practice and learn social skills. As you read this section,
envision the role you play in fostering healthy social-emotional development for the children in
your care.
Source: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/preschool/social-emotional/lesson-2
LESSON 2 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (The Primary Schooler)
Physical Development Of Primary Schoolers
Primary schoolers are children from the ages of 3 going to primary ages. The sequence
at which a child develops is orderly and predictable, but different children develop at different
rates. Child development involves language, social and gross motor skills and motor skills.

Page
Physical development in children refers to the development of their motor, various skills and
other aspects in which involves using their bodies.
During primary school, balance and agility improve, allowing children to participate in
more complex physical activities. They can learn to skate, ride bikes, sail boats, dance, and
swim and climb trees. Primary school kids also develop the ability to hop on one foot, a skill not
seen in preschool children.
Height and Weight
Child’s weight slightly increases during this stage but slows down at the time of puberty
stages. Girls and boy’s height grow about 2 to 3 inches and gain about 7 pounds per year until
puberty. Skeletal bones and muscles broaden and lengthen, which may cause children (and
adolescents) to experience growing pains. Skeletal growth in middle childhood is also
associated with losing the deciduous teeth, or baby teeth. Some primary school children believe
they are either too fat or too thin (skinny), even if they are within the healthy weight range for
their height and age. At this stage, primary school aged children become aware of how they
look compared with other children, and have begun to notice the media messages surrounding
body image.
Brain Development
Brain and nervous system developments continue during middle childhood. More
complex behavioral and cognitive abilities become possible as the central nervous system
matures. Brain development during middle childhood is characterized by growth of specific
structures where the brain is able to override a little bit functions like planning, reasoning, social
judgment, and ethical decision making. This period of brain growth marks the beginning of a
person’s ability to do problem solving, think critically, plan, and control impulses. This brain
development cycle also impacts short-term memory. A middle school student can generally
retain from 5 to 7 bits of information at one time, so teachers should not try to cram too much
information into one lesson. The more engaged and “rich” the new information, the more likely it
is that the new information will be retained.
Gross Motor skills
Gross motor skills involve the use of large bodily movements. Children love to run,
jump, leap, throw, catch, climb, and balance. Children play baseball, ride bikes, roller skate,
take karate lessons, take ballet lessons, and participate in gymnastics. As school‐age children
grow physically, they become faster, stronger, and better coordinated. Consequently, during
middle childhood, children become more adept at gross motor activities.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both
feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step. By ages 4 to 5, children can go
up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion. Their running continues to smooth out and
increase in speed.
Fine Motor skills
Fine motor skills involve the use of small bodily movements. Children enjoy using their
hands in detailed ways, too. From early in preschool, children learn and practice fine motor
skills. Preschool children cut, paste, mold, shape, draw, paint, create, and write. Children 3 to 5
years of age develop better upper body mobility. As a result, their catching and throwing abilities
improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can typically hit a stationary ball from a tee

Page
with a bat. As whole body coordination improves, children of this age can now peddle and steer
a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of their bodies.
Ages 3 to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks
and spoons. Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons,
in a writing hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. During ages 4 to 5 years, children
continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills. For instance, they can now
button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Ages 5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills
necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as printing letters and numbers and
creating shapes such as triangles. They are able to use paints, pencils and crayons with better
control.
Sensory and Perceptual Development
Perceptual deals with obtaining information and motor refers to the outcome of
movement. Perception refers to the process of taking in, organizing, and interpreting sensory
information. At this point in the child’s life, he/she has developed a theory of mind, which is their
awareness of their own mental processes. Between 18 months and 3 years, children begin to
understand these three mental stages; perceptions, emotions, and desires. When perceptions
are acquired, the child realizes others look at situations differently from themselves. Emotional
awareness pertains to not only the child’s emotions but those of others. A child might say “he
hurts” when seeing a picture of a child in poverty. Children also understand the concept of
desires and realize that if something is wanted, the individual makes an effort to get it.
Language Development
Middle schoolers are ready to hold complex ideas, and manipulate them in their head.
For example, they are beginning to understand how to form analogies. Vocabulary continues to
expand, often in direct relation to the amount a child reads. While a child in first grade may have
between 8,000-14,000 words. Children’s writing abilities at this age improve as well. They are
able to write extensively to support their opinion or to formulate an argument. They can correctly
use complex sentence structure in their writing, such as colons and semicolons. Children
familiars not only one language but may more than one language where they able to
communicate as well to their peer group.
Health
Child’s health includes physical, mental and social well-being. Importance of early
childhood development. The emotional, social and physical development of young children has
a direct effect on their overall development and on the adult they will become. That is why
understanding the need to invest in very young children is so important, so as to maximize their
future well-being.
One of the major problem in childhood is obesity where the number of obese children is
rapidly increasing. Childhood obesity is caused by a variety of factors. The main causes of
childhood obesity are lifestyle issues-too little activity and too many calories.

Page
There are a number of common childhood conditions such as ear infections and
tonsillitis which may be unavoidable. It is worth knowing the signs and symptoms of the
common childhood illnesses as well as the treatment and prevention of these illnesses
Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers
JEAN PIAGET's CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

CONCRETE OPERATION
LOGIC
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of inductive
logic. Inductive logic - involves thinking from specific experience to a general principle. But at
this stage, children have a great difficulty in using deductive logic. or using a general principle to
determine the outcome of a specific event.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of

reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to
reverse the order of relationships between mental categories.
For example: (In arithmetic)
3+4=7 and -4= 3
Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that can
process information through the application of the logical rules and strategies. They also believe
that the mind receives information, performs operations to change its form and content, stores
and locates it and generates responses
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive development. According
to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between the
person and the environment. Everything that a person has experiences is a continuous process
of assimilations and accommodations. Piaget describe four main periods of cognitive
development. For Paiget, intellectual ability is not the same as different ages.
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. They develop certain

skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are in sequential manner, meaning they
need to understand numbers before they can perform a mathematical equation. Each milestone
that develops is dependent upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until age 8, a child
learns new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach the age of 8, the skills they learn start to level
off and it usually is a steady increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school aged children can tell left from right. They are able to
speak and express themselves develop rapidly. In school they share about themselves and
families. During play, they practice using words and language they learn in school. They start to
understand time and days of the week. They enjoy rhymes and riddles and jokes. Their
attention span is longer. They can follow more involved stories. By six, most can read words or
combination of words.
JEan Piaget
This is the third stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It spans from ages 7
to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage, children have better understanding of

Page
their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete events , particularly their
own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most
of them still have a hard time at problem-solving.
Social-Emotional Development in Primary School Children
Entering primary school can be a challenging transitional period, and it is important to

ensure that children have adequate school readiness skills to manage this transition.
Over the past few years, besides academic readiness skills, growing attention has been
focused on social-emotional development for children entering Primary school. This coincides
with increasing awareness of research indicating that social-emotional difficulties can lead to a
variety of negative outcomes, such as emotional difficulties or poorer academic achievement.
The opposite effect is also true; increased social-emotional competencies are linked with
school such as children enter primary school, they are faced with increased demands for well-
regulated and goal-directed activities such as complying with school rules and following group
instructions. This requires the child to apply self-regulation skills, and inhibit behaviours that
might impact their ability to participate in class. Children are also required to make friends by
initiating and sustaining positive relationships or even display interpersonal problem-solving
skills when conflict arises.
The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) has outlined

five core social and emotional competencies that are important foundations for a child’s well-
being in primary school.
The 5 competencies are:
1. Self-awareness: The ability to identify

one’s emotions and thoughts, and how they
influence behaviours. This also manifests the ability
to recognize one’s strengths and limitations, with a
well-grounded sense of confidence to face
challenging situations.
2. Self-management: The ability to
successfully regulate one’s emotions, thoughts and
behaviours, whilst working towards personal and
academic goals. This includes emotional regulation and impulse control skills.
3. Social Awareness: The ability to emphasize and display perspective-taking skills.

This includes respecting people who may look and act differently from themselves.
4. Relationships skills: The ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding

relationships. This includes knowing how to communicate clearly, listen well, cooperate with
others, negotiate conflict successfully, and knowing when to seek help if required.
5. Responsible decision-making: The ability to make constructive choices about

personal behaviour and social interaction. This includes the ability to identify, analyse and
problem-solve when faced with interpersonal conflict

Page
These five social-emotional competencies should be viewed in the context of the child’s
developmental age. During the early primary school years, children can be expected to display
the following behaviours:
• Able to identify emotions and display basic self-regulation skills when angry or scared
• Be a member of a group: share, listen, take turns, cooperate, negotiate disputes, be
considerate and helpful
• Initiate social interactions
• Resolve interpersonal conflict without fighting (e.g. compromise)
• Show empathy towards their peers
Parents can gain an understanding of their child’s social-emotional strengths and

weakness by observing their child’s development at home or by working collaboratively with
their child’s preschool teacher.
The home environment provides the first step into emotional and social development as
children learn to manage strong emotions like anger or fear and navigate around interpersonal
relationships such as siblings or other extended family members.
The preschool environment provides a supportive setting where children have

opportunities to practice emotional regulation and social skills with their peers.
For example, learning how to take turns, share, and play cooperatively with their peers.
It would be helpful to speak with your child’s preschool teacher to gain a better perspective of
how your child functions in the school setting.
There are many ways that children develop social-emotional skills. This can be through
explicit teaching of social-emotional skills, or by observing and following the behaviours of those
closest to them.
Here are strategies to support your child’s social-emotional development:
1. Be a role model
Children learn about emotions and how to express them appropriately by watching
others, especially their main caregivers. Demonstrating calmness and staying in control of your
own feelings provides a positive blueprint for your child to learn from. Showing children how you
manage emotions helps them learn from your example. For example, saying ‘Sorry I got angry’
and showing how you make amends provides them with an example to learn from.
2. Listen and validate your child’s emotional experience
Acknowledging and naming the emotions your child is feeling helps them to identify their
own feelings. For example, saying ‘It sounds like you’re very angry, would you like to tell me
more?’ will encourage your child to share about his emotional experience.
3. Be aware of your nonverbal communication
Show an interest in your child’s emotional experience by having a positive facial

expression, relaxed body posture, being at the same level as your child, and speaking in a calm
tone. This communicates a connection with your child’s emotional experience.

Page
4. View emotions as teachable moments
Children learn how to manage emotions through

practice, and it is important to view your child’s emotional
experience as opportunities to teach your child how to
manage overwhelming emotions such as anger or fear.
5. Set clear boundaries on inappropriate behaviours
It is normal to experience a range of emotions such

as anger or sadness. However, there are inappropriate
behaviours such as hurting others, hurting themselves, or
destroying property. It is important to acknowledge all feelings, but not all behaviours are
appropriate.
6. Scaffold social interactions without taking over
Children may initially require adult support and facilitation in new social situations. It
would be helpful to problem solve and encourage your child to think through common social
difficulties they encounter daily. Give them space to resolve their own social difficulties, but be
ready to offer help if they require it.
7. Encourage perspective taking
Ask questions that encourage your child to put themselves in someone else’s shoes. For
example, ‘How would you feel if…’. This helps children realize the impact of their behaviours on
other people’s feelings, and encourages them to consider other people’s feelings.
8. Provide opportunities for practice
Arrange for play dates or expose your child to different social situations where they get
to practice their social skills.
9. Focus on the positive
Encourage and acknowledge positive social behaviours when you catch your child
displaying them. For example, when you see them sharing, taking turns, or showing empathy
towards others
If there are additional concerns regarding your child’s social-emotional development for
primary school, you can approach professionals such as psychologists to assess your child’s
social-emotional competencies for school readiness. There is also a social skills program
available to provide explicit teaching and opportunities for your child to develop their social-
emotional skills.
Contributed by Eliza Leong, Educational and Developmental Psychologist, Thomson Paediatric

Centre, Child Development Centre.
Source: https://thenewageparents.com/social-emotional-development-primary-school-children/
LESSON 3- LATE CHILDHOOD (The Intermediate Schooler)

Page
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT of the Intermediate Schooler
Physical Development: Age 7–11
Ages 7 through 11 comprise middle childhood. Some authorities divide middle childhood

into early‐middle (ages 7–9) and late‐ middle (ages 10–11) periods. Like infants, toddlers, and
preschoolers, these older children grow both physically and cognitively, although their growth is
slower than it was during early childhood.
Physical development in middle childhood is characterized by considerable variations in

growth patterns. These variations may be due to gender, ethnic origin, genetics, hormones,
nutrition, environment, or disease. While children of this age group follow the same basic
developmental patterns, they do not necessarily mature at the same rate. Most girls experience
a preadolescent growth spurt around age 9 or 10, while most boys experience the same growth
spurt around age 11 or 12. Children who do not receive adequate nutrition or medical attention
may be at risk for stunted or delayed growth development. For example, children who live in
countries where malnutrition is not a problem tend to be taller than children who live in countries
where malnutrition is a problem.
Physical changes, brain and nervous system development, gross and fine motor skills,
and health issues are important aspects of physical development during middle childhood as in
previous developmental stages.
Physical changes
By the beginning of middle childhood, children typically have acquired a leaner, more
athletic appearance. Girls and boys still have similar body shapes and proportions until both
sexes reach puberty, the process whereby children sexually mature into teenagers and adults.
After puberty, secondary sexual characteristics—breasts and curves in females, deeper
voice and broad shoulders in males—make distinguishing females from males much easier.
Girls and boys grow about 2 to 3 inches and gain about 7 pounds per year until puberty.
Skeletal bones and muscles broaden and lengthen, which may cause children (and
adolescents) to experience growing pains. Skeletal growth in middle childhood is also
associated with losing the deciduous teeth, or baby teeth.
Throughout most of middle childhood, girls are smaller than boys and have less muscle
mass. As girls enter puberty, however, they may be considerably larger than boys of the same
age, who enter puberty a few years later. Once boys begin sexually maturing, their heights and
weights eventually surpass the heights and weights of girls of the same age.
Brain and nervous system development
Brain and nervous system developments continue during middle childhood. More
complex behavioral and cognitive abilities become possible as the central nervous system
matures.
Early in middle childhood, a growth spurt occurs in the brain so that by age 8 or 9, the
organ is nearly adult‐size. Brain development during middle childhood is characterized by
growth of specific structures, especially the frontal lobes. These lobes, located in the front of
the brain just under the skull, are responsible for planning, reasoning, social judgment, and
ethical decision making, among other functions. Damage to this part of brain results in erratic

Page
emotional outbursts, inability to plan, and poor judgment. The most anterior (front) portion of the
frontal lobes is the prefrontal cortex, which appears to be responsible for personality.
As the size of the frontal lobes increases, children are able to engage in increasingly
difficult cognitive tasks, such as performing a series of tasks in a reasonable order. An example
is assembling a mechanical toy: unpacking the pieces, connecting the parts, making the model
move by adding a power source—a series of tasks that must be completed in the correct order
to achieve certain results.
Lateralization of the two hemispheres of the brain, also continues during middle childhood, as
does maturation of the corpus callosum (the bands of neural fibers connecting the two
cerebral hemispheres), and other areas of the nervous system. Interestingly, children achieve
concrete operations around age 7 when the brain and nervous systems have developed a
certain amount of neural connections. When these neural connections have developed, a child's
ability to perceive and think about the world advances from an egocentric, magical viewpoint to
a more concrete and systematic way of thinking.
Motor skills
Motor skills are behavioral abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills involve the use of

large bodily movements, and fine motor skills involve the use of small bodily movements. Both
gross and fine motor skills continue to refine during middle childhood.
Children love to run, jump, leap, throw, catch, climb, and balance. Children play
baseball, ride bikes, roller skate, take karate lessons, take ballet lessons, and participate in
gymnastics. As school‐age children grow physically, they become faster, stronger, and better
coordinated. Consequently, during middle childhood, children become more adept at gross
motor activities.
Children enjoy using their hands in detailed ways, too. From early in preschool, children
learn and practice fine motor skills. Preschool children cut, paste, mold, shape, draw, paint,
create, and write. These children also learn such skills as tying shoelaces, untying knots, and
flossing their teeth. Some fortunate children are able to take music lessons for piano, violin,
flute, or other instruments. Learning to play an instrument helps children to further develop their
fine motor skills. In short, along with the physical growth of children comes the development of
fine motor skills, including the sense of competence and confidence to use these skills.
Cognitive Development of the Intermediate Schoolers
Since children in this stage are already in their childhood, rapid development of mental
skills is evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now organize
thoughts effectively, although, they can logically perceive the immediate situation. They can
apply what they have learned to situation and events that they can manipulate.
Initial Cognitive Characteristics Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the abilities
that they can now utilize. Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared during
their primary years. Their school works is now complicated. Reading text has become longer;
problem solving has become every part of their lives.
Reading Development Children in this stage is marked by a wide application of word

attack. Because of previous knowledge, they have a wide vocabulary which enables them to
understand the meaning of unknown words through context clues. This is the Reading to learn
Stage in reading development.

Page
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compare to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much they is required by the giving task.
In terms of school works, older children can concentrate and focus more for longer period of
hours especially if they are interested in what they are doing.
CREATIVITY is not the finding of a thing, but making something out of it after it is found-
James Russel Lowell
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in children,
they just need a little guidance and support from parents, teacher and people around them.
They are usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces.
Encourage different responses from each child. Celebrate uniqueness. Break

stereotypes Value process over product Reduce stress and anxiety of children Support to share
ideas, not only with the teacher/ parent but also with other children Minimize competition and
external rewards.
Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children are
actively involved in learning. - (Anderson and Collins, 1988)
The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the 1950s. It was
considered as one of the first technological advancement in schools.
Communicate effectively in speech and in writing. Work collaboratively. Use

technological tools. Analyzed problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those
goals. Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals.
Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media. According to
the Public Health Summit in2000, the following are some of the negative results of media:
Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behaviour Children may become less sensitive
to violence and those who suffer from violence. Children may review the world as violent and
mean. Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life. Children will
review violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not only
television and computers, but also videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics. The
responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should be a
collective effort among the factors working together to support children in every aspect of
development. Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition
(from childhood to adolescence).It gives children an adult to admire and emulate. Role models
also provide them with motivation to succeed. One of the most important roles of teachers is to
become a very good role model to children.
Need to be an eager participant in children’s growth and development must understand

how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help make the appropriate developmental leaps in
their skills and abilities. Must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries
made while children remain safe.
Source: https://dokumen.tips/education/cognitive-development-of-intermediate-schoolers-
5584aa01b07ea.html
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT of Intermediate Schoolers

Page
At this period of socio-emotional development children are spending less time in the home. The
volk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other children, rather than with
adults.
One of the most widely recognized characteristic of this period of development is the
acquisition of feelings of self -competence. This is what Erik Erickson referred to when he
described the developmental task of middle childhood- the social crisis industry versus
inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful work.
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child’s definitions of self and
accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations in the surrounding environment. Varied
opportunities must be provided in order for children to develop a sense of perseverance. They
should be offered chances for both fail and succeed along with sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood children can now describe themselves with internal and psychological
characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social comparison distinguishing
themselves from others. In dealing with other children, they should increase in perspective-
taking. This ability increases with age. Perspective taking enables the child to: a. judge others
intentions purposes and actions. b. give importance to social attitude and behaviors. Increase
skepticism of others claims.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 Show improved emotional understanding 

 Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a single
experience. 
 show greater ability to show conceal emotions 
 Utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE developing emotional self-awareness, managing emotions

reading emotions, and handling emotions
BUILDING FRIENDSHIPS as children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in
peer interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The approvals
of belongingness they receive contribute to the stability and security of their emotional
development. Peer size also increases and less supervision of adults is required. At this stage,
children prefer to belong to same-sex peer groups.
FIVE TYPES OF PEER STATUS
1. POPULAR frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely dislike by
peers.
2. AVERAGE receives an average numbers of positive and negative nominations from
peers.
3. NEGLECTED very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really disliked.
4. REJECTED infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is also dislike by peers
5. CONTROVERSIALS frequently nominated as a best friend but as the same time is
disliked by peers.
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and failure. If
children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest they can easily get

Page
frustrated. If families are seen as primary support system, failures and setbacks become
temporary and surmountable rather than something that is attributed to personal flaws or
defects.
Source:https://www.slideshare.net/lynjacrefugio/socio-emotional-devt-of-intermidiate-schooler/
APPLICATION
TASK #6
Make an illustration that will show the notable stages of development of the identified
learners shown on the table below.
Development Early Childhood Middle Childhood Late Childhood

Physical
Cognitive
Socio-emotional
TASK #7
Apply your concept about the illustration below. Fill in the boxes for your actions
on this as future teacher.
The Creative Teacher
The Learning Environment The Planning of Activities The Designing of IM’s
TASK #8
Compare and contrast the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of

the child from pre-schooler to the intermediate schooler. Present this in a way you want it to be
presented. Here's a suggested presentation formats you can follow. You only have to choose
one presentation.

Page
Physical
Cognitive
Socio-emotional
Cognitive
Socio-
Physical
emotional
Early
Childhood
Task #9
Design a simple exercise appropriate to child ages 9 to 12. Divide your program into three parts:
Part 1: Warm Up Activities
Part 2: Exercise Proper
Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity
SYNAPSE
For your additional knowledge about intermediate school children, access

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3krHQmOsR44. This video was uploaded by Scholastic and
is entitled “Kids Tell Us: Why I Read.”” In the video, you will gain insight on what motivates
intermediate school children read.
Write some reasons that you find interesting.
__________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Page
REFLECTION
In this Module, I realized that as teacher I should have to…

define what learning is. Learning is a change in behavior or
understanding. It can also be defined as a lasting change in
behaviorthat results from experience.
Congratulations! You’re done with this Module.

Content Focus: Development of the Learners at Various Stages Part 2
(Early Childhood to Late Childhood)


Page
Week 17 & 18
Module 10- Development of the High School Learner
(Adolescence) at Various Stages
Learning Objectives
1. Illustrate the description on the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of the
Course Instructor:high
JANE CEVANTES
school learners. OROPA, EdD
2. Apply concepts on the cognitive development in high school teaching and parenting.
Page
Introduction
This Module seeks to facilitate the learning in

describing the adolescent learners along physical
development with focus on the major change factor of
puberty, their rapid cognitive development, and the
development of social cognition in the context of family
structure, the school, the community, and media.
Adolescence is a stage of human development
that coincides with puberty, a biological development
occurring at the average age of 11 for girls and 12 for
boys. There are factors, however, which contribute to
early puberty and delayed puberty. These factors include
heredity, diet, exercise, and socio-environmental
influence.
Early and late maturation in adolescence
accompany the cognitive and socio-emotional
development of adolescents. In this situation, the teacher
must be an understanding teacher who can provide
guidance and support to adolescent learners in their high
school years.
This Module gives you insights how to deal with the
high school learners in the field. There are 3 Lessons to be
discussed in here: Lesson 1 Physical Development of High
School Learners; Lesson 2 Cognitive Development of High
School Learners; and Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional
Development of High School Learners. There are tasks to
be done along the different phases in the lesson.
Enjoy reading and learning!
ACTIVITY
TASK #1:
Examine the pictures below. Think about the physical and the socio-emotional characteristics of these
high school students. Put a caption for the pictures.

Page
Once in a lifetime experience of being in high school is unforgettable. (Photos by Ma’am Jane)
Picture #1
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________
Picture #2
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__
Picture #3

Page
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____
Task #2: Do the task as directed in the following items below. Write your responses to the Answer
Sheet attached at the end of this Module.
1. By looking at the pictures, what do you think makes the adolescent differ from those who
have not yet reached the age of puberty?
2. What social activities do you think are (i) good for teens (ii) not good or that prevents physical,
cognitive, and socio-emotional growth?
3. As a future teacher, what would be your attitude to teens in your class?
ABSTRACTIO
N Let’s learn something about it!!
LESSON 1: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS
Defining Adolescence
Adolescence (from Latin adolescere 'to
grow up') is a transitional stage
of physical and psychological development that generally
occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood
(age of majority). Adolescence is usually associated with
the teenage years, but its physical, psychological or cultural
expressions may begin earlier and end later. For example,
puberty now typically begins during preadolescence,
particularly in females. Physical growth (particularly in
males) and cognitive development can extend into the
early twenties. Thus, age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it
difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence.
Physical Development during the School Years
Although it may be tempting to think that physical development is the concern of

physical education teachers only, it is actually a foundation for many academic tasks. In first grade, for
example, it is important to know whether children can successfully manipulate a pencil. In later grades,
it is important to know how long students can be expected to sit still without discomfort—a real physical
challenge. In all grades, it is important to have a sense of students’ health needs related to their age or
maturity, if only to know who may become ill, and with what illness, and to know what physical activities
are reasonable and needed.

Page
Trends in Height and Weight
Typical height and weight for well-nourished, healthy students are shown in Table 1.
The figure shows averages for several ages from preschool through the end of high school. But the table
does not show the diversity among children. At age 6, for example, when children begin school, the
average boy or girl is about 115 centimeters tall, but some are 109 and others are 125 centimeters.
Average weight at age 6 is about 20 kilograms, but ranges between about 16 and 24 kilograms—about
20% variation in either direction.
Table 1: Average height and weight of well-nourished children

Age Height (cm) Weight (kg)
2 85 7.0
6 115 20.0
10 135 31.0
14 162 52.0
18 169 60.5
There are other points to keep in mind about average height and weight that are not
evident from Table 1. The first is that boys and girls, on average, are quite similar in height and weight
during childhood, but diverge in the early teenage years, when they reach puberty. For a time
(approximately age 10–14), the average girl is taller, but not much heavier, than the average boy. After
that the average boy becomes both taller and heavier than the average girl—though there remain
individual exceptions (Malina, et al., 2004). The pre-teen difference can therefore be awkward for some
children and youth, at least among those who aspire to looking like older teenagers or young adults. For
young teens less concerned with “image,” though, the fact that girls are taller may not be especially
important, or even noticed (Friedman, 2000).
A second point is that as children get older, individual differences in weight diverge
more radically than differences in height. Among 18-year-olds, the heaviest youngsters weigh almost
twice as much as the lightest, but the tallest ones are only about 10 per cent taller than the shortest.
Nonetheless, both height and weight can be sensitive issues for some teenagers. Most modern societies
(and the teenagers in them) tend to favor relatively short women and tall men, as well as a somewhat
thin body build, especially for girls and women. Yet neither “socially correct” height nor thinness is the
destiny for many individuals. Being overweight, in particular, has become a common, serious problem in
modern society (Tartamella, et al., 2004) due to the prevalence of diets high in fat and lifestyles low in
activity. The educational system has unfortunately contributed to the problem as well, by gradually
restricting the number of physical education courses and classes in the past two decades.
The third point to keep in mind is that average height and weight is related somewhat
to racial and ethnic background. In general, children of Asian background tend to be slightly shorter than
children of European and North American background. The latter in turn tend to be shorter than
children from African societies (Eveleth & Tanner, 1990). Body shape differs slightly as well, though the
differences are not always visible until after puberty. Asian youth tend to have arms and legs that are a
bit short relative to their torsos, and African youth tend to have relatively long arms and legs. The
differences are only averages; there are large individual differences as well, and these tend to be more
relevant for teachers to know about than broad group differences.
Puberty and Its Effects on Students
A universal physical development in students is puberty, which is the set of changes in

early adolescence that bring about sexual maturity. Along with internal changes in reproductive organs
are outward changes such as growth of breasts in girls and the penis in boys, as well as relatively sudden
increases in height and weight. By about age 10 or 11, most children experience increased sexual
attraction to others (usually heterosexual, though not always) that affects social life both in school and

Page
out (McClintock & Herdt, 1996). By the end of high school, more than half of boys and girls report having
experienced sexual intercourse at least once—though it is hard to be certain of the proportion because
of the sensitivity and privacy of the information. (Center for Disease Control, 2004b; Rosenbaum, 2006).
At about the same time that puberty accentuates gender, role differences also
accentuate for at least some teenagers. Some girls who excelled at math or science in elementary school
may curb their enthusiasm and displays of success at these subjects for fear of limiting their popularity
or attractiveness as girls (Taylor & Gilligan, 1995; Sadker, 2004). Some boys who were not especially
interested in sports previously may begin dedicating themselves to athletics to affirm their masculinity in
the eyes of others. Some boys and girls who once worked together successfully on class projects may no
longer feel comfortable doing so—or alternatively may now seek to be working partners, but for social
rather than academic reasons. Such changes do not affect all youngsters equally, nor affect any one
youngster equally on all occasions. An individual student may act like a young adult on one day, but
more like a child the next. When teaching children who are experiencing puberty, , teachers need to
respond flexibly and supportively.
Development of Motor Skills
Students’ fundamental motor skills are already developing when they begin kindergarten, but are not
yet perfectly coordinated. Five-year-olds generally can walk satisfactorily for most school-related
purposes (if they could not, schools would have to be organized very differently!). For some fives,
running still looks a bit like a hurried walk, but usually it becomes more coordinated within a year or
two. Similarly with jumping, throwing, and catching: most children can do these things, though often
clumsily, by the time they start school, but improve their skills noticeably during the early elementary
years (Payne & Isaacs, 2005). Assisting such developments is usually the job either of physical education
teachers, where they exist, or else of classroom teachers during designated physical education activities.
Whoever is responsible, it is important to notice if a child does not keep more-or-less to the usual
developmental timetable, and to arrange for special assessment or supports if appropriate. Common
procedures for arranging for help are described in the chapter on “Special education.”
Even if physical skills are not a special focus of a classroom teacher, they can be quite important to
students themselves. Whatever their grade level, students who are clumsy are aware of that fact and
how it could potentially negatively affect respect from their peers. In the long term, self-consciousness
and poor self-esteem can develop for a child who is clumsy, especially if peers (or teachers and parents)
place high value on success in athletics. One research study found, for example, what teachers and
coaches sometimes suspect: that losers in athletic competitions tend to become less sociable and are
more apt to miss subsequent athletic practices than winners (Petlichkoff, 1996).
Health and Illness
By world standards, children and youth in economically developed societies tend, on average, to be
remarkably healthy. Even so, much depends on precisely how well-off families are and on how much
health care is available to them. Children from higher-income families experience far fewer serious or
life-threatening illnesses than children from lower-income families. Whatever their income level,
parents and teachers often rightly note that children— especially the youngest ones—get far more
illnesses than do adults. In 2004, for example, a government survey estimated that children get an
average of 6–10 colds per year, but adults get only about 2–4 per year (National Institute of Allergies
and Infectious Diseases, 2004). The difference probably exists because children’s immune systems are
not as fully formed as adults’, and because children at school are continually exposed to other children,
many of whom may be contagious themselves. An indirect result of children’s frequent illnesses is that
teachers (along with airline flight attendants, incidentally!) also report more frequent minor illnesses
than do adults in general—about five colds per year, for example, instead of just 2–4 (Whelen, et al.,
2005). The “simple” illnesses are not life threatening, but they are responsible for many lost days of

Page
school, both for students and for teachers, as well as days when a student may be present physically,
but functions below par while simultaneously infecting classmates. In these ways, learning and teaching
often suffer because health is suffering.
The problem is not only the prevalence of illness as such (in winter, even in the United States,
approximately one person gets infected with a minor illness every few seconds), but the fact that
illnesses are not distributed uniformly among students, schools, or communities. Whether it is a simple
cold or something more serious, illness is particularly common where living conditions are crowded,
where health care is scarce or unaffordable, and where individuals live with frequent stresses of any
kind. Often, but not always, these are the circumstances of poverty.
Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-educationalpsychology/chapter/physical-development-
during-the-school-years/
The Physical Effects of Teen Hormones
Without teenage hormones, normal physical and sexual development wouldn’t be possible. At the
beginning of puberty, your brain releases a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
GnRH triggers the pituitary gland — a small but significant gland that controls the production of several
major hormones — to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) into
your bloodstream. These teen hormones have different effects on males and females. In girls, FSH and
LH instruct the ovaries to begin producing estrogen, one of the primary female sex hormones, and eggs.
In boys, the same hormones tell the testes to begin producing testosterone, the male sex hormone, and
sperm. At the same time, you’ll notice other significant changes:
 Both boys and girls will grow taller and put on weight and muscle mass.
 Girls will begin to have menstrual periods and will develop fuller breasts and wider hips as the
teenage girl hormones do their work.
 Boys will develop larger sex organs and will be able to ejaculate (release sperm).
 Both boys and girls will develop body hair on the legs, under the arms and over the sex organs.
 Both boys and girls will produce stronger body odors and may develop acne or other skin
problems.
How Teen Hormones Affect Mood
Teen hormones affect teenagers’ moods, emotions, and impulses as well as their body. The mood
swings that teens experience are caused by fluctuations in estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone—
the sex hormones. These same teen hormones will also affect the way they think about dating and sex.
Teens become much more interested in sex, sometimes to the point of obsession, as teen hormones
kick into gear.
It’s hard to feel that your body and mind are being controlled by the forces of nature instead of being
directed by your own decisions. Many adolescents feel that the changes they’re experiencing due to
teenage hormones are weird, freakish, or unnatural. In fact, almost everything that teens go through
during adolescence is a normal part of their development. Parents might find it hard to remember that,
once upon a time, they experienced exactly the same feelings and drives as their teenage children do
now. Source:https://www.newportacademy.com/resources/empowering-teens/teenage-hormones-
andsexuality/#:~:text=Teen%20hormones%20affect%20teenagers'%20moods,think%20about%20dating
%20and%20sex
LESSON 2: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

Page
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes during adolescence are changes in

thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s
increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections (technically known as corpus collosum) which
join and coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the process of
correlated temporal and parietal areas (technically known as myelination). This second development
covers the brain systems whose executive functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and
planning.
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
During the formal operational stage, adolescents are able to understand abstract principles which have
no physical reference. They can now contemplate such abstract constructs as beauty, love, freedom, and
morality. The adolescent is no longer limited by what can be directly seen or heard. Additionally, while
younger children solve problems through trial and error, adolescents demonstrate hypothetical-
deductive reasoning, which is developing hypotheses based on what might logically occur. They are able
to think about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand, and then test them systematically (Crain,
2005). Now they are able to engage in true scientific thinking. Formal operational thinking also involves
accepting hypothetical situations. Adolescents understand the concept of transitivity, which means that
a relationship between two elements is carried over to other elements logically related to the first two,
such as if A<B and B<C, then A<C (Thomas, 1979). For example, when asked: If Maria is shorter than
Alicia and Alicia is shorter than Caitlyn, who is the shortest? Adolescents are able to answer the question
correctly as they understand the transitivity involved.
Does everyone reach formal operations? According to Piaget, most people attain some degree of
formal operational thinking, but use formal operations primarily in the areas of their strongest interest
(Crain, 2005). In fact, most adults do not regularly demonstrate formal operational thought, and in small
villages and tribal communities, it is barely used at all. A possible explanation is that an individual’s
thinking has not been sufficiently challenged to demonstrate formal operational thought in all areas.
Adolescent Egocentrism: Once adolescents can understand abstract thoughts, they enter a world of
hypothetical possibilities and demonstrate egocentrism or a heightened self-focus. The egocentricity
comes from attributing unlimited power to their own thoughts (Crain, 2005). Piaget believed it was not
until adolescents took on adult roles that they would be able to learn the limits to their own thoughts.
David Elkind (1967) expanded on the concept of Piaget’s adolescent egocentricity. Elkind theorized that
the physiological changes that occur during adolescence result in adolescents being primarily concerned
with themselves. Additionally, since adolescents fail to differentiate between what others are thinking
and their own thoughts, they believe that others are just as fascinated with their behavior and
appearance. This belief results in the adolescent anticipating the reactions of others, and consequently
constructing an imaginary audience. “The imaginary audience is the adolescent’s belief that those
around them are as concerned and focused on their appearance as they themselves are” (Schwartz,
Maynard, & Uzelac, 2008, p. 441). Elkind thought that the imaginary audience contributed to the self-
consciousness that occurs during early adolescence. The desire for privacy and reluctance to share
personal information may be a further reaction to feeling under constant observation by others.
Another important consequence of adolescent egocentrism is the personal fable or belief that one is
unique, special, and invulnerable to harm. Elkind (1967) explains that because adolescents feel so
important to others (imaginary audience) they regard themselves and their feelings as being special and
unique. Adolescents believe that only they have experienced strong and diverse emotions, and
therefore others could never understand how they feel. This uniqueness in one’s emotional experiences
reinforces the adolescent’s belief of invulnerability, especially to death. Adolescents will engage in risky
behaviors, such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex, and feel they will not suffer any negative
consequences. Elkind believed that adolescent egocentricity emerged in early adolescence and declined

Page
in middle adolescence, however, recent research has also identified egocentricity in late adolescence
(Schwartz, et al., 2008).
Consequences of Formal Operational Thought: As adolescents are now able to think abstractly and
hypothetically, they exhibit many new ways of reflecting on information (Dolgin, 2011). For example,
they demonstrate greater introspection or thinking about one’s thoughts and feelings. They begin to
imagine how the world could be which leads them to become idealistic or insisting upon high standards
of behavior. Because of their idealism, they may become critical of others, especially adults in their life.
Additionally, adolescents can demonstrate hypocrisy, or pretend to be what they are not. Since they are
able to recognize what others expect of them, they will conform to those expectations for their
emotions and behavior seemingly hypocritical to themselves. Lastly, adolescents can
exhibit pseudostupidity. This is when they approach problems at a level that is too complex and they fail
because the tasks are too simple. Their new ability to consider alternatives is not completely under
control and they appear “stupid” when they are in fact bright, just not experienced.
Siegler's View (Information Processing Skills)
Robert Siegler described three main characteristics of the information-processing approach: thinking,
change mechanisms, and self-modification.
Thinking In Siegler's view, thinking is information processing. In this regard, Siegler provides a broad
perspective on thinking. He says that when children perceive, encode, represent, and store information
from the world, they are engaging in thinking. Siegler believes that thinking is highly flexible, which
allows individuals to adapt and adjust to many changes in circumstances, task requirements, and goals.
However, there are some limits on the human's remarkable thinking abilities. Individuals can pay
attention to only a limited amount of information at any one moment, and there are limits on how fast
we can process information. Later in the chapter we will explore children's powers of attention.
Change Mechanisms Siegler argues that in information processing the main focus should be on the role
of mechanisms of change in development. He believes that four main mechanisms work together to
create changes in children's cognitive skills; encoding, automatization. strategy construction, and
generalization (Siegler & Alibali, 2005).
Encoding is the process by which information gets into memory. Siegler states that a key aspect of
solving problems is to encode the relevant information and ignore the irrelevant parts. Because it often
takes time and effort to construct new strategies, children must practice them in order to eventually
execute them automatically and maximize their effectiveness. The term automaticity refers to the
ability to process information with little or no effort. With age and experience, information processing
becomes increasingly automatic on many tasks, allowing children to detect new connections among
ideas and events that they otherwise would miss (Kail, 2002).
The third change mechanism is strategy construction, which involves the discovery of new procedures
for processing information. Siegler (2001) says that children need to encode key information about a
problem and coordinate the information with relevant prior knowledge to solve the problem.
To fully benefit from a newly constructed strategy, generalization is needed. Children need to

generalize, or apply the strategy to other problems. In chapter 9, we will discuss generalization under
the topic of transfer of learning. Transfer occurs when the child applies previous experiences and
knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation.
Self-Modification The contemporary information-processing approach argues that, as in Piaget's theory

of cognitive development, children play an active role in their development. They use knowledge and
strategies that they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new learning
situation. In this manner, children build newer and more sophisticated responses from prior knowledge

Page
and strategies. The imparlance oi self-modification in processing information is exemplified in

metacognition, which means cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing". We will study
metacognition in the final section of this chapter and especially will emphasize how students* self-
awareness can enable them to adapt and manage their strategies during problem solving and thinking
Source: http://psychologicalresources.blogspot.com/2015/01/nature-of-information-
processing.html#:~:text=Robert%20Siegler%20described%20three%20main,a%20broad%20perspective
%20on%20thinking.
Metacognition
Thinking about One’s Thinking
Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one’s thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes
used to plan, monitor, and assess one’s understanding and performance. Metacognition includes a
critical awareness of a) one’s thinking and learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner.
Initially studied for its development in young children (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1985), researchers
soon began to look at how experts display metacognitive thinking and how, then, these thought
processes can be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). In How People
Learn, the National Academy of Sciences’ synthesis of decades of research on the science of
learning, one of the three key findings of this work is the effectiveness of a “‘metacognitive’ approach
to instruction” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p. 18).
Metacognitive practices increase students’ abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new contexts
and tasks (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 12; Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Scardamalia et al., 1984;
Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985, 1991). They do this by gaining a level of awareness above the subject matter:
they also think about the tasks and contexts of different learning situations and themselves as learners
in these different contexts. When Pintrich (2002) asserts that “Students who know about the different
kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more likely to use them” (p. 222),
notice the students must “know about” these strategies, not just practice them. As Zohar and David
(2009) explain, there must be a “conscious meta-strategic level of H[igher] O[rder] T[hinking]” (p. 179).
Metacognitive practices help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses as learners,
writers, readers, test-takers, group members, etc. A key element is recognizing the limit of one’s
knowledge or ability and then figuring out how to expand that knowledge or extend the ability. Those
who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to “actively monitor their
learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular tasks and performances”
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67).
The absence of metacognition connects to the research by Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger, and Kruger on
“Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence” (2003). They found that “people tend to be
blissfully unaware of their incompetence,” lacking “insight about deficiencies in their intellectual and
social skills.” They identified this pattern across domains—from test-taking, writing grammatically,
thinking logically, to recognizing humor, to hunters’ knowledge about firearms and medical lab
technicians’ knowledge of medical terminology and problem-solving skills (p. 83-84). In short, “if people
lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are also cursed with an inability to know when their
answers, or anyone else’s, are right or wrong” (p. 85). This research suggests that increased
metacognitive abilities—to learn specific (and correct) skills, how to recognize them, and how to practice
them—is needed in many contexts Source:
https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/#:~:text=Metacognition%20is%2C%20put
%20simply%2C%20thinking,as%20a%20thinker%20and%20learner.
LESSON 3: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

Page
Social-emotional development includes the child’s experience, expression, and

management of emotions. This type of learners wherein according to the data being collected learners
can understand and expressed their emotions and these was influenced by their environment. One of
this is cultural factors affect children’s growing understanding of the meaning of emotions, the
developing knowledge of which situations lead to which emotional outcomes, and their learning about
which emotions are appropriate to display in which situations.
This age students able to understand other people’s social cues, e.g., facial expressions, gestures, tone
of voice, or body language, feelings of other people, express emotions and reactions with facial gestures
or body language, an act of behaving as expected by peers, self-confidence, anxious or unhappy when
leaving home e.g., when setting to school and sometime often argues with adults.
The data shows that these learners have a little bit of difficulties when it comes in socio emotional
development. As the kids become adolescents, they will tend to spend lots of time worrying about their
social and emotional development in adolescence. The common challenges where teen face when it
comes to socio emotional development along their teen age years such as: self-esteem and peer
pressure. As children grow, they begin to spend more time with their friends and less time with their
parents. As a result, friends can influence a child’s thinking and behavior. This is the essence of peer
pressure. Peer pressure can be a positive influence—for example, when it motivates your child to do
well in school, or to become involved in sports or other activities. On the other hand, peer pressure can
be a negative influence resulting to bad things. Self-esteem is how you feel about yourself. The
development of a positive self-image and a healthy self-esteem is very important for making a successful
transition from child to adult.
Source:https://image.slidesharecdn.com/unit8socioemotionalodevelopmentofhighschoollearners-180423091341/95/unit-8-socio-emotional-
development-of-high-school-learners-9-638.jpg?cb=1524474971

Page
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/unit8socioemotionalodevelopmentofhighschoollearners-180423091341/95/unit-8-socio-emotional-
development-of-high-school-learners-14-638.jpg?cb=1524474971
Positive and Negative Emotions
Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling the individual to

face a situation in life or withdraw and run away from it. Positive emotions like interest and joy
motivate the individual to continue his/her behaviour. On the other hand, negative emotions may cause
withdrawal from what may be perceived as bad or dangerous. For Charles Darwin, there are six basic
emotions, namely: interest, joy/happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear. Other scientists expanded
the list to include: love, pride, hope, gratitude, compassion, jealousy and anxiety.
Social Emotions
These start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-24 months) comprised by such
feelings as envy, embarrassment, shame, guilt and pride. Observable emotions during these years may
not be accurate, but they can be a problem if not controlled. Even among early learners, emotions affect
learning, since learners pay more attention to things with emotional significance. Emotions can also
organize recall, such that learners tend to remember details of emotionally strong experiences. In time,
emotional competence can be developed by the child and this means he/she gains the ability to regulate
emotions and understand the emotions of other people.
Girls are more skilled in regulating emotions, but they are more likely than boys to be
anxious, and twice as likely to be depressed. Adolescent girls are more likely than boys to have both
negative and positive interactions with family and friends.
Adolescents especially feel stress, usually from relationships with parents, friends,
sweethearts, also from pressure of school work. Thus, adolescents are stereotyped as moody and
negative, poor emotion control. Some studies argue against stereotyping adolescents pointing at other
emotions among teens such as feeling bored, tires, sleepy, social discomfort like awkwardness and
loneliness. Generally, adolescents are seen to tend emotions from social evaluation such as feeling
embarrassed when being looked at, also only fairly happy most of the time. Other observations are that
most adolescents are not moody, while some are frequently angry, anxious or sad.
An important lesson for high school teachers is: you should not simply dismiss emotional negativity as
a normal phase, but should address the needs of teenagers who are chronically unhappy or moody.

Page
APPLICATION
Let’s apply what you have learned!!!
TASK #3
Give a summary of the key characteristics of adolescents’ development by filling out the
illustration below.
________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Physical Develoment
Socio-emotional Development __________________________________________________
TASK #4
The Pedagogical Principles As Applied to Adolescents’ Learning and Development
Refer to the 14 pedagogical principles in Unit 1 (Module 1). Cite and explain at least one pedagogical
principle that applies to the teaching-learning process of ADOLESCENTS by filling out the table below.
You may choose only one principle that is relevant. Here a sample table of one of the 14 principles. This
will serve as your guide what to fill in in the table.
LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE IN THE

TEACCHING-LEARNING PROCESS OF
ADOLESCENTS
Principle referring to Individual Differences Factors What is an application of this principle in the
teaching-learning process of the adolescent?
(State the relevant learner-centered principle
here).

Page
TASK #5
Compare and contrast Piaget and Siegler’s views on the Cognitive Development of adolescent
learners. You can use the graphic organizer as shown below. Or you have the option to have your own
way of presentation.
Piaget's Siegler's
Views Views
TASK #6
Use your creativity. Think of the experiences you have with your teachers’ way of motivating the class
participation. Create an activity that will serve as your priming/motivational task for your students.
Write the title of your activity and the mechanics on how it will be done in your class.
EVALUATION
Check for understanding! Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer of the items below.
1. Are girls more skilled in regulating emotions than boys?

A. yes
B. no
C. sometimes yes, sometimes no
D. more hard data are needed
2. Teacher Jane is helping teen Janine to ease her anger over the loss of her mobile phone in the
classroom. Teacher Jane wants to develop Janine’s _______________ .
A. Emotional beliefs
B. Emotional values

Page
C. Emotional ideas
D. Emotional competence
REFLECTION
Through a reflection journal, relate the concept of maturation of feelings and growth of self-image to
what you see as the best theory on human emotions. Answer this question. How did people affect my
emotional maturity, e.g. parent, teacher, friend?
In terms of my parents, they affect my emotional maturity in the way that they can lead me in the right
path. They encourage me to express my feelings and ideas, to show up the real me and what is really
me. And in teacher, they are main emotional leaders, and the foundation for promoting emotional
balance within their groups is their ability to recognize, understand, and manage their emotions. And to
my friends, they correct me if they think that I'm wrong. They also lead me and guide me to continue to
work at reaching my emotional maturity. I'm so thankful that I have them
Congratulations! You have successfully done the entire Module in this Course. God is good all the time.
Content Focus: Development of Adolescence Learners at Various Stages
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ____________
Course and Year: ______________________________ Rating: ___________

Page

Page

Educ 1 Module-Edited Wendell Pagon

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Educ 1 Module-Edited Wendell Pagon

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Educ.

1- The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 1|

Republic of the Philippines

Name of Student: Wendell A. Pagon_______

Course and Year: BEED-1B ____________________________________________________

Class Schedule: ______________________________________________________

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

Each Module contains the following parts:

 Learning Outcomes – This part contains the objectives of each Module.

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

Course Instructor: DR. JANE CERVANTES OROPA

Consultation Time: 8:00-11:30AM & 1:30- 5:30 Wednesday Only

Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the pre-service teachers can:

[2] Demonstrate an understanding of the different research-based theories

[3] Demonstrate understanding of pedagogical principles suited to diverse

[4] Demonstrate knowledge of laws, policies, guidelines and procedures that

[5] Demonstrate knowledge of positive and non-violent discipline in the

Time Intended Learning Module Number & Content

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

Week 3  Take a research-  Module 3- Issues on Human

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

PRELIM Note: Schedule and Mode

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

process per Development

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

WORKSHEET/ANSWER SHEET for Week 2

Name: Wendell A. Pagon Date: ____________

1. Research on the 14 Learner- Centered Psychological Principles (LCP).

when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and

instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

•Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.

influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the

curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks

personal choice and control.

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

•Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires

willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion

•Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different

taken into account

•Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal

relations, and communication with others.

•Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and

•Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’

backgrounds are taken into account.

outcome assessment — are integral parts of the learning process.

2. Identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future teacher.

1. Create an active learning environment.

4. Help students organize their knowledge

5. Provide timely feedback

7. Balance high expectations with student support

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

8. Enhance motivation to learn

9. Communicate your message in a variety of ways

10. And help students to productively manage their time

Module 1 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

Let us explore to what you have predicted!

Course Instructor: JANE CEVANTES OROPA, EdD

Answer the following questions:

Two approaches to human development