Computer Studies 11 Notes

COMPUTER STUDIES
GRADE 11
SENIOR SECONDARY
SUMMARISED NOTES
PREPARED BY: Daka Shadreck

© 2019 THE DAKAZ PUBLISHER
CONTACTS: 0978000816 / 0966256340

Email: shadreckthedakaz@gmail.com
LUSAKA – ZAMBIA
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Chapter 1: ALGORITHM
1.1 Algorithm Planning and Designing…………………...……………………..2
Chapter 2: LOGIC GATES, CIRCUITS AND WEBSITE DESIGNING
2.1 Logic gates and Circuits……………..…………………………………...…15
2.2 Website Design and Development…………………………………...……..22
2.3 Virtual Reality and Simulation……………………………………………..35
Chapter 3: NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATION
3.1 Computer Networking……………………………………………………....37
3.2 Networks Purpose and Limitations.……………………………………..….38
3.3 Elements and Networking…………….…………………………………….38
3.4 Types of Networks…………………………………………………….….....38
3.5 Network Topologies………………………………………………………...40
Chapter 4: COMPUTER SYSTEMS
4.1 Types of Computer Systems………………………………………………..43
4.2 Expert System and Artificial Intelligence………………………………......47
Chapter 5: DATABASE
5.1 Introduction to Access………………………………………………………52
5.2 Design Databases………………………………………………………...…52
5.3 Database Relationships……………………………………………………..57
Chapter 6: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER USE
6.1 Effects of Computer use on people and Organisations……………………..65
6.2 Data protection Legislation…………………………………………………65
Chapter 7: SPECIAL COMPUTER APPLICATION
7.1 Education………………………………………………………………...…66
7.2 Health……………………………………………………………………….67
7.3 Banking………………………...…………………………………………...67
7.4 Retailing…………………………………………………………………….68
7.5 Library………………………………………………………………………68
7.6 Commercial and General Data Processing………………………………….68
DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Contacts: 0978000816 / 0966256340 Email: shadreckthedakaz@gmail.com
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Chapter 1: ALGORITHM
Algorithm Planning and Design
- An algorithm is a sequence or procedure of instructions for solving problems.
Stages in making an overall plan to solve a problem

1. Understand the given problem well (i.e. \Its content and background).
3. Identify the correct tools to be used for that particular given problem.
4. Outline an appropriate procedure (sequence) for solving that particular given
problem.
5. Evaluate the output.
Stages in designing an overall Algorithm Procedure

Stage 1: Input - the parts/components/ingredients required to accomplish the task.
Stage 2: Processing - the actions/steps/methods required to produce the required
output.
Stage 3: Output - the required information/feedback.
Example: To build a model car, the parts (inputs) are needed plus instructions on
how to assemble the car (processing) and the result is the car (output).
The two common forms of Algorithm

• Pseudo code
• Flow chart
Pseudo code
- A pseudo code is a type of structured English that is used to specify an algorithm
step-by-step
Writing an Algorithm for a given problem in Pseudo code
When writing pseudo code, we assume that the order of execution of the statements is
from top to bottom. This changes when using control structures, functions and
exception handling.
• Mathematical operations are integral to solution development. They allow us
to manipulate the values we have stored.
Examples: - Assignment: ← or := (e.g. c ← 2π r , c := 2πr)
- Comparison: =, ≠, <, >, ≤, ≥
- Arithmetic: +, −, * or ×, /,
- Logical: and, or
• A keyword is a word that is reserved by a program because the word has a
special meaning. It is used to indicate common input-output and processing
operations in uppercase e.g. START, IF, THEN, ENDIF, STOP, etc.
Concept of Totaling and Counting

- Totaling (e.g. Sum ← Sum + Number)
- Counting (e.g. Count ← Count + 1)

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The assignment operator ( ) can be used when:

• Finding totals, where x becomes equal to a plus b.
x ← a+b
• Counting, by assigning a variable to become equal to the value of itself plus 1.
x ← x+1
Condition and Iteration statements (Loops and Decision making)

A statement is an instruction that directs the computer to perform a specific action.
In writing pseudo code, we will refer to singular instructions as statements.
Condition statements
Condition statements are statements which evaluate expressions and execute
instructions depending on whether the expression is True or False.
Types of Condition statements
1. (i) IF... THEN... ELSE
An IF statement starts with a condition which is tested for either True or
False or Yes or No.
Example: IF x = 1 THEN
print "Hello"
ELSEIF
print "Good night"
ENDIF
(ii) ELSE IF is used when there is more than one condition to check.
Example: IF x = 1 THEN
print "Hello"
ELSE IF x = 2 THEN
print "How are you?"
ELSE
print "Goodbye"
ENDIF
2. CASE OF... OTHERWISE... ENDCASE

This structure is used when there are many possible outcomes to a condition.
E.g. a program can print a different message depending on the value of a
variable, xː
Example: CASE x OF
1 : PRINT "Hello"
2 : PRINT "How are you?"
3 : PRINT "I am fine"
4 : PRINT "Have a good day!"
OTHERWISE
PRINT "Goodbye"
ENDCASE

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Iteration statements
Iteration statements are statements that repeat a set of instructions in order to
generate a sequence of outcomes.
Types of Iteration statements
1. FOR...TO...NEXT
The FOR loop is used to repeat code for a given number of repetitions.
Example: FOR x = 1 TO 10
print x
NEXT
2. REPEAT...UNTIL
A REPEAT loop will repeat the code block until the given condition is true.
The condition is not checked until after the code has run once, so regardless of
whether the condition is true or not the code will always run at least once. This
structure is often used for validation checks.
Example: REPEAT
INPUT x
UNTIL x < 10
This continue to take user input until the user inputs a value less than 10.
3. WHILE...DO...ENDWHILE
In a WHILE loop the code block will run, and continue to run, until the given
condition is no longer true. A WHILE loop is similar to the REPEAT loop in that
it decides when to terminate based on a condition. However the while loop
checks the condition prior to running the first time. If the condition is not true
then the code block will never run.
Example: INPUT x
WHILE x < 10
INPUT x
ENDWHILE
Structure of an Algorithm for a given problem in Pseudo code

1. START: This is the start of your pseudo code.
2. INPUT (ENTER): This is data retrieved from the user through typing or
through an input device.
READ / GET: This is input used when reading data from a data file.
3. CONDITION (e.g. IF...THEN...ELSE): This compares two pieces of
information and choose one of the two alternate actions ( Yes or No, True or
False).
4. PROCESS OR ACTION
• COMPUTE, CALCULATE, DETERMINE : This is used to calculate
the result of an expression.
• SET, INIT: To initialize values
• INCREMENT, BUMP: To increase the value of a variable

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• DECREMENT: To reduce the value of a variable

5. OUTPUT (PRINT, DISPLAY, SHOW): This will show your output to a
screen or the relevant output device.
6. STOP/END: This is the end of your pseudo code.
Examples of Algorithm in Pseudo code

1. Find the average of any three numbers. 2. Find the biggest between A and B.
Pseudo code Pseudo code
Let numbers = x, y and z START
START Enter A
Enter x, y, z Enter B
Sum = x + y + z IF A > B THEN
Average = Sum ÷ 3 Big = A
Display Average ELSE
STOP Big = B
ENDIF
STOP
3. Calculate the area of a triangle, 4. Determine whether a particular year is a

given base (b) and height (h). leap year or not.
Pseudo code Pseudo code
START START
Enter b Get a year
Enter h IF (year is not divisible by 4) THEN
IF (b < 0) or (h < 0) THEN Output: not leap year
PRINT input error ELSE IF ( it is not divisible by 100)
ELSE THEN
Calculate Area = 1/2 * b *h Output: leap year
Print Area ELSE IF (it is divisible by 400)
ENDIF THEN
STOP Output: leap year
ELSE
Output: not leap year
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
STOP
Exercise:
1. From the pseudo code in example 1. 2. From the pseudo code in example 4.
(a) Name the following stages: (a) How many decisions were made?
(i) Sum = x + y + z (b) What decision produced the second
(ii) Write value of Av output?
(b) If x = 3, y = 10 and z = 2, what will
be the value of the average?

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3. From the pseudo code in example 3.

(a) Name the stage "Enter h".
(b) Find the value of area given that b = 8 cm and h = 5 cm.
Answers:
1. (a) (i) Process 2. (a) 3 3. (a) Input
(ii) Output (b) True or Yes (b) Area = 20cm3
(b) Average = 5
Trace Tables Pseudo code

A trace table is a technique used to test algorithms to make sure that no logical errors
occur.
Dry running or Hand tracing allows you to use a trace table to see what code will
do before you have to run it and find where errors in your code are.
Construct Trace table for Pseudo code
Taking a program like the one below To do this we construct a trace table:
we need to keep track (trace) all the
variables and outputs.
Y X Output
Dim y as integer = 3
3 1
For x = 1 to 4
4 2
y=y+x
6 3
Loop
9 4
Console.writeline(y)
1 3 1 3
The exam will normally ask you to create a trace table of some sort so you need to be
very confident with them. The exam will usually give you the headings but just in
case, there are several steps in making a trace table, the first one is to note the table
headings, this involves
the following:
1. VARIABLES: note all the variables in the piece of code you are looking at
(this includes arrays). Note each variable as a heading.
2. OUTPUTS: note if there is an output and put this as a heading.
3. INPUTS: if there are inputs specified, put an inputs column and be prepared to
fill it in.
It is very easy to jump right in when filling in trace tables, but you must be careful.
The exam will try and trick you, so trying to predict what a trace table will do is not a
good idea. Tackle the problem line by line, exactly as a computer would.
Example: Simple trace table
Dim num( ) as integer = {10, 8,3,5 ,6,1, 2}
Dim sum as integer = 0
Dim avg as decimal
For x = 0 to 5
sum = sum + num(x)

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Loop
avg = sum / (x + 1)
Console.writeline( "average =" & avg)
1. note all the variables: num array / sum / avg / x

2. note if there is an output: yes
3. if there are inputs specified: no
So we should construct the following table:
num
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 sum avg x output
10 8 3 5 6 1 2 0
0
Now looking at the names of the variables you might be tempted to add all the values
in the array together to find the sum, and then find the average number from this
calculation. However, you'd be wrong, create a trace table and see if you can find the
correct answer:
Answer:
num
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 sum avg x output
10 8 3 5 6 1 2 0
10 0
18 1
21 2
26 3
32 4
33 5.5 5 average
= 5.5
So what went wrong? If you look at the trace table you can see that we never added
the number 2 from the num array to the sum, it stopped at element 5.To fix this we
would adjust the following line: For x = 0 to 6
Exercise:
1. Complete the trace table for the following code, where input is 39.
Dim input As Integer = 78
Dim r As Integer
Console.Write( "Input a number:" )
input = Console.ReadLine( )
Dim op As String = ""

WHILE (input > 0 )
r = input Mod 2
input = input \ 2
op = r & op
END WHILE

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Console.Write(op)
Console.ReadLine( )
Answer:
input r op output
78
39 1 1
19 1 11
9 1 111
4 0 0111
2 0 00111
1 1 100111
0 100111
2. What does the below code do?

Dim num As Integer = 239938
Dim ss As String =
Convert.ToString(num, 2)
Console.WriteLine(ss)
Answer:
It converts a base10 (denary/decimal) number into its binary equivalent
3. (a) Complete the trace table for the following code:

Dim nums() = {6, 2,8,1 ,9,2}
Dim n as integer = 0
for i = 0 to 5
if nums(i) > n
n = nums(i)
END IF
Loop
(b) What function does the above code perform?
Answer:
(a) i n nums
0 12345
0 628192
0 6
1
2 8
3
4 9
5
(b) It finds the highest value in an array of values

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Purpose of Pseudo code

Writing an algorithm saves time later during the construction and testing phase of a
program's development.
Advantages of Pseudo code
• Reduced complexity. • Ease of understanding
• Increased flexibility.
Flowcharts
A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Once the flowchart is
drawn, it becomes very easy to write the program in any high-level language.
Drawing Flowcharts
Rules for flowchart
• Every flowchart has a START and STOP symbols.
• The flow of sequence is from top of the page to the bottom, except for loops
which flow back to the entry point.
• Use arrow-heads on connectors where flow direction may not be obvious.
• Draw only one flowchart per page which must not break to another page.
• A flowchart should have not more than 15 symbols except for START and STOP.
Flowchart symbols
Structure of Flowcharts

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Drawing Flowcharts
Draw a flowchart for each pseudo code below.
1. 2. START
START Enter A
Read x, y, z Enter B
Sum = x + y + z IF (A > B) THEN
Average = Sum ÷ 3 Big = A
Write value of Average ELSE
STOP Big = B
ENDIF
STOP
3. START 4. START
Sum = 0 Get a year
Get a value IF (year is not divisible by 4) THEN
IF (value = -1) THEN Output: not leap year
Divide sum by 1 500 and STOP ELSE IF (it is not divisible by 100)
THEN
ELSE Output: leap year
Sum = Sum + value ELSE IF (it is divisible by 400)
ENDIF THEN
STOP Output: leap year
ELSE
Output: not leap year
ENDIF
STOP
Solution:

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3. 4.
Exercise:
1. Draw a flowchart for the algorithm Answer:
in pseudo code below.
START
Enter b
Enter h
IF (b < 0) or (h < 0) THEN
PRINT input error
ELSE
Calculate Area = 1/2 * b *h
Print Area
ENDIF
STOP
2. From the flowchart below,

(a) Calculate the value of the answer if:
(i) m = 75
(ii) m = 100
(iii) m = 110
(b) Write a corresponding pseudo code for this flowchart.

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Answer:
2. (a) (i) Answer = multiple + m
= 75 + 75
= 150
(ii) Answer = m
= 100
(iv) Answer = m
= 110
(b) START
Multiple = m
Input multiple
IF (m < 100) THEN
Add m to multiple
ELSE
Answer = m
Output Answer
ENDIF
STOP
Testing Algorithm
The algorithm is very modular with its behavior partitioned into small functions,
most of which are independently testable.
Search function may be a case for system testing addressing functional requirements,
such as "does the algorithm deliver optimized solutions ".
Unit Testing
- Unit testing is a type of software testing that involves the preparation of
well-defined procedural tests of discrete functionality of a program that provide
confidence that a module or function behaves as intended. Unit tests are referred to as
'white-box' tests (contrasted to 'black-box' tests) because they are written with full
knowledge of the internal structure of the functions and modules under tests. Unit
tests are typically prepared by the developer that wrote the code under test and are
commonly automated, themselves written as small programmers that are executed by
a unit testing framework (such as JUnit for Java or the Test framework in Ruby).
- The objective is not to test each path of execution within a unit (called complete-test
or complete-code coverage), but instead to focus tests on areas of risk, uncertainty, or
criticality. Each test focuses on one aspect of the code (test one thing) and are
commonly organized into test suites of commonality.
Benefits of unit Testing

• Documentation: The preparation of a suite of tests for a given system provide a

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type of programming documentation highlighting the expected behavior of

functions and modules and providing examples of how to interact with key
components.
• Readability: Unit testing encourages a programming style of small modules, clear
input and output and fewer inter-component dependencies. Code written for easy of
testing (testability) may be easier to read and follow.
• Regression : Together, the suite of tests can be executed as a regression-test of the
system. The automation of the tests means that any defects caused by changes to
the code can easily be identified. When a defect is found that slipped through, a
new test can be written to ensure it will be identified in the future.
Unit tests were traditionally written after the program was completed. A popular
alternative is to prepare the tests before the functionality of the application is prepared,
called Test-First or Test-Driven Development (TDD).
Two types of Unit Tests

• Deterministic : Directly test the function in question, addressing questions such
as: does onemax add correctly? and does point_mutation behave correctly?
• Probabilistic : Test the probabilistic properties of the function in question,
addressing questions such as: does random_bitstring provide an expected 50/50
mixture of 1s and 0s over a large number of cases? and does point_mutation make
an expected number of changes over a large number of cases?
Unit Testing Example

- The tests for probabilistic expectations is a weaker form of unit testing that can be
used to either provide additional confidence to deterministically tested functions, or to
be used as a last resort when direct methods cannot be used.
- Given that a unit test should 'test one thing' it is common for a given function to
have more than one unit tests. The reproduce function is a good
example of this with three tests in the suite. This is because it is a larger function with
behavior called in dependent functions which is varied based on parameters.
require "test/unit"
require File .expand_path (File .dirname (__FILE__ )) + "/../genetic_algorithm"
class TC_GeneticAlgorithm < Test ::Unit ::TestCase
1. Test that the objective function behaves as expected
def test_onemax
assert_equal (0 , onemax ("0000" ))
end
2. Test the creation of random strings
def test_random_bitstring
assert_equal (10 , random_bitstring (10). size)
assert_equal (0, random_bitstring ( 10).delete ('0'). delete ('1' ).size )
end

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3. Test the approximate proportion of 1's and 0's

def test_random_bitstring_ratio
s = random_bitstring (1000 )
assert_in_delta ( 0.5, (s.delete ( '1'). size/ 1000.0 ), 0.05 )
assert_in_delta ( 0.5, (s.delete ( '0'). size/ 1000.0 ), 0.05 )
end
4. Test that members of the population are selected
def test_binary_tournament
pop = Array .new (10) {|i| {:fitness => i} }
10.times {assert (pop. include ?(binary_tournament (pop )))}
end
5. Test point mutations at the limits
def test_point_mutation
assert_equal ("0000000000" , point_mutation ("0000000000" , 0))
end
6. Test that the observed changes approximate the intended probability
def test_point_mutation_ratio
changes = 0
100.times do
s = point_mutation ("0000000000" , 0.5 )
changes += ( 10 - s .delete ('1' ).size )
end
assert_in_delta (0.5 , changes .to_f /(100 *10), 0.05 )
end
7. Test cloning with crossover

def test_crossover_clone
p1 , p2 = "0000000000" , "1111111111"
100.times do
s = crossover(p1 , p2, 0)
assert_equal (p1, s )
assert_not_same (p1, s )
end
end
8. Test recombination with crossover
def test_crossover_recombine
p1 , p2 = "0000000000" , "1111111111"
100.times do
s = crossover(p1 , p2, 1)
assert_equal (p1.size , s .size )
assert_not_equal (p1 , s)

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assert_not_equal (p2 , s)
s .size .times {| i| assert ( (p1 [i]== s[i]) || ( p2[i]== s[i ]) ) }
end
end
9. Test odd sized population
def test_reproduce_odd
pop = Array .new (9) {|i| {:fitness => i,:bitstring =>"0000000000" } }
children = reproduce(pop , pop .size , 0 , 1)
assert_equal (9, children. size)
end
10. Test reproduce size mismatch
def test_reproduce_mismatch
pop = Array .new (10 ) {|i | {:fitness =>i,: bitstring=>"0000000000" } }
children = reproduce (pop, 9, 0 , 0)
assert_equal (9, children. size)
end
end
Chapter 2:
LOGIC GATES, CIRCUITS AND WEBSITE DESIGNING

Logic gates and Circuits
- A logic gate is a physical device that performs a logical operation on one or more
binary inputs and produces a single binary output. The logical operation is based on
Boolean logic.
- Logic gates are usually implemented as digital circuits using diodes and transistors.
Large numbers of logic gates are found in integrated circuits and micro-controllers.
Types of Logic gates

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1. AND gate: gives a "True or On (1)" output only if all its inputs are "True or On”.
2. OR gate: gives a "True or On (1)" output if one or more of its inputs are "True or
On".
3. NOT gate or Inverter: it produces an inverted version of the input as its output.
E.g. Input "True or On (1)" produce "False or Off" output.
4. NAND gate: is a NOT-AND gate. It operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT
gate. The output is "False or Off (0)" if both inputs are "True or On (1)" Otherwise,
the output is "True or On".
5. NOR gate: is a NOT-OR gate. It is a combination of OR gate followed by an
inverter. Its output is "True or On (1)" if both inputs are "False or Off (0)."
Otherwise, the output is "False or Off".
6. EXOR gate: is the Exclusive-OR gate that gives a "True or On (1)" output if
either, but not both of its two inputs are "True or On".
7. EXNOR gate: is the Exclusive-NOR gate that gives a "False or Off (0)" output if
either, but not both of its two inputs are "True or On".
NOTE: True or On = One (1) while False or Off = Zero (0)
Truth Tables for a given Logic gate

1. AND gate
2. OR gate
3. NOT gate

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4. NAND gate
5. NOR gate
6. EXOR gate
7. EXNOR gate
Logic Circuits
Logic circuits are electric circuit whose output depends upon the input in a that can
be expressed as a function in symbolic logic.
A logic circuit consists of a number of a logic gates. It has one or more binary inputs
(capable of assuming either of two states, e.g. “On” or “Off”) and a single binary
output. Logic circuits that are used to perform particular functions are called GATE.
Basic logic circuits

 AND gate,
 OR gate,
 NOT gate,

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Example:
From the circuit diagram below:
(a) Draw a Truth table for this circuit.
(b) State the name of the logic gate represented in this circuit.
Answers:
(a) (b) AND gate
Switch A Switch B Lamp (Bulb)
Closed (1) Closed (1) On (1)
Closed (1) Open (0) Off (0)
Open (0) Closed (1) Off (0)
Open (0) Open (0) Off (0)
Logic Circuits in Electronics

- In electronic logic circuits, inputs and outputs take the form of a voltage or current,
and the output from one logic gate can be used as input to another logic gate.
- In logic circuit Boolean constants 0 and 1 do not represent actual number but instead
represent the state of a voltage variable, called logic level.
- Complex logic circuits can be built from any binary electric or electronic devices,
including switches, relays, electron tubes, solid-state diodes, and transistors. The
selection of these electronic devices depends upon the application and logic circuit
design requirements.
Uses of Logic circuits

• A major use of logic circuits is in electronic digital computers.
• In fluid logic circuits have been developed whose function depends on the flow
of a liquid or gas rather than on an electric current flow in the circuit.
Types of logic circuits:

1. Computational logic circuits: consist of logic gates whose outputs at any
time are determined directly from the present combination of inputs without
regard to previous output.

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2. Sequential logic circuits: employ memory elements i.e. binary cells in

addition to logic gates. The output of an sequential circuits are a function of
the inputs and the state of the memory elements. The state of an memory
elements, in turn, is a function of previous outputs.
Logic Representation:
Three ways of representing the working of a logic circuit.
1. Truth Tables: is a chart of Boolean values (1s and 0s) arranged to indicate
the results (or outputs) of all possible inputs combinations.
2. Logic Circuit Diagram: is a graphical representation or description of logic
gates in a combination to represent a logic expression.
3. Boolean Expression: Boolean algebra can be used to write a logic expression
in the form of an equation.
Application of Logic circuits:

• They are found in several high-tech devices including arithmetic logic units,
computer memory and registers, multiplexers and decoder/encoder.
• They are used in upgraded technical microprocessors, some of which can contain
over 100 million gates.
• They are the building blocks of digital electronics (e.g. personal computers, mobile
phones, tablets, calculators and digital watches) and are formed by the combination
of transistors in order to realize some digital operations.
Advantages of Logic circuits:

- Have the ability to rectify noise on the input that results in the signal not
correctly switching from 0V to 5V for 0 and 1 respectively.
- The operations of logic circuits are controlled by software, so new functions
can be added without changing hardware.
- The switching time is much faster than analog circuits.
Disadvantages of Logic circuits:

- Logic circuits uses more energy than other circuits.

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Combinational Logic Circuits

Combinational Logic Circuits are memory less digital logic circuits whose output at
any instant in time depends
only on the combination of its
inputs.
- The outputs of Combinational Logic Circuits are only determined by the logical
function of their current input state, logic “0” or logic “1”, at any given point in
time.
- Combinational Logic Circuits are made up from basic logic NAND, NOR or NOT
gates that are “combined” or connected together to produce more complicated
switching circuits.
- An example of a combinational circuit is a decoder, which converts the binary code
data present at its input into a number of different output lines, one at a time
producing an equivalent decimal code at its output.
- Combinational logic circuits can be very simple or very complicated and any
combinational circuit can be implemented with only NAND and NOR gates as these
are classed as “universal” gates.
- Common combinational circuits made up from individual logic gates that carry out a
desired application include Multiplexers, De-multiplexers , Encoders , Decoders ,
Full and Half Adders etc.
Classification of Combinational Logic
Solid State Switch Applications

• Analogue Switches – switches are those types that are used to switch data or
signal currents when they are in their “ON” state and block them when they are in
their “OFF” state.
• Digital Switches – High Speed Data Transmission, Switching and Signal
Routing, Ethernet, LAN’s, USB and Serial Transmissions …etc.
• Power Switches – Power Supplies and General “Standby Power” Switching
Applications, Switching of Larger Voltages and Currents …etc.

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Designing a simple logic circuit for a given logical statement

Example:
Draw a logic circuit for each of the following Boolean expression:
(a) Output (D) = (A + B) C. (b) Output (D) = A + BC + D.
Solution:
(a) ( (b)
D D
Exercise:
1. Draw a logic circuit for the Boolean expression shown below.
(a) D = AB + AC. Answer:
2. Write the Boolean expression for the logic circuit shown below.
Answer: E = (A + B) (C + D) C.
3. Complete the truth table for the logic network shown below.
Answer:
A B C D
(Output)
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
A B C D
(Output)
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 1 1

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4. Complete the output indicated below

A B C E = NOT C F = A OR B E AND F E NOR (A OR B) E NAND F
1 0 1
1 1 0
Answer:
E = NOT C F = A OR B E AND F E NOR (A OR B) E NAND F
0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0
Website Designing and Development

Introduction to Website Design and Development
Terminologies
 The World Wide Web (WWW) is an information-sharing method used to
access information on the Internet. It uses protocols, such as HTTP and
applications, such as browsers to give Internet users access to information and
enable them to communicate with one another.
Protocol are the rules of communication between network devices, such as http
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol).
 A web browser: is a program that enables you to find, retrieve, view websites
and send documents over the Internet. E.g. Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer,
Konqueror, Opera and Safari.
 Website: is a collection of web pages with information on a subject.
E.g. - http://www.facebook.com - http://www.google.com
 Web page: is a smaller part of a website usually containing more specific
information, such as text, pictures, sound, video clips, animation and
Interactive programs.
Data Encryption
Encryption is a security method in which information is encoded in such a way that
only authorized user can read it.
Types of Encryption
1. Symmetric Key encryption: Symmetric key encryption algorithm uses same
cryptographic
keys for both
encryption and
decryption of
cipher text.
2. Public Key encryption: Public key encryption algorithm uses pair of keys, one of
which is a secret key
and one of which is
public.

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Web Page
Web page is a document available on World Wide Web. Web Pages are stored on web
server and can be viewed using a web browser.
A web page can contains
huge information
including text, graphics,
audio, video and
hyperlinks.
These hyperlinks are the link to other web pages.
Website is a collection of linked web pages on a web server.
Web Design
Web designing has direct link
to visual aspect of a web site.
Effective web design is
necessary to communicate
ideas effectively.
Web designing is subset of
web development. However
these terms are used
interchangeably.
Key Points
Design Plan should include the following:
 Details about information architecture.
 Planned structure of site.
 A site map of page
Wireframe refers to a visual guide to appearance of web pages. It helps to define
structure of web site, linking between web pages and layout of visual elements.
Following things are included in a wireframe:
 Boxes of primary graphical elements
 Placement of headlines and sub headings
 Simple layout structure
 Calls to action
 Text blocks
Wireframe can be created using program like Visio but you can alsouse a pen and
paper.
Web Designing Tools

 Coda 2 - comes with better user interface, text editing, file management, clips,
sites, design and better Mysql support.
 Pen and paper - can be used to draw the appearance of how the web site will
look like.

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 Vim - it supports full customizable auto-intending of code, multiple buffers for

storing cut/copied code, and recording of actions for automated repetition.
 Photoshop CC - supports many new features such as smart objects, layer
comps, smart guides, Typekit integration, font search, and workflow
enhancements. It is provided by Adobe.
 Illustrator CC - comes with powerful features like AutoCAD libraries, white
overprint, fill and stroke proxy swap for text, automatic corner generation,
unembed images and touch type tools etc.
 Sublime Text - is a source code editor with Python application programming
interface. It's functionality can be extended using plugins.
 Imageoptim - It is basically used for optimizing images on a website in order
to load them faster by finding best compression parameters and by removing
unnecessary comments.
 Sketch 3 - is a web designing tool developed specifically for designing
interfaces, websites, icons etc.
 Heroku - It is also a great web development tool which supports Ruby,
Node.js, Python, java and PHP.
 Axure - It supports prototyping, documentation, and wire framing tools for
making interactive website design.
 Hype 2 - offers: Easiest way to Animate & add interactivity, Hardness the
power of HTML5, Mobile responsiveness, and WYSIWYG features.
 Image Alpha - helps to reduce file sizes of 24-bit PNG files. It does so by
applying lousy compression and convert it to PNG8+alpha format which more
efficient.
 Hammer - is suitable for non-programmers and good only for small projects.
 JPEGmini Lite - It is an image optimizing tool and supports photos in any
resolution up to 28 Megapixels.
 BugHerd - helps to see how the projects is going and what everyone is
working on. It also helps to identify issues in development.
Web Page Anatomy

A web site includes the following components:
 Container Block can be in the form of page’s body tag, an all containing div

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tag. Without container there would be no place to put the contents of a web
page.
 Logo refers to the identity of a website and is used across a company’s
various forms of marketing such as business cards, letterhead, broachers and
so on.
 Navigation The site’s navigation system should be easy to find and use. Often
the navigation is placed right at the top of the page.
 Content The content on a web site should be relevant to the purpose of the
web site.
 Footer is located at the bottom of the page. It usually contains copyright,
contract and legal information and few links to the main sections of the site.
 Whitespace It is also called as negative space and refers to any area of page
that is not covered by type or illustrations.
Web design Mistakes

One should be aware of the following common mistakes:
 Website not working in any other browser other internet explorer.
 Using cutting edge technology for no good reason Sound or video that starts
automatically
 Hidden or disguised navigation 100% flash content.
Web development
Web development refers to building website and deploying on the web.
Web development requires use of scripting languages both at the server end as well
as at client end.
Before developing a web site once should keep several aspects in mind like:
 What to put on the web site?
 Who will host it?
 How to make it interactive?
 How to code it?
 How to create search engine friendly web site?
 How to secure the source code frequently?
 Will the web site design display well in different browsers?
 Will the navigation menus be easy to use?
 Will the web site loads quickly?

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 How easily will the site pages print?

 How easily will visitors find important details specific to the web site?
 How effectively the style sheets be used on your web sites?
Web Development Process

Web development process includes all the steps that are good to take to build an
attractive, effective
and responsive
website.
These steps are shown
in the
following diagram:
Web development tools

Web development tools helps the developer to test and debug the web sites.
All web browsers have built in tools for this purpose. These tools allow the web
developer to use HTML, CSS and JavaScript etc.
Common features that every web development tool exhibits:
 HTML and DOM viewer allows you to see the DOM as it was rendered. It
also allows to make changes to HTML and DOM and see the changes
reflected in the page after the change is made.
 Web development tools also helps to inspect the resources that are loaded and
available on the web page.
Profiling and Auditing

Profiling refers to get information about the performance of a web page or web
application.
Auditing provides developers suggestions, after analyzing a page, for optimizations
to decrease page load time and increase responsiveness.
Skills required for a successful Web developer

 Understanding of client and server side scripting.
 Creating, editing and modifying templates for a CMS or web development
framework.
 Testing cross browser inconsistencies.
 Conducting observational user testing.
 Testing for compliance to specified standards such as accessibility standards in
the client region.
 Programming interaction with javaScript, PHP, and Jquery etc
Web hosting
Web hosting is a service of providing online space for storage of web pages.
These web pages are made available via World Wide Web.
The companies which offer website hosting are known as Web hosts.

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The servers on which web site is hosted remain switched on 24 x7. These servers are
run by web hosting companies. It is not possible to host your website on your local
computer, to do so you would have to leave your computer on 24 hours a day. This is
not practical and cheaper as well. This is where web hosting companies comes in.
Types of Hosting
1. Shared Hosting - the hosting company puts thousands of websites on the
same physical server. Each customer has their own allocation of physical web
space and a set of bandwidth limit. Experiencing of high traffic load affects
performance of all websites on the server.
2. Virtual Private Server (VPS) or Virtual Dedicated Server - It is a server
which is partitioned into smaller servers. In this customer is given their own
partition, which is installed with its own operating system. Unlike shared
hosting, VPS doesn’t share memory or processor time rather it allocates
certain amount of memory and CPU to use which means that any problem on a
VPS partition on the same drive will not affect other VPS customers.
3. Dedicated Server – single dedicated server is setup for just one customer. It is
commonly used by the businesses that need the power, control and security
that a dedicated server offers.
4. Reseller Hosting - acts as a middle man and sells hosting space of someone
else’s server.
5. Grid Hosting - Instead of utilizing one server, Grid Hosting spreads resources
over a large number of servers. It is quite stable and flexible. The servers can
be added or taken away from the grid without crashing the system.
Web Hosting Companies

1. Blue Host 5. Go Daddy 9. Host Gator
2. Laughing Squid 6. Hivelocity 10. liquid Web
3. Big Rock 7. just Host 11. Wix
4. Wild West Domains 8. Media TempleServInt 12. Wired Tree
Website Publishing
Website publishing is the process of uploading content on the internet. It includes:
 Uploading files
 Updating web pages posting blogs
Website is published by uploading files on the remote server which is provided by the
hosting company.
Prerequisites for Website Publishing

In order to publish your site, you need the following things:
 Web development software
 Internet Connection
 Web Server

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Web development software

It is used for building web pages for your web site. Dreamweaver and WordPress are
example of web development software.
Internet Connection
Internet connection is required to connect to a remotely located web server.
Web Server
Web server is the actual location where your website resides on. A web server may
host single or multiple sites depending on what hosting service you have paid for.
Proxy Server
Proxy server is an intermediary server between client and the internet. Proxy servers
offers the following basic functionalities:
 Firewall and network data filtering.
 Network connection sharing
 Data caching
Proxy servers allow to hide, conceal and make your network id anonymous by hiding
your IP address.
Purpose of Proxy Servers

 Monitoring and Filtering
 Improving performance
 Translation
 Accessing services anonymously
 Security
Monitoring and Filtering

Proxy servers allow us to do several kind of filtering such as:
 Content Filtering
 Filtering encrypted data
 Bypass filters
 Logging and eavesdropping
Type of Proxies
1. Forward Proxies - In this the client requests its internal network server to
forward to
the
internet.

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2. Open Proxies helps the clients to conceal their IP address while browsing the
web.
3. Reverse Proxies - In this the requests are forwarded to one or more proxy
servers and the response from the proxy server is retrieved as if it came
directly
from
the
original
Server.
Proxy Server Architecture is divided into several modules as shown in the following
diagram:
Proxy user interface - This module controls and
manages the user interface and provides an easy to use
graphical interface, window and a menu to the end user.
This menu offers the following functionalities:
 Start proxy
 Stop proxy
 Exit
 Blocking URL
 Blocking client
 Manage log
 Manage cache
 Modify configuration
Proxy server listener - It is the port where new request

from the client browser is listened. This module also
performs blocking of clients from the list given by the
user.
Connection Manager - It contains the main functionality of the proxy server. It
performs the following functions:
 It contains the main functionality of the proxy server.
 Read request from header of the client.
 Parse the URL and determine whether the URL is blocked or not.
 Generate connection to the web server.
 Read the reply from the web server.
 If no copy of page is found in the cache then download the page from web

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server else will check its last modified date from the reply header and
accordingly will read from the cache or server from the web.
 Check whether caching is allowed or not and accordingly will cache the page.
Cache Manager
This module is responsible for storing, deleting, clearing and searching of web pages
in the cache.
Log Manager
This module is responsible for viewing, clearing and updating the logs.
Configuration
This module helps to create configuration settings which in turn let other modules to
perform desired configurations such as caching.
Website Threats
Websites are always to prone to security risks.
 Cyber-crime impacts your business by hacking your website. Your website is
then used for hacking assaults that install malicious software or malware on
your visitor’s computer.
 Hackers may also steal important customer data such as credit card
information, destroy your business and propagate illegal content to your users.
Website Security Considerations

 Updated Software - It is mandatory to keep you software updated. It plays
vital role in keeping your website secure.
 SQL Injection - It is an attempt by the hackers to manipulate your database. It
is easy to insert rogue code into your query that can be used to manipulate
your database such as change tables, get information or delete data.
 Cross Site Scripting (XSS) - It allows the attackers to inject client side script
into web pages. Therefore, while creating a form It is good to endure that you
check the data being submitted and encode or strip out any HTML.
 Error Messages - You need to be careful about how much information to be
given in the error messages. For example, if the user fails to log in the error
message should not let the user know which field is incorrect: username or
password.
 Validation of Data - The validation should be performed on both server side
and client side.
 Passwords - It is good to enforce password requirements such as of minimum
of eight characters, including upper case, lower case and special character. It
will help to protect user’s information in long run.
 Upload files - The file uploaded by the user may contain a script that when
executed on the server opens up your website.
 SSL - It is good practice to use SSL protocol while passing personal

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information between website and web server or database.
Website monetization
Website monetization refers to making money from the website. It is done by
converting existing traffic to a particular website into revenue.
Methods of Monetization
1. Display Advertising - It refers to the banners and text ads. This method is
good for the websites that have significant traffic, valuable audience, relevant
and active advertisers.
2. Affiliate Marketing - It refers to steering the visitors to products and services
of a third party merchant. It is good for the websites that are product centric
and have easy integration into content.
3. Lead generation - It refers to capturing the customer information and selling
it to a third party.
4. Email rental - It refers to renting out your email lists to third parties. In this
you will send an email on their behalf to your distribution list.
Create Webpages using Templates (Design Windows in Dreamweaver and

HTML)
The web design process starts with a visual concept, which you could sketch by hand
or with software like Photoshop. Then, you use HTML and CSS to build the website.
• Dreamweaver
• HTML (Hypertext markup Language): This is the structure of web pages,
creating the foundation of all websites.
• CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): This is how web pages are visually styled.
CSS handles the entire look of sites, including layout, typography, colors, and
more.
• JavaScript: This governs certain behaviors on websites and can be used for a
variety of interactions and features.
How to create a simple webpage using Design Windows in Dreamweaver

To startup a Dreamweaver
1. Download and Install Dreamweaver.
2. Startup Dreamweaver. If you have never used the program before, choose No,
I’m new. Dreamweaver leads you through a setup wizard.
3. Choose whether to use the workspace for developers or a standard workspace
and pick a color theme for your workspace.
4. Choose whether to start with a sample file, new or existing folder.
To Design a Website Using Dreamweaver

1. Create a New Site
• Go to Site then New Site.
• Give your site a name and choose where to save it.
• Click on the folder icon on the right where it says Default Images folder.

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Then, go to your newly created site directory, open it, create a new folder
called images and select that as your default folder. That way, Dreamweaver
will save images associated with your site automatically there. Click Save to
go back to your workspace.
2. Create Your Homepage File
• If Dreamweaver doesn’t offer you the option itself, go to File then New.
You can either create a completely new file or use an existing template.
• For document title, input index.html and choose Create.
3. Create a Header
• To insert an element into the page, you first need to choose its location by
either clicking on the empty page or placing the cursor in the same element
in the code portion of the screen.
• Go to the Insert tab in the upper right corner and choose the HTML and
site elements that you can add to your page by clicking on Header as an
option.
• Change the text inside the header and turn it into a heading. Mark the text
in the code editor at the bottom. Go back to Insert , click on the arrow next
to Heading and choose H1 .
• You can also type in a title for your page. In your real website, you would
choose something descriptive with keywords and not just Welcome to My
Test Website
4. Create a CSS File
CSS allows you to define colours, dimensions of elements, font types and
sizes, etc.
• Give your new header a CSS class or id.
• Go to the DOM menu in the lower right part of the screen that lists your
entire site structure. Make sure your header is selected.
• Click the plus sign and type in #header in the field that open.
The hashtag means you are assigning an id as opposed to a class. Press enter
and now select Ok.
5. Create a CSS Selector for the Page Title
• To create a CSS selector, click on the line where it says Selectors and then
click on the plus symbol. This should automatically propose a
6. Change the Headline Font
• To change the font type, click on the Text option at the top (alternatively,
scroll down). Click on default font .
7. Centre the Headline and Change Its Size
• To use Quick Edit, go to the code view and right click the part you want to
edit (<h1> bracket).
• Choose Quick Edit at the top.
• If you are ever unsure about what a CSS property means, simply
right-click it and choose Quick Docs (or press Ctrl+K ). Dreamweaver will
then give you an explanation.
8. Add more Content

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9. Preview in Browser and on Mobile Device

• Click the real-time preview button in the lower right corner. Click on one
of the browser names will open your website project in it.
• Checking the site in the browser allows you to use the developer tools to
test changes.
10. Add Media Queries
• Go to CSS Designer. Make sure that the file you want to add code to is
selected under Sources. Hit the plus sign under @media. It gives you this
options panel:
• You can define conditions for media queries e.g. the devices they apply to,
orientation, resolution and much more.
• Click it and the screen automatically jumps to that size.
11. Add Conditional CSS
• Navigate to the element in your DOM view. From there create a new CSS
selector for it. Then, set its width to auto, float to none (to stop it from
going left) and add some padding to the sides so that the content doesn’t
border on the edge of the screen.
12. Upload your site to the server
• Go to Site > Manage Sites. Select your current website from the menu
and choose Edit at the bottom left. Click on Servers.
• Input all important data to connect to your FTP server. The name is up to
you, the rest (FTP address, username, password) comes from your hosting
provider.
How to Create a Simple Web Page with HTML

• Windows - Open Start , type in notepad, or notepad++ and click Notepad or
"Notepad++ or sublime" at the top of the window.
• Set up your document type for HTML. Type in <!DOCTYPE html> and press
↵ Enter , then type in <html> and press ↵ Enter again. Finally, type in
<head> and press ↵ Enter.
• Indicate the beginning of your page's body text and Create a page heading. Add
additional headings as you go.
• Create a paragraph.
• To place text in a paragraph, type in and type in your text, then type in
Q to close the tag: This is my paragraph. 
• Change text color. Frame the text with the ...tags,
making sure to type your preferred color into the "color" section.
• Link to another page. Use the <a href="link">link text</a> tag set, where link is
the URL for the website to which you want to link and link text is the text that
will act as the link. For example, to link to Facebook, you would type: <a href
="https://www.facebook.com" >
• Close the web page's tags.
• To save, Open the "Save" menu.
• Change the document's file type. Windows - Click the "Save as type" drop-down

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box, click All Files, and then type .html at the end of the file's name. Click Save.
Close your text editor.
• Upload your website.
Import Text and Pictures in a web designer

Import images or videos
1. In the File menu, select Import Assets... The keyboard shortcut is Ctrl + Shift + i
(Windows) or ⌘ + Shift + i (Mac).
2. Select the file or files you want to import using the dialog.
Add images or videos by dragging from your computer

1. Select the image or video that you want to add, using your computer's file system
browser. You can select multiple files.
2. Drag the image or video to the document workspace in Google Web Designer.
Add images or videos from the Studio Asset Library

1. Select Studio from the dropdown at the top of the Library.
2. Connect with the Studio Asset Library by clicking the Launch button.
3. Navigate through the folder structure to the asset that you want to use.
4. Drag the asset from the Library to the document workspace where you
want to use it.
Replace an image in the document

1. Right-click the image you want to replace.
2. Select Swap image... from the pop-up menu.
3. In the dialog, either select an image from the Library or click Import assets to
import an image from your computer.
4. Click OK.
Use images and videos from the local Library

1. In the Library, select image or video assets by clicking their names.
2. Drag the assets to the workspace where you want to use them.
• Resize images and videos
Use Flash to animate files and pictures in Websites

1. Create or Acquire a Flash File
• You’ll need Adobe Flash or a similar program that supports the Flash format.
E.g. Adobe Photoshop Elements.
2. Save File to Your Root Folder
• Move or save the Flash file into your root site folder. If you prefer, you can
create a subfolder to store your Flash files.
3. Open or Create s New Page
• Open an existing page or create a new document by choose File then New and
specify the file type in the New Document dialog.

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4. Use the INSERT FLASH Option

• Click to insert the cursor where you want the Flash file to appear on your
webpage and choose Insert, Media then Flash. Alternatively, you can use the
Insert Media button from the Common Insert bar at the top of the Dreamweaver
workspace.
5. Locate the Flash File
• In the Select File dialog, browse your drive to locate the Flash file that you want
to insert in your page and double-click on the file to select it.
6. Set accessibility options
• Enter a short text description of the Flash file. Use the Access Key and Tab Index
options in the Object Tag Accessibility Attributes dialog to include a key
command to start or control the Flash file if you want to provide an alternative
to those with accessibility challenges. Click OK to close the dialog and the Flash
file is inserted into your page.
7. Specify Flash Settings
• Click on the gray box to display the Flash options in the Property inspector at the
bottom of the workspace. Click the Edit button to open the file in the Flash
program (if you have the program on your hard drive).
8. Preview with the play button
• Click on the Play button in the Property inspector to play the Flash file.
9. Test the Flash File
• Testing the Flash to see how it would appear on a website.
10. Adjust loop and Auto play settings
• Check the Loop box to set the file to replay continuously; uncheck the box if you
want the file to play only once. Checking on the Auto play box causes the file to
begin to play as soon as the page is loaded into a browser.
11. Specify other options
• Change the Scale setting to specify if the Flash file will have a border.
Use the Quality setting to control the file quality that will be displayed.
Note: The higher the quality, the longer it will take to download.
12. Upload the scripts folder
• Make sure to upload the entire Scripts folder when you publish your Flash file
and webpage to your server or it may not display properly.
13. Preview in a browser
• When you preview a page with a Flash file and the JavaScript locally, Internet
Explorer treats the script as a potential threat on your hard drive and prompts you
with a security warning in the Information Bar. This shouldn’t happen when the
page is published and viewed online in Internet Explorer, and Firefox (shown
here) doesn’t use a security prompt with Flash.
Virtual reality and Simulation

 Virtual reality: A system that enables a person to react and move according to
certain simulated conditions
 Simulation: A program which models a real life situation by putting values

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into a model to see how it behaves in different environments.
Requirements of a Virtual Reality System

- Google - Helmet
- Gloves - Computer/Tablet
- Projector - Oculus Rift (Box)
- Headsets - VR Box
Application of Virtual reality and Simulators

- In military - In entertainment - In engineering - In media
- In education - In businesses - In telecommunication - In ports
- In fashion - In Construction. - In scientific visualisation
Benefits of Applications of Virtual Reality and 3D Simulators

Industrial process:
 Design: allow clients and partners to experience an
 Validation: test the operation of an installation. 3D simulation makes it
possible to visualise and analyse results, reactions, possibilities, etc., saving
time and money which would otherwise have been spent on environment in
order to design, adjust, develop or plan. 3D simulations act in the same way as
virtual testing, but in real conditions, experimentation and studies.
 Marketing & training: create presentation and training tools to introduce
users to your products.
Augmented Reality for Industrial and Medical Use

Augmented reality (AR) involves adding virtual elements to the real world around us.
- These virtual additions (3D models, informational content, videos, illustrated
popups, text, etc.) appear in real time and in the real world, seen through a
smartphone, tablet or augmented reality glasses.
- Users can thus experience a mixed virtual and real environment.
- AR has a wide range of potential applications: shopping, industry, maintenance,
marketing, medical, real estate, video games, etc.

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Virtual Tour
Virtual tour - is a collection of connected images which can be viewed and rotated in
web browsers.
Image Creation and Processing
- Images are created by shooting using either a 1800 or 3600 camera or Fisheye Len
camera.
- Images are processed by first assembling them by an assembly software like Auto
pane Giga rendering them in a spherical geometric projection and finally image
cube sides are automatically distorted to be watched on Online page.
Virtual tour features

 Video tour which can play on stand-alone players, on YouTube or embedded
in other websites.
 Completely custom tours can feature navigation menus and pop-ups
containing text, images, video, sound and graphics.
 Google street view styles tours they have many connected images creating a
walkthrough of a venue.
Chapter 3: NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Computer Networking
Computer network is a number of computers linked together to allow them to share
resources.
A network must be able to meet the following Criteria:
1. Performance: It can be measured in the following ways:
• Transit Time - The time a message takes to travel from one device to
another.
• Response Time - The time that elapsed between enquiry and response.
• Efficiency of software.
• Number of users.
• Capability of connected hardware.
2. Reliability: It decides the frequency at which a network failure takes place.
The more the failures are, the less is the network's reliability.
3. Security: The protection of data from the unauthorised user or access.
Data Communication is the process of transferring data from one location to another.
Components of Data communication
 The Message - is Information or data that is to be communicated. E.g. text,
pictures, numbers, videos and sounds.
 The Sender - is the device that is used for sending messages. E.g. telephone,
video camera, etc.
 The Receiver - is a device that is used to receive messages. E.g. computer,
printer, telephone, fax machine, etc.

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 The Medium - is the path through which data/message is transmitted (or sent)
from one location to another. E.g. telephone line, fibre optics, microwave,
satellite system, etc.
 The Encoder - is an electronic device that receives data from the sender in
digital signals and converts it into a form that can be transmitted through the
transmission medium.
 The Decoder - is an electronic device that receives data from the transmission
medium and converts the encoded signals from analogue to digital.
Purpose of Networking
- Resource sharing.
- Remote communication.
- Distributed processing facilities.
Limitations of Networking
- Security issues and threats.
- Expensive setup.
- Rapid spread of computer viruses.
- Dependency on the main File Server when the main File Server breaks
down the system becomes useless.
Elements of Networking
- Data communication media, such as cables and wireless.
- Data signals, such as digital and analogue.
- Communication devices, such as modems, network cards, routers, switches
and hubs.
- Networking software, such as Operating System and protocols.
Types of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN): - PAN Wide Area Network (WAN): - MAN
- HAN - Internet
- SAN
• Workstation - is a computer connected to a network.
• Server - is a computer that provides services to other computers (users).

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• Node - is any device that is connected to a network.
Local Area Network (LAN): connects computers and devices which close to each
other or in a limited small area, such as an office, a school, a home, a computer lab,
even a group of buildings close to each other.
Advantages LAN
• Hardware and software are shared.
• Has high data transferring rate.
• There is component and System evolution.
Disadvantages of LAN
• It has a high maintenance cost.
• It covers a small area.
Wide Area Network (WAN): connects computers and devices which are far away
from each other or in a large area, such as a city, a country, even worldwide.
Advantages of WAN
• It covers a large area.
• It shares variety software and other resources.
Disadvantages of WAN
• It is expensive to install.
• It has a low data transfer rate.
Personal Area Network (PAN): is a network of personal devices for one person,
such as a laptop, mobile phone, and portable printer.
Home Area Network (HAN): is a network which spans a house or home office and is
typically used by more than one person.
Wireless LAN (WLAN): is a LAN in which the nodes in the network can
communicate without physical connections. A node is a computer or any device that
can be connected to a network.
 Network administrator is a person responsible for maintenance and proper
functioning of servers and workstations in a LAN. A workstation is any
computer connected to a network.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): is a network that serves a metropolitan area
typically a city or county.
Storage Area Network (SAN): is a high-speed network that connects a collection of

computers or servers to storage devices using optical cables.
Wi-Fi hotspot: is a wireless network that provides connections to users in public

locations.

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Network Topology
Network Topology is the layout of a network and how different nodes in a network
are connected to each other and how they communicate.
 Network Protocol are the rules of communication between network devices,
such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http).
Types of Network Topologies

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single
cable.
When it has exactly
two endpoints, then it
is called Linear Bus
topology.
Features of Bus Topology

• It transmits data only in one direction.
• Every device is connected to a single cable.
Advantages of Bus Topology
- It is cost effective.
- Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
- Used in small networks.
- It is easy to understand.
- Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
- Cables fails then whole network fails.
- If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
- Cable has a limited length.
- It is slower than the ring topology.
RINGS Topology
It is called ring topology is a network in which
computers and devices are connected in ring form as
each computer is connected to another computer.
Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
- A number of repeaters are used with large number
of nodes.
- Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is

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bit by bit.
Advantages of Ring Topology
- Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more
nodes.
- Cheap to install and expand.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
- Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
- Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
- Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In Star topology, all the computers and other nodes are connected to a single hub or
switch through a cable.
Features of Star Topology
- Every node has its own dedicated connection to
the hub.
- Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
- Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or
coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
- Fast performance with few nodes and low network
traffic.
- Hub can be upgraded easily.
- Easy to troubleshoot.
- Easy to setup and modify.
- Only the node that failed is affected, the rest work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
- Cost of installation is high.
- Expensive to use.
- If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on
the hub.
- Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other.
There are two techniques to transmit data
over the Mesh topology, they are:
1. Routing
2. Flooding
Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as
per the network requirements. Like routing
logic to direct the data to reach the destination

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using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken
links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the
failed nodes.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But
it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
 Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected
in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to
two or three devices.
 Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.
Features of Mesh Topology
- Fully connected.
- Robust.
- Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
- Each connection can carry its own data load.
- It is robust.
- Fault is diagnosed easily.
- Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
- Installation and configuration is difficult.
- Cabling cost is more.
- Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
The Tree topology has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to
the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
- Ideal if workstations are located in
groups.
- Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
- Extension of bus and star
topologies.
- Expansion of nodes is possible and
easy.
- Easily managed and maintained.
- Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
- Heavily cabled.

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- It is Costly.
- If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
- Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
The Hybrid topology is a mixture of two or more topologies. E.g. if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting
these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
- It is a combination of two or
more topologies.
- Inherits the advantages and
disadvantages of the topologies
included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
- Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
- Effective.
- Scalable as size can be increased easily.
- Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
- Complex in design.
- It is Costly.
Chapter 4: COMPUTER SYSTEM

What is a Computer System?
• It is a computer combined with peripheral equipment and software so that it can
perform desired functions.
• It is a configuration of hardware and software designed for a specific purpose,
such as a manufacturing control system, a library automation system, or an
accounting system.
• It is a network of multiple computers linked together so that they can share
software, data, and peripheral equipment.
Types of Computer Systems

1. Batch Processing Systems
A batch processing system is one where programs and data are collected together
in a batch before processing starts.
- Each piece of work for a batch processing system is called a job. Often a job
simply consists if a program to be run and the data for it.
- A job queue is a number of jobs stored while they wait to be processed.
Advantages of Batch Processing Systems
• Repeated jobs are done fast in batch systems without user interaction.
• You don’t need special hardware and system support to input data in

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batch systems.
• Best for large organizations but small organizations can also benefit from it.
• Batch systems can work offline so it makes less stress on processor.
• But in batch systems the processor knows how long the job is as it is queued.
• Sharing of batch system for multiple users.
• The idle time batch system is very less.
• You can assign specific time for the batch jobs so when the computer is idle
It starts processing the batch jobs i.e. at night or any free time.
• The batch systems can manage large repeated work easily.
Disadvantages of Batch Processing Systems

• Computer operators must be trained for using batch systems.
• It is difficult to debug batch systems.
• Batch systems are sometime costly.
• If some job takes too much time i.e. If error occurs in job then other jobs
will wait for unknown time.
Examples of Batch systems

• Payroll system: Batch systems are ideal for making payrolls. The salaries of
employees can be printed at the end of month by the batch systems.
• Bank statements: These bank statements can be made easily by batch systems
at the end of month.
• Reporting: A manufacturer produces a daily operational report for a
production line that is run in a batch window and delivered to managers in the
early morning.
• Research: A researcher submits a batch job to a high performance computing
environment that performs calculations related to particle physics.
• Billing: A telecom company runs a monthly batch job to process call data
records that include the details of millions of phone calls to calculate charges.
2. Real time processing

A real time system is one which processes data without significant delay.
Characteristics of Real Time Systems
- As soon as data is received it is processed, and results are output straight away.
- It is often used to influence the system producing the input data as output is
produced quickly.
- Can be used to control processes.
- The computer is often dedicated to the real time application. It runs the same
program all the time.
Application of Real Time Systems

• A computer controlling a flight simulator: The simulator is built to resemble a
plane cockpit, with all the controls and instruments. The windows are replaced
by screens which show simulated landscapes.

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A trainee pilot sits in the cockpit and reacts to values which appear on the
instruments and to the pictures on the screens.
What the computer does?
The computer presents the pilot with a flying situation selected from a number of
choices, e.g. landing. It is programmed to react to the pilot's handling of the
engine controls and the joystick in a realistic way. It can change the readings on
the instruments, the picture on the screen and can also tilt the whole simulator.
• A computer controlling an industrial process: A food processing plant produces
canned soups. The cans have to be sealed within a certain temperature range. A
temperature sensor at the point where the cans are sealed is connected to a
computer. This can alter the temperature if it starts to move outside the set range.
• An interactive game: The user has to react to what is happening on the computer
screen by pressing keys quickly.
Advantages of Real Time Processing

- Fast response.
- Output from the computer may be used to adjust and improve the input.
Disadvantages of real time processing

- A computer being used for a real time application often cannot be used for
anything else.
3. Interactive System
Interactive systems are computers which accept input from humans.
- Human send commands or data to computers by typing or by any gestures.
Examples are MS word or spreadsheet.
- An operating system which supports interactive behavior is known as
Interactive operating systems.
Examples are Mac and Windows operating system.
- Interactive operating systems can also get input from the graphical interface.
- To design interactive system, customer-oriented communication is used which
involves media and collaborative process between technology and people. The
aim of the interactive system is simplicity with unique goals and eye-catching
interface.
- Interactive media plays an important role in designing interface. Interactive
media includes text, animation, video, animated image and buttons, video games
etc.
Advantages of Interactive Systems
• They help disabled people perform their tasks like iPad and other interactive
devices used. E.g. in latest home AC, disabled people can control the temperature
of a room, check the voltage of AC, AC timer from mobile or tablet device.
• They are easy to use.
• They get an immediate response from the audience.
• They help business to make a long-term relationship between customers not get

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bored and get their attention in focus.

• Communication becomes higher during the speech of speaker and more questions
and answers are exchanged between audience and speaker.
• Due to interactive technology more realistic feedback is received from the audience.
• More interactive and visual items are used for audience training like interested
videos, animated graphics, graphs which makes the training interested and
meaningful.
• They perform better in doing marketing than old marketing like TV, radio or
newspaper.
Application or uses of Interactive Systems

• They are used in testing phase also like testing interface elements and before
launching product all items can be checked accurately.
• They are used in the medical field like cardiac device and different chips used in
the body which sends signals to the computer screen.
• They are used for e-learning.
• They are used for voice recognition and many tools are available in the market
which performs well in this field.
Disadvantages of Interactive Systems

• They may cause extra noise pollution like recognizing the voice in public places.
• They are easy to break and get scratched by touching interface.
• They are difficult to design complex and nice graphical and take they longer time.
• Nowadays some telephone systems are interactive and they record and recognize
the voice. But it is difficult for old aged people to communicate with these systems.
• Text to speech is another type of interactive system in which user interacts by
inputting text. Some text cannot be converted as we pronounce it due to culture
difference. The real-time text of the speech is difficult to understand and requires
highly skilled people for voice over.
• During receiving calls of customers, text to speech software needs to be accurate to
respond and if the customer takes interest in product then guiding him to the
accurate path is difficult to manage and may involve live representative to talk.
• Automatic calls are also managed by interactive systems. Sometimes people are
busy with their work and when receiving automatic calls make them insecure.
These calls are made by company computers for campaigns which sometimes result
in bad result.
• Some interactive web-based software needs an internet connection to perform
which limits access to the user. Sometimes web-based software needs to put
information to the public which effects company business.
• Some interactive software needs extra hardware and memory resources to perform
well.
• In interactive marketing, if a customer has already a product then he will just pass
away without taking the interest.
• Some interactive system cost higher due to its installation and setup, e.g. interactive

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whiteboard. It also makes bad impact on user’s eyes. The content preparation for
the interactive whiteboard is also tough.
4. Computer Network system

- Many different network systems have been used to link sensors, controllers, and
actuators together. Some have been based on existing automation systems within
buildings and others on more generalized networking systems.
- Buildings’ automation systems applied to smart homes include KNX, EnOcean,
and LonWorks. These networking systems are robust and designed to be reliable
for many years in the infrastructure of a building. They are typically available in
wired and wireless versions.
- Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ZigBee, and Z-Wave are also being used increasingly for smart
home installations.
Network Performance Equations
- The power system network consists of components such as generators,
transformers, transmission lines, circuit breakers, and capacitor banks, which are
all connected together to perform specific function. Some are in series and some
are in shunt connection.
- Whatever may be their actual configuration, network analysis is performed either
by nodal or by loop method.
5. The Expert Systems

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex
problems in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence
and expertise.
Characteristics of Expert Systems
• High performance • Understandable
• Reliable • Highly responsive
Capabilities of Expert Systems

The expert systems are capable of:
• Advising • making
• Demonstrating • Deriving a solution
• Diagnosing • Explaining
• Interpreting input • Predicting results
• Justifying the conclusion
• Instructing and assisting human in decision
• Suggesting alternative options to a problem
They are incapable of:
• Substituting human decision makers
• Possessing human capabilities
• Producing accurate output for inadequate
• Knowledge base
• Refining their own knowledge

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Components of Expert Systems

• Knowledge Base
• Inference Engine
• User Interface
Knowledge Base - It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge.

Knowledge is required to exhibit intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends
upon the collection of highly accurate and precise knowledge.
What is Knowledge?
Knowledge is combined data, information, and past experience.
Components of Knowledge Base
• Factual Knowledge: - It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge
Engineers and scholars in the task domain.
• Heuristic Knowledge: - It is about practice, accurate judgment, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.
Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base.
It is in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
- The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness,
and accuracy of the information stored in the knowledge base.
- The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the
Knowledge Engineers.
- The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills. He acquires information from subject expert by recording,
interviewing, and observing him at work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the
information in a meaningful way, in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by
interference machine. The knowledge engineer also monitors the development of the
ES.

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Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting
a correct, flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the
knowledge from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it − Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are
obtained from earlier rule application.
Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies:
 Forward Chaining - It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the
question, “What can happen next?
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and
finally deduces the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them
before concluding to a solution.
- This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. E.g.
prediction of share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
 Backward Chaining: With this strategy, an expert system finds out the
answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find
out which conditions could have happened in the past for this result.
- This strategy is followed for finding out cause or reason. For example,
diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.
User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is
generally Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is
well-versed in the task domain. The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert
in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation.
The explanation may appear in the following forms:
- Natural language displayed on screen.
- Verbal narrations in natural language.
- Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.
Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

• It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.
• It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
• Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way
round.
• It should make efficient use of user input.

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Expert Systems Limitations

• Limitations of the technology
• Difficult knowledge acquisition
• ES are difficult to maintain
• High development costs
Applications of Expert System

Design Domain:
• Camera lens design, automobile design.
Medical Domain:
• Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from observed data, conduction
medical operations on humans.
Monitoring Systems:
• Comparing data continuously with observed system or with prescribed behavior
such as leakage monitoring in long petroleum pipeline.
Process Control Systems:
• Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.
Knowledge Domain:
• Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.
Finance/ Commerce:
• Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions, stock market trading,
Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.
Expert System Technology

- Expert systems technologies include: Expert System Development Environment.
- The ES development environment includes hardware and tools. They are
Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.
High level Symbolic Programming

• Languages such as LIS t • P rogramming (LISP) and
• PRO grammation en LOGique (PROLOG).
Large databases.
• Tools - They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system
to large extent.
Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.
• They provide rapid prototyping
• Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference
design.
Shells
A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides the
developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below:
 Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for
creating an expert system.

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 Vidwan , a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology,

Mumbai in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN
rules.
Development of Expert Systems: General Steps

Step 1: Identify Problem Domain
- The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
- Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
- Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Step 2: Design the System
- Identify the ES Technology.
- Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and
databases.
- Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.
Step 3: Develop the Prototype
- From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to;
• Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.
• Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.
Step 4: Test and Refine the Prototype
- The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any
deficiencies in performance.
- End users test the prototypes of the ES.
Step 5: Develop and Complete the ES
- Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its
environment, including end users, databases, and other information systems.
- Document the ES project well.
- Train the user to use ES.
Step 6: Maintain the System
- Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
- Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems
evolve.
Benefits of Expert Systems

• Availability - They are easily available due to mass production of software.
• Less Production Cost - Production cost is reasonable.
• Speed - They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual
puts in.
• Less Error Rate - Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
• Reducing Risk - They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
• Steady response - They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or
fatigued.

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Chapter 5: DATABASE
Introduction to Microsoft Access
A database is a collection of information that's related. Access allows you to manage
your information in one database file. Within Access there are four major areas:
Tables, Queries, Forms and Reports
• Tables store your data in your database
• Queries ask questions about information stored in your tables
• Forms allow you to view data stored in your tables
• Reports allow you to print data based on queries/tables that you have created
Creating a Database
1) Start Access
2) Select Blank Database

3) In the File Name field enter a name for the database
4) Click Create
Microsoft Access automatically creates a new table in the database called Table1.
This is a temporary name until the table is saved.
Understanding the Views

Two basic views when you work in a table:
Design view
Datasheet view
Datasheet view Design view

 Design View is used to set the data types, insert or delete fields, and set the
Primary key.
 Datasheet View is used to enter the data for the records. By default, Access
places you in Datasheet View.

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Creating a Table
Your new database will already have one table called Table1. Access creates this
automatically when you create a new database.
Table Structure
Fields (Columns)
Records (Rows)
In the table above, there are 4 Fields (columns) and 11 Records (rows) in the table
above.
To create your own table:

1. Click CREATE from the Ribbon
2. Click Table
Table 1 is created
Design the table by:

- Entering Fields
- Setting the Field Data Type
- Setting the Field Data Size
To Enter Fields in a Table:
1) Type a name for the first field in the table Add Fields
2) Press Enter
3) Select a data type
4) Press Enter
5) Type a description for the field
6) Press Enter
Continue this until all necessary fields have been entered into the table.
Note: The order that you enter the field names is the order the fields will appear in the
table and on a form.
Data Type Description Data Size

Short Text - Text or combinations of text and numbers, including Up to 255
numbers that do not require calculating (e.g. phone characters
numbers).

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Long Text - Lengthy text or combinations of text and numbers.

Up to 63,999
characters.
NOTE: short text and long text were called text and memo in previous versions of
Access
Number - Numeric data used in mathematical calculations. 1, 2, 4, or 8

bytes (16 bytes
if set to
Replication ID).
Date/Time - Date and time values for the years 100 through 9999. 8 bytes
Currency - Currency values and numeric data used in 8 bytes

mathematical calculations involving data with one
to four decimal places.
AutoNumber - A unique sequential (incremented by 1) number 4 bytes (16

or random number assigned by Microsoft Access bytes if set to
whenever a new record is added to a table. Replication ID)
Yes/No - Yes and No values and fields that contain only one of 1 bit
two values (Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off).
Attachment - Files, such as digital photos. Multiple files can be Up to about

attached per record. This data type is not available 2 GB
in earlier versions of Access.
Hyperlink - Text or combinations of text and numbers stored as Up to about

text and used as a hyperlink address. 2048
characters
Lookup Wizard - The Lookup Wizard entry in the Data Type column in the Design
view is not actually a data type. When you choose this entry, a wizard starts to help
you define either a simple or complex lookup field.
A simple lookup field uses the contents of another table or a value list to validate the
contents of a single value per row.
A complex lookup field allows you to store multiple values of the same data type in
each row.
Dependent on the data type of the lookup field.
Calculated - You can create an expression that uses data from one or more fields. You
can designate different result data types from the expression. You can create an
expression that uses data from one or more fields.
You can designate different result data types from the expression.

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Setting Data Types and Data Size

You need to switch to Design view
To Switch to Design view:
1) Click the View button on the Home
Ribbon
2) Type a name for the table
3) Click OK
OR
1) Click on the Design view in the bottom right corner.
Data Type - tells Access the type of data that will be stored in that field. By assigning
a data type,
Access can make sure that nobody enters the wrong type of data into that field. For
example, no one will be able to enter a phone number into the “First_Name” field.
Data Size
If the field does not contain data:
When you change the field size, the size of new data values is limited for the field.
For number fields, the field size determines exactly how much disk space Access uses
for each value of the field. For text fields, the field size determines the maximum
amount of disk space that Access allows for each value of the field.
If the field contains data:
When you change the field size, Access truncates all the values in the field that exceed
the specified field size, and also limits the size of new data values for the field, as
described above.
Set Field
Data Type
Set Field
Data Size
Setting Field Data Type in the Datasheet View

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Setting a Primary Key

The Primary Key is the unique identifier for each record in a table. Access will not
allow duplicate entries in a Primary Key field.
By default, Access sets the first field in the table as the Primary Key field.
An example of a Primary Key would be your Social Security Number. This is
something unique about you and should not be duplicated.
To Set a Primary Key:

1) Switch to Design View
2) Position your cursor in the field you wish to set as the Primary Key
3) Click the Primary Key button on the Ribbon
Entering Data in a Table

Switch Back to Datasheet View to Enter your Records (Rows):
To Enter Data in a Table:
1) Make sure you are in Datasheet View
2) Enter the data into the table by pressing the tab key to move from one cell to
another
3) When you have completed the record (row), press Enter
Enter Data (Records)
Data Input
To input data into the table is to copy or move data from external sources, such as
Excel.
When inputting data into the table, Access automatically saves the data after each new
record.
1. Click on EXTERNAL DATA tab.

2. Choose were to get data from.

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Navigating Records
Use the arrows at the bottom of the table to navigate among records.
You are able to navigate from the first record, previous record, next record, last record,
and create a new record (as shown in the picture below).
Current record Next record Last record
First record Previous record New (Blank) record
Sorting Records in a Table

By sorting your records in a table, you are easily able to view/locate records in your
table.
To Sort Records in a Table:
1) Position your cursor in the field that you wish to sort, by clicking on any
record in that field.
2) Click either the Sort Ascending or Sort Descending icon.
Deleting Fields and Records

1) Select either a Field or a Record.
2) Click Delete in the Home tab or on the Keyboard.
Editing Data in the table and Fields

1) Double-click the record with data or field you want to edit.
2) Edit and press Enter.
Database Relationship
A relational database is database in which all data is stored in Relations which are
tables with rows (called records or tuples) and columns (called fields or attributes).
- A relational database allows records from one table to link to related records on
different tables.
- A relational table is a table of columns (or fields) that describe rows (or records)
of data. E.g. a relational table may contain fields, such as customer ID,
transaction number, product purchased, product price, sale date, and purchase
location.
The difference between Spreadsheet and Relational database

Relational database makes a relationship that can be defined between tables while a
spreadsheet does not make a relationship that can be defined between tables.

P a g e | 58
Creating Relationships among Tables

To create a Table Relationship
- Match data in key fields (often a field with the same name in both tables).
- In most cases, these matching fields are the primary key from one table, which
provides a unique identifier for each record, and a foreign key in the other table.
Drag Foreign key of Orders table

• A Primary key is a field in the table that uniquely identify a record in that table.
• A Foreign key is a field in the table that is primary key in another table.
Types of Table Relationships

Relationship Symbol
1.
2.
3.
One-to-One Relationship
A row in table A can have only one matching row in table B, and vice versa.
This is not a common relationship type, as the data stored in table B could just have
easily been stored in table A.
However, there are some valid reasons for using this relationship type.
A one-to-one relationship can be
used for security purposes, to
divide a large table, and various
other specific purposes.
Table A Table B
One-to-Many Relationship
A row in table A can have many matching rows in table B, but a row in table B can
have only one matching row in table A. This is the most common relationship type.
One-to-Many relationships can also be
viewed as Many-to-One relationships,
depending on which way you look at it.
In the above example, the Customer
table is the “many” and the City table

P a g e | 59
is the“one”. Each customer can only be assigned one city. One city can be assigned to
many customers.
Many-to-Many Relationship
A row in table A can have many matching rows in table B, and vice versa.
A many-to-many relationship could be thought of as to a one-to-many relationships,
linked by an intermediary table.
The intermediary table is typically referred to as a“junction table” (also as a
“cross-reference table”). This
table is used to link the other two
tables together. It does this by
having two fields that reference
the primary key of each of the
other two tables.
Creating a Table Relationship

1. Open the Database.
2. Create two tables. Order table with a field that will become the foreign key.
This field must have the same data type as the primary key in the Customer
table.
Order
Table
Customer
Table
3. Select the Database Tools tab on the ribbon

and then click the Relationships button. This
will open the Access relationships screen.
4. Select the two tables you want to

create the relationship for and
click Add. The tables will then
appear on the relationship screen.
Note: you can always add tables

later by dragging them from the list
on the left onto the relationships
screen.
5. Drag and drop the primary key of

Customer to the (soon to be) foreign
key in the Order table.

P a g e | 60
6. When you Drag and Drop the primary key (customer_id) field in the Order
table. Access will show you the Edit Relationships window.
Access already filled out the
most important information
for you, based on your
selection of the customer_id
fields.
The Enforce Referential Integrity option

If you select the Enforce Referential Integrity option Access will make sure
that each record in the Order table refers to an existing record in the Customer
table. Selecting this option makes it impossible to create Order records that
refer to a non-existent customer.
You should select Enforce Referential Integrity by default, because it protects
the integrity of your data.
The Cascade Update Related Fields option

If you select the Cascade Update Related Fields option Access will change the
foreign key if the primary key it refers to changes. This means that if the
primary key of a customer (one) changes, Access will automatically update the
foreign keys that refer to this customer in the Order table (many).
The Cascade Update Related Fields option also protects the integrity of your
data as it prevents records from becoming detached from their related records.
The Cascade Delete Related Records option

The Cascade Delete Related Records option ensures that whenever a Customer
(one) record is deleted, than the related records (many) in the Order table are
also deleted.
You should select this option if the many-part of the relationship has no use or
is not needed anymore without the one-part. The 1 indicates the 1 side of the
relationship and the infinity symbol (∞) the many side.
The final step in creating the relationship is deciding which of the integrity
options you select.
7. Click Create to create a relationship.
One-to-Many
Relationship

P a g e | 61
Reasons why you should create table relationships before you create other
database objects, such as forms, queries and reports.
Table relationships:
 Establishes a connection between a pair of tables that are logically related to
each other. This is useful when designing a query.
 Enables you to draw data from multiple tables simultaneously. This is useful
when designing a Form and Report.
 Help to further refine table structures and minimise redundant (duplicate) data.
 Are the foundation upon which you can enforce referential integrity to help
prevent orphan records in your database. An orphan record is a record with a
reference to another record that does not exist.
Table Relationship Representation

- A table relationship is represented by a relationship line drawn between tables in
the Relationships window.
- A relationship that does not enforce referential integrity appears as a thin line
between the common fields supporting the relationship.
- When you select the relationship by clicking its line, the line thickens to indicate
it is selected. If you enforce referential integrity for this relationship, the line appears
thicker at each end. In addition, the number 1 appears over the thick portion of the
line on one side of the relationship, and the infinity symbol (∞) appears over the thick
portion of the line on the other side.
How to Create a Table Relationship

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Open.
2. In the Open dialog box, select and open the database.
3. On the Database Tools tab, in the Show/Hide group, click Relationships.
a) If necessary, On the Design tab, in the Relationships group, click Show
Tables. i) This dialog box displays all of the tables and queries in your
database.
4. Select one or more tables or queries and then click Add. When you have
finished adding tables and queries to the Relationships window, click Close.
5. Drag a field (typically the primary key) from one table to the common field
(the foreign key) in the other table. To drag multiple fields, press the CTRL
key, click each field, and then drag them.
a) The Edit Relationships dialog box appears.
b) Verify that the field names shown are the common fields for the
relationship. If a field name is incorrect, click the field name and select a
new field from the list.
c) To enforce referential integrity for this relationship, select the Enforce
Referential Integrity check box.
d) Click Create.
6. The relationship line is drawn between the two tables. If you selected the
Enforce Referential Integrity check box, the line appears thicker at each end.

P a g e | 62
In addition, again only if you selected the Enforce Referential Integrity check
box, the number 1 appears over the thick portion of the line on one side of the
relationship, and the infinity symbol (∞) appears over the thick portion of the
line on the other side.
Examples of Table Relationships

From the Table Relationship below.
 ID# field facilitates a Relationship between “Students” table and

“Takes_Course” table.
 ClassID field facilitate a Relationship between “Takes_Course” table and
“Courses” table.
 Takes_Course table is an Intermediary (or Cross-Reference or Junction) table.
It is created by Students table and Courses table.
 ID# filed is a Primary key in the “Students” table and is a Foreign key in the
“Takes_Course” table.
 ClassID field is a Primary key in the “Courses” table and is a Foreign key in
the “Takes_Courses” table.
Designing a Relational Database

Logical design/data modeling begins with identifying the entity classes to be
represented in the database and establishing relationships between pairs of these
entities.
Entity Relationship (E-R) diagrams are used to perform data modeling.
Normalisation is the simplification of the logical view of data in relational databases.
When the table is normalized all its fields will contain single data elements, all its
records will be distinct and each table will describe only a single class of entities.
Physical design all fields are specified as to their length and the nature of the data.
Solving Table Relationship problems

Example:
The diagram below shows an ORDER table created from two tables called
PRODUCT DETAILS table and CUSTOMER ORDER table.

P a g e | 63
ORDER
CUSTOMER PRODUCT PRICE QTY AMOUNT
TEMBO X 100 C
MWALA Y A 40 2 400
NAMWINGA 50
PRODUCT DETAILS CUSTOMER ORDER

PRODUCT PRICE CUSTOMER PRODUCT QTY
SUGAR 300 INONGE MAIZE 40
C-OIL 150 NAMWINGA SUGAR 50
MAIZE 60 TEMBO C-OIL 100
(a) State the field that facilitates this table relationship.

(b) Give the results obtained from the letters marked:
(i) X
(ii) Y
(iii) A
(c) Give the formula for field amount C.
Solution:
(a) PRODUCT
(b) (i) X = C-OIL (ii) Y = MAIZE (iii) A = 60
(c) AMOUNT = PRICE × QUANTITY (QTY)
EXERCISE
1. Study the linked database tables below and answer the questions that follow.
PRODUCT CUSTOMER
PRODUCT TYPE PRICE CUSTOMER PRODUCT QTY
PO1 SALT 30 CO1 PO3 100
PO2 SUGAR 20 CO2 PO2 50
PO3 RICE 15 CO3 PO3 60
CO4 PO1 70
LINKED FIELD
ORDER QUERY
CUSTOMER PRODUCT TYPE PRICE QTY AMOUNT

CO1 X
CO2 Y
(a) Give two reason for having the table relationship.

(b) Give one of the conditions necessary for the two tables to be related.

P a g e | 64
(c) AMOUNT in the ORDER QUERY is a calculated field defined by,

AMOUNT: [QTY]*[PRICE]. Using this formula, find the value for X
and Y in the AMOUNT field.
(d) Explain how similar records can be extracted from a database table.
(e) What feature is used to extract records in a database?
Answers:
(a) - It establishes to further refine data structures and minimise
redundant.
- It enables you to draw data from multiple tables simultaneously.
(b) The primary key “PRODUCT” field in the PRODUCT table is the
foreign key in the CUSTOMER table. They contain common
fields.
(c) AMOUNT = [QTY] * [PRICE]
X = 100 * 15 Y = 60 * 15
= 1500 = 900
(d) Using Group by Clause of Structured Query Language (SQL) to
group data based upon any column or a number of columns.
(e) Forms
How to Delete a table relationship (To remove a table relationship)

1 Delete the relationship line in the Relationships window. Carefully position
the cursor so that it points at the relationship line, and then click the line.
2 The relationship line appears thicker when it is selected. With the relationship
line selected, press DELETE. Note that when you remove a relationship, you
also remove referential integrity support for that relationship, if it is enabled.
As a result, Access will no longer automatically prevent the creation of
orphan records on the "many" side of a relationship.
1. On the Database Tools tab, in the Show/Hide group, click Relationships.
2. The Relationships window appears.
a) On the Design tab, in the Relationships group, click All Relationships,
if necessary.
i) All tables that have relationships are displayed, showing
relationship lines.
3 Click the relationship line for the relationship that you want to delete. The
relationship line appears thicker when it is selected.
4 Press the DELETE key or Right-click and then click Delete.
a) Access might display the message: Are you sure you want to permanently
delete the selected relationship from your database? If this confirmation
message appears, click Yes.
b) Note: If either of the tables employed in the table relationship are in use,
perhaps by another person or process, or in an open database object (such
as a form), you will not be able to delete the relationship. You must first
close any open objects that use these tables before you can remove the

P a g e | 65
relationship.
How to Change a table relationship

1) Select a table relationship in the Relationships window and then editing it.
2) Carefully position the cursor so that it points at the relationship line, and then
click the line to select it.
3) With the relationship line selected, double click it or click Edit Relationships
in the Tools group on the Design tab. The Edit Relationships dialog box
appears. Make your changes in the Edit Relationships dialog box
1) On the Database Tools tab, in the Show/Hide group, click Relationships.
2) If necessary, on the Design tab, in the Relationships group, click All
Relationships.
a) All tables that have relationships are displayed, showing relationship
lines.
3) Click the relationship line for the relationship that you want to change.
The relationship line appears thicker when it is selected.
4) Double-click the relationship line or on the Design tab, in the Tools
group, click Edit Relationships.
a) The Edit Relationships dialog box appears.
5) Make your changes, and then click OK.
Chapter 6: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF
COMPUTER USE
Social and Economic effects of Computer use on People and Organisations
Positive effects of computers on People
- People use computers to communicate easily e.g. making phone calls and social
media.
- People use computer to search for information rapidly and reliably on the Internet.
- People use computers for e-shopping.
Negative effects of computers on people
- Loss of job, since the computer does the job.
- People become addicted to social media and fail to work, hence less productivity.
Positive effects of computer systems on an organisation
- High productivity
- Produce output in a variety of formats.
- Processes data repetitively, accurately and rapidly.
- Reduces the risk of losing vital information.
- Making sales systems available to customers through a website.
Negative effects of computer systems on an organisation
- Incorrectly designed business procedures.
- Lack of compatibility with organisation's existing hardware and software.

P a g e | 66
- Poor communication with users during analysis and design stages.
Data Protection Legislation

Data protection legislation is a legislation that has been or is being introduced all
over the world to protect personal data handled in computers
 The aim of the legislation is to control the immense potential for misuse of
information that arises when personal data is stored in computers.
 Once the data has been transcribed from paper files into a form that is easily
readable and accessible by computers, it is an inexpensive and easy task for
the data to be extracted from one record and correlated with personal data
concerning the same person from another file. This results in a synergistic
combination of information that is considered to be an infringement of
privacy.
 To combat the fear of misuse of data, governments have introduced legislation
that, among other things, makes the following requirements of organizations
that maintain personal records on computers:
- to declare and/or register the use for which the data is stored,
- to provide the data subject with a right of access to data concerning himself
or herself on their computers,
- to maintain a prescribed minimum level of electronic and physical security
in their computer installation,
- not to transmit personal data to any organisation that does not have similar
controls over misuse of data.
This last requirement has led to fears that countries without data protection legislation
on their statute books are losing contracts for the processing of data, since countries
with such legislation can refuse to permit the export of data to countries where data is
not adequately protected. For this reason companies that consider that the data
protection fears are not borne out by real instances of misuse of data are nonetheless
pressing for legislation.
Chapter 7: SPECIFIC COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Education
In Education computers are used:
• During teaching and learning - for instructing the learners using PowerPoint
slides, word documents, video conferencing or web pages.
• During self learning - for E-books, online libraries, online encyclopedia, etc.
Advantages of E-books
- They are never out of stock.
- Some e-books have text to speak readers.
- They are environmentally friendly.
• During Testing and Evolution - for creating question banks for learners, analyse,
interpretation of data, online Testing and Evaluation, etc.

P a g e | 67
• In School administration - for accounts of the institution, pupils and employees

record keeping.
• In Libraries - for records of the issues and returns of the books, barcode scanning,
etc.
Health
In the Health Sector Computers are used:
• In Clinical implication - for assessment, patient monitoring, documentation,
telemedicine and electronic medical records.
• In Research - for preparation of a research document, data gathering, computer
assisted instruction, simulation and tutorials.
• In Community settings - for gathering statistics, patient appointments
identification systems, home care management and automated remote patient
monitoring.
• In Administration - to define the cost of nursing and other health personnel’s
services.
Banking
In Banking Computers are used:
• For Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) - a system that allows money transfer
instructions to be sent directly to a bank's computer system. It involves the payment
of salaries and wages.
• In Cash Machines, e.g. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) - to provide a
number of baking services, such as withdrawing cash, depositing money, paying
bills, checking the balance of the account and transferring money between
accounts.
• In E-commerce - for Internet buying and shopping.
Customers like Internet shopping because:
- Food are often cheaper than in shops.
- Stores are open 24hours a day and every day of the year.
- Wider range of choice.
- It convenient because goods are browsed from home.
Business like Internet shopping because:
- No expensive retail stores and no less staff.
- Higher sales and bigger profits.
- Many more potential customers.
Problems of Internet Shopping
- You can't try items like clothes before purchasing.
- There is a security risk using credit cards online.
- Returning goods or getting help can be difficult.
• In Internet or Online Banking - checking the account balance, paying bills,

P a g e | 68
transferring money between accounts, apply for loans, etc.

Advantages of Internet Banking
- It more convenient.
- It saves time and money.
- Data can be downloaded and analysed.
Disadvantages of Internet Banking
- Requires you to have a computer and Internet access to use it.
- Some people prefer to speak to a person (personal service).
- Your account may be hacked or your username/password stolen.
• In Telephone Banking - for checking account balance, paying bills, transferring
money between accounts by calling the bank's telephone banking number and enter
your Ids.
Advantages of Telephone Banking
- You don't need a computer.
- You can speak to the actual person.
Disadvantages of Telephone Banking
- The system can be difficult to use (working through all of those menus or
options).
• In Processing Cheques - for cheque clearing.
Retailing
In Retailing Computers are used:
• On Point-of-Sale (POS) - a place where you pay for your purchases in a store.
It is usually where the till (cash register) is located.
A typical POS will have:
- A method of inputting the codes of goods purchased usually a barcode scanner.
- A system to accept electronic payment.
- A method of producing a receipt for purchases.
- A system to update the stock-level of goods.
• In Electronic Payment for Goods (EFTPOS) - for paying for the goods
electronically using a bank card.
• In Swiping Payment system - using smart cards that are more secure (since the
data is encrypted) and more reliable than magnetic strip cards.
• For withdrawing money using cash back.
• In Automated Re-ordering of Stock, e.g. Stock Control system - a system that
keeps track of what you have in stock.
Library
In Libraries Computers are used for:
 Keeping records of the books maintained using special library software.
 Keeping records of the issues and returns of the books.
 Online magazines, journals, brochures, research articles, etc.
 Documents stored as soft copy students and staff use.

P a g e | 69
Commercial and General Data Processing

Computers are used in Commercial and General Data Processing
Data processing is the conversation of raw data to meaningful information through a
process.
Data Processing Methods
• Manual data processing - data is processed manually without using any machine.
This method is very slow and errors may occur in the output.
• Mechanical data processing - data is processed by using different devices, such as
typewriter, mechanical printers, etc. This method is faster and more accurate than
manual.
• Electronic data processing - data is processed through a computer. This method is
very fast and accurate results are produced.
Examples of Electronic data processing methods
√ Batch processing is the processing data or information by grouping it into
groups or batches.
√ Online processing is the processing of data that utilises Internet connections
and equipment directly attached to a computer.
√ Real-time processing is the processing that has the ability to respond
almost immediately to various signals in order to acquire and process
information. It is employed in banking transactions.
- Online banking
- Online hotel accommodation system
- Airline seat reservation system
- Online warehouse stock control
√ Distributed processing is the processing that is commonly utilised by remote
workstations connected to one big central workstation or server, e.g. ATMs.
√ Interactive processing is the simplest way to work on a system. You log in, run
commands which execute immediately and log off when you have finished.
- Online order processing
- Online building society transactions
- Online payroll processing
- Online point of sale (Supermarket checkout systems)
√ Random processing is a collection of random variables defined over a
probability space.
- Online credit enquires
- Online product a availability enquires
- Online account enquires
Data Processing Cycle

1. Collection of data from different resources.
2. Preparation of data for processing.
3. Inputting data onto the computer for processing.
4. Processing of data into meaningful and required information.
5. Output and interpretation of the processed information.

P a g e | 70
6. Storage of processed data/information for future use.
Data processing systems

This is a combination of machines and people that form a set of Inputs that produces a
defined set of outputs.
• Conversion - converting or changing data to another form.
• Validation - ensuring that the supplied data is clean, correct and useful.
• Sorting - arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets.
• Summarisation - reducing detailed data to its main points.
• Aggregation - combining multiple pieces of data.
• Analysis - the collection, organisation, analysis, interpretation and presentation
of data.
• Reporting - list details or summary data or computed information.
Data Processing Operations

• Recording - is transferring of data onto some form or document.
• Duplicating - is reproducing of data onto many forms or documents.
• Verifying - is the process of checking e.g. typed reports are re-read for
corrections.
• Classifying - is separation of data into categories.
• Merging - is taking two or more sets of data and put them together to make a
single sorted set of data.
• Calculating - is performing numerical calculations on the numerical data.
Advantages of Electronic Data Processing

• Speed - data/information is processed at a faster rate.
• Accuracy - there are less or no errors in the processed data.
• Decision-making capability - computers can perform certain decisions
automatically.

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COMPUTER STUDIES

PREPARED BY: Daka Shadreck

CONTACTS: 0978000816 / 0966256340

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Stages in making an overall plan to solve a problem

Stages in designing an overall Algorithm Procedure

The two common forms of Algorithm

Concept of Totaling and Counting

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

The assignment operator ( ) can be used when:

Condition and Iteration statements (Loops and Decision making)

2. CASE OF... OTHERWISE... ENDCASE

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Structure of an Algorithm for a given problem in Pseudo code

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

• DECREMENT: To reduce the value of a variable

Examples of Algorithm in Pseudo code

3. Calculate the area of a triangle, 4. Determine whether a particular year is a

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

3. From the pseudo code in example 3.

Trace Tables Pseudo code

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

1. note all the variables: num array / sum / avg / x

Dim op As String = ""

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

2. What does the below code do?

3. (a) Complete the trace table for the following code:

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Purpose of Pseudo code

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

2. From the flowchart below,

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Benefits of unit Testing

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

type of programming documentation highlighting the expected behavior of

Two types of Unit Tests

Unit Testing Example

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

3. Test the approximate proportion of 1's and 0's

7. Test cloning with crossover

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

LOGIC GATES, CIRCUITS AND WEBSITE DESIGNING

Types of Logic gates

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Truth Tables for a given Logic gate

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Basic logic circuits

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Logic Circuits in Electronics

Uses of Logic circuits

Types of logic circuits:

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

2. Sequential logic circuits: employ memory elements i.e. binary cells in

Application of Logic circuits:

Advantages of Logic circuits:

Disadvantages of Logic circuits:

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Combinational Logic Circuits

Solid State Switch Applications

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

Designing a simple logic circuit for a given logical statement

DAKAZ©2019 Grade11 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES by: Daka Shadreck.

4. Complete the output indicated below