Machinery: Fluid

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SECOND \€AR DIPLOMA COURSE IN
Semestor MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GROI,JP
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FLUID MECHANIICS
AT{D MACHINERY
2016
EDITION
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u. N.JAWALE
D. M. PATIL
V. K. OTARI
NIRALI PRAKASHAN
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Scheme SE(]OND }E,AR DIPLOMA COURSE IN
IT,IECHANICAL ENGINEERING GRoI,JP
IV
ET{VIRONMENTAI STT.IDIES THERMAL ENGINEERING

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FLIIID MECHANICS FLI,IID MECHAMCS

AND MACHINERY AND MACHINERY
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Ore(ace ...
This book hos been written with o specific oim of providing o text book on
"Fluid AAechonics ond iAochinery" for IVth Semester of Second Year Diplomo Course in
Mechonical ond Production Engineering ond Production Technology students pertoining
to Mohoroshtro Stote Boord of Technicol Educotion, Mumboi os per New Syllobus of
'G' Scheme eflective from June 2Ol3-14. Ihe need of such o book wos felt due to the
foct thot the students ot lorge find themselves confused ond lost while referring so
mony books ovoiloble on the subject. Therefore, on ottempt hos been mode to provide
the specific subject-motter through o single source.
Sincete effotts hove been mode to present the subject motter in simple longuoge
ond in o style which will enoble on ave?oge student to grasp it eosily. Solved exomples
ond typicol questions hove been odded ot the end of eoch chopter which will enhonce
the utility of this book.
The outhors exprass their grotitudes towords oll friends ond colleogues for their
voluoble suggestions. The outhors ore thonkful to Shri. Dineshbhoi Furio,
Shri. Jigneshbhoi Furio, Shri. P. M. More ond Shri. M. P. Munde, Mr. Akbor Shoikh
(Computer Operotor), Mrs. Anogho Kowore (Proof Reoding), Mrs. Anjoli Mule
(Fi9. Drowing) ond other stoff of Niroli Prokoshon for bringing out this book in the
shortest possible time.
The outhors ore olso thonkful to Sou. Voisholi Jowole ond Sou. Anito Potil for
extending their co-operotion from lime to time.
It will not be out of ploce here to express thonk to Shri. 6onesh Dolwole, Quolity
Book Distributors, Jolgoon for extending his co-operotion ond help during the writing
of fhis book.
Although core hos been token to remove the mistokes ond misprints, yet some of
them might hove crept in. The outhors sholl feel obliged if the errors ore pointed out
by the reoders.
Any constructive criticism and suggestions will be opprecioted by the outhors for
enhoncing the utility of this book in the next editions.
Authors
6glla0us ...
1. PROPERTIES OF FTUID AND FLUID PRESSURE 20
1,1 Properties of Fluid (06 Marks)
r Density, Specific Aravity, Specific volume, Specific Weight, Dynamic viscosity,
Kinematic viscosity, Surface tension, Capillarity, Vapour pressure,
Compressibility
1.2 Fluid Pressure & Pressure Measurement (14 Marks)
o Fluid pressure, Pressure head, Pressure intensity
o Concept of absolute vacuum, gauge pressure, atmospheric pressure, absolute
pressure.
o Simple and differential manometers, Bourden pressure gauge.
. Total pressure, center of pressure- regular surface forces on immersed bodies
in liquid in horizontal, vertical and inclined position
2. FLUID FLOW t4
. Types of fluid flows-Laminar, turbulent, steady, unsteady, uniform, non-uniform,
rotational, irrotational.
. Continuity equation, Bernoulli's theorem.
. Venturimeter - Construction, principle of working, coefficient of discharge,
Derivation for discharge through venturimeter.
o orifice meter - construction, Principle of working, hydraulic coefficients. Derivation
for discharge through Orifice meter.
. Pitot tube - Construction, Principle of Working.
3. FLOW THROUGH PIPES 14

. Laws of fluid friction (Laminar and turbulent)
. Darcy's equation and Chezy's equation for frictional losses
o Minor losses in fittings and valves
. Hydraulic aradient line and total energy line
. Hydraulic power transmission through pipe
4. IMPACT OF JETS 10
. Impact ofjet on fixed vertical, moving vertical flat plates.
. Impact ofjet on curved vanes with special reference to turbines and pumps
5. HYDRAUUCTURBINES 18
. Layout and features of hydroelectric power plant, surge tanks and its need.
o Classification of hydraulic turbines and their applications.
r Construction and working principle of pelton wheel, Francis and Kaplan turbine
. Draft tubes - types and construction, Concept of cavitation in turbines.
r Calculation of Work done, Power, efficiency of turbine
6. PUMPS 24M
6.1 Centrifugal Pumps (14 Marks)
. Construction, principle of working, priming methods and Cavitation
. Types of casings and imPellers.
. Manometric head, Work done, Manometric efficiency, Overall efficiency, NPSH'
. Performance Characteristics cf Centrifugal pumps.
o Trouble Shooting.
. Construction, working and applications multistage pumps
. Submersible pumps and jet pump
5.2 Reciprocating Pump (10 Marks)
. Construction, working principle and applications of single and double acting
reciprocating PumPs.
o Slip, Negative slip, Cavitation and separation.
o Use of Air Vessels.
. Indicator diagram with effect of acceleration head and frictional head'
(No numerical on reciprocating pumps)
Contents ...
1. PROPERTIESOF FLUID 1.1 -
I lntroduclion l.t
2 Functions of Hydroulic Fluid l.l
3 Types of Fluids 1.3
4 Properlies of Fluid 1.3
1 .4.1 Moss Density (Specific Moss) I.3
I .4.2 Specific Weight (Weight Densiry) 1.3
I .4.3 Speci{ic Volume 1.3
1 .4.4 Specific Grovity (Relotive Density) 1.4
1.5 Viscosity 1.4
1 .5.1 Dynomic Viscosity 1.5
I .5.2 Kinemotic Viscosity 1.5
I .5.3 Viscosity lndex (Vl) 5
6 Surfoce Tension (o) 5
7 Copillority 6
8 Compressibility 7
9 Vopour Pressure 7
I0 Oxidotion Srobiliry (Chemicol Stobil;ty) 7
'l
.I Neuirolisolion Number fl'otol Acid Number) I
.'l2 Flosh Point
.,l3 Pour Poinl 8
.i 4 Fooming
.l 5 Lubricity (Lubricoiing volue) o
. Solved Exomples 8
. lmportont Poinls 'I
.13
. Proctice Quesiions 1 .14
. MSBTE Queslions ond Answers 1 .14
2. FTUID PRESSURE AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 2.L - 2.

2.1 lnlroduclion 2.2
2.2 Pressure Heod 2.2
2.3 Poscol's Low 2.5
2.4 Concepl of Absolule Vocuum, Gouge Pressure, Almospheric Pressure,
Absolule Pressure 2.4
2.4.1 Atmospheric Pressure 2.4
2.4.2 Gouge Pressure 2.5
2.4.3 Absolute Pressure 2.5
2.4.4 Vocuum Pressure 2.5
2.5 Meosuremenl of Fluid Pressure 2.5
2.5.1 Simple Monomelers 2.6
2.5.2 Differenliol Monomelers 2.10
2.5.3 Mechonicol Gouges 2.12
2 6 Concept o{ Totol Pressure on lmmersed Bodies ond Cenire o{ Pressure 7.12
2 7 Tolol Pressure ond Cenlre o{ Pressure on Horizonlolly Submerged
Plone Surfoce 2.13
2.8 Totol Pressure ond Cenlre of Pressure on Verticolly Submerged Plone Surfoce 2.14
2.9 Tolol Pressure ond Cenire of Pressure on on inclined Submerged Surfoce 2.16
2.10 Momenl o{ lnertio of Plone Surfoce 2.19
2.11 Differentiote between Simple Monomeler ond Differentiol Monomeler 2.19
o Solved Exomples 2.20
o lmporlonl Poinls 2.49
. Proctice Queslions 2.49
. MSBTE Queslions ond Answers 2.51
3. FLUID FIOW 3.1 -

3.1 lnlroduction 3.1
J.Z Types of Fluid Flows 3.2

J..+
3.3 Conlinuity Equotion
3.4 Energy Possessed by Flowing Fluid 3.5
3.5 Bernoulli's Theorem 3.6
J.O Applicolions of Bernoulli's Theorem 3.9
3.6.1 Venturimeter 3.9
3.6.2 Orifice Meter 3.',l 2
3.6.3 Pitot Tube 3.r3

. Solved Exomples 3.',t 4
. lmportont Poinls 3.31
. Proclice Queslions 3.32
FLOW THROUGH PIPES 4.1. - 4.14

4.1 lntroduclion 4.1
4.2 Loss o{ Energy in Pipes 4.2

4.2.'l Moior Losses 4.2
4.2.2 Minor Energy (Heod) Losses 4.4
4.2.3 Reynold's Number (Re) 4.5
4.3 Lows for Fluid Friciion 4.6
4.4 Hydroulic Grodienl ond Totol Energy Line 4.6
4.5 Power Tronsmitted Through Pipes 4.7
4.6 Woter Hommer in Pipes ond lts Effects 4.9
4.7 Pipes in Series 4.9
'l
. Solved Exomples 4.1
. Importonl Points 4.29
. Proclice Quesiions 4.30
. MSBTE Quesiions ond Answers 4.3r
5. IMPACT OF
5.1 - 5.40
5.,] lntroduction
'ET
5.1
5.2 lmpoct of Jet on fixed Verticol Flot plote 5.2
5.3 lmpoct of Jet on Fixed lnclined Flot plote 5.3
5.4 lmpoct of Jet on Stotionory Curved plote 5.4
5.5 lmpoct of Jei on Moving ploles 5.5
5.6 lmpoct of Jel on on lnclined Plote Moving in the Direction
5.7 lmpoct of Jel on o Series of Flol Plotes Fified on Wheel o{ Jet 5.8
5.9
5.8 lm pocl of .let Centrolly on Moving Curved plote i n lhe Direciion of Jet 5.1 r
5.9 Fo rce Exerted by o Jei on on Unsymmetricol Moving Curved Plote when Jet Slrikes
Tongentiolly ot One of the Tips
5.12
5. 10 I mpocl of Jei on o Series of Curved Vones Moun ted
on the Periphery
of o Wheel
5.1 6
Solved Exomples
5.17
lmportont Points
5.35
Proctice Questions
5.36
MSBTE Quesiions ond Answers
5.37
6. HYDPAUUC TU RBINES
6.1 - 5.54
6.1 lnlroduction
o.l
6.2 Loyout ond Feolures o{ Hydroelectric power plont
6.3 Surge Tonk ond its Need
6.3
6.4 Clossificotion o{ Hydroulic Turbines
6.4
6.5 Selection of Turbine on the Bosis of Heod ond Dischorge
6.5
6.6 Construction ond Working principle o{ pelton Wheel Trirbine
6.5
6.6.1 Velocity Triongles, Work done, Efficiency ond power of pelton Turbine
6.7
6.6.2 Efficiencies of Pelton Turbine (lmpulse Turbine)
6.12
6.7 Reoction Turbines
6.14
6.7.'l Construction ond Working principle of Froncis Turbine 6.14
6.7.2 Colculolion o{ Work done, power for Froncis Turbine 6.16
6.7.3 Efficiencies of Reoction Turbine
6. r8
5.8 Conslruction ond Working principle of Koplon Turbine
6.19
6.9 Difference belween lmpulse ond Reoction Turbines
6.21
6.r0 Difference between Froncis Turbine ond Koplon Turbine
6.21
6.1 1 Droft Tubes - Types ond Construclion
6.22
6.1 I .l Functions of Droft Tube
6.22
6.'l I.2 Types of Droft Tubes
6.22
6.12 Concepl of Covilolion in Turbines
6.23
6.13 Comporison of Pellon Wheel ond Froncis Turbine
6.24
6.14 Governing of o Pehon Wheel Turbine
6.2s
6.r5 Specific Speed
6.27
6.16 Performonce oi Turbine
6.27
6.1 6. 1 Signi{iconce o{ Unit Quontities
o lmportont Poinls 6.29
6.48
o Proclice Queslions
6.49
. MSBTE Questions ond Answers
6.50
7.L *7,42
7. CENTRIFUGALPUMPS
7.1 lnlroduclion 7.2
7.2 Working oi Principle of o Cenlrifugol Pump 7.2
7.3 Moin Componenls of o Centrifugol Pump 7.3
7.3.'l Construction of Cenirifugol Pumps 7.7
7.7
7.4 Priming of o Centri{ugol PumP
Covitolion in o Cenlrifugol PumP 7.8
Work Done by lmpeller o{ o Centrifugol Pump on Woler 7.9
7.6
.11
De{initions ol Heods ond Efficiencies of o Centri{ugol Pump 7
7.13
7.8 Nei Posilive Suction Heod (NPSH)
7.9 Performonce Chorocleristic o{ Cenlrifugol Pumps 7.14
7.9.1 Moin Chorocterislics 7 .14
7.9.2 Operoiing or Conslont Speed Chorocteristics 7 .15
7.10 Trouble Shooling ond Remedies in Centrifugol Pumps 7.16
7.17
7 .11 Conslruction, Working ond Applicotions of Multisioge
Pumps
7.11.1 Mullistoge Centrifugol Pumps in Porollel 7.17
7.'l I.2 Multistoge Centri{ugol Pumps in Series 7.18
7.12 Advontoges of o Centrifugol PumP 7.18
7.13 Applicotions of Centrifugol Pumps 7.19
7 .14 Jet Pump
7.19
7 .15 Submercible Pump 7.20
. lmportont Points 7.21
. Proclice Questions 7.38
8. RECIPRO€ATING PUMPS 8.1 -

8.1 lntroduclion 8.2
8.2 Conslruclion, Principle of Working of o Single-Acling Reciprocoling Pump 8.2
8.3 Consiruclion ond Working Principle o{ o Double-Acting Reciprocoiing Pump 8.4
8.4 Concepl oI Slip, Negotive SliP
8.5 Work Done by o Reciprocoting PumP 8.5
8.5. 1
Single-Acting Reciprocoting Pump 8.5
8.5.2 Double-Aciing Reciprocoling Pump 8.6
8.6 lndicolor Diogrom for Reciprocoling Pump 8.6
a1
8.6.1 Effect of Accelerotion Heod on Pressure Voriotion
8.6.2 Effecl o{ Friction in PiPes 8.1I
8.7 Covilolion ond Seporolion in Reciprocoting Pump 8.12
8.8 Use of Air Vessel 8.',I3
8.9 Comporison between Centrifugol Pump ond Reciprocoting Pump 8.',l6
8.1 5
8.r0 Applicotions of Reciprocoting Pumps
. lmporlont Poinls 8.21
o Proctice Queslions 8.22
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 1-15 Properties of Fluid
Winter 2OO9
1. Determine specilic gravity ol a lluid viscosity 0.005 N-s/m'z and kinematic v iscositv
Ans.
0.035 x 10r m'zlsec. rdl
Reler Ex. 1.14.
2.
Ans.
Deline NeMonian and Non-NeMonian ,luid with one example each.
Please reler Article 1 .3.
ffi
Summer 201O
1.
Ans.
Deline surlace tension.
Please refer to Article 1.6.
N]
2. The density ol liquid is 3000 kg/m3 Calculate specitic gravity and specific weiqht of
liquid. lEn
Ans. Please rerer Ex. 1 .15.
Winter 20'l O
't.
State Newton's law of viscosity ? [f,[[
Ans. Please refer Article 1.5.
2. Find the Kinematic viscosity ol an qil having density 980 kg/m3 when at a certain point in
the oil. the shear stress is 0'.25 Nlm2 and veiocity grhdient 0i.3is. ffi
Ans. Reler Ex. '1.16.
Summer 2011
't.
Ans.
Define specilic volume. State its Sl unit m
2.
Ans.
Please refer to Article 1.4.3.
Explain the concept of vapour pressure
m
Winter 2O1l
1 Def ine the tollowing terms:
(i) Specif ic Weight ro
(ii) Specilic Gravity
(iii) Surlace tension
Ans. (i) Specilic Weight: Please reler to Article .4.2.
1
(ii) Specilic Gravity: Please reler to Article 1.4.4.
(iii) Surlace tension: Please refer to Article 1.6.
2. Detine the terms:
(i) Kinematic viscosity (ii) Dynamic viscosity
ro
Ans. (i) Kinematic viscosity: Please refer to Article '1 .5.2
(ii) Dynamic viscosity: Please refer to Article 1.5.1.
3. Detine the lollowing terms:
(i) Vapour Pressure (ii) Compressibility
m
Ans. (i) Vapour Pressure: Please reler to Article 1.9.
(ii) Compressibility: Please refer to Arlicle 1.8.
Summer 2O'12
1 Deline :
1 . Specilic volume 2. Compressibility
m
Ans. 1. Specific volume: Please reter to Article 1 .4.3
2. Compressibility: Please reler to Article 1.8.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 'l - 16 Properli€s ol Fluld
2. Explain: @
1. Surlace tension 2. Vapour pressure
Ans. 1. Surface tension: Please reler lo Article 1.6.
2. Vapour pressure: Please refer to Article '1.9.
3. At a cartain ooint in caslor oil lhe shear stress is 0.216 N/m2 and the velocitv oradient
0.2'16 s-'. lf mass density ot castor oil is 959.42 kg/m3, find the kinematic viscosftyl @
Ans. '' VelocitV gradient

S = 0.3 per sec. = 0.3 s-l
Shear stress r = 0.216 N/mz
Mass density P = 959.42 kg/m3
Now, Dynamic viscosiry, u = a#t = *., S@
= 1 N-sec/m2
Kinematic viscosity T E
= p
. ^t= #i,
.'. t = 0.00104296 mzlsec.
Winter 2O12
1.
Ans.
Deline kinematic viscos y. State its units.
Please reler Article 1.5.2.
ml
2.
Ans.
Explain the concept ol vapour pressure?
Please reler Article 'l .9.
@
Summer 20'13
1.
Ans,
Define density and specilic gravity.
Please reler Article 1.4.1 and Article .4.4.
m
2.
Ans. Please reler Article 1.6 and Article 1.7.
1
Ditlerentiate between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity. State their units m
3. Explain the phenomenon of surface tension and capillarity?
.1.6 run
Ans. Please reler Article and Article 1.7.
Winter 2013
1. Deline specific gravity of fluid and write its standard value lor water. ro
Ans. Please reler Article 1.4.4.
2. Explain dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity. Write relalion between them. mn
Ans. Please reler Article 1.5.1 and 1.5.2.
3. Explain the phenomenon of 'capillary rise' and write its equation lor capillary rise of
liquid. m
Summer 20'14
1. Define the term absolute dynamic and kinematic viscosity. State CGS unit lor above
viscosities. @
Ans. Please refer Article 1.5.1 and 1.5.? respectively.
TT-T]
?/,n@,r, I
Properties of Fluid
I 1 lntroduction
I 2
1 3 Types of Fluids
-lrF,iFFr-
Functions of Hydroulic Fluid
I 4 Properties of Fluid
I .4.'l Moss Density (Specific Moss)
I .4.2 Speci{ic Weight (Weight Density)
1 .4.3 Specific Volume
'l
.4.4 Specific Grovity (Relolive Density)
1.5 Viscosity
I.5.1 Dynomic Viscosity
1 .5.2 Kinemoiic Viscosity
1 .5.3 Viscosity lndex (V)
1.6 Surfoce Tension (o)

1.7 Copillority
1.8 Compressibilily
'1.9
Vopour Pressure
1.10 Oxidotion Stobility (Chemicol Stobility)
l.t1 Neulrolisotion Number (Totol Acid Number)
1.12 Flosh Point
I .13 Pour Poinl
t.l4 Fooming
t.t 5 Lubricity (Lubricoting volue)
. Solved Exomples
. lmporlonl Poinls
o MSBTE Queslions ond Answers
About this Chapter

After coreful sludy of this chopter, lhe students will be oble to underslond concept of
Functions of Fluids, Types of Fluid, Fluid Properties - Density, Specific arovity, Specific
Volume, Weighi, Viscosity, Surfoce Tension, Copillority, Vopour Pressure,
Compressibility.
(1 - 1)
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 1-2 Properties ot Fluid
1.{ lntroduction
The knowledge which deals with the study of forces and behaviour of fluids or
liquids is called as Fluid Mechanics.
Hydrostatic: It deals with the pressure exerted and behaviour of fluids at rest.
For example, fluid stored in a tank.
Hydrokinematic: It deals with behaviour of fluids in motion.
Hydrodynamic: It deals with the relationship between velocity and acceleration
of a fluid and the force exerted by or on the fluid. For example, pump discharge.
The most important matter in the hydraulic system is the working fluid. The
performance and life of the equipments in hydraulic system depends on hydraulic
fluid characteristics.
1.2 Functions of hydraulic fluid

The main functions of hydraulic fluid are:
(i) It is a means of transmission of fluid power. Fluid with low compressibility is
needed to transmit the force applied at one point within the system to some
other location as efficiently as possible.
(ii) It also provides a means of lubrication of moving parts. (For example,
sliding surfaces in cylinder. valves, bearing, pumps).
(iii) It must carry away the heat caused by friction and must also protect the
surfaces contact from rusting.
(iv) It should act as a sealant to seal the close clearances between mating parts.
The selection of proper hydraulic fluid is important as it has direct bearing on the
efflciency of hydraulic system, cost of maintenance and service life of components.
To accomplish the above functions, a hydraulic fluid should have the following
properties:
(i) It should have ideal viscosity.
(ii) It should have large bulk modulus.
(iii) It should have low density.
(iv) It should be non-volatile.
(v) It should have good heat transfer ability.
(vi) It should provide good lubricity.
(vii) It
should not emulsify with water.
(viii) should not deteriorate the gasket and packing material.
It
(ix) It should retain its original properties through hard usage and must not
deteriorate chemically.
(x) It should be inexpensive and readily available.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 't-3 Propertles o, Fluid
{.3 Typcs of Fluids

A substance capable of flowing is known as fluid.
The fluids may be liquids or gases. Water, oil. chemicals are the examples of
liquids. Air, COr, hydrogen etc. are the examples of gases.
The fluids may be classified as Ideal fluids, Real fluids.
1. Ideal Fluid: A fluid which does not possess viscosity, surface tension,
compressibility is called as ideal fluid. It is an imaginary fluid and it does not
exist in nature.
2. Real Fluid: A fluid which possesses viscosity, surface tension, compressibility
is called as real fluid. All the fluids are real fluids.
3. Newtonian Fluid: A fluid in which the shear stress is direcfly proportional to
rate of shear strain is known as Newtonian fluid, Examplei water, diesel,
kerosene, air etc.
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid: A fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional
to the rate of shear strain is known as Non-Newtonian fluid. Examplei sewage
sludge, colloidal solutions, clay, milk, blood paints, bitumen etc.
1.4 Properties of Fluid

1.4.{ Mass Densi S cific Mass
The mass per unit volume of the liquid at standard temperature and pressure is
called as mass density. It is denoted by p and its unit is kglm3.
Mass of fluid
p
Volume of flu id
The mass density of water is 1000 k9lm3
{.4.2 Specific We ht (w ht Density
The weight of the liquid per unit vol ume of liquid at standard temperature and
pressure is called as specific weight.
It is denoted by w.
w=p.g
Its unit is N/m3.
The specific weight of pure water is 9810 N/m3
1.4.3 Specific Volume
It is defined as the volume of fluid per unit mass of a fluid is called as s pecific
volume.
Volume of fluid
Specific volume
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid
Volume of fluid
1
p
It is a reciprocal of mass density. Its unit is m37kg. vn

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 'I .4 Properties ot Fluid
1.4.4 S c Gravi Relative Density

The ratio of specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of pure water at a
standard temperature and pressure is called as specific gravity. It is denoted by s.
It is a dimensionless quantity.
.- - Specific weiqht of the liquid
Specific weight of Pure water
pure water at 4oc is a standard liquid. For pure water, the specific aravity is one.
The specific gravity of sea water is greater than pure water. For example, for water
S = 1, for mercury, S = 13.6'
{.5 0, s-04,
viscosity of liquid is a measure of resistance to flow of one layer of liquid over the
adjacent layer. It is the measure of its resistance to shear Or angular deformation. It
is due to cohesion between liquid molecules and is exhibited by liquids when it is in
motion. (Refer Fig. 1.1).
All the liquids possess viscosity to some extent. Tar has high viscosity. Petrol is
low viscosity liquid.
(Viscosity of heavy oil > Water > Hg)
Fluid layer A
---------|l
dy ity profile
Fluid layer B
F.1.1: Shearin Acti on of Fluid Between Parallel Plates

According to Newton's taw of viscosity, the shear stress on the liquid is
directly proportional to the rate of strain.

... Shear stress * Rate of strain
.., ,*4dy
dv
dy = Rate of strain (velocity gradient)
dv
1 I dy
where, I Coefficient of viscosity (dynamic viscosity)

Fluld Mechanics & Machlnery 1.5 Propenles of Fluid
{.5.{ Dynamic Viscosity lw-11, w-13, S-14

Dynamic viscosity (p) is defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate
of angu lar deformation.
I
p
dv/dv
where, f = Shear stress
Its unit is N.s/m2, Poise.
l poise = 1
firu.s/m,
1.5.2 Kinematic Viscosityr ls-05, w-l1, w-13
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the mass
density of the liquid.
Kinematic viscosity, v = u
p
Its unit is m2lsec, stoke. stoke = 0.1 x 10-3 m2lsec,

1
For water, Dynamic viscosity = 1.75 x 1O-3 N-s/m2 at OoC
Kinematic viscosity = 1.75 x 1O 5 m2ls

1.5.3 Viscosity lndex (Vl)
The rate of change of viscosity of oil with the change in temperature is called as
viscosity index, A low V.I. indicates that a large change in viscosity with
temperature. A low V.I. indicates that a small viscosity with temperature. Higher
V.I. is desirable.
1.6 Surface Tension (o) ls-l0, 12, w- 11I

The property of the liquid which enables it to resist tensile stresses is called as
surface tension. It is due to cohesion between the molecules at the surface of the
liquid.
Cohesion: The property of liquid due to which the molecules.of same kind are
attracted to each other is known as cohesion. Due to this the liquid is able to
withstand slight amount of tension. For example. Mercury on solid surface will not
wet and stick to solid surface but if two drops of mercury are brought in contact, will
get united.
Adhesion: It is the property of liquid due to which its molecules are attracted by
the molecules of another liquid or by molecules of solid. For example, water wets a
solid su rface.
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 1-6 Propenbs ol Fluid
Unit of surface tension is N/m.

For water, o =
0.073 N/m at 20oC
For mercury, 6, =
4.5 N/m.
Examples of Surface Tension3 Leaf or Needle floats on water surface, soap
bubbles. Droplet of water remains spherical.
Surface tension on liquid droplet,
pq
o N/m
4
where, p = Intensity of pressure in droplet in N/m2
Surface tension on hollow bubble,
PE .. N/m
8
where, d Diameter of droplet in m
{.7 Gapillarity , $12,

If a thin tube is dipped in a liquid, then the liquid will rise or fall in the tube. This
phenomenon is known as capillarity. It is due to both cohesion and adhesion.
(Refer Fig. 1.2 ).
If adhesion of liquid is more than cohesion, the liquid will rise in the tube with
upward concave surface. For example, water. If the cohesion of liquid is greater than
adhesion, the liquid level drops in the tube with upward convex surface.
For example, mercury.
-l d
l.- o
=-
I
Water Hg
--
(a) Capillary Rise (b) Capillary Depression

(Adhesion > Cohesion) (cohesion > Adhesion)
Fi. t.2
where, h= Capillary rise or capillary depression in m
o= Surface tension in N/m
d= Diameter of tube in m
o= Angle of contact
Specific weight of liquid in N/m3
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 1-7 Properties ol Fluid
For equilibrium,
Weight of liquid in column of height'h' acting downward
= Force exerted by vertical component of
surface tension.
It .)
J d' hw = rdocosa
40 cos a
h
wd
For clean glass tube and water,

c= 0
4o
h
wd
1.8 Compressability IS-12, W- 11I

Due to variation in pressure on the liquid, if there is change in density of liquid,
then the liquid is called as compressible. But in actual practice, the change in density
of liquid is negligible. Hence, the liquid is said to be practically incompressible.
The compressibility is measured by its bulk modulus of elasticity (K) which is
defined as the compressive stress on the liquid per unit volumetric strain.
For water, K = 2.O7 x 106 kN/m2
1.9 Vapour Pressure ls-12, s-l1, W- 111
A liquid kept in closed vessel evapourates even at room temperature and this
vapour occupies the space above the liquid surface. The pressure exerted by the
vapour formed on the surface of the liquid is called as vapour pressure.It increases
with rise in tem perature.
When vapour pressure is equal to pressure above the liquid. boiling will occur.
Boiling of liquid can be made to occur at a temperature well below the boiling point
at atmospheric pressure by reducing the pressure. Mercury provides low vapour
pressure and high density and hence used in Barometer. The vapour pressure of
water at 2O"C is 2340 N/m'?.
{.tO Oxidation Stability (Chemica! Stability}

It is the ability of oil to resist oxidation. The oxidation is the contamination of the
oil with dirt, dust, metal particles. hydrocarbon and oxygen in air results in an
increased viscosity and gumming. Due to this the oil deteriorates. The resistance to
the deterioration of the oil is called as oxidation stability. It can be increased by
addition of certain additives in many hydraulic oils - to inhibit oxidation.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 1-8 Properties ol Fluid
{.1{ Neutralisation umber (Total Acid Number}

Due to contamination of oil, the oil becomes acidic. But the oil should be neutral
while in use. The number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to
neutralize one gram of oil is called as neutralisation number.
{.12 Flash Point

Itis the temperature at which the liquid gives off vapour in suFficient quantity to
ignite momentarily or flash when the flame is applied. A high flash point is desired as
it indicates good resistance to combustion. If the flash point falls below 180'C, the oil
is d ra ined off.
t.l3 Pour Point

It is the lowest temperature at which the oil will flow. It should be at least 20oF.
It is important in cold weather.
{.{4 Foaming
Foaming is the formation of bubbles on the surface of an oil due to entrapment of
air while returning to the reservoir. This foam formation can be reduced by adding
foam depressant additives. The prevention to formation of bubbles is known as foam
resistance.
1.1 5 Lubrieity (Lubricating

It is the ability of hydraulic oil to lubricate the mating parts or to maintain a film
of oil between the closely fitted working parts so as to prevent wear and direct
,netal-to-metal contact. For example, pump-vanes, rings, rod, bearings, valve spools
etc.
Solved Examples
Ex. 1.1: Find the surface tension in a liquid drop of 40 mm diameter when the
inside pressure is i N/m2 above the atmospheric pressure,
Sol.: Let, d = Diameter of droplet = 40 x 10-3 m
P = Pressure in excess of outside the drop
= 3 N/m'z
Surface tension on droplet =" =+

3x40x103
4
0.03 N/m
o 3 N/cm
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 1-9 Properties of Fluid
Ex. 1.2: Calculate the diameter of water droplet, if the pressure inside the
droplet is 400 N/m2 above the atmospheric pressure,
Take surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073 N/m.
Sol.: Let. p = Intensity of pressure inside the droplet
= 400 N/m'z
d = Diameter of droplet
o = Surface tension of water
= 0.073 N/m
pd
6
4
4a 4 x 0.073
d
p 400 0.73 x 10-3 m
d= 0.73 mm
Ex, 1.33 A capillary tube of 3 mm inside diameter is dipped in water. If the angle
of contact a is 20o, determine the rise of water in the capillary tube. Take surface
tension of water as 0,0730 N/m.
Sol.i Capillary rise,
4o cos c
h
wd
4 x 0.0730 x cos 20o
h - 9810 x 0.003
=
0.01398 m
= 13.98 mm
h
Ex, 1,4! A capillary tube of glass of 2 mm diameter is dipped in mercury. If the
angle of contact d is 730o, determine the capillary rise. Take sufface tension of
mercury as 0,50 N/m,
Sol.: d = Diameter of tube = 2 mm = 2x 10-3 m
o = Surface tension = 0.50 N/m
o= 1300
40 cos d
Capillary rise, h
wd
where w = Specific weight of mercury
= 13.6 x 9810
= 1.33,416 N/m3
4 x 0.50 x cos 1300
... h=
1,33,416x2x10-3
-4.82x103m
... h= - 4.82 mm
lNegative sign indicates the depressionl.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 'l - '10 Properlies ol Fluid
Ex. 1.5: Find the specific gravity of fluid flowing through a pipe having viscosity
0.04 Poise and kinematic viscosity 0,036 stoke.
Sol.r .. Dynamic viscosity, p = 0.04 Poise
= #=o'oo4N-sec/m2
o
and kinematic viscosity, 0.036 stoke = 0.036 ' 10 m2lsec.
u
Kinematic viscosity, p
0,036 x 10 -r0
004
p
p= 0.11 x 104 kg/m3

Specific weight, w = pg = 0.11 x104x9.81
Speclfic weight of fluid, w= 1.089 x 104 N/m3
Specific weiqht of fluid 1.089 x 104
speclrlc 9ravlty = specifrc r,eirht of p,rre water
-
= 9810
Specific g ravity of fluid = 1.11
Ex. 1.6: Convert pressure head 22 m of water in terms of liquid with specific
gravity 0.9.
Sol': p
Specific weight of liquid = 0.9 x 9810 = 8:129 N/m3

p
pr = 9810 x 22
= 215820 N/m'z
Intensity of pressure = 215820 = w1 .h
hlquu =Pw = 24.45m
Ex. 1.7: Find specific gravity of liquid if its rise in the piezometer is 50 cm for a
pressure of 4100 N/m'?. MEEI
Sol.: P=w h
Specific weight of liquid, w = fr =.J# =82ooN/m3
Sp ecific weiqht of liouid
Specific gravity of liquid Specific weight of water
8200
9810
Specific gravity = o.a3 59
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 1 - 11 Properlles ot Fluid
Ex. 1.8: A liquid at 2OC has a relative density of 0,80 and kinematic viscosity of
2,3 centistoke. Determine its unit weight and dynamic viscosity. Take p*.t* at 2eC
as 998 kg/m3.
Sol.: Relative density = 8.8, v = 2.3 centistoke, pwat€r at 20oC = 998 kg/m3.
(i) Unitweight, w = p.S = (pwarer x Relative density) xg
p*utu. at 2OoC is 998 kglm3
... w = 998x0.8x9.81
= 7832.3 N/m3
= 7.832 kN/m3
(ii) Dynamic viscosity, p = vp
v = 2.3 centistoke = 2.3 x 10-6 m2ls
p = 998 x 0.8 = 798,4 kg/m3
p = 2.3 x 10 5x 798.4 = 1.836x 1O-3 Pa.s
Ex. 1,9: The density of liquid is 2gOO kg/m3 . Calculate (i) Relative density,
(ii) Specific weight of the liquid. Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Sol.: Density of liquid = 2900 k9/m3.
Density of water = 1000 kglm3.
Density of liouid 2900
(i) Relative density = Density of standard liquid (water) = tooo = t''
( ii) Specific weight = w = pxg
2900 x 9.81
28449 Nlm3
Ex. 1.10: One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight and
density. @
Weioht of oil _ 9.6
Sol.: Specific weight of crude oil _
- Volume of oil - 0.001
1 m3 = litres
1000 .. 1 litre = 0.001 m3
Specific weight of oil = 9600 N/m3.
Specific weight = p.g
Density of oil =
**+* = H? = e78'se kslm3
Ex. 1.11: Find the specific gravity of an oil whose specific weight is 7.85 kN/m3.
@
Sol.: Sp. Wt. of oil = 7.85 kN/m3 = 7850 N/m3
and Sp. wt. of water = 9810 N/m3
Sp. Wt. of Oil 7850
Sp. Gr. of Oil = Sp. Wt. of Water - 9810
Sp. Gr. of Oil = 0.8
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 1-12 Propertles ol Fluid
Ex. 1.12: Calculate specific weight and density of one litre liquid which weighs
7 newtons. sp!!![
Weiqht of liq u id
Sol.: .. Specific weight liquid = Volume of oil
7
- 0.001
lit. = 0.001 m3
1
Sp. Wt. of Liquid of = 7000 N
But specific weight = w = p.g
Sp ecific weiqht
Density of liquid p = g
7000
- 9.81
Density of liquid = p = 7L3,56 kg/fi2
Ex. 1.13: Convert 30 cm of oil column in N/mm2. Take specific gravity of oit is
1.2. @
Sol,: P=w h
w = Specific weight of oil = Specific Aravity x Specific weight of water
w = 1.2 x9810
= 1t772 N/m2
h = Pressure head of oil column
=30cm=0.30m
P = 3531.5 N/m2
Ex. 1,14: Determine specific gravity of a fluid viscosity 0,005 N-s/m'z and
kinematic viscosity 0.035 x 10 ' m'/sec, Mp@[
E,
Sol.: Kinematic viscosity T = p
p 0.005
Mass density of fluid p = ^t P = o-o5s;10=
1 428.57 kglm3
specific weisht of liquid w
I lirru, ,. ,.r,'
w =
14014.28 N
Sp ecific weiqht of fluid
Specific gravity = Specific weight of pure water
L40L4.28
9810
Specific A ravity = 1.4285
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 1- 13 Propertles ot Fluid
Ex. 1.15: The density of liquid is i000 kg/m3. Catculate specific Aravity and
specific weight of liquid. @
Sol.: . Density of liquid p = 3000 k9lm3
.. Specific weight w = p.g = 3000x9.81
w = 29430 N/m3
_ Specific weiqht of liquid 29430
... - Specific weight of pure water _- 9810
Specific gravity of liquid
Sp. Gravity of liquid =l
Ex. 1.16: Find the Kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 980 kg/m3 when at
a certain point in the oil, the shear stress is 0.25 N/m2 and velocity gradient 0. J1g-
sol,: civen : Velocity gradient, !) = o.: l, @
,n""t"T:i?,
h?i_ii[:
J
Now, Dynamic viscosity, t, == frdy = t= = 0.83 N-s/m'z
0.83
Kinematic viscosity, v = u
p - 980
8 4693x104m2/s
o 084693x106m2/s
tmporta Poin
> Fluid mechanics is defined as the branch ol science which deals with behavior of the
lluids at rest or in motion.
> Hydraulic lluid is the lifeblood of a hydraulic power system.
> Fluid are classilied as ldeal lluid, Real tluid, NeMonian fluid, Non-Newtonian fluid.
> The mass per unit volume of lluid is called as mass density.
> Specific volume is the reciprocal ol mass density.
> NeMon's law of viscosity states that shear stress on fluid is directly proportional to shear
strain.
> Dynamic viscosity is given by
- ---L
p= dv/dy
> Kinematic viscosity is given by v !.
= p
> Poise is unit of dynamic viscosity. (1 Poise = 0.1 N-sec./m2)

> Stoke is unit of kinematic viscosity (1 Stoke = 0.1 x 10-3 m2lsec.)
> Surlace Tension is expressed in N/m.
Surlace tension on liquid droplet is o = f;.
Surlace tension on hollow droplet is o =
f;.
D Capillary Rise or lall of a liquid is given by =
ffi,
'.,
For clean glass tube and water 0 is taken as equal to zero and for mercury it is taken as
129o.
Fluid Mechanics & MachinerY 1-14 Properties ol Fluid
ractice Ouesfro
1 What are the functions of hydraulic lluid?
2 State the desired properties of hydraulic lluid.
3 Write short notes on:
(a) Viscosity.
(b) Sudace tension.
(c) Capillarity.
4 beline tinematic viscosity, flash point, lubricating value, demulsibility, in case ol
hydraulic fluid.
5 Deline toam resislance, oxidation resistance, vapour pressure, neutralisalion number in
case of hydraulic lluid.
b. State two laws of surface tension.
7. Deline the terms weight density, mass density and specilic gravity.
8. Define viscosity and viscosity index.
9. Define the term pour point.
10 State Newton's law ol viscosity.
1'1 Deline fluid. State the ditference between ideal fluid and real fluid. E@[
't2 Dillerentiate between:
(a) Adhesion and Cohesion.
(b) Dynamic viscosity and Kinematic viscosity.
13 Define Bulk Modulus of Elasticity.
14 State the S.l. units of:
(a) Kinematicviscosity.
(b) Dynamic viscosity.
(c) Surface tension.
't5 btrt" tne meaning of compressible and incompressible lluids. @
16 A capillary tube having internal diameler 6 mm is immersed in a water at 20t. Calculate
the height ol water rise in the capillary. Take angle ol contact as cr = 600 and surface
tension of water in contact with air as 0.073 N/m.
17 ij"iin" Ovn"rni. Viscosiry with its Sl Unit- [f,[l[
BTE Question & Ans
Summer 2oO8
1. One litre ol crude oil weights 9.6 N. Calculate the specific weight and density m
Ans. Please Reler Solved Ex. 1.10
winter 2OOB
Ans.
1. Find the specilic gravity of oil whose specilic weight is 7.85 kN/m3
Please Reler Solved Ex. 1 .1 1.
m
2. What is Newtons law of viscosity? EN
Ans. Please refer Article 1 .5, Page 1.4.
Summer 2009
1. Calculate specilic weight and density o{ one litre liquid which weighs 7 newtons'
Reler Ex. 1.12.
m
Ans.
2. Convert 30 cm of oil column in N/mm'?' Take specific gravity ol oil is 1 2 ml
Ans. Reler Ex. '1.13.
3. Deline dynamic viscosity with its S.l. unit m]
Ans. Please rsfer Article 1.5.1.
V/rnptp, 2
Fluid Pressure and
Pressure Measurement
S.unopsis
2.1 lntroduclion
2.2 Pressure Heod
2.5 Poscol's Low
2.4 Concept of Absolute Vocuum, Gouge Pressure, Almospheric Pressure, Absolule
Pressure
2.4.1 Atmospheric Pressure
2.4.2 Gouge Pressure
2.4.3 Absolule Pressure
2.4.4 Vocuum Pressure
LJ Meosuremenl of Fiuid Pressure
2.5.1 SimpleMonomeiers
2.5.2 Differenliol Monomelers
2.5.3 Mechonicol Gouges
2.6 Concept of Totol Pressure on lmmersed Bodies ond Centre of Pressure
2.7 Totol Pressure ond Centre of Pressure on Horizontolly Submerged plone Surfoce
2.8 Totol Pressure ond Centre of Pressure on Veaicolly Submerged Plone Surfoce
2.9 Tolol Pressure ond Centre of Pressure on on inclined Submerged Surfoce
2.10 Momenl of lnertio of Plone Surfoce
2.11 Differentiole belween Simple Monomeler ond Differentiol Monomeier
. Solved Exomples
o lmporlonl Points
o MSBTE Questions ond Answers
About this Chapter
Aner coreful study of lhis chopter, students will be oble to understond the concept of
Pressure heod, Absolule vocuum, Gouge pressure, Almospheric pressure. Absolute
pressure, Concepl o{ Meosuremenl of Pressure in meler of woler or in N/mz.
Understonding of Pressure Gouge ond Monomerers. Undersrond ihe concept of Totol
Pressure ond Centre of Pressure on immersed bodies in liquid.
(2-1].
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-2 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
2.{ lntroduction ls-12, w-l11
The pressure exerted by a liquid at rest on the surface of the container due to its
weight is called as static pressure (hydrostatic pressure). The direction of pressure is
always normal to the surface on which it acts. The static pressure is the static force
exerted by a liquid at rest per unit area.
Th€ intensity of pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area on
which the force acts.
Thus, intensity of pressure,
p =; F
where, F= Force exerted by a liquid in N
A= Area on which the force acts in m2

The unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pascal or Bar.
1N/m2 = 1Pa
1 bar =
100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
The liquid pressure can also be expressed as height of liquid column i.e. h meters
of liquid column.
2.2 Pressure Head [$12, W-l1, S-05]I

A liquid exerts a pressure due to its own weight' Fig. 2.L shows a vessel
containing a liquid of specific weight w N/m2 at a height h meters.
Consider an elemental cylinder of area da and height h meters.
Then the total pressure of liquid acting on the base of the cylinder cross-sectional
area (da) is equal to the weight of the liquid in the cylinder (dw).
-l o" i.-
Vessel
Liquid -,
ih
Fi , 2,1: Pressure head of li uid

I
Weight of liquid in the cYlinder.
dw = da.hxw ('.' Weight = Volume x Specific weight)
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2.3 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measuremenl
The intensity of pressure on base of cylinder,

dw
p
p
da hxw
da
p=w.h
h
p
where, h is known as pressure head whose unit is in meters of liquid.
Pascal's Law ls-l0, s-osl

The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest has same magnitude in
all directions.
This law states that the pressurized fluid within a closed container.
For example. cylinder, pipe vessel etc. exerts equal forces on all the surfaces of the
conta iner. Refer Fi . 2.2
(a) vessel
(b) Pipe (c) Cylinder

. 2.2: Pascal's Law
Fi ied to Vessel Pi and li nder
All the hydraulic systems depend upon pascal,s law. pascal's law is applied for
construction of hydraulic machines such as hydraulic press, hydraulic jack, hydraulic
crane, hydraulic rivetter, hydraulic lift etc. in which by application of relatively
smaller forces, larger forces are developed.
For example, Fig. 2.3 shows two different size cylinders connected by a pipe and
a liquid is filled in it. A close fitting piston is placed in each cylinder. Assume that
there is no movement of piston and no leakage past each piston and all parts are at
rest.
If force F1 is applied to piston No. l of area 41 then the pressure exerted at
piston No. I will be
P,=L
Ar
since all the parts are at rest, the pressure exerted on piston No. 2 will be equal.
i.e. pz = pr
F1
F2
Piston 2
Piston 1
Cy,inder 1
Area A1 Area A2
Cylinder 2------->
-
Pipe
Fi . 2.3: Force Multi ication As ct of Pascal's Law

L
42
i. A1
Force exerted at piston No. 2

& Fr
A
AsA2>A1, fr t ,
i.e. by application of smaller force F1 at piston No. 1, the higher force F, will be
exerted at piston No. 2.
2.4 Goncept of Absolute Vacuum, Gauge Pressure,

Pretsure, Absolute Pressure 2, S-05, W-08,
2.4.1 Atmos heric Pressure

A blanket of air surrounding the earth's surface is called as atmosphere. The
height of atmosphere above the earth's surface varies from 100 to 1000 kilometers.
At the earth's surface. the pressure due to the weight of air above the earth's surface
is called as atmospheric pressure. It is measured by mercury barometer'
At mean sea-level, under normal conditions, the atmospheric Pressure is equal to
101.325 KN/m2 or 10.33 metre head of water or 760 mm of mercury. The atmos-
pheric pressure varies with the altitude.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm. = 101.325 kN/m'?(KPa)
= 10.33 m head of water
= 760 mm of Hg.
= 1.013 bar
I{ote: 1Pa = 1N/m2, l kPa = 1 kN/m'?, l MPa = 1MN/m2 = 1N/mm2
1 bar = 10s N/m'z = 100 kN/m2 = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
2.4.2 Gauge Pressure ls-12, w-11, S-10, S-141

If the pressure is measured above or below the atmospheric pressure as a
datum, it is called as gauge pressure. If the pressure is measured above the
atmospheric pressure as a datum, it is called as a positive gauge pressure. lf the
pressure is measured below the atmospheric pressure as a datum, it is called as
negative gauge pressure or vacuum pressure.
2.4.3 Absolute Pressure s-10, s-141
If the pressure is measured above the absolute zero (or complete vacuum), then
it is called as absolute pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure t Gauge pressure
2.4.4 Absolute Vacuum
@
Absolute vacuum is the emptiness, or space which contains no form of matter.
A complete or absolute vacuum has never been attained, therefore the term partial
vacuum is used.
The relationship between the atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure and absolute
pressure is shown in Fig. 2.4.
9;
c'i I o
eflc ressure (!
o
101.325 kN/m2
1 or'10.33 m head of water
I > o- 'e
I
o.
q)
I
o-
B ,J -=
o
:;at-
< ao
Absolute zero pressure
Complete vacuum
Fi . 2.4: Relationshi Between Pressures
The devices which measure the pressure of a liquid at any point or differences of
pressures between any two points are known as pressu re gauges.
These devices are classified as:
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical gauges.
Fluid llechanics & Machinery 2-6 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measu.ement
1. lrlanometers!
These devices are used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by same o!'another column of fluid.
Manometers are classified as:
(a) Simple manometers: Piezometer. U-tube manometer, Single column
manometer.
(b) Differentiat manometers: U-tube differential manometer, Inverted U-tube
differential manometer.
2, Mechanical Gauges:
These devices are used for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column
by the spring or dead weight. These pressure gauges are:
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge.
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
(c) Dead weight pressure gauge.
(d) Bellows pressure gauge.
2.5.'! Sim le Manometers
(a) Piezometeri It is a simplest form of manometer used for measuring
moderate pressures of liquid. It measures gauge pressures only.
It is simple glass tube, one end is connected to a point whose pressure is to be
measured and other end is kept open to atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2'5' The rlse of
uid indicates the ressure head at that oint with res ect to atmos heric TESSU TE.
Piezometer
T
I
h
Fi . 2.5: Piezometer
The pressure at point A is given bY
D=w.h .......................... N/m2 ... (2.1)
where. w=
Specific weight of liquid in N/m3
h=
Liquid rise in Piezometer in m
It cannot be used for high pressure measurement'
It cannot be used for measuring vacuum pressures directly'
It cannot be used for measuring pressure of gases'
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-7 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measu,emenl
But if the tube is bent downward and dipped in another liquid in a container as
shown in Fig. 2.6, the negative or vacuum pressure can be measured.
Pressure at B, p = - w.h
Liquid
----- B -----
Fig. 2.6t Vacuum Pressure Measurement by Piezometer Tube

(b)Simple U-tube Manometer: It consists of a thin glass tube of uniform bore
diameter bent into U-shape. Its one end is connected to a point whose pressure is to
be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig, 2,7,
: xa-
h2 h
1
h
1
Light liquid h
2
sp. gr.
I LB s1
- -.8
Mercury
sp. gr. s2
(a) For Gauge Pressure (b) For Negative Pressure

Fig. 2.71 Simple U-tube Manometer
The U-tube contains the manometric liquid whose specific gravity should be
greater than the specific gravity of liquid to be measured. (Mercury of specific gravity
13.6 is used). Different liquid used in manometer for measuring pressure is called
manometric liquid.
Let
hr = Height of liquid in the left limb above datum AB.
hz = Height of heavy liquid in the right limb above AB.
h = Pressure head at point X in terms of metres of water.
s1 = Specific gravity of light liquid.
sz = Specific Aravity of heavy liquid.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-8 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Moasuremenl
By Pascal's law, pressure at left and right limb at datum AB must be same.
(i) For gauge pressure lFig.2,7 (a)),
Pressure in left limb above AB = Pressure in right limb above AB
h + s, h, = s2h, (All pressure heads are in terms of head of water')
h = (s2h2 - slhr) m of water ... (2.2)
(ii) For negative pressure IFig.2.7 (b)].

h + s,h, + s2h2 = 0 (as there is no liquid above AB)
h = - (s h +s h ) m of water (2.3)
(c) Single Column Manometer (l'l icromanometer): It is a modified form of

u-tube manometer. A reservoir having a larger cross-sectional area is connected to
one end of limb of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2.8. Due to large cross-sectional
area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure. the change in the liquid level in
the reservoir will be very small and is negligible. Therefore the pressure is given by
the height of liquid in the right limb.
There are two types of single column manometers:
1. Vertical singie column manometer
2. Inclined single column manometer
1. Vertical Single Column Manometer: M
Fig. 2.8 shows vertical single column manometer connected to a pipe containing
light liquid under higher pressure. The pressure of liquid in a pipe forces the heavy
liquid downwards in the reservoir. Due to larger area of reservoir, the fall of heavy
liquid level will be very small. This downward movement of heavy liquid in the
reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid in the right limb.
Let, hr = Height of light liquid in left limb above the datum AB'
hz = Height of heavy liquid in right limb above the datum AB'
h= Pressure head of light liquid in a pipe'
sl and s2 = Specific Aravities of light liquid in a pipe and heavy liquid in
right limb.
Ah = Fall of heavy liquid level in the reservoir'
The pressure at point'X' in a pipe is given by,
a h-
(s2-s1) + srh,-s,h, ' (2'4')
h=?
where, a = Cross-sectional area of right limb
A = Cross-sectional area of reservoir
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
But, area A is too large as compared to area 'a'. Hence the ratio i is negligible.
h = srhr-srhr (2. s)
It is used for measuring low pressures with a great accuracy

1t=
Liquid
Pipe x
h
2
- -'-c D
.\h 1
<-- Manometric
Reservoir liquid
Fi . 2.8: Vertical Si le Column Manometer Micromanometer

2, tnclined Single Column Manometer:
Fig. 2,9 shows inclined single column manometer. It is more sensitive than
vertical column manometer. The distance moved by heavy liquid in the right limb will
be more due to inclination.
Liquid
Pipe
-_:.X1 --
h2
h
1
_l- B
C
'\h T
t)
Reservoir
2.9: Inclined Si le Column Manometer

Fi .
Let, / = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from datum AB.
e = Angle made by single column with horizontal, generally 30'
hz = Vertical height of heavy liquid from datum AB.
From geometry, we get.
hz = / sin o
.'. Pressure head in a pipe at X is given by,
h = /.sin0xsrrh1 .s1
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-10 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measuaemenl
2.5.2 Ditlerentia! Manometers

(a) Differential U-tube Manometerr It is used for measuring the difference of
@
pressures between any two points in a pipe or in two different Pipes. It consists of a
glass U-tube containing heavy liquid. The two ends of U-tube are connected at a
point whose pressure difference is to be found out.
A differential manometer is shown in Fig. 2.10.
--: a1 a
h, ha
h h
2
-- B B
.__ Manometric liquid _______________r
(a) Points a and b at (b) Points a and b at Different Levels

Same Level Having same Liquid Having Different Liquids
. 2.10: Differential U-Tube Manometer
Consider a manometer as shown in Fig. 2.10 (a). Assume that the pressure at
point 'a' is greater than at point 'b', then the greater pressure at 'a' will force the
heavy liquid in U-tube to move downwards, so that heavy liquid will rise in the right
limb.
Let, h = Difference of levels of heavy liquid in right limb and left limb.
sr = Speciflc Aravity of liquid in the pipes.
sz = Specific aravity of heavy liquid.
Since the pressures in right limb and left limb above the datum line AB are equal,
... Difference of pressures in two points a and b is
(h. - h") = h(sr -sr) m head of water (2.6)
Similarly, when points a and b are at different levels. as shown in Fig, 2.10 (b),
the pressures in right limb and left limb above datum are equal.
Let, hr and h3 = Heights of liquid in left and right limb.
hz = Difference of heavy liquid in left and right limb.
ha and hb = Pressures in pipes a and b respectively.
s1 and s3 = Specific gravity of liquids in pipes a and b respectively'
s2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery -t-l
2- Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurcment
Then, pressure in left limb above datum = pressure in right limb above datum
th" .r-srhr) = (srh, + srh, + ho)
(h. - ho) = (s2h2 + s3h3 - s, h, ) (2.7)
(b)Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer: It consists of an inverted U-tube
containing a light liquid. It ts made of glass. It is used for measuring the difference of
low pressure between two points; where accuracy is important. The two ends of
U-tube are connected to the point whose difference of pressures is to be measured
as shown in Fig. 2.11. Light liquid is used as manometric iiquid; because it may be
down anci flow in low pressure pipe.
Lisht liquid (S")

--B
h
2
h, h.
Fi .2.11: Inverted U-Tuhe Manometer

Let,
h1 = Height of liquid in left limb below datum AB.
hz = Difference of levels of the light liquid in right limb and left limb.
h: = Height of liquid in right limb below datum AB.
h" = Pressure head in pipe a.
hu = Pressure head in pipe b,
sz = Specific gravity of light liquid.
s1, s3 = Specific gravity of liquid in left limb and right limb respectively.
Since the pressures in the left limb and right limb are equal,
Pressure in left limb _ pressure in right limb
below datum - below datum
(ha - srhl) = ho -srh, - srh,
(h -h =(s h h -s h ) .. (2.8)
Fluld Mechanics & Machlnery 2 -'t2 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
2.5.3 Mechanical Gauges ls-l2, s-11, W-13, W-091
Bourdon's Tube Pressure Gau e
Calibrated scale
R
Link
ivot
Bourdon's tube
N
Tapping point
Pressure inlet
2.12: Bourdon's Pressure Ga e

Fi .
To measure the high pressures and pressures below or above the atmospheric
pressure, this gauge is suitable. Fig. 2.72 shows a Bourdon's tube pressure gauge.
It consists of tube PQR, bend into an arc of a circle. The cross-section of tube PQR is
elliptical. This tube is called as Bourdon's fube. when the gauge is connected to the
point whose pressure is to be measured, then the fluid rushes in this tube. As the
pressure is increased, the Bourdon's tube tends to straighten due to elliptical shape.
This causes the free end of the tube to move. With the help of pinion and sector
arrangement, the movement of end of the tube rotates the pointer. The pointer
moves over a calibrated scale, which directly indicates the pressure in terms of N/m2
or m head of mercury.
It is used for measurement of pressure in boiiers, condensers, hydraulic systems,
pneumatic systems etc.
2,6 Concept of Total Pressure on lmnrrersed Bodies and

Centre 6f Prassure s-11, s-09, w-1 1 w-10, w-09, s-'l
Total Pressure: The total pressure of the liquid on an immersed surface is
defined as the force exerted by the liquid on the surface in contact with the liquid'
The surface may be Plane or curved.
if the surface is divided into number of segments say L, 2, 3, 4, then
mathematically.
p = p1Al + p2A2+ p3Ar + p4A4 +...
where, P = Total Pressure
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-13 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measuremenl
py p2, p3, Pa ......... = Intensity of pressure on segments 7, 2, 3, 4, ...

respectively
......... = Area of segments l, 2, 3, 4, ... respectively.
A1, 42, A3, A4
Centre of Pressure: A centre of pressure is defined as a point on the immersed
surface at which the total pressure force of the liquid act.
The intensity of pressure acting on the body immersed in the liquid is directly
proportional to its depth, Therefore, the pressure is greater on lower portion of any
immersed surface and hence the resultant of pressure acts at a point below the
centre of gravity of the surface. It is expressed in terms of depth from the liquid
su rfa ce.
2.7 Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure on

Submerged Plane Surface
Consider a horizontal plane surface 'AB' submerged in a liquid as shown in
Fig. 2.13,
where, Cp = Centre of pressure.
G = Centre of gravity of the submerged surface.
i = Depth of centre of gravity of the submerged surface from the
free surface.
h = Depth of centre of pressure from the free surface.
w = Specific weight of liquid (N/m3).
A = Area of the submerged surface.
Here, the depth of centre of pressure is equal to depth of centre of gravity of the
submerged surface from the free surface, as horizontal surface is at constant depth
from the free surface.
i=F
Free surface
F
i F
B
G,C,
F , 2.13: Total Pressure on Hora zonta I Immersed Surface

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2 -'14 Fluid Pressure and Pressure llleasurement
Now, the total pressure F on the submerged surface is given by,

F= Weight of liquid above the submerged surface.
= Specific weight of liquid x Volume of liquid.
= Specific weight of liquid x Area of immersed surface x Depth
of centre of gravity of submerged surface from the free
su rface
Ai . (2.e)
The unit of total pressure is N
2.8 Tota! Pressure and Gentre of Pressure on Vertically

Subrnerged Plane Surface
Consider a vertically submerged plane surface 'AB' in a liquid as shown in
Fig. 2.14, where,
Cp= Centre of pressure acting at a depth 6 below the surface.
Centre of gravity of the submerged surface, at a depth I

G=
below the free surface.
w = Specific weight of liquid (N/m3).
A = Area of the submerged surface.
Consider an elemental area dA on the submerged surface of thickness dx and
width d at a depth x from the free surface.
Free surface
x
dx 6 End point
Cp
,2,L4
The intensity of pressure on this elemental area
= w.x
Pressure force on elemental area
dF = Intensity of Pressure x area
.. (2.10)
dF = w.x.dx dy
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2- 15 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Now, the total pressure on whole submerged area F is given by
F w.x dx dY = 'a J x.dx dy (2.11)
The moment of elemental area dA about the free surface

_- x.dA = x.dx dy
.. Moment of whole submerged area about the free surface
f
= J x.dxdy=ai . (2.12)
Substituting equation (2.12) in equation (2.11),
F = w.Ai
Depth of centre of pressure:
From equation (2.10),
The pressure force on elemental area
dF = w.x.dx.dy
dF = wx dA
Moment of this pressure force about free surface
= w.x.dA x x
= wx2 dA
... Total moment of all such pressure forces about free surface,
u=*J x2 dA (2.13)
But, the moment of inertia of elemental area about free surface

= x'dA
... Moment of inertia of whole submerged surface about the free surface
f
=J x'. dA = Io = second moment of inertia
Substituting in equation (2.13),

M = w.I" .. (2.14)
Now. the total pressure force acts at centre of pressure Ce.
..The sum of moments of pressure is also equal.to F x h. ... (2.1s)

Now. equating equations (2.14) and (2.15),
wlo = FxF
w.I
h= ______-o
F
Fluid Mechanics & tlachinery 2-16 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measuremenl
From equation
F
WI
we get, h
WA;
I
h ___L (2.16)
Ai
According to the law of parallel axis theorem,
2
Ic+AX
where, Is = M.I. of submerged surface about horizontal axis passing
through its centre of gravity.
Substitutlng in equation (2.16),

2
IG+AX
h
Ai
I^
h +i (2.t7)
A.t
It shows that the centre of pressure always lies below the centre of gravity of
submerged surface at a distance L '
Ax
2.9 Totat Fressure and CentrG of Pr€ssure on an lnclined

Submerged Surlace
Consider a plane surface 'AB' submerged in a liquid at an angle 0, with the free
surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. 2.15'
Let, Cp= Centre of pressure acting at a depth h below the free surface'
G= Centre of gravity of submerged surface at a depth i below the
free surface'
w= Specific weight of liquid (N/m3)'
A= Area of the submerged surface.
F= Total pressure force (N).
consider an elemental area dA, thickness dx and width dy at depth x from free
surface and at a distance m from point O as shown in Fig' 2'15'
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 2-17 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Free surface
F
aa""'
e$d
dA
Auxillary view
Fi .2,L5
Intensity of pressure on area dA
= w.x
... Pressure force on elemental area dA
dF = Intensity of pressure x Area
= w,x x dx.dy
.'. Total pressure force on whole submerged surface is given by,
p =./I w.xdx dy
But from Fig. 2.15,
x= msino
f
... F = w.sineJ m.dx.dy (2.18)
Taking moment of elemental area dA about O

= dAxm = m.dx.dy
... Total moment of area of submerged surface
f
= m.dx.dy J
iAi
J m.ox.oY = --;--;' (2.1e)
From equations (2.18) and (2.19), we get
F = w.Ax ... (2.20)

Hence, the total pressures on vertically submerged surface and inclined
submerged surface are equal.
t
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 2- 18 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Depth of centre of pressure:

Total pressure on elemental area dA
dF = w.x dx dy
.1 dF = wmsinodxdy
... dF = w.m sin 0 dA
Taking moment of this pressure about O
= w.msinedAxm
= wm2sinodA
Then sum of moments of all such pressures on whole surface about O is given by,
y =J I
wm2sin0dA
M = wsin0 I m2 dA
B ut, J ^' aa = I" = M.I. of whole surface about 'o'

... M = wsin0.Io .. (2.21)
Also, the sum of moments of all such pressures about'O'
Fh . (2.22)
sin 6
.. Equating equations (2.21) and (2.22), we get,

- sin2o.I-
.. (2.23)
Ai
According to parallel axis theorem,
A12
I
'o - I^cr-+sin'0
where, Ic = M.I. of submerged surface about horizontal axis passing
throug h centre of gravity
Substituting this value in equation (2.23), we get
n=i+ sinz o.IG ...(2.24)

Ai
It shows that the centre of pressure lies below the centre of gravity at a distance
sin2 o. IG
A;
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 2- 19 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
2.{O Moment of lnertia ot Plane Su rface

To find the depth of centre of pressure, we must know the moment of inertia of
lane surfaces about a horizontal axis ssln th rou h its centroid.
Sr, c.G.
No.
Name of the figure from r" I about base Area
base
1
1
T .G x=5h bh3
36
bh3
t2
bh
2
,l
L II
b
-r .G
) h
"3
2h bh3 bh3 bh
36 r2
,l I 2
I !
/
i
{ j
tG
3 !
!
x=ih bh3
bh
bh3
3
bd
I
I
IL
b
12 about z-axis
passing through
7t ,^
4. d x=2d 640 G.G. to lamina
xDz
4
x
r,=*d4
I
?.{ I l}ifferentiate between Simple Manometer and Differentiat

Manorneter
Simple Manometer Differential Manometer
f. it is used to measure +ve or -ve 1. It is used for measuring difference
gauge pressure at a point in a pipe of pressure between two points in a
line. pipeline or in two different pipes.
contd,,,,
2. One end of manometer is oPen to 2. Two ends of tube (manometer) are

atmosphere and other end is connected to the two points whose
connected to gauge point, whose pressure difference is to be
pressure is to be measured. measured.
3. Simple manometer cannot be maCe 3. Differential manometer can be made

inverted type. inverted type.
4. Manometric fluid used is mercury. 4. Manometric fluid used may be heavy
Iiquid or lighter liquid. For example,
Hg, CCI4 having different sPecific
gravities. Liquids lighter than water
may be used.
Solved Examples
Ex. 2.1: Convert the heiqht of water column equivalent to a pressure of
20 N/cm'z .
Sol,: Pressure, P = 20 x 104 N/m2

Specific weight of water,
w = 9810 N/m3
P = wh
''' .rr - -s - ?-Q-Lloo
w- 9810
Ex.2,2: Convert 30 cm of oil column in N/cr,12. Take specific gravitY of oil as 1,2,
Sol,: h = 30 cm = 0.3 m
P=w'h
where w= Specific weight of oil
= 1.2 x 9810
= !L772 N/m3
''' P = ll72xO'3
=
3531.6 N/m2
0.353 N/cm'?
= 2.
Ex. 2.3: Convert 20 m of tiquid column into pressure in N/cm Take specific
gravity of an oil as 1.4'
Sol,: Speciflc weight of liquid,
w = 1.4 x 9810 = 13734 N/m3
h = 20m
P = wxh
"' = = 274680 N/m'z
L3734 x 20
= 27,468 Nlm2
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 2-21 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Ex.2,4i Convert vacuum gauge reading 20 cm of Hg into absolute pressure in

N/cmz .
Sol.: Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Vacuum pressure
= 76 - 20
= 56cmof Hg
= 0.56 m of Hg
Specific weight of Hg = ry = 13.6 x 9810
= 133416 N/m3
But p
= 133416 x 0.56
p = 74713 N/m2
747 t3
I = lO- N/cm'
p = 7,47 N/cm2
Ex. 2.5: Find the pressure of a liquid in a pipe of specific gravity 0,8 as shown in
Fig. 2.16, The manometer contains mercury.
Sol.:
rX--
0.15 m
0.06 m
LB
Fi .2.16
Let, h Pressure of liquid in a pipe in cm of water
hI 0.06m=5cm
h2 0.15 m = 15 cm
s1 0.8 = Specific Aravity of liqurd
s2 13.6 = Specific gravity of manometric liquid
i.e. mercury
Fluld Mechanlcs & Machinery 2-22 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measur€menl

h+sthr = srh,
h= s2h2 - slhr
h= 13.6x15-0.8x6
h= 199.2 cm of water
1.992 m of water
Intensity of pressure, p= w.h
p= 9810 x 1.992 N/m2
19541.5 N/m'z = 19.5 kPa
1.95 N/cm2
Ex. 2.6: Find the vacuum pressure in a pipe containing a liquid of specific gravity
0.9 as shown in Fig. 2.17.
Sol,3 Let, h = Vacuum pressure in a pipe in cm of water
h1 = 0.07m=7cm
h2 = 0.1 m=10cm
Sr = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe'D' = 0.9
s2 = Specific gravity of manometric liquid
= 13.6
:: DC:::
0.07 m
0.1 m
A--- B
Mercury
. 2.t
h + s,hl + s'h' =, filffili#:ij'JJ'fJ)
... h = _srh, _ srh,
= - (srh, + srhr)
= -(0.9x7+13.5x10)
= _(6.3 + 136)
= - 142.3 cm
Vacuum pressure of liquid in PiPe D,
h= 142.3 cm head of water
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 2-23 Fluid Presgure and Paesgu.e Measuremonl
Ex,2.7t A micromanometer is used to measure the pressure in a pipe containing

a liquid of specific gravity 0.85 as shown in Fig. 2,1g. The ratio of area of reservoir to
the area of limb is 40. Find the intensity of pressure in a pipe.
Sol.:
-1 :: Da-:::
t 0.4 m
0.2 m
_l,,-'.-A
B
Mercury
F .2.r8
Let h= pressure in a pipe in terms of head of water
hr=0.2m=20cm
hz= 0.4m=40cm
Ratio of area of reservoir to limb
= 4=
a
+o
sr = Specific Aravity of liquid = 0.85
s, = Specific aravity of manometric liquid = 13.6
Pressure at point D in a pipe is given by,
h= iAU 1s, - s,) + srh, - s,h,

1
= ;5x a0 (13.5 - 0.85) + t3.G x 40 _ 0.8S x 20
= 540 cm of water
= 5,4 m of water
But p= wh
= 9810 x 5.4
Intensity of pressure, p = 52974 N/m2
= 52,97 kpa or S. 29 N/cm2
2-24 Fluid Pressure and Pressule Measurement
Fluid Mechanica &
to measure
Ex.2.8: A U-tube differential manometer containing mercury is used
difference in pressures for two pipes c and D as
shown in Fig' 2'19' Pipe 'c'
the
containscarbontetrachloricleofspecificgravityo,S'Pipe'D'containsoilofspecific
pipes'
gravity 0,g. Find the difference of pressures in two
Sol
h,
'1.5 m
h3
: -.:1D,:
0.5 m
h2
0.6 m
- -B
Mercury
.2.19
Fi
Let, sr = Specific gravity of liquid in plpe C = 0.8

s2 = Speciflc gravity of manometric llquid =
13'6
s3 = Specific gravity of liquid in
pipe D = 0'9
hr = Height of liquid in left limb above datum

= 1.5m=150cm
hz = Height of manometric liquid
= 0.6m=60cm
h: = Height of liquid in right limb
= 0.5m=50cm
h. and ho are the pressures at c and o'
= Pressure in right limb above datum
Pressure in left limb above datum
h + S h s2h2+s3h3+hd
(h. - hd) = szhz*srhr-srh1
= 13'6x 60 + O'9x 50- 0'8x 150
Pressure difference = 741 cm of wate r = 7,41 Ji of water

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-25 Fluid Pressuae and Pressurc Meaguremenl
Ex. 2.9: An inverted l.J-tube manometer containing liquid of specific aravity 0.8 is
connected to two different pipes containing water as shown in Fiq, 2.20. Find the
difference of pressures in two pipes.
Sol.:
Sp.9r.0.8
z--- --z
h,
h
0.3 0.20 m
h2
0.06 m
: -- --:, B
Water ::'
Fi ,2.20
Let hr = 0.3m=30cm
hz = 0.05m=5cm
h: = 0.20m = 20cm
sr=1
sz = 0'8
ss= 1
Let ha and hb are the pressure heads in pipes A and B.
.'. hu - hrs, = hb - h2s2 - h3s3
(ha - hb) = hrsr-hrsr-h.s,
i.e. Difference of pressures in two pipes

= hrSr - hrs, - hrs,
= 30x1-6x0.8-20x 1
= 5.2 cm of water
= O.O52 m head of wat€r
Fluid Mechanica & 2-26 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Ex. 2.1O: A rectangular plate having 4 m depth and 2,5 m width is submerged
vertt:cally in liquid of specific gravity 1.2 as shown in Fig. 2.21. Find the total
pressure and depth of centre of pressure from the free surface.
Sol.:
i a
F 3m
G 4m
C,
]L
tr 2.5 m
Fi .2,2L
Tota I pressure F=wAx
Let, b Width of plate
2.5 m
d Depth of plate
4m
.. Area of plate, A 2.5x4=10m2
and Specific weight of liquid
w 1.2 x 9810
L1772 N/m3
|L.772 kN/m3
Tota I pressure, F wAi
= L1.772 x 10 x 3 = 353.25 kN
Oepth of centre of pressure,
-I^
h=*+x
A'
Ic = M.I. ofthe rectangular plate passing through C.G.
= g= 13'33ma
13.34
"#=
h
10 x 3
+3
h = 3.444 m
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-27 F!uld Pregsure and Paassur€ Mgasurgment
Ex. 2.11: A rectangular tank 3 m x 2 m contains water upto depth of 2 metres,

Calculate the total pressure on base of the tank, M
Sol.:
I_
2m
-.! L
t-
2m f
Fi .2.22
Total pressure on base of the tank,
F=wAi
:. F = 9810x(3x2)x2
ll7720N = 117.72kI{
Ex', 2,12t An equilateral triangular plate of base 3 m and altitude 3 m is
immersed vertically in an oil of specific gravity 0.8 as shown in Fig. 2.23, Determine
the total pressure and depth of centre of pressure ofthe ptate. @
Sol.:
II 3n0 ^t
Free surface
F
oit 3m
.2.23
Total pressure = F=w.Ax
Specific weight of oil = 0.8 x 9810
w = 7848 N/m3
Area of plate = O=ir3x3=4.5m2
Depth of C.G. from free surface =i = { x altitude

I
x = TxJ
x 1m
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 2-28 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measuremenl
= 7848x4.5x1
= 35316 N
= 35.316 kN
Now, depth of centre of pressure (Cr) from the free surface is given by,
n= i+ L
Ai
bd3
I^= 35
where, b= Base of plate
3m
d = Altitude of plate
= 3m
I^
3x33
36
2.25 ma
2.25
h r+45.,,1
h 1.5 m
Ex. 2,133 A vertical circular sluice gate is situated with its centre 3 m below the
water surface. The diameter of the sluice is 1 m. What is the resultant force on the
sluice? Atso find the depth of centre of pressure. @
Sol.:
i=3m
6
-_el
cp
Fi , 2.24
Area of plate, A = x"r,

lt.
= 4m'
Specific weight of water = 9810
w= 9810 N/m3
t= 3m
Total force on the plate = F'= w.A x
9810xf,x3
F 23L02.55N=23.10255kN
Now, depth of centre of pressure Ce is given by,
I^
h = x++
Ax
But, I^ = M.L of plate passing through C.G.
= J-
64-
a+
where d = diameter of plate

lt ,^ 1l
IG = 6-ax r' = 64m'^
7t
h ^ 64 - 0.0490525
ft - 2.5)5
3
41
3,O2O83 m=
ex, 2.14. A rectangular tank 5,5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.5 m deep is full of
water. Find the intensity of pressure on the bottom of tank and the total force on the
side having 3 m width, Also find the depth of centre of pressure from the free surface
on the side having 3 m width. M
Sol.:
1r
'1 .5 t,/ h
c.G.
C,
L
B
5.5 m
Pressure diagram
Fi .2,25
The intensity at the top of the tank i.e. at A
p"--0
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 2.30 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
The intensity of pressure at B (i.e. bottom oftank)

Pt = w'h
where, w= 9810 N/m3
= Specific weight of water
h= Distance of free surface from bottom of tank
= 1.5 m
"' pu = 9810 x 1'5
= 14715 t{/m3
Total force on side AB of tank
F= wAi
where, A= Area of side AB
= 3x1.5=4.5m2
i = Distance of C.G. of side AB from free surface
= 0.75 m
.'. F = 9810x4.5x0.75
= 33108.75 N
F = 33.11 kN
The depth of centre of pressure on the side AB is given by
I^
h = x+s
Ax
where, Ic = M.L of side AB passing through C.G.
=. bd3
12 wnere,
b = Width of plate AB = 3 m
d = Depth of plate AB = 1.5 m
" I" = -f =o'84375ma

0.84 75
h 0.75 + 4.5 x 1.5
h= 0.875 m
Ex. 2.15: Find the total pressure and its position of centre of pressure on one
side of the immersed rectangular plate 2 m long and 7 m wide, when the plane of
plate makes an angle of 3c with surface of water level and 1 m edoe of the Dlate is
paratlel to and at a depth of 1.5 m betow the free surtace M
Fluid Mechanlca & Machinery 2-31 Fluid Pressure and Pressurc Measuremenl
sol
1.5 m
F
B
c
, 2.26
Ftom Fig.2.26, x = 1.5 + (t x sin 3Oo)
i = 2m
Total pressurer F = wA x
F = 9810x(2x1)x2
= 39240 N
F = 39.24 k
The depth of centre of pressure Ce below the surface is given by,
I^ sin2 o
h = x*L
Ai
bd3
I. 72
where, b = 1m = Width of ptate
d=2m=Depthofplate
," = +# = 0.6666 ma
in 2+
=^
0.6665 x sin2 30o
-lrrl)r,
= 2,o,4167 m
i = 2.04L67 m
i = 2.0,417 m below the free water su rface
Ex. 2'15: A circurar prate of diameter 1 m is immersed in water in such a way
that the least depth of immersion is 0.5 m and maximum depth of immersion
is 1 m.
Find the depth of centre of pressure. Atso find total pressure on the ptate.
IEffiEt!
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-32 Fluid Pressure and Pressurc Measurement
Sol.:
1m
-x 0.5 m
. 2.27
Let, x=
Distance of C.G. of plate from free surface
e = Angle of inclination of plate with free surface
From geometry of figure,
(1- o.s) o.s
sin e =
-AB_= -
1
= 0.5
.. 0=300
and x= (O.S + 0.5xsin 30")
= 0.75 m
... Total force on plate,
F = wA. i = 9810 xf,xL2 xOJS
= 5775.6375 N
Now, the depth of centre of pressure (Co) from free surface is given by,
I- sinz o
h = x +*,
1l 7t
I. 64
d
64
1
lt
m
64
1l
(sin 30")2
64
h 0.75 +
x O.7s
\x Lz
= 0.77083 m
Fluid Mechanics & 2-33 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Ex, 2.172 A circular lamina 2 m in diameter is immersed in water so that the

distance of its perimeter measured vertically below the water surface varies between
7 m and 2.5 m. Find the total force due to water acting on one side of the lamina
and vertical depth of centre of pressure.
Sol.:
i 0.5 m
2.5 m
Fi ,2,24
Diameter of plate = 2m
From geometry of figure,
n0 I 1
5
AB =1 = 0.5
0= 300
Also x = (1.5+ 1sin30o)=2m

Total force, x
(r
F = 9810 x [a'
' ) x [1.5 +
2
(1 x sin 30")]
F = 61638 N
F =
61,638 kN
The depth of centre of pressure is given by
Ic sin2 o
h=x+
Ax
But I^ = ho^ =$rzf
= 0.785398 ma
;n = 2+
^ 0.785398 x (sin 30ol
!{4'" z
h= 2.O3125 m
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 2-34 Fluid Pressu,e and Pregaure Mea3uremenl
Ex. 2.18: An isosceles triangular plate having base 2 m and altitude 5 m is

submerged under the water, The base is i m below the free water surface. The plate
is inclined at 4E to free water surface. Find the total pressure and depth of centre of
pressure.
Sot.:
3m
F'
FiE, 2.29
Let, 0= 45"
From geometry of figu re,
x = 3 + (AG x sin 45o) = 3 a (!, asJ
'i"
= 4.L785 m
[.. on = ] x neight of trianole]
.'. Total force on the plate,
' : ;rll (!,2,s)x4.178s

\z)
= 204955.4 N
F = 2O.5 kN
The depth of centre of pressure is given by,
Iosin2 o
h = i+
Ai
r" = g,b=2m,d=5m =+i=6.e44ma
6.944 x (sin 45o)'?
h= 4.1785 +
lx2xsx4.L785
h= 4.345 m
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-35 Fluld Pressure and Pregsuae Measuremgnt
Ex. 2.19: The tank shown in sketch contains water under pressure. Calculate the
total pressure on the side and at the bottom of the tank. The tank is 2.5 m wide
perpendicular to the plane of paper. [fl[sfttl
Sol.: From Fig. 2.30, the pressure head of water in tank at centre
= 4+ 1=5m
= Distance of C.G. of side plate from free surFace
.. x = Sm
.. Total force on side plate = F = w.A.i
F = 9810x 2x2.5 x5=245250N
V
T
4m
5m
l- T
'1 m
_L 2-
l+- 6 m------{
Fi .2.30
Depth of C.P. for side plate
I.
= h=x+
Ax
2.5 x 23
... h=r,A#
= 5.O667 m
The intensity of pressure at the base of the tank
p = w.hr
where hr = Height of liquid in a column from base of tank
h, = (5+1)=$6=x
The total force on base of tank = F = w . A i
Area of base of tank = 6 x 2.5 = 15 m2
9810x15x5=882900N
842.900 kN
Ex. 2.20: The circular plate of 7.5 m diameter is immersed verticalty in a water
such that its centre is 3 m below the free water surface. Find the total pressure and
depth of centre of pressure .M
Fluid Mechanics & Machtnery 2-36 Fluid Pressure and Ptessure Measuremenl
Sol.:
i=3m
I
T
J 1.5 m
I t
Fi ,2.3t
Given: Circula r plate,
d = 1.5m, i=3.0m
Area of circular nlate = f, O' = i" (1.5)'z = 1.767 m2
w=p9=1000x9.81
Total pressure on circular plate = P = wAx .w=9810N/m3 l
= 9.81 x 103 x L767 x 3
= s2OO2.8 N
ic for circular plate = # d4 =
ft tr.slt = 0.248 ma
Depth of centre of Pressure
-
=h=i
I_
+ x
Ax
_ 0.248 _ +?
1.767 x3 ' "
- 3.0467
Ex. 2,21: A circular ptate 2 m diameter is submerged in water such that its
greatest and smatlest depths below the free water surface are 2'8 m and 7 m
Vespectively. Find the inclination of the plate with water surface, total pressure lgi![l
on it and depth of centre of pressure. lE4EIl
5ol,: See Fi ,2.32.
'1 m
F
2.8 m
o2m
2.32
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2 .37 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Let C be centre of plate.

.'. i = 1+lsino
Butfrom figure, sine = T=0.9 0 = 64.16'
.. Inclination of plate with water = 64.16"
x =1+1sin64.16 = 1+0.9=1.9m
Area of plate = A=i4a' =
lx z, = 3.L42 mz
16 of plate = ft da = {4x 2a = 0.7854 ma
Total pressure on plate,=wAi

= 9810 x 3,L42 x 1.9
= 58553.8 N
I^ sin2 e
Depth of centre of pressure = h=x+-
Ax
0.7854 x (0.9)'z
1.9 + 3.L42 x 7.9 = 2.005 m
Ex, 2,22: A vertical composite liquid column with its upper end exposed to
atmosphere, comprises of 45 cm of Hg (Sp. Gr. 13,6), 65 cm of water and 80 cm of
oil (Sp. Gr. 0.8). Calculate absolute pressure in bar: (i) At the bofiom of column,
(ii) At inner surface of oil and water. M
Sol.: See Fig. 2.33.
oit
(Spgr 0.8)
:t T
0.8 m (hj)
t
I
---- A
Water -t- ------- -- - ---

0.65 m (hz)
B
1
0:45 m (h3)
Hg
(Spqr 13.6)
Fi . 2.33
Height of oil column hr=0.8m
H eight of water column hz = 0.65 m
Height of Hg column h: = 0.45 m
(w1) Specific weight of oil 0.8 x 9810 = 7848 N/m3
(wr) Specific weight of water 9810 N/m3
(w3) Specific weight of Hg 13.6 x 9810 = 133416 N/m3
(i) At the bottom of column (i.e. at C)

Gauge Pressure at bottom of column = w1h1 + w2h2 + w3h3
7848 x 0.80 + 9810 x 0.65 + 133416x 0.45
72692.10 Nlm2
72692.LO x 10 sbar
0.7269 bar
but
Absolute Pressure at Bottom of Column = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
= 1.013 + 0.7269
= 1.7399 bar
Assuming Atmcspheric Pressure = 1.013 bar (absolute)
(ii)
At Inner Surface of oil and water (i.e. at A)
Gauge Pressure at Inner Surface of oil and water
= wrhr
= 7848 x 0.80
= 6278.4 N/m2
= 0.06278 bar
Now, Absolute Pressure at Inner Surface of oil and water
= Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure

= 1.013 + 0.06278
=1.07578 bar
Ex, 2,23: A tube manometer is used to measure pressure of oil sp. gr. 0.85
flowing in a pipe line. Its left is connected to pipe and right limb is open to atm, The
centre of pipe is 100 mm below level of mercury in right limb. If difference of
mercury level in two limbs is 160 mm. Find absolute pressure in KPa.
Sol.: S, = Sp. Gr. of oil = 0.85, Sp. Gr. of Hg S, = 13.5,.
h = Pressure heat of liquid in a pipe in m of water
'" ht = 0'05 m
hz = 0' 16 m
'. Pressure in left limb above AB = Pressure in right limb above AB
h*s1h1 = s2h2
.'. h= Szh: - Srhr
.'. h= (13.6 x 0.15 - 0.85 x 0.06)
... h= (2.176 -0.0s1)
h= 2.125 m of water
Fluid Mechanics & [achinery 2-39 Fluid Pressure and Pressurc Measurement
Intensity of pressure p = w.h

= 9810 x 2.L25 = 20846.25 N/m2
P= 20.846 kPa
- - f=
100 mm '160 mm
h2
-
6o
mm
-lL- I L-B
,2.34
F
Ex. 2.24t A 4 m x 4 m square plate is immersed in water with one of its

diagonals vertical. Its centroid lies at a depth of 8 m from the free water surtace,
Calculate the total pressure on the plate locate position of centre of pressure with
respect to the plate centroid.
Sol.:
8m
uc
0.167 m
r D B
L
F
.2.35
Total pressure F = W.Ax
'. x = 8m
Area of plate A=4 4 =16m2
w = SP. Wt. of water = 9810 N/m3
.'. F = 9810x16x8= 1255680 N
Plate has diagonal BD, parallel to free surface of liquid.
.'. consider two triangular plates ABD and BcD of base BD and height AG.
2xBDx AG
3
rcc - t2
.. BD = {4 +V = s.66 mm
oG=ry=2.83m
... I no = Sr s.66 > (2.83)3 = 21.38 ma
Now, Depth of centre of pressure Cp from free surface is given by
n=i+&
A'
.. F=8*H#=8.167m
The centre of pressure from centroid G = (8.167 - 8) = 0.167 m.
Ex. 2.25: An open tank contains water-up to depth of 2 and above it an oil of
specific gravity 0,9 for a depth of I m. Find the pressure intensity:
(i) at the inrcrtace of two liquids. (ii) at the bofiom of a tank.
Sol.:
oit hr=1m
Water h2 =2m
Fi .2.36
I
'. height of oil column h1 = 1 m
height of water column hz = 2 m
(wr) Sp. Wt. of oil = 0.9 x 9810 = 8829 N/m3
(wr) Sp. Wt. of water = wz = 9810 N/m3
(i) Pressure intensity of interface of two liquids i.e. at A is
P1 = w1h1 =8829= 1
'" Pr = 8829 N/m2
(ii) Pressure intensity of bottom of tank i.e. at B is given by
P h h
Pz = 9810x2+8829x1
Pz = 28449 Nlm'z
Ex. 2.262 Rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wa of lock. The
vertical side of the sluice is (d) metres in length and depth of centroid of the area is
(l.t) metres below the water surface. Find the centre of pressure.
Fluid Mechanics & Mac hinery 2-4'l Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measunemenl
Sol.:
i
1 G
cp
{
b
.2.37
x= p
Area of plate = A = b.d
3
-bd
x+ 12
tr=i+ lq
b.d (x)
Put X p
3
bd
72
h = x*
bdx
3
bd
t2 -dT
h = p+ b.dp h=p+12p
Ex. 2.27r A differential manometer is connected at two points A and B of two
pipes as shown in the Fig. 2.38. The pipe A contains a liquid of Sp. Gr. 1.5 while
pipe B contains a liquid of Sp. Gr, 0.9. The pressure at A and B are 1 kg/cm2 and
1.80 cm 2re , Find the difference in mercu level.
Sp. gr. = 1.5
Sp. gr. = 0.9

2
3m
P" = 1 kgy'cm
2m 2
Pb = 1.8 kg/cm
h
c---
f --D
Mercury
.2.38
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery Fluld Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Sol.:hr=5m,h2=h.h3=h+2,sl = 1.5, s2 = 13.6 for Hg, sz = 0.9 for oil.

Pressure head in left limb at section CD = Pressure head in right limb at CD
ha * s1h1 * S2h2 = hs * s3h3 (. ha and hB are pressures at A&B)
.'. hA + (s x 1.5) + (13.6 x h) = hB+ [0.9x(hx2)]
.'. he+7.5+13.6h = he+0.9h+1,8
But Pa = 1kglcm2
and Pe = 1.8 kglcm2
[. 1kq/cm2 = 9.81 x O4N/m'z]
.'. Pa = 9.81 x 104 N/m2
and P" = (1.8 x 9.81) x 10a = 17.658 x 104 N/m2
P" 17.658 x 104
h8=il=
and 9810
he= 10 m of water column
llB - 18 m of water column
ha+7.5+13.6h= hB+0.9h+1.8
+ 13.6 h = 18+0.9h+1.8
10 + 7.5
h= 0.1811 m
Ex. 2,28: In a given Fig. 2.3g the air pressure intensity at e is f; u/mm2
(absolute). What is the pressure in N/mm2 (absolute) at B?
Sol.:
Water
B Oil of Sp.gr. 0.9
hj = 250 mm
ha = '150 mm
h2 =75mm
Mercury
Fi ,2.39
Pe = 0'1N/mm2
= O.1x 1O6N/m2 and P. = r
sp. 9r. water sl = 1
height of water in left limb. hr= 0.25 m
sp. gr. water sz = 13.6
in
difference level of Hg. h2 = 0.075 m
sP. gr. of oil, s, = 6.9
height of oil column, h: = 0.150 m
w = sp. wt. of water = 9810 N/m3
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-43 Fluld Prcssu.e and Pressure Measuremenl
Pressure in left limb above datum = Pressure in right limb above datum
ha * s1h1 = hB+ s2h2 + s3h3
ft+s,n,=ff+srhr+srh,
%P + (1x 0.25) =
#iO. (13.6 x 0.075) + (o.s x 0.1s0)
10.1936 + 0.2s = rfu * t.OZ + 0.135
Pa = 91121.66 N/m'z
Pa = 0'091 N/mm2
Ex.2.29. A circular plate of 6 m diameter is held in water in such a way that its
maximum and minimum depth from surface of water is 3 m and 9 m, Determine the
total pressure on the plate and the position of centre of pressure,
Sol.:
3m
x
9m
G. G. 6m
p Cp
Fi .2,40
Difference of minimum and maximum depth is 5 meters
The plate is vertical
Area of plate o = Xa'=iU'= 28.269 m2
i = 3+3=6m
Total pressure F = wAx
F = 9810x 28.269 x 6
F = 1663913 N
F = 1653.913 kN
Depth of centre of pressure
h
lc- +i
Ax
It
I6 -64 Oo = *^ 6a = 63.585 ma
h=6+##%=6.3748m
Depth of ce ntre of p ressure is 6.3748 m below the free surface
Fluid Mechanics & Machi oery 2-44 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Moasurcment
Ex. 2.3O: An isosceles triangular plate base 1.2 m and height 2 m is immersed
vertically in such a way that the apex is in the downward direction and the side of
base is parallel and 38 cm berow free water surface lever, determine totar pressure.
Sol.l
2m 0.38 m
f
1
I
1
h=2m
F , 2.4L
Area of plate, A=+ xL.2x2 = 1,2m2
_T
,=10 .38 + +x z]= r.o+o m
Total pressure F = w.Ax
F = 9810x 1.2x 1.046
F = 12313.512 N
Ex. 2.31: Convert 10 N/cm2 pressure in oil column of specific gravity 0.82.
Sol.:. Speciflc weight of li quid W = 0.82 x sp. wt. of water
... W = 0.82 x 9810 = 8044.2 N/m3
Intensity of pressure, p = w.h
But, p = 10N/cm,
= 10 x 104 N/m2
... 10 x lOa = 8044.2 x h
h = 12.431 meters
Pressure head h = 12.43L m in terms of oil col umn.
Ex, 2,32: C,onr'ert 15 cm mercury column equivalent to water column.
Sol,: Sp. Wt, of mercury = sp. gr. mercury x sp. wt. of water
= 13.6 x 9810 N/m3
Intensity of pressure p = w.h = (13.6 x 9810) x 0.15
p = 200L2.4 N/m2
Pressure head in terms of water column is given by
h= Intensity of pre ssure

Sp. Wt. of water
200t2.4
= 9g10 = 2.04 m of water column
Ex. 2.33: A circular plate 1.2 m in diameter is placed vertica y in water so that
centre of the plate is 2 m below the free surface. Determine the depth of centre of
pressu re.
Sol.:
i
h
T
I
G d = 1.2 m
_-_. Cc
Fi ,2,42
Area of plate o =,IO'=f, xt.2, = 1.1309 m2
i=2m
Depth of centre of pressure n= , +&
Ai
4 = {4ao ={4xQ.z)a
= 0.1017876 ma
F=i+&
Ai
= r*ti3i# =2.045m
Depth of centre of pressure is 2.045 m below free surface.
Ex. 2.34: For a water column of height 6 m. Calculate (i) intensity of pressure
(kPa), (ii) mm of mercury, (iii) m of water, (iv) N/m2 absolute.
Sol.; h = 6 m, sp. wt. of water w = 9810 N/m2
(i) Intensity of pressure
p = w.h = 9810x 6 = 58860 N/mz
58860 Pa = 58.860 kPa
(ii) mm of mercury.
.: h Mercury Intens of Pressure 58860
= Sp. Wt. of mercury - 13.6 x 9810
= O,O44L2 m of mercury
= 44L.2 mm of mercury
(iii)m of water -+ 6 m of water column
(iv) N/m'?Absolute pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge pressure
= (101.3 + 58,860) kPa
= 160.16 kPa
= 160.16 x 103 N/m2 absolute
Ex. 2.35: The pressure of a fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flowing in a horizontal
pipe line is determined with a simple U tube mercury manometer. The level of
mercury surface in the right limb which is open to atmospheric is 90 mm above the
centre of the pipe. The level of m. '|ry in the left limb which is connected to the
pipe is 60 mm below the centre of the pipe. Determine absolute pressure of the fluid
in the pipe in Newton's per square meter.
Sol.:
0.09 m
0.'15 m
0.06 m
_l LB
Fi , 2.43
hr = 0.06 m, h2 = 0.15 m, s1 = 0.8, sz = 13.6.
Pressure in left limb
abvoe AB = pressure in Right limb
.'. h * h1s1 = s2h2 + Standard atomic pressure
... h= 13.5x0.15 + 10.33 - 0.8x 0.06
.. Pressure head in pipe h = L2.322 meters of water (absolute)
.'. Absolute pressure in N/m2, p = w.h = 98lO x 12,322
= 120878.82 N/m2
Ex. 2.36: A circular gate of 2 m diameter is immersed vertically in an oil of
specific gravity 0.84, such that its centre is 3 m from the surtace of oil, Find the ojl
pressure and centre of pressure on the gate. [IlEEll
Sol.:
i=3m
d=2m
a(:-p
Fi , 2,44
A = Area of ptate = io, =uo x (2)2 = 3.142 m2 and i = 3 m.

Specific weight of oil W = Sp. Gr. of oil x Sp. Wt. of water
W = 0.84 x 9810 = 8240.4 N/m3
Total pressure F = w.Ax = 4240.4x3.t42x3
F = 77674 N
Let h = Distance of centre of pressure from free
surface
h=s+i
Ax
rc = &d4
Ic= 61l4 x 2a = 0.7855 ma

- [ 0.7855 +3 = 0.0833 + 3
"-13.142.3
Depth of centre of pressure = h = 3.0833 m
Ex, 2,37 | A simple U-tube manometer containing Hg is connected to a pipe in
which a fluid of Sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is floating the other and the
manometer is open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, it the
difference of Hg level in the two limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from
the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.
Sol.:
Fluid sp.gr.0.8
15 cm
40 cm
I
l.
Hg
Fi ,2.45
Sp. gr. of fluid = Sr = 0.8
SP. gr. of Hg = 5, = 13,6
Density of fluid, pr = 800 kglm3
Density of Hg, pz = 13600 kglm3

Difference of Hg level, hz = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Height of liquid in left limb = hr = 15 cm
h1 = 0'15 m
'."' Pressure in left limb above AA = pressure in right limb above AA
P+prhr9+p2h2.g = 0
.r p = Intensity of pressure in pipe
p = -[800x0.15x981 + 13.5 x 1000 x 9.81]
= - 54543.6 N/m2
': P = - 5.454 N/cm'z
Vacuum pressure in the pipe is 5.454 N/cm2
Ex. 2.38: A pipe contains an oil of specific gravity 0.9. A differential manometer
connected at the two points A and B on same level shows a difference in mercury
level as 750 mm. Determine the difference of pressure at the two points in bar. , @T@EEI
Sol,:
.lA-.--. ---B-:
h
c--- D
Mercury
Fi 2 46
Sp. Gr. of oil S, = 6.9
Sp. Gr. of mercury Sz = 13.6
Difference in mercury level =h
h = 0.15m
The difference of pressure head at two points A and B at same level is given
by
'" (ha - hb) = h (s, - s1) m of water
" (h"-hb) = 0.1s (13.6 - 0.9)
'' (h" - hb) = 1.905 m of water
Intensity of pressure p = w.h
where. w = Sp. Wt. of water, w = 9810 N/m3
... Difference of pressure in N/m, (% - Po) = wh
9810 x 1.905
18688.05 N/m2
Difference of pressure
at two points in bar = 18688.05 x t0-s bar
0.1866805 bar
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-49 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Merasurcmenl
lmpoftant Point.
The intensity ol pressure at any point in the fluid is defined as the normal lorce per unit
area.
The Pascal's law states that intensity ol pressure at any point in a liquid at rest has same
magnitude in all direction.
The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid is equal to the product ol specilic weight
of liquid at that point and the vertical distance from free surface of liouid. o = w . h.
h qressyle head in meters of liquid. p is intensily ol pressure in Nim2 and w is specilic
1
weight in N/m'.
Gauge Pressure is the pressure in which atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
Absolute pressure is the pressure in which absolute zero pressure or complete vacuum is
taken as datum.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure l Gauge pressure
A manometer is a device used to measure pressure at a poinl in the lluid.
Simple manometers are used to measure the pressure at a point. Oifferential
manometers are used to measure the diFference of pressure between any two points in a
pipe or in two different pipes.
Micromanometer is used lor measuring low pressures with great accuracy.
The force exerted by static fluid on vertical, horizontal or inclined immersed surtace is
givenbyF=wAx
where, F= Total pressure in NeMon
w= Sp. Wt. ol liquid
A= Area of immersed surface
x= Depth ot centre ol gravity

> Centre ol pressure is defined as the point at which lotal pressure lorce acls on an
immersed surface. Centre ol pressure acts below the centre ol gravity of the surface.
t The depth ol centre of pressure on an immersed surface from free surlace ol liquid
n = &* i for vertical immersed surface

Ax
ls sin2 e
h + i lor vertical inclined immersed surfaces
Ai
'tactice Question
.
1 What is meant by intensity of pressure and pressure head? State its units.
2. State Pascal's law. Give its two practical applications. sl!f,[f,[l[
3. Classily lhe pressure measuring devices.
4. Dillerentiate between simple manometer and differential manometer.
5. What is Micromanometer? State its use.
6. Explain Bourdon's tube pressure gauge wilh neal sketch.
7. Deline Atmospheric pressure, Gauge pressure, Absolute pressure.
8. Draw neat sketch ol piezometer manometer. State its use.
9. Which type ol measuring device is used lor small gauge pressures?
10. Draw neat sketch ol inverted U-tube manometer and slate its use. [f,@t|
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-50 Fluid Pressure and Pressu.e Me69uroment
'11
Draw neat skelch ol differential U{ube manometer and state its use.
12 Write short notes on:
(a) Total pressure.
(b) centre of pressure. [[!p
13 What is the effect ol increase in liquid level on C.P. when the plane surface is immersed
in liquid vertically? [[[l[
14 Derive an expression to determine the depth of centre of pressure oJ vertically immersed
surtace in a liquid.
'15
Convert the pressure head of 1o m ol water inlo a pressure in N/cm2.
'16
Convert 40 m ol oil column inlo pressure in N/cm2. Take specific gravity of oil as 1.2.
17 Convert 25 bar into MPa.
18 Find the depth o, oil of specific gravity 0.8 which produces the same intensity ol pressure
ol 25 m water column.
19 Find the depth of oil ol relative density 0.8 which will produce a pressure intensity of
44'1.45 kN/m'?.
20 Find the total pressure on a rectangular surface 0.6 m x 1 m placed with its shorter edge
horizontal, the surface being immersed vertically in water and the upper edge being 3 m
below the lree surface.
21 A circular lamina 2 m in diameter is immersed in water so that the distance ot its
perimeter measured vertically below the water surface varies between 1 m and 2.5 m.
Find the total force due to water acting on one side of lamina and the vertical depth ol
the cenlre ol pressure.
22 The pipe of 3 m diameter contains oil of specilic gravity 0.8 and is litted with gate valve.
The pressure at the centre of pipe is 3 x l os N/m2. Find the total pressure lorce exerted
by the oil on gate and deplh ol centre of pressure.
A square plate ABCD 5 x 5 m hangs in water on one of its corners as shown in Fig. 2.34.
Determine total essure on the ate and cenlre ol ressure
Water surface
1 0 m
<1
B D
Fi . 2.46
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-51 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurem€nt
24. Delermine lhe total pressure and centre of pressure on an isosceles triangular plate ol
base 6.5 m, when the plate is immersed vertically in an oil of specilic gravity 0.85. The
base of the plate is 1 m below the lree surlace of oil. @
25. Explain simple U-tube diflerential manometer with neat sketch. [f,l![
26. Define Gauge pressure and absolule pressure. |f,fil!fl
27. Deline Total pressure and Centre oI pressure. |[[![
,t S87E Questio n & Answ
Summer 2OO8
1. Convert 3.5 bar pressure into equivalent mercury column
..
t4il
Ans. 1 bar = 105 N/mz
.'. p = 3.5 bar = 3.5 x 1os N/m
. p=w.h
.'. Pressure head equivalent to mercury column = h = *
p
h = sp. wt. of mercury
p
- Sp. Wt. ol mercury x Sp. Wt. of water
... .h 3.5 x 105

= J 3^6 , ,:;10 = 2.6234 m ol mercury
2.Draw a labelled diagram of a vertical micromanomter. State the siqnificance ol reservoir
useo rn rr. ffi
Ans. Please refer Article 2.5.1 (c) and also reler Fig. 2.8.
3. A circular plate 2 m diameter is submerged in waler such that its greatest and smallest
depth below the lree surface ol water are 2.8 m and 1 m respectively. Find the inclination
of the plate with water surface, total pressure acting on it and depth of centre ot
pressure. ffi
Ans Please reler to Solved Example 2.2'l .
Winter 2008
1.Pascal's law of lluid pressure? ro
Ans. Please reler to Article 2.3.
2. How can a pressure can be expressed in two ways? State the units. m
Ans. Please refer to Article ?.1 and 2.2.
3. Explain with neat sketch a vertical micromanometer. m
Ans. Please reler lo Article 2.5.1 (c) and also Refer Fig. 2.8.
4. A circular gate of 2 m diameter is immersed vertically in an oil ol speciric gravity 0.84
such that its centre is 3 m from the surtace of oil. Find the oil pressure and centro of
pressure on the gate. I!E[
Ans. Please reler to Solved Example 2.36.
5. Explain Bourdon tube prassure gauge with neat sketch? @
Ans. Please reter to Article 2.5.3.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-52 Fluid Pressure and Pressure Measurcment
6. State ditferent types of manometer and explain any one of them with figure. [EEn
Ans. Please reler to Article 2.5, Pages 2.5 and 2.6.
7. Explain the concept of atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure and absolute
pressure. m
Ans. Please refer to Article 2.4 and 2.5.
Summer 2O09
1.A tube manometer is used to measure pressure of oil sp. gr. 0.85 flowing in a pipe line.
Its left is connected to pipe and right limb is open to atm. The centre of pipe is 1OO mm
below level oI mercury in right limb. lf diflerence ol mercury level in two limbs is 160 mm.
Find absolute pressure in KPa. EDn
Ans. Please refer to Ex. 2.23.
2. Draw neat labelled sketch of inverted U-tube dillerential manomeler. When it is to be
USEd? EuII
Ans. Please refer to Article 2.5.2 (b), Fig. 2.1 1.
JThe tank shown conlains water under pressure. Calculate total pressure on side and
bottom ot lank. Take tank is 2.5 m wide perpendicular to plane of paper. @
Ans. Please refer to Example 2.19.
Winter 20Og
1. Define'Total pressure' and 'Centre ol pressure'. m
Ans, Please refer to Article 2.6.
2. A 4 m x 4 m square plate is immersed in water with one of its diagonals vertical. lts
centroid lies at a depth ol I m from the free water surface. Calculate the total pressure on
the plate locate position of centre ol pressure with respect to the plate centroid. [EEn
Ans. Please reler to Ex. 2.24.
3. An open tank contains water-up to depth ol 2 and above it an oil of specilic gravily
0.9 for a depth of I m. Find the pressure intensity' @
(i) at the interface of two liquids.
(ii) at the bottom ol a tank.
Ans. Please rerer to Ex. 2.25.
Summer 2010
1.State Pascal's law. OOo m
Ans. Please reler to Page No. 2.3, Article 2.3.
2. Explain simple 'U'tube dillerential manometer with neat sketch. E[n
Ans. Please reler lo Page No. 2.1 1, Article 2.5.2 (b).
3. A circular plate of diameter 1 m is immersed in a water such a way that the least depth on
immersion is 0.5 m and maximum depth of immersion in 1 m. Find the depth or centre of
pressure. |![l|
Ans. Please refer to Ex.2.'16.
4. Define gauge pressure and absolute pressure m
Ans. Please refer to Article 2.4.2 and 2.4.3.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 2-53 Fluid Pressu.e and Pressure Measurement
5. A verlical composite liquid column with its upper and exposed to atmospheric pressure,
comprises of 45 cm of Hg (Sp. Gravity 13.6),65 cm of water and 80 cm of oil (Sp. Gr.
0.8), Calculate absolute pressure in bar. @
(i) At the bottom of column.
(ii) At inner surface of oil and water.
Ans. Please refer to Arlicle Ex. 2.22.
Winter 2OlO
1. Deline total pressure and centre ol pressure. m
Ans. Please reler Article 2.6.
2.Draw a neat and labelled skelch of inclined Micromanometer. Write the equation o,
pressure nead. IlEn
Ans. Please refer Article 2.5.1 (c) (2).
3. Rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of lock. The vertical side of the
sluice is (d) metres in length and depth ol centroid of the area is (p) metres below the
water surface. Find the centre ol pressure. EM
4. Convert 25 bar into MPa? [EEn
Ans. '. 1bar = 0.1 MPa
.'. 25 bar = 0.1x 25
= 2.5 MPa
5 A differential manometer is connected at two poinls A and B ol two pipes as shown in the
Fig. 2.38. The pipe A contains a liquid of Sp. Gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid ol
Sp. Cr. = 0.9. The pressure at A and B arc 1 kglcmz and 1.80 kg/cm2 respectively. Finq
the ditference in mercury level. ICIIJ
Summer 20l l
1. What is meant by
(i) Total pressure
m
(ii) Centre of pressure on immersed body ?
Ans. (i) Total pressure: Please reler to Article 2.6.
(ii) Centre ol pressure on immersed body: Please reler to Article 2.6
2 ln a given Fig. 2.39 the air pressure intensity at e is *1 t'llmm' (absolute). What is the
pressure in N/mm2 (absolute) at B ? @
Ans.
3.
Please reler to Ex. 2.28.
Draw a sketch of Bourdon gauge and explain how it works m
Ans. Please reler lo Fig. 2.12 and Article 2.5.3.
4. Explain with neal skelch working ol ditferential manometer @
Ans. Please refer lo Article 2.5.2.
5. A circular plate of 6 m diameter is held in water in such a way that its maximum and
,i.irum i"pin tto, surface of water is 3 m and 9 m Determine the total pressure on the
prate and the position of centre of pressure. lElll!
Ans. Please reler to Ex. 2.29
Fluld Mechanlca & Machlnery 2. 54 Fluid Pressure and Pressurc MeasurBmenl
l\linter 2Ol 1
1. Oefine the following terms Pressure. ro
Ans. Pressure Please reler to Article 2.2 and Article 2.1.
2. Deline the lollowing terms: m
(i) Gauge Pressure
(ii) Total Pressure
Ans. (i) Gauge Pressure: Please reler to Article 2.4.2.
(ii) Total Pressure: Please reler to Article 2.6.
a An isosceles triangular plate base 1.2 m and heighl 2 m is immersed vertically in such a
way that the apex is in the downward direction and the side of base is parallel and 38 cm
below lree water surlace level, delermine total pressure. [!En
4. Convert 10 N/cm2 pressure in oil column ol specilic gravity 0.82. ml
Ans. Please reler to Ex.2.31.
5. Convert 15 cm mercury column equivalent to water column. @
Summer 2O{2
1. Diflerentiate between absolute pressure and gauge pressure. ml
Ans. Please refer to Articles 2.4.4 and ?.4.2.
2. Explain working principle ol Ditferential manometer with neat sketch. @
Ans. Please reler lo Article 2.5.2.
3. Sketch and explain Bourdon pressure gauge. @
Ans. Please refer to Article 2.5.3.
4. Deline: @
(i) Pressure head
(ii) Pressure intensity
(iii) Absolute vacuum
(iv) Atmospheric pressure
Ans. (i) Pressure head: Please refer to Article 2.2.
(ii) Pressure intenslly: Please refer to Article 2.'1.
(iii) Absolule vacuum: Please reler to Article 2.4.4.
(iv) Atmospheric pressure: Please reler to Article 2.4.1.
5 Explain concepts of: @
(i) Total pressure
(ii) Centre of pressure
Ans. (i) Total prsssure: Please reler to Article 2.6.
(ii) Cenlre of pressure: Please refer to Article 2.6.
6. A circular plate '1.2 m in diameter is placed vertically in water so that centre of the plate is
2 m below the free surface. Determine the depth ol centre o, pressure. lm
7. For a waler column ol height 6 m. Calculate (i) intensity ol pressure (kpa), (ii) mm of
mercury, (iii) m ol water, (iv) lVm2 absolute M
Ans. Please reter to Ex. 2.34.
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 2-55 Fluld Pressure and Pressure Measurement
Winter 20'12
1 Draw a neat sketch ol Bourdon Pressure Gauge and explain how it works. [!En
Ans Please reler to Article 2.5.3.
2 Deline pressure head, how given pressure in Pascal can be converted into required liquid
column. m
Ans When pressure is expressed in units ol lenglh, it is relerred as pressure head. lt can be
measured in meters or cenlimeters of liquid column.
Intgnsitv of pressure
pressure head -
= Sp. Wt. ol liquid
3. What is meant by absolute and almospheric pressure? |f,][[
Ans. Please refer to Article 2.4.1 and 2.4.3.
4. The pressure ol a lluid o, specific gravity 0.8 llowing in ahorizontal pipe line is
determined with a simple U tube mercury manometer. The level ol mercury surface in the
right limb which is open to atmospheric is 90 mm above the centre of the pipe. The level
ot mercury in the left limb which is connected to the pipe is 60 mm below the centre of the
pipe. Oetermine absolute pressure ol the lluid in the pipe in NeMon's per square meter.
Ans. Please refer to Ex.2.35. @
5. A circular plate of 6 m diameter is held in water in such a way that its maximum and
minimum depth from surface of water is 3 m and 9 m. Determine the total pressure on the
plate and the position of centre of pressure. [![[
Summer 2O13
1. Deline pressure. Establish a relation between pressure and pressure head. [E]In
2. Deline Total pressure and Centre of pressure [E]In
Ans. Please refer to Article 2.6.
3. A simple U-tube manometer containing Hg is connected to a pipe in which a fluid ol Sp.
gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is lloating the other and the manometer is open to
the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, it the ditference ot Hg level in the two
limbs is 40 cm and the height ol fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is l5 cm below.
@
4. Determine the total pressure on a circular plale of diameter 15 m which is placed
vertically in water in such a way that the centre of the plate is 3 m below the free surface
ol water. Find the centre of pressure also.
Ans. Please refer to Ex.2.20
Winter 2O13
't. Write equation for total pressure and centre ol pressure ol an inclined plane surlace Em
Ans. Please reler to Article 2.9 and Relations.
2. Draw a sketch ol Bourdon's pressure gauge and explain how it work? IItrID
3. Oeline Absolute pressure, Gauge pressure, Vacuum pressure and Atmospheric
pressure. [IEil
4 List of various type ol manometer is used. How given pressure in Pascal can be
converted into required liquid column? [Em
Please refer to Article 2.5lor Manomelers and Article 2.2 for Pressure Head.
A pipe contains an oil ol specific gravity 0.9. A differential manometer connected at the
two poinls A and B on same level shows a dillerence in mercury level as 150 mm.
Determine the ditlerence ol pressure at the two points in bar. IEEII
.ilS. Please refer to Solved Example 2.38.
6. Determine the total pressure and centre of pressure on a circular plate ol diameter 1.5 m
which is placed vertically in waler in such a way that the centre ol the plate is 3 m below
the lree surface of water. Density of water = 1060kg/m3. @
Summer 2O14
1. Define total pressure and centre ol pressure.
2. Define gauge pressure and absolute pressure @
Ans. Please refer to Articles 2.4.2 and 2.4.3.
lr!
A/ta,ft-" 3
Fluid Flow
Sunopsis
3.r lntroduction
3.2 Types of Fluid Flows
J.J Continuity Equolion
3.4 Energy Possessed by Flowing Fluid
3.5 Bernoulli's Theorem
3.6 Applicotions of Bernoulli's Theorem
3.6.'l Venlurlmeier
3.6.2 Orifice Meter
3.6.3 Pitot Tube
. Solved Exomples
. lmportont Points
o Proclice Questions
. MSBTE Quesiions ond Answers
About this Ch ter

This chopler inlroduces concepl o{ Fluid flows, Types of fluid flows, Conlinuity equolions,
Concept of Energy possessed by flowing {luid; Concepts of Bernoulli's Theorem,
Applicotions of Bernoulli's Theorem - Venturimeter, Ori{ice meter, Pilot lube etc.
3.{ Introduction
In the preceding chapters. we have made study of liquids at rest. This study is
called as hydrostatics. In industry or in day-to-day life, we have to carry fluids from
one place to another. So in this chapter, we will study the liquids in motion and the
forces causing the flow. Hydrokinetics is defined as that branch of science which
deals with motion of particles without considering the forces causing motion of
liquids. when the study of motion of particles of liquids is done by considering the
forces causing motion then it is called as hydrodynamics.
The fluid motion can be studied by two methods:
(a) Lagrangian Method: In Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is
consideredduringitsmotionanditscharacteristicssuchasvelocity,
acceleration, density are described i.e. how particle behaves when travelling
from one section of conduit to other while flowing study is made'
(3- t)
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 3-2 Fluid Flow
(b) Eulerian Method: In Eulerian method, one section is considered and at that
section characteristics such as velocity, density, acceleration etc. are
measured after certain time-interval. Eulerian method is generally used as
study at particular section is easier.
3.2 Types of Fluid Flows [912, S-11, W-l1, S-03, S.14]

When fluid is in motion, very large number of particles of fluid will get together
and this formation is called stream. In stream, the fluid particles group them in
different ways, Sometimes they are moving in some definite paths like marching
soldiers, Sometimes they are moving in disordered mob. Following are different
types of flows:
1. Steady and unsteady flows.
2. Uniform and non-uniform flows.
3. Laminar and turbulent flows.
4. Rotational and irrotational flows.
5. Compressible and incompressible flows.
1. Steady and Unsteady flows: In steady flow, the quantity of liquid flowing
per unit time remains constant s-l2, W-11, W-l0, S-09, S-08
In steady flow, flow parameters such as velocity, density, viscosity etc. should
remain constant |f@[
In unsteady flow, the quantity of flowing liquid per unit time is not constant.
2. Uniform and Non-Uniform flowsl Uniform flow is defined as flow, in which
the velocity of liquid particles at all sections in given time remains constant
with respect to length of direction of flow. s-l3, S-12, S-10, S-08, W-10
For example, Flow through channel.
In non-uniform flow, the velocity of liquid does not remain constant but goes
on chan tn from section to sectlon as shown in Fi .3.1
1 2 3
Qo
'r
1 2 3
F 3.1
Between sections 1-1 and 2-2 and 3-3, flow is steady. Velocity of flowing
liquid at sections L-L and 2-2 is va, which is constant but velocity at sectio;
2-2 and section 3-3 is v" and vb respectively. Therefore between sections 2_2
Fluld Mechanlcs & Machinery 3-3 Fluid Flow
and 3-3, non-uniform flow is there. If rate of flow between section 1-1 and
section 3-3 is constant, it will be steady flow. So some combinations of
steady-uniform flow, steady-non uniform flow etc. can exist.
3. Laminar and turbulent flows: Laminar flow is defined as the flow in which
fluid particles move along well-defined path. These particles move in lamina,
or layers moving smoothly over its adjacent layer. Generally viscous liquids
like oils, honey travelling on smooth surface have this type of flow' It is also
called as streamline flow. W.11, W-1o; S-03;W-03
In turbulent flow, each liquid particle has no definite path and the paths of
individual particles cross each other. Municipal tap water at high pressure is
good example of this flow. For example, Movement of water particles in sea
waves.
Particles
,,\ I ,l\ I
Lrquid layers
Stream lines
, \ I ./\ I
\\\\\\\\\\\\ f\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
Fi ,3.2: Laminar Flow Fi , 3.3: Turbulent Flow
4. Rotational and lrrotationa! Flows: Rotational flow is that type of flow in

whlch the fluid particles while flowing along streamlines also rotate about
theirownaxis.Ifthefluidparticleswhileflowingalongthestreamlinesdo
not rotate about their own axis, then this typ e of flow is called as irrotational
flow. ts-t 2.,.w:1 i;:r,illl.l0; w:Q9
------> .---..>
:----r
--l'
------> ------) ----)
!\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\
Fi .3 .4: Irrotational Flow F .3 .5: Rotational Flow
ComFressible and Incompressible Flows: The flow is said to be

during
compressible when the volume of the fluid and density of fluid changes
flow.
For example, flow of all gases is compressible flow'
of the fluid and its
M
The flow is said to be incompressible when the volume
density does not change.
flow if there is so
For example, flow of liquids is considered as incompressible
much variation in temPerature'
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 3.4 Fluid Flow
3.3 Gontinuity Equatior lw-09, w-l21

Law of continuity is also called as continuity equation. Continuity equation is
based upon "principle of conservation of mass". For incompressible fluid flowing
through the pipe at all the cross-sec-ion, the quantity of fluid per se€ond is
constant. This is known as equation of continuity. It is first and fundamental
equation of flow.
A most general expression on the basis of principle of conservation of mass can
be obtained. Consider two cross-sections of e as shown in Fi . 3.6.
Direction
of flow
b'
ia'
F . 3.6: Continu
uation
Let, v1 = Average velocity of fluid at section a-a'.
p1 = Density of fluid at section a-a'.
Ar = Area of pipe at section a-a'.
and vz, p2, A2 are corresponding values at section b-b,.
Then rate of flow at section a-a' (Mass of liquid flowing per unit time).
= Pr Ar vr
Similarly, rate of flow at section b-b' (Mass of liquid flowing per unit time).
= pz Az Yz
According to principle of conservation of mass i.e. mass neither be created nor be
destroyed, the total quantity of fluid passing through sections aa' and bb' is same.
Rate of flow at section a-a' (Mass of liquid flowing per unit time)
= Rate of flow at section b-b' (Mass of liquid flowing per unit time)
p, A, v, = p2 Arv, ... (3.f)
Above equation (3.1) is applicable to both compressible and incompressible
fluids. If we consider liquids which are generally incompressible,
Pt -- 9z
... Arv, = A2v2 = ... and so on at any section
Further Av = Q, where, e is volume of liquid flowing through any section per unit
time or the volume rate of flow of liquid which is known as discharge.
Discharge is expressed in terms of m3/sec or lit/sec.
One cubic metre per sec is usually written as one cumec.
Fluid Mechanics & Mschinery 3-5 Fluid Flow
From equation
Q= Arvt=Arv,=A:Vt= '
it is observed that the velocity of flow at any section is inversely proportional to the
area of flow section. When area of flow section decreases, the velocity of flow
increases.
3.4 Energy Possessed by a Flowing Fluid
Energy is defined as ability to do work. The two forms of energy commonly
known to us which are kinetic energy and potential energy. Potential energy in fluids
may be subdivided into energy due to position above a given datum and energy due
to pressure in the fluid. In case of solids there is no question of pressure. so in
connection with fluid flow, three forms of energy must be considered.
(i) Kinetic energy.
( ii) Potentia I energy.
(iii) Pressure energy.
other forms such as heat energy and electrical energy have little effect on the
laws governing flowing liquids'
(i) Kinetic Energy: It is defined as the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of
its velocity. If in any mass m, every individual particle has the same velocity v in
m/s, the kinetic energy of the mass is ] mv' and since
,= W
s )
wvz j6
*.4. = ;; which reduces to rot a unit weight.
The unit of kinetic energy is of the form
( m /sec)2
m/sec-
and therefore it represents a linear quantity expressed in m. It is the height through
-=m
which a body must fall in a vacuum to acquire the velocity v'
(ii) Potential Energyi It is existing in a fluid by virtue of its position
or
elevation with respect to some arbitrarily selected horizontal datum plane' Elevation
energy may be explained by considering a mass having a weight of W Newton, the
elevation of which above any horizontal datum plane is z m. with respect to this
plane, the mass has W.Z N-m of energy. A mass weighing 1 N will have z N-m of
energy. Here again the expression for energy in this case z represents
a linear
quantitycalledtheetevationheadofmassbutitshouldbekeptclearlyinmindthat
z is also the energy expressed in N-m contained in 1 N of fluid by virtue of its
position with respect to the datum plane'
Potential energy = wz"'N/m
Fluid Mgchanlca & M.chinery 3-6 Fluid Flow
(iii) Pressure Energy: It differs fundamentally from K.E. and P.E. Any mass of
liquid particle having pressure energy acquires that energy by virtue of contact with
other masses having some form of energy. It is the energy possessed by a liquid
particle by virtue of its existlng pressure. If a particle of liquid is under a pressure of
P N/m'z, then the pressure energy of the particle will be P/w N-m per N of liquid,
where, w is speciflc weight of the liquid. Pressure head of the liquid under pressure
P N/m2 will be P/w m of liquid.
Tota I energyof a liquid particle flowing in a pipe will be the sum of the potential
energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy.
Total energy of liquid particle in motion per unit r eight
-u'p
==*rn+wN-m/N
Total head of liquid in motion,
H= z+t.*-of tiquid ...(3.2)
3.5 Bernoslli's Theorem 11 09,

In 1738, Oaniel Bernoulli, an eminent mathematician and philosopher,
demonstrated that in any stream flowing steadily without friction, the total energy
contained in a given mass is the same at every point in its path of flow.
In other words, kinetic energy, potential energy and pressure energy, each may
be converted into either of the other two forms of energy, without any loss
theoretically. Thus if there is a reduction in the amount of energy contained in any
form, there must be an equal gain in the sum of other two.
ln Fig. 3.7, abcd represents part of pipe in which all the particles in any
cross-section, flow with same velocity. Assume there is no friction loss, Every particle
of liquid passing section'ab'will, a little later, pass section'cd'and no particles will
pass the section 'cd' which have not previously passed 'ab'.
Y,b- c'
tdt
d
z1
Datum plane z2
J
--t ,rot !-
M N
F ,3.71Pi Section
Let, p1 = Pressure intensity on surface ab in N/m2

al = Cross-sectional area of surface ab in m2
v1 =
Velocity of liquid particles at section ab in m/s
pz, dz, yz are respective pressure intensity, cross-sectional area and velocity of
liquid at section cd.
21, 22 represent respective elevations of centres of gravity from aba' b' and cdc' d'
from datum plane MN.
Consider forces acting on section abcd.
(i) Force on section ab.
(ii) Force on section cd.
(iii) Force of gravity equal to weight of stream tube acting downward.
On the lateral surfaces ac and bd, there is a system of forces acting normal to
direction of motion which will not have any effect on the flow. So it is neglected.
Above three forces are responsible for work done. The work performed on the
stream tube by the three forces will not be considered.
In time dt liquid particles at section ab move to a'b' with velocity vr. In same
time-interval, particles at section cd move to c'd' with velocity v2. Since flow is
continuous.
al vldt = a2v2 dt
Now, work done by force on section ab
= Force x dlsplacement .. F = Prar and S = vr dt
= Fx S
wr = pr x al x v1 dt N-m ...(3'3)
Similarly, work done on section cd
wz = -pz a2 x v2 dt N-m ...(3.4)
being negative because p2 is opposite in sense to pr and resist motion.
Work done by qravity on the entire mass in moving from position abcd to a'b'c'd'
is same as aba'b' is moved to the position cdc'd'and a'b'cd is remaining there as
undisturbed.
Forceofgravityactingonthemassaba'b'isequaltothevolumealvldttimes
the unit weight w (specific weight).
F=Volumeofliquidxunitweight(w).Therefore,networkdonebygravityis
force lnto displacement.
N-m (3'5)
w3 = war vldt (21 - 22)
= Force x displacement
Resultant gain in kinetic energ) is

22 ffiVt
hv2 wa,v,dt
22 29
(,1 - ,i) (3.6)
From fundamental principles, the total amount of work done on any mass by any
number of forces is equal to the resultant gain in kinetic energy.
work done by pressure + Work done by gravity = Gain in kinetic energy
Therefore from equations (3.3), (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6),
pra,vrdt - p2a2v2dt + walvldt (2, - zr)
wa, v,dt
(,1 -
29 "i)
Dividing by walvrdt,
2
vl2
*-?. (.,-.,)
Rearranging above equation
= * 29
2 2
Pr + v1 P2 +
2g
*Zr 2g
1zz (3.7)
This is called Bernoulli's equation which is in reality the law of conservation of

energy applied for fluids which are considered incompressible, Statement of
Bernoulli's equation is:
"Neglecting friction for a peffect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous
stream, the total energy of particle remains constant while the particle moves from
one point to another."
Above equation is applicable for the steady flow of an incompressible real fluid;
there is certain loss of useful energy caused by viscous and turbulent friction.
Thus, if h. represents the loss of energy per unit weight of fluid between the sections
ab and cd, equation (3.7) may be modified as;
22
**** r., = ?+\+2,+h,
w2929 (3.8)
Assumptions made in derivation of Bernoulli's equation are: tr@
(i) The fluid is ideal.
(ii) The flow is steady and continuous.
(iii) The flow is incompressible.
(iv) The flow is irrotational.
(v) Flow is one dimensional i.e. streamline flow.
(vi) The velocity is uniform over the cross-section.
(vii) Except gravity and pressure forces, no other forces of energy exist,
When direction of flow of liquid is not known, it can be found by Bernoulli's
equation. Find total energy at any two points in flow. Flow will be taking place from
point of higher total energy to point of less total energy.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 3.9 Fluid FIow
3,6 Applications of Bernoulli's Theorem

Bernoulli's theorem finds wide application in the solution of many problems of
fluid flow. Following are some applications of Bernoulli's theorem.
1. Venturimeter. 2. Orificemeter. 3. Pitot tube
It can be applied to fluid flows related to Notches, Weirs, Flow nozzles, Turbines,
Free liquid jet, PumPs etc.
3.6.1 Venturimeter lw-11, w-l0, s-09, s-08I
Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid flowing
through closed conduit.
It consists of three Parts:
(a) A short converging cone.
(b) Throat.
(c) A long diverging cone.
The basic principle on which a venturimeter works is that by reducing the
cross-sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference gives quantity of
liquid flowing through the PiPe.
The inlet section of venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe (dr).
The convergent cone is a pipe of decreasing diameter from connecting end of pipe to
throat which is a small piece of uniform diameter (dr) that of small end of convergent
cone. The divergent cone is a tapering pipe from diameter of throat to diameter of
pipe (dr). At the inlet section and throat section. pressure taps are provided so that
ressure difference can be measured as shown in Fi .3.8.
I
P,
Oivergent cone
t P2 a
@ ---+ Section (2)
Section ('1 ) -> dr 20" q d1
-l L
Throat
Convergent cone Flanges
3.8: venturimeter
Fi .
In convergent cone because of gradual decrease in diameter there is increase in
velocity whic-h can be checked by contlnuity equation Q = arvr = a2v2' But by
Bernoulli,s theorem though there is increase in velocity i.e. kinetic energy it should
be converted into pressure energy. This pressure difference is measured and
discharge is ca lculated.
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 3-10 Fluid Flow
In divergent cone decrease in pressure is again increased to its original value and
then liquid is reached in the pipe, In convergent cone, velocity of fluid is increased.
This acceleration of flowing fluid may be allowed to take place rapidly in relatively
small length, without resulting in appreciable loss of energy. However, if decrease
in velocity of flow (in divergent cone) is allowed to take place rapidly in a
small length, then the flowing fluid will not remain in contact with the
boundary of diverging flow passage, flow will separate from walls and
eddies are formed. Hence, length of divergent cone is 2 to 3 times that of
convergent cone.
For a greater accuracy in the measurement of the pressure difference, the
cross-sectional area of throat of a venturimeter is reduced for getting greater
pressure difference. But if throat area is reduced much, throat pressure will drop
considerably. If this pressure drops below vapour pressure, fluid will start vaporising
which is not desirable. So to avoid cavitation, diameter of throat is lent ] to fi
diameter of pipe.
Consider venturimeter as shown in Fig. 3.8 which is connected to horizontal pipe
through which a fluid is flowing.
Let, dr = Diameter at inlet or at section (1)
pl = Pressure at section (1)
vr = Velocity of fluid at section (1)
ar = Area at section (1) =
i d?
dz, pz, vz and a2 are corresponding values at section (2).

Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2),
22
B***2,=
w2929 -Pz*!*r, ...(3.e)
Assuming datum line passing through centre of venturimeter.
. --. L2--0
.t
2 2
P, vr P2 +
v2
w'29- 29
2 2
Or P.r.- & Y2
29 zg
&-
aut
S ir tn" difference pressure head in terms of flowing fluid and if it is
equal to h,
Pr Pz-"
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 3-'ll Fluid Flow
Substituting the value of ff - P2 in equation (3.9),

2 2
v2 v1
h (3.10)
29- 2g
Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2),
a1v1 = a2v2
a,V,
, dr
Substituting the value of vr in equation (3.10),
h NH
2g 2g
2
v2 [l1-+l"il
29
L arl
2 f 2 21
v2 lar-dzl
l2l ar
29
L l
I a. f2"l
Or
^
vi=2ghl-z-=l I
dr-o2 l I
2
a.
zsn--r-' ,
dr- dz
a1
22 ./rsh
dt'dz
But discharge Q= az vz
a, r/zgn a,a, 186fr
- a2 22
dL- dz G- ... (3.11)
Equation(3.11)givesthedischargeunderidealconditionanditiscalled
theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be smaller than theoretical discharge
because of loss of energy.
a a 2 h
a1- a1
where, co is coefficient of venturimeter'

If pressure difference is measured by differential manometer. h can be calculated

by following formula:
h=x (p^
lr, -1)
where, h = Pressure head in meter in terms of flowing fluid
X = Difference of manometric liquid in differential manometer
sm = Specific gravity of manometric liquid
sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid.
3.6.2 Orifice Meter ls-12, s-l11
Itis a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid passing through a
pipe. It works on the same principle as that of venturimeter. It is cheaper than
venturimeter but does not give accurate discharge values as given by venturimeter
because of more loss of energy during flow.
It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp-edged hole called as
orlflce. Diameter of orifice ir ],o I that of diameter of pipe. Pressure difference
between sections ( 1) and (2) is measured.
Actual d ischarge. Qu.t =

co a ra, {2gh
22 d2
a1
2 1t
where, ar Cross-sectional area of pipe = 4 d I
a2 Area of circular nole =\ a)
T h
Pipe
I
d1 -Ia^
1 2 Section (2)
ection ('l )
7/
Oriflce pla
Fi . 3.9: Orifice Meter
Fluid Mech.nics & Mac hlnery 3. 13 Fluid Flow
3.6.3 Pitot Tube Si12, S;r 1' Yg-Ot, a-Oq

It is the device used for measuring the rocar verocity of frow at any point in a pipe
or a channel. Its working principle is if velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, there
is increase in pressure energy. In its simprest form, it is a glass tube, bent at right
angle as shown in Fig. 3.10.
H ----------
---'.---___
1---2----
\\\\\\\\\I\\
,3.10 Fi
The lower end bend through 90o is facing the upstream direction. The liquid rises-
up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The velocity is determined by measuring the rise (h) of liquid in the tube as shown in
Fig. 3.10.
Consider two points (1) and (2) as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Let, pl = Intensity of pressure at point (f).
v1 = Velocity at point (2) which is zero.
H= Depth of tube in liquid.
h = Rise of liquid in the tube above free surface.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at points ( 1) and (2),
22
&*5*r.
w 29 ' -r -=b.rz...
w - 29- t'
But z, = 22 as points (1) and (2) are on the same line.
D,
ff = Pressure head at (1) = H
* = P."rrur" head at (2) = H + h

Substituting these values, we get
vl2
+
2g = (H+h)
2
v1
h
29
{&h
vr is theoretical velocity. actual velocity will be slightly less than theoretical
velocity,
3-14 Fluid Flow
Fluid ltechanics & Machlnery
Actual velocity at any Point

v"c = Q{7F
where, c" coefficient of velocity
h Tube p; pe
Piezometer
tube
\\\\\\\\\\\\
3.11: Measurement of Vel
Fi .
For measuring velocity of liquid flowing in pipe, the arranqement is made as
shown in Fig.3.11.
Piezometer tube gives pressure head and pitot tube gives pressure head and
velocity head. By measuring difference (h) in levels between two tubes is velocity
head,
Actual veloci 2 h
The bent end of Pitot tube should be facing the direction of flow of liquid,
otherwise there will be error in calculation.
Ao Examples
Ex. 3,1: A conicat pipe having end diameters as 700 mm and 150 mm is used to
supply oil. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of oil flowing through
the pipe at smaller diameter side is 5 m/sec, Also find velocitY at larger end side'
{ = 100 mm
%=150mm
vl =5m/s
a'
b'
. 3.r2
Given! At section aa',
dr = 100mm=0.1 m
= ; ol =i 10.r1'z = 0.007854 m2
^,
vr = 5 m/sec
At section bb',
dz = 150 mm
0. 15 m
A, = ; (0.1s)'
= O.OL767 m2
Sol.: Discharge through pipe
Q= Ar vr
= 0.007854 x 5
= O.O3927 m3/sec
Now to find velocity at larger diameter,
A1 v1 = A2 v2
. vz=ai
A, V,
0.007854 x 5
0.07767
= 2.22 ml sec
Ex. 3.2: The discharge through a horizontat tapering pipe is 0.06 m3/sec. The
diameters at inlet and outlet are 250 mm and 200 mm respectively. If water enters
the pipe at a pressure of 9.81 bars, determine outlet pressure.
Given: zt = zz = 0 as the pipe is horizontal
Q = 0 05 m3/s
Sol.: =I
u,Âr
_ 0.06
= 1.222 mlsec.
f;to.zs)'
'r=fl
0.06
\to.zt'
= 1.91 m/sec.
tu 9.8 x 10s
9.81x 1000
= 100 m
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 3-16 Fluid Flow
Applying Bernou lli's equation.

2 2
-fuvr
'wz9 = r.+b+9z9
o+100.-J'#* = o*?.i+#*
100.076 = & + 0.185
P2
= 99.89
Pz = 99.89 x 9.81 x 103

= 9.79 x 1os N/m2
= 9.79 bar
Pressure at other end is 9.79 bar,
Ex. 3.3: A tapering pipe changes its diameter from 200 mm to 500 mm, Small
diameter end is facing ground and carries oil of specific aravity 0,9. Length of pipe is
4 m and kept vertical, If discharge is ioo lit./sec and pressures at small diameter
and large diameter ends are 7.5 bar and 0.6 bar respectively, determine loss of head
and direction of flow.
Given: Sp. Gr. = 0.9
dr = 0'2w
Pr= 1,5 x lO5 N/m'z
9z= 0.6 x 10s N/m2
0,3 m3/sec.
= 150 m
r
4m
5 bar
_,1L
=0.2m
.3.13
Sol.: Q = arvr
Q = f, af
"'
3 = f, {o.z)'" u,
= ft# = e.ss m/s
a = dzYz
0.3 = f, {o.s)',,,
4x0.3
n (0.s)'
= 1,53 m/s
Total head at A
2
P,,vr
S.w-29-'t-
1,5 x 10s (9.55)2
0.9 x 9810 + 2 x 9.81 +0 w = 9810 N/m3 for water
2t.64 m
Tota I head at B
2
Qz vz
S.w - 29
*Zz
0.6 x 10s (1.53)2
+
0.9 x 9810 2 x 9.81 +4
10,92 m
Loss of head between points A and B
= Head at point A - Head at point B
= 21.64 - 10.92
=
tO.72 m
The direction of flow will be from A to B as total energy at A is greater than total
energy at B.
Ex,3.4t A 300 mm x 200 mm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying
water, flowing in the upward direction, A differential mercury manometer is
connected to the inlet and throat of venturimeter gives a reading of 20 cm. Find the
discharge. Take co = 9,96,
Sol.: Given: Diameter at inlet = dr = 0.3 m.
u, =t oi =f, to.:l'=o.o7o6em'z
Diameter at throat = d2 = 0.2 m
fi.2 Ir
(0.2)'
a2-4u2-4
= 0.03147 m2
-[+-']=0, [#-,]
'=
= 2.52 m of water
ca = 0'98
Discharge through venturimeter is calculated as
co a, a, {2gfr 0.98 x 0.07069 x 0.03147 x 2x 9.81 x2.52
Q".t,ur =
al (0.07069) (0.03147) -
"1-
= 0.243 m'7sec.
Ex, 3.5: A horizontal tapering pipe as shown in Fig. 3,14 is discharging water. At
one end, diameter of pipe is 60 mm and pressure is 80 kN/m2, At other section, the
diameter is 100 mm and the pressure is 120 kN/m2. If the discharge is O.Og m3/s,
determine the direction of flow.
Sol.: Q = 0.09 m3/s dr = 0.06 m
Pr = 8o kN/m2 dz = 0'1 m
Pz = 120 kN/m2
We will calculate total energy at both ends'
Total energy at end (1)
2
g, v1
= zt+;+ 29
Pz = 12! kN/m2
P1 = 80 kN/m2
@
d, =60mm
{=toomm
F .3.14
If we assume Zt = zz = 0 (. from Fig. 3.14).
By law of continuity,
Q = arvr=arv,
.,' _ a._
dr
0.009
= 31.83 m/s
| " io.oo)'
Total energy at end ( 1)
- 80x 103
= |,.} +
(3183)'z
9810 2 x 9.81
-
3-19 Fluld Flow
Fluid Mechanics & Uachlnery
P1 80 x 103
Substituting = l81o
= 8.15 + 51.63
= 59.78 m
Now consider end (2).
Q= az vz
0.09
ur=fi n
x /0.1)2
4
= 11.45 m/s
Total energy at end (2)
= -.P2,ul
Lzaw_2g
2
^.120x10r* (21 x1.45)

= o+-8ro 9.81
= 12.23 + 6.68 = 18.91 m

Since total energy at end (1) is greater than total energy
at end (2)' flow takes
from end (1) to end ( 2).
to measure the flow
Ex. 3.6: A horizontal venturimeter 160 mm x 80 mm is used
the oil mercury gauge' if
of an oil of specific gravity 0.8 Determine the deftection of
Lhe discharge of the oit is 50 li/sec' Assume
cd = 7'
sol.: dr = 160 mm, d2 = 80 mm, + = 0'8, Q = 50 lit/sec'

ar = Cross-sectional area at inlet of venturimeter
4 x 0.162
4
= 0'0201 m2
a2 = Cross-sectional area of throat
4 x
4 0.08'z
=
0.005026 m2
Now deflection of oil mercury gauge
h = (? :.) x m or water
= 6:f - ,),
h 16 x, where x, m is difference of mercury level in meters'
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machineiy 3-m Fluid Flow
Now for venturimeter,

cd.al .a2
a .Esh
atr
^1-
5o y to 3 = !.09!A- . 2 x 9.81
-f:P.q?9f]_
v(0.0201). (o.ooso),
x 15
.. x = O.297 m
Deflection of mercu ry will he 297 mm.
Ex. 3"7, Water flows down an inclined tapering pipe 45 m long
at a slope of 7 in
10. The areas at the upper and lower ends of pipe
are 8 m2 and j m2 respectively.
If the velocity at the tower end is 4.5 m/s a nd the pressure at the upper end
is
100 kPa, calculate the pressure at the lower end and the rate
of flow through pipe,
4.5 m
Datum line
F .3,15
Sol.: a, = 8m2, a, = 3m2, p, = lOOkpa = lOOx 103 N/m2
vz = 4.5 m/s
Difference of rever between
jT:"_"Jr'
= 4.5 m
Pressu!-e head P, = 100 x 103
at section 1-1 = w :e1-0 = 10.19 m of water
By continuity equation,
Q = 6r vr = 62 V, = 3 x 4.5 = 13.5 m3/sec

... v, = 1:=$,a.s=1.G87sm/s
Applying Bernoulli's theorem to the upper and lower ends
*ff *fi
2 2
Pr + v1
zI +
29 .,
Fltrld Mechanics & Machinery 3.21 Fluid Flow
lf z, = 6 (assuming datum line as shown); zt = 4.5 m

... 4.s + 10.1e +##= o *3.##
4.s + 10.19 + 0.14s = 0 *?+ 1.032
= 13.81 m
P2
Pz = 13.81 x 9810 = 135475 N/m2

= 1.35 bar
.. Pressure at lower end of pipe
Pz = 1' 35 bar
and Rate of flow =
13.5 m3/sec.
Ex. 3.8: A pipe line ABCD of unifarm diameter carrying water consists of three
straight parts AB, BC and CD of lengths 40 m, 160 m and 60 m respectively. The
levels above datum are as follows: A = 350 m, B = 345 m, C = 310 m, D = 300 m.
Pressure gauges at A and D show pressures of 100 kPa and 650 kPa respectively.
Determine the direction of flow and the loss of head between the end of the pipe
line.
350 m
40m
B
345 m
160 m
c
310 m
60m
300 m D
Fis.3.16
to3#o'o'=
Sol.: Pressure head at A
*= 1o.re4 m
t'3r1;n = GG.25e m
Pressure head at D *=
Let, v Velocity of flow through the pipe
Total energy head at A E^
z^+$+$
2
2so+10.1s4+t
2
360.rsa + i6
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 3-22 Fluld Flow
Total energy head at D ED

2
z^+&+ 2S
= 3oo + 55.2se +
g
29
Since total energy head at D is greater than total energy head at A. the direction
of flow is from D to A.
... Total loss of head from D to A
= hr=Ee-Ee
= (ruu.ru, *$) - (ruo.rro .;i)
= 6,O65 m
Ex. 3.9: A pitot tube connected to a boat is used to determine the velocity of the
boat. Find the speed of the boat if the water level in the tube is 0.75 m above the
surface. Take the coefficient of the tube as 0,98,.
Sol.: c, = 0.98, h = 0.75 m
Velocity of boat = v = c, {&h
0.98 2x9.81 x 0.75
3,759 m/s
13.533 km/hr.
Ex. 3.103 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of
30 cm diameter, The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential
manometer on the two sides of the orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm of
mercury. Find the rate of flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9, when the coefficient of
discharge of the meter is 0.64. @
Sol.: Diameter of orifice, do = 15 cm
.. Area = a.=tx 0.15'z= 0.0176.7 m2
Diameter of pipe,
dr = 30 cm
.'t
... Area = a,=+ x
1
0.3. = 0,0706 m.
Specific gravity of oil,
s" = 0'9
Reading of differential manometer,
x= 0.5 m of mercury
ls-
Differential head = h=xlA-
\so
1)
= o'' (1.:rq r) mofoi

= 0.5 x 14.11 = 7.055 m of oil
ca = 0'64
co a, a. r/2gt,
a 2 2
a1 ao
0.64x0.01767x0.0706 2x9.81 x 0.07055

o.o7o6'z - 0.0176
= 0.1374 m3ls
Ex. 3.11: A muttistorey building is 380 m above the street. If the pressure of
170 kPa is required in a water pipe line at the top of the building, what is the
pressure at the basement of the building g m below street? IEEEtr
Sol.: Giver data: Building height = 380 m, Pressure at top = 17O l'.Pa,
Building is 9 m deep than road, Pressure at bottom = ?.
See Fig.3.17.
2 P ='170 x10 Nim

Top
I
380 m
Road I t
m
Bottom
.3.t7 F
By applying Bernoulli's theorem at top (2) and bottom (1) taking bottom as
reference and specific weight for water = 9810 N/m3'
ff*., = ff*., (Assuming Vr = Vz)
#to* o = {frfl*:as
#t6 = 17.33+38s=406.33
Pz = 3986'097 kPa
Pressure at basement of building = 3986.097 kPa.
Ex. 3,12: A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of specific Aravity 0,9 at a vetocity of
3 m/sec, At another section the diameter is 20 cm. Find velocity at this section and
mass flow rate of oil.
@
Sol,: Given data: dr = 0.25 m, d2 = 6.26n1
Specific gravity = 0.9.
vr = 3.0 m/s, v2 =?, m =?
1 2
1 2
dr=25cm dz=2ocn
v1 = 3.0 m/s
.3.18
Density of oil = po Specific gravity x Density of water
0.9 x 1000 kglm3
900 kglm3
Q = a,vt dzYz
.'. ,,
V2
d'
il4xdl
if,)i, ",
(0.25)2
x 3
ioibjz
Velocity at section 2-2 4.6875 m/s
.1 ,t .2
Q aol x vl
f,x e.2s)2 x 3
0.L47 m3/s
Mass flow p..Q
900 x 0.147
= 132.5 kgls
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery s .25 Fluid Flow
Ex. 3.13: A 30 cm x 15 cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying

water flowing in upward direction, A differential memory manometer, connected to
the inlet and throat gives a reading of 20 cm. Find the discharse, take Ca = 0.98. -@
Sol.: Given data: . sm = 13.6. sP. gr. of lvater 5r = 1, . Co= 0.98, dr = 30 cm,
dz = 150 mm, .. dl = 0.3 m, .'. d2 = 9.15 -.
C/s area of venturimeter at inlet
n)ll
01 - 4u1 - 4 x (0.3)2
01 - 0.07069
and cross area of venturimeter at outlet is
lt
az- 4 ol = fix (o.rs)'z
dz= o.ot767
20 cm
0.2 m difference of mercury level in meters
.. Deflection of oil mercury gauge h = {=- 1l xmeterof water
.. Pressure head in meters h =

i(+t ,)'or]
2.52 m of water
a a 2 h
For venturimeter discharge is Q= 22
or - oz
0.98x0.07069x0.017
a=
(0.07069) - (0.01767)
X 2 x 9.81 x 2.52
Q = 0.125 m3/sec. = 125 litres/sec.

Ex. 3.14: A pipe through whlch water is flowing ls having diameters 40 cm and
20 cm at section 7 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 7 is given
5 m/sec, Find the velocity head at section 7 and 2. Also find rate of discharge, -@
Sol.: .'. d1= 40 cm = 0.4 m
Area at inlet
-
... A, = f, to.+)' = 0.126 m3
''' dz = 0'2 m
@
{ =4ocm =20cm
vl = 5 m/sec
.3.19
Fluld Mechanics & Machlnery 3-26 Fluid Flow
Area at outlet
n, =\ai=[{o.z)' =0.0314 m2
Using continuity equation

SrVr = dzVz
... 0.726x5 = 0.0314 x vz
Velocity at section 2 is v2 = 20 m/sec'
... Rate of discharge at section (2) is Q = Q2v,
= 0.314 x 20 = 0.628 m3/sec.
and vetocity head at section (1) is

* = tgt = L.274 m
Velocity head at Section (Z) is

v1 2o2
29 = 2 ^ 9f 1 = 20.38 m
Ex, 3.15r Find total energy of flowing water from the following data in k'1,
Diameter of pipe = 12OO mm, Flow rate = 360 lps, Pressure = 3 bar, Location of
pipe = 3000 mm from ground level. mm
Sol.: d = diameter of PiPe
= 1200 mm = 1.2 m
discharge of flow rate Q = 360 lps = 360 x 10-3 m3/sec.
Pressure = p = 3 bar = 3 x 1os N/m2
z = Potential head = 3000 mm = 3 m
.'. Area of pipe u =;d'=f, xQ.z)'z = 1.131 m2
v = Q-
36Qx (, Q=av)
velocity of flow -10-3 = 0.32 m/sec.
Total energy of flow water is
z+ v2
29+
.e
^ (0.32)2r 3x10s
=ru2x9.81 9810
=3+0.005219+30.58
= 33.586 N-m or Joule
= 0.033586 Kloules
Ex, 3,16: A venturimeter is installed in a pipeline 30 cm diameter. The difference
of pressure at entrance and throat read by mercury manometer is 5 cm, when water
flows at a rate of 0.05 m3/sec. If the discharge coefficient of meter is 0.96,
determine the diameter of throat. M
Fluid Mechanlca & Machlnery 3-27 Fluid Flow
Sot.: Diameter at inlet, dl = 30 cm = 0.3 m

.'. Area at inlet, a, = f; (0.3)'z = 0.07059 m2 1 sm = 13.6,
'. Diameter of throat d, = ? sr= l forwater
and Area of throat a2 = t di
also Q = o.o5 m3/sec., cd = 0.96
Difference of mercury level x = 5 cm = 0'05 m
Pressuredifference, t =,(?-,
i.e. Pressure head in meters, h = 0.00s (+ , = 0.53 m ofwater
For venturimeter
co araz r/76E
a= 22
dt- ?z
0.96 x o.o7o6e ,r/7xl16llo163
a,
0.0s =
(0.07069)'z - al
(0.07069)'? - al = 4.77 az
Squaring both sides
2
(0.07069)'? - a 2 = 1+.tt a;2
4.99 x 10- 3 = zz.ts atr + al
4.99 x 10-3 = 23.75 atr
ai=2.10x10-a
az = 0.014495
f,a| = o.ota+ss
'. dz = 0.1358 meters
'. Throat diameter dz = 13'58 cm
Ex, 3.17r pitot tube shows 75.5 cm of water, determine the velocity of water,
If
ir uii iino" it'5.588 cm'z. Determine the discharge the water in lit./sec. @
Sol.: h = 15.5 cm = 0.155 m,Area of flowa = 5.88 cm', .'. a= 5.88x 10-a m2
.'. Assume C, = 0.98
.'. Actual velocity = C,Vr6E
= 0.98 2x9.8ix5.38x1
v = 1.71 m/sec.
... Discharge Q=a'v
= 3.88 x 10-a x 1.71
= 1.04 x 1C-3 m3/sec.
a = 1.04 liters/sec
Fluid Mechanics & Machi nery 3-28 Flurd Flow
Ex. 3.18: A venturimeter having throat diameter 5.3 cm is provided on a pipe of

10 cm diameter. If oil of specific gravity 0,85 is flowing in the upward direction,
determine the venture head and the discharge of the vertical distance between inlet
and throat is 22 cm. Determine the actual head of venturimeter. Assume Ca = 0.65.
Sol,: d, = 10 cm = 0.1 m, d2 = 5.3 cm = 0.053 m, sr = 0.85, s. = 13.G.

M
Mercury deflection x = 12.8 cm = 0.128 m, Cd = 0.65.
Area at inlet, u, = f, trO), = 78.54 cm2
Area at throat, a, = f, {S.Z), = 22.06 cm2
'*'iffill?'n':"?f'"" n =, (?- r) = o.rze ffi -')

h=0.192m=192cm
Co ' a, a, J2qh
Now d ischarge, v --
,..,
I-r-------
r/ui - u5
0.65 x 78.54 x 22.06 x 2x9.81 x 192
a= 78.54 - (22.06)
Q = 955 cm37sec.
Q = 9.55 x 10-a m3lsec.
Actual head, h =
H3) + (2,-2.2)
0.L92 = G#f;rr.-rrJ+(o-0.22)
(pr - pr) = 3435 N/m2
Ex. 3.19r A venturimeter has an area ratio g to 1; the larger diafieter being
300 mm. During the flow, Che recorded pressure head in the large Section is 6.5 m
and that of the throat 4,25 m. If the meter coefficient cd - O,gg. Compute the
discharge through the meter. fE{ttriEdl
sor.: .
fi
= 9, dr = 3oo mm = 0.3 m,
Pressure head in large section hr = 6.5 m, c = 0,99
Pressure head in large section hz = 4,25 m
Area of targe section i.e. at intet a1 = OO Oi = tO.Sl,
f,
= 70,69 x l0-3 m2
and Area of large secflon i.e. at throat = ai = ?
", X,
70.69 x 10-3
9
az = 7,854 x 10-3 m2
Pressure head/difference of pressure head = h = hr - hz

.. h = 6.5- 4.25=2.25m
t=----
^ d1d2 \,lZQh
L6
Discharge q = 22
or - dz
0.99 x (70.69 x 10-3) x (7.854 x 10-3 ) x r/21 s-81 ,. 2.25
a (70.69 x 10- - (7.854 x 10- )
549.6 x 10-a
= Torl;10- = 6.644 =52 x 10-3 m3/sec.
Q = 52 litres per second

Ex. 3.203 Why is 'Vena-Contracta' related to orifice meter? A 60 mm diameter
orifice is discharging water under a head of 9 m. Calculate actual discharge through
the orifice in litres per second and actual velocity of jet in m/sec. at vena contrada if
Ca = 0.625 and C, = 0.98. EE
Ans.: The liquid passing through orifice in the form of jet of liquid whose area of
cross-section is less than area of orifice, A jet contracts from the mouth of orifice and
after a distance of about half the orifice diameter the jet begins to expand, The
minimum contracted section of jet is called as vena contrada.
Sol.: Diameter of orifice d = 0.06 m, head of water = 9 m, Ca = 0.625,
Cv = 0.98, Cc = ?
... Actual velocity = Cv x Theoretical velocity
= c, V2sh = o.e8 2x 9.81 x9
= 13.0225 m/sec.
'. Actual discharge = Ca x Theoretical discharge
= Cd x Area of orifice x Theoretical velocity
= 0.625 ,. { {o.oo)' , 2x9.81 x9

O = 0.312 m2lsec
Q = 312 litres/sec.
Co= Cu C.
^ ed
t.=C,= 0.625
0.9
Cc = 0.6944
Ex. 3.21: A pitot tube in a pipe in which air is throwing is connected to
manometer containing water. If the difference in water levels in the manometer is
87.5 mm. What is the velocity of flow in a pipe assuming a tube coefficient as 0'99'
@
Sol.: h = 87.5 mm = 0.0875 m, Cv = 0.99

'. Velocity of flow is
v = c"V2gh
v = 0.99 x 2x9.81 x 0.0875
= 1.2971 m/sec.
Ex. 3.22: Find the velocity of flow of an oil through a pipe when the difference of
mercury level in differential u-tube manometer connected to the tappings of the Ditot
tube is 1OO mm. Take coefficient of pitot tube 0.98 and sp. gravity of oii = 0.S. EE
sol.: oil flows through the pipe, pitot tube with u tube manometer.
Pressure head x = 100 mm = 0.1m, Ca = 0.98, $ = 0.8.
' Pressurehead n = t)=o.r^('.#- r)
.'. h = 1.6mof oil
"(?-
V," = {2gh = {, 9.s1 ,. l.s = r[ r-9,
^
= 5.6029 m/sc.
''' Vac = Ca x Vth = 0'98 x 5'6029
Vu.t,ur = 5'4908 m/sec'
Ex. 3.23! A venturimeter is connected in a pipe carrying water. The diameter of
pipe is 250 mm, The difference of levels between the throat and inlet section is
45 mm, when the flow rate O.O5 m3/sec. Calculate the diameter of throat. Take
ca = 0.96. M
Sol.3 Let d1 = diameter at inlet dr = 250 mm = 0.25 m.
,t)r-
. . Area of inlet a, =
a di = 4 (0.25)' = 0.04909 m'
.. Diameter at throat d2 = ?
Area of throat a, = \ ail

Discharge Q = 0.05 m3/sec, C, = 6.96.
. Difference of mercury levels x = 45 nlm = 0.045 m
S. = Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6
Sr = Specific Aravity of water =
z1c \
'. Pressure head in meters h = x,\5f* - f I
h = o.o4s (+t -')

.'. h = 0.567 m of water
For venturimeter,
Cd . ar a2 lEgtr
22
dr-o:
0.96x0.04909xa 2x9.81 x 0.557
0.05 =
(0.0+909)'? - a]
(0.04909)'z - al = 3.tqto az
Squaring on both sides

(0.04909)' - ai
.. 0.002409 - a; =
(3.1436 ar),
... 0.002409 = s.se al + a3
.. 10.88 ai = 0.002409
,., d2 = 0.01488
lt,2
ioz = 0.01488
d, = 0.1376 meters
Diameter of th roat dz = 137.6 mm
lmportant Points
> Hydrokinetics is the branch ol science which deals with motion ol particles without
considering the lorces causing the motion ol fluid.
> Hydrodynamics is the study of motion ol fluid particles by considering the lorces causing
the motion.
> lt the llow parametes - velocity, densily, pressure do not vary at a point with respect to
time, then lhe flow is called as steady flow.
> ll these paramelers changes with respecl to time, then the lluid flow is called as unsteady
flow.
> ll velocity of lluid particle at all sections is given time remains conslant w.r.t. to length ol
direction ol llow, it is called as unilorm llow.
> ll velocity of lluid particle does not remain constant at ditferenl sections ot tluid llow it is
called as non-unilorm llow.
> lf f luid particle moves in a well defined path, then the flow is called laminar llow.
> ll each fluid particle in fluid flow has no delinite path and paths of individual particles
crosses each other, then the llow is called turbulent flow.
> Fluid particles in lluid llowing along streamline also rotale about their own axis, then lluid
llow is called rotational llow.
> Fluid particles in lluid flow do not rotate about their own axis, then the tluid flow is called
as irrotational flow.
> For an incompressible fluid tlowing through the pipe at all cross-sections, the quantity ol
fluid flowing per second is conslant. This is known as continuity equation. O=A'v IS
discharge, continuity equation iS A1v1 = A2v, = .......

> For compressible llow, the density and volume ol lluid is not constant. For incompressible
flow, the density and volume ol fluid remains constanl.
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 3-32 Fluid Flow
> The llowing lluid has three lorms of energy - Kinetic energy, Potential energy and
Pressure energy.
,'2
K.E. =;z9 in m, Potential energy = Z in meters.
p
Pressure energy = - = Pressure head in meters.
r motion per unit weisht = 1, ' {j. i)
> Daniel Bernoulli's is an eminent mathematician and philosopher, "Neglecting lriction lor
perfect incompressible liquid, llowing in a continuous stream, the total energy of particle
remains constanl while the particle moves lrom one point to another i.e. Total energy
which consists ol kinetic energy, pressure energy and potential energy at any point ol
lluid is constant for steady and ideal incompressible llusk.
2 2
o
B. +
2
1
+2., =i + 2
+Z ..,. Bernoulli's equation
> Assumptions made in Bernoulli's equation are

o The lluid is ideal
o The llow is steady, incompressible and irrotational
> Application of Bernoulli's theorem are Venturimeter, Orificemeter, Pitot tube.
> The discharge O, through a venturimeter or orifice meter is given by
Co . a,a, r./Zoh
Q""r = 22
dt-dz
Ca = Coetficient of Venturimeter
> Venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow of lluid flowing through the closed
conduit. Orifice meter is used to measure rate of flow ot lluid.
> Pitot tube is used to measure local velocity ol llow at any point in a pipe or channel. The
velocity is given by V,., = C" 1E;h
C" = Coeflicient of velocity
'ractice Question
.
1 What are ditferent methods ol studying lluid flows? Explain in brier.
2. Def ine the following and give two practical examples lor each:
(a) Unilorm llow and Non-unilorm llow. EU
(b) Steady llow. E@
(c) Rotational flow.
(d) Laminar flow.
(e) Turbulent llow.
3. State law of continuity. Explain in brief.
4. Calculate diameter of pipe lo carry petrol of 10 lit./min with velocity 2 m/s
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 3-33 Fluid Flow
5 State and prove Bernoulli's theorem lor flow ol liquids s-10, 904, s-03, w-031
6 State use of venturimeter, pitol tube. Derive an expression lor discharge through a
venturimeter with neat sketch.
7 A pipe 40 m long has a slope of 3 in 10 and tapers trom 1 m diameter at higher end to
0.6 m at lower end. Quantity ol water llowing is 5.4 m'/min. lf the pressure at the higher
end is 0.7 bar, find pressure at lower end.
lHint: From slope and length of pipe a, zz can be calculated taking z, = 0 i.e centre of
lower end section as datuml.
8 Waler llows through the venturimeter as shown in Fig. 3.19. The specific gravty ol the
manometer f luid is 1.52. Determine the f low rate if = 0.98.
150 mm 75 mm
50
mm Sp. gr. = 1.52
. 3.20
9. Water llows through the orilice mster as shown in Fig. 3.20 al the rale of 0.0028 m '/sec
lfh=114cm determine the value of d if = 0.65
I
-:
50 mm--- - - d
Fi . 3.21
10. Explain working principle ol pitot tube with neat sketch. M
11 . State Bernoulli's theorem. Explain how it can be applied to pitot tube by using
malhematical equation. EIEEEEI
12. State continuity equation and meaning of each term lor in compressible
tlow' Explain
venturimeter.
working principle of [EEE[
13. State the continuity equation. MEEII
'14. Explain the working principle at pitot tube with neat sketch IEEEEEEEEE
low with its unit in Sl system'
15. Deline rotational and irrotational llows Deline rate ol f
M@
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machlnery 3-34 Fluid Flow
MSB7E Question & Answe

Summer 2OO8
't. Deline steady flow and Non-Unilorm Flow. . @
2.State Bernoulli's theorem. Write Bernoulli's equations in energy and head form.
3. A multistory building is 380 m above the street. ll the pressure at 170 kPa is required in a
water pipe line at the top ol the building. what is the pressure at the basement of the
building 9 m below the street. @
Ans. Please refer to Ex. 3.1 1 .
4. Oraw a neat sketch ol venturimeter. State why the length of divergent cone is made
longer. m
Ans. Please reler lo Article 3.6.1.
5. A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil ol specilic gravity 0.9 al a velocity of 3 m/sec. At
another section the diameter is 20 cm. Find velocity at this section and mass llow rate ot
oil.
Ans. Please reler to Solved Ex. 3.12.
Wanter 2008
1. Explain the total energy ol a liquid particle in motion. llEn
2. Draw the diagram of venturimeter and explain its use. Also write the equation lor the
discharge. @
3. Write the construction and working ol pitot tube. @
4. Derive the equation lor discharge through orificemeter. @
5. A venturimeter has an area ratio 9 : l. The larger diameter being 300 mm. During the
flow, the recorded pressure in the large Section in 6.5 m and that at the throat is 4.25 m.
lf the meter coetficient Cd = 0.99. Calculate the discharge through the meter. @
Summer 2OO9
1 Define steady llow with an example. @
Ans. Please reler to Article 3.2 (1).
2. State the Bernoulli's theorem. Explain how it can be applied to pitot tube by using
mathematical equation. @
Ans. Please reler to Article 3.5, Articte 3.6.8.
3. An orifice meter with oririce diameler 15 cm is inserted in a pipe ol 30 cm diameter.
The pressure diflerence measured by mercury oil ditferential manometor is 50 cm of Hg.
Find rate ol llow ol oil sp. gr. 0.9. Take Co= 0.64. Efr
Ans. Please refer to Ex. 3. 10.
3-35 Fluid Flow
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery
tapeted pipe
4 Deline compressible and incompressible llow. water flows down an inclined
45 m long at siope ot 1 : lo. The areas at upper and lower ends ol
I
pipe is m2 and 3 m2
respectivlly. lf velocity at lower end is 4.5 m/s and pressure at upper end is 100 kPa'
calculate pressure at lower end and rate ol flow'
Ans. Please reler to Article 3.2.5 and reter to Example 3 7'
flow' ExPlatn
5.State continuity equalion and meaning of each term ol incompressible
"
working principle oI venturimeter. llEl
Please reler lo Article 3 3 and 3.6
'1
Ans.
Winter 2009
State continuily
1. equation. @
2. Explain the principle ol working of Pitot tube with neat sketch' @
Ans. Please reler to Article 3.6.3.
pipe carrying water flowing in the
3. A 30 m x 15 cm venturimeter is inserled in a vertical
upward direction. A dirferential mercury manometer connected
to the inlet and throat
gives a reading of 20 cm. Find the discharge, Take Co = 0 98 8[l
Ans. Please refer to Example 3.13
4. Delinerotationalandirrigationalflows.Delinerateo'llowwithitsunitinSlsystem m
Ans. Please reler to Arlicle 3.2 (4)
Summer 2O1O
1. Deline unilorm and non-uniform flow' ro
Ans. Please reler to Article 3.2 (ii) ,rri
2. Explain working principle of pitot tube with neat sketch Elltl
Ans, Please refer to Article 3.6 3.
3. State Bernoulli's theorem. Explain meaning of each term in
il @
A horizontal ventrimeler 160 x 80 mm used to measure of an oil specilic gravity
4. 'low
0.3.Determinedellectionoloilmercurygaugeildischaroeofoilis50lit./sec.
Take Ci = '1. @
Ans. Please reler to Ex. 3.6
Ytlinter 2OlO
1. Draw a neat sketch ol venturimeter' Define venturi

head @
Please reler Article 3.6.1, Fig. 3.8 ol ch 3'
Ans.
2. Define the lollowing llow :
@
(i) Steady flow
(ii) Non-uniform f low
(iii) Rotational llow
(iv) Laminar llow
page 3 6 and 3 8'
Ans. Please refer Article 3'2 on
Fluid Mechanica & Machlnery 3-36 Fluld Flow
3. (i) State Bernoulli's theorem. Wrile the assumptions made in it.

ml
Ans Please refer Article 3.5.
(ii) Find the total energy ol llowing water rrom the lollowing data in kJ
Oiameter of pipe = 1200 mm
Flow rate = 360 lps
Pressure = 3 bar
Localion of the pipe = 3000 mm from ground level.
Summer 2Ol l
1.
State any four types ol fluad flows
mn
2. A venturimeter is instalred in a pipe rine 30 cm diameter. The difference of pressure
at
enirance and throat read by mercury manometer is 5 cm, when water flows at a rate ot
u.u5 m-/sec. rr the discharge co-eflicient of meter is 0.96, determine the diameter of
Ans. L!o"1 ,",",,o Sorved Ex.3.16. iilD

3. A pitot tube directed into a water stream having a verocity ol 2.7 mtsec. rt has gauge
difference ol 30 mm on the water mercury manometer. Find its coefficient. Arso eidin
construction and working of pitot tube with neat
.. sketch. m
Ans. Y = 2.7 m/sec, press difference = 30 mm = O.O3O m
Sp. Gr. ol mercury S, = .13.6, Sp. Gr. ot water = S = 1 .
.'. Pressure head in m of water
n =,(*-r)=ooso (#-,)
h = 0.378 m ot water
Now velocity ol llow
v = c,rfish
2.7 = C, 2 x9.81 x 0.378
... Coefficient of velocity
c, = 0.991
Also refer Article No. 3.6.3.
4. E-rplain construction, principle ol working ol orificemeter. Also write
the equation for
discharge through orilicemeter and state the meaning ol eac h term used. [f,[l]
Winter 2Ol 1
1. ln case of venturimeter why the length ol divergenl cone is more
than that ol co nver0ent
Ans.
cone ?
Please refer to Article 3.6.1. tu
2 List. out the discharge measuring devices and draw
venturimeler.
a neat labelled diagram of a
Ans. P.ease.Jefer to Fig.3.g and Article 3.6..1. Discharge
and Orifice meler.
measuring devices - V"ntrri#
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 3-37 Fluid Flow
3. Deline the following terms : @

(i) Unilorm llow
(ii) Steady f low
(iii) Turbulent flow
(iv) Rotational llow
Ans. (i)Uniform f low : Please refer to Article 3.2.
(ii)
Steady flow : Please refer to Article 3.2 (1 ).
(iii) Turbulent llow : Please reler to Article 3.2 (3).
(iv) Rolational flow : Please refer to Article 3.2 (4).
4. State tt'e Bernoulli's theorem and give the assumptions made while deriving it. [Im
5. lf the Pitot tube shows '15.5 cm of water, determine the velocity ol water. lf area ol flq4dq
5.88 cmz, delermine the discharge ol water in lit./sec. @
6. A Venturimeter having throat diameler 5.3 cm is provided on a pipe of 10 cm diameter. lf
oil of speciric gravity 0.85 is flowing in the upward direction, determine the venturi head
and the discharge il the manometer shows 12.80 cm o{ mercury dellection. ll the vertical
distance between inlet and throat is 22 cm, determine the actual head ol the
venturimeler. Assume Co = 0.65. lm
Ans. Please reler to Solved Example 3.18
Summer 2O12
1. Define: (1) Streamline flow (2) Uniform flow Im
2. A venturimeter has an area ratio 9 to 1, the larger diameter being 300 mm. During lhe
flow, the recorded pressure head in the large section is 6.5 m and that at the thlg4l
4.25 m. ll the metre coefficient (C) = 0.99, coripute the discharge through the metre. [!El
Ans. Please refer to Solved Example 3.19.
3. Explain concepts of: [!ffi
(i) Botational llow
(ii) Unsteady tlow
Ans. (i) Rotational ,low : Please reler to Article 3.2 (4).
(ii) Unsleady tlow : Please reler to Article 3.2 (1).
4. Why is 'Vena-contracta' related to Orilice meter? A 60 mm diameter orifice is
discharging waler under a head of 9 m. Calculate the actual discharge through the orilice
in litres per second and actual velocity ol the jet in m/s al vena contracta, il Co = 0.625
and C" = 0.98. IEEI
5. What is pitot tube? Explain with sketch. @
Ans. Please refer to Article 3.6.3
urinter 2012
1 Slate continuity equation. m
Ans Please reler to Article 3.3
2. A pitot tube in a pipe in which air is flowing is connected to a manometer containing
water. lf the ditference in waler levels in lhe manometer is 87 5 mm, what is the
velocity
ol llow in the pipe assuming a tube coefficient as 0.99 @
Ans. Please refer to Solved Example 3 21 .
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 3.38 Fluid Flow
3. Explain with neat sketch working ol venturimeter. [EE[

4. State Bernoulli's theorem. Explain the signilicance ot each term. What is its applicability?
State ifs lourtimitations. @
Summer 2O13
1. Deline steady llow and turbulent flow. m
2. Deline unilorm and non-uniform flow- |f[l]
Ans. Please refer to Article 3.2 (2).
3. A horizontal venturimeter wilh inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm respectively is
used to measure the llow of water. The reading ol difrerential manometer connected to
the inlel and the throat is 20 cm ol Hg. Determine the rate ol flow. Take Cd = 0.98. EEn
Ans Please refer to Solved Example 3.13.
4 Find the velocity of llow of an oil through a pipe, when the ditference ol mercury level is
diflerential U{ube manometer connected to the tappings ot the Pitot tube is 100 mm.
Take coefficienl of Pitot tube 0.98 and sp. gravity of oil = 0.8. M
Ans. Please reler to Solved Example 3.22
Winter 2O13
1. State Bernoulli's theorem m
Ans. Please refer to Article 3.5
2. A venturimeter is connecled in a pipe carrying water. The diameter ol pipe is 250 mm.
The dilterence of levels between the throal and inlet section is 45 mm, when the llow rate
0.05 m3/sec. Calculate the diameter of throat. @
3. Explain the working principle ol orilicemeter with a neat sketch and define vena-contracta
in orifice. |[[i]
4. what are hydraulic coetficients? Name them. Explain working principle ol Pitot tube. l![I
Ans. For pitot tube refer article 3.6.3.
1. Vena contracta : Consider a small circular orilice with sharp edges in the side ol a tank
(See Fig. 3.22). Lel the centre ol the orifice be at a depth below the lree surface. Let us
assume that the orilice is discharging lree into the atmosphere. As the fluid flows through
the orifice, it contracts and attains a parallel lorm (i.e. slreamlines become parallel) at a
distance ol about d/2 lrom the plane ol orifice. This is due to the tact that the tluid
particles cannot change th6ir directions abruptly. The point at which lhe streamlines first
become parallel is termed the 'vena contracta'.
pa
il
2,, L
H
i :d:f
+
@
Vena
contracta
Jet of water
1+ dt2
Datum level
Fig. 3.22
2. Jel o, rvater : The stream ol a liquid, that comes out or llows out of an oririce, is known
as the jet of water.
Hydraulic Coefflclenls: The terms coefficient of contraction, coeflicient of velocity,
coeflicient of discharge and coefficient of resistance are called as hydraulic coellicients.
Water particles in a tank litted with an orifice move tirsl vertically downward and then take
a turn to enter the orifice and leave lt. ln taking this turn, some energy is lost and hence,
the original properties are not retained by the let of water. Hence, we observe in practice
that the cross-sectional area ol the jet does not conline to the orilice area and the actual
velocity of the jet is less than that theoretically possible. To account for these lacts, the
various coet icients of the orifice are defined as under :
(a) Coeflicient of contraction -
Cc
(b) Coeflicient of velocity - Cv
(c) Coefficient ol discharge C6 -
(d) Coetficient ol resistance Cr -
(a) Coetlicient ol contraction : The cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena
contracta is less than the area ol cross-section of the orifice. The lluid particles
before they reach the orilice have lhe velocity components parallel to the plane o, the
orifice and, because ol inertia, they cannot make abrupt changes in the direclion.
They take curvilinear paths. This causes the conlraction ol the jet at the vena
contracta. The ratio ol the cross-sectional area ol lhe jet at the vena contracta to lhe
cross-sectional area o, the orilice is called the 'coefficient of contraction'and is
usually designated by Cc.
Mathematically it is expressed as :
^ Area ol iet at vena conkacta Ac
uc = nrea otlEir area ot oritice = n
The theoretical value ol Cc = *" = 0.611, but in practice, its value varies from
0.613 to 0.69 depending upon the size and shape of the orifics and the head under
which the liquid is llowing.
(b) Coeflicienl ol velocity : lt is delined as the ratio of the actual vslocity ol the jet at
vena contracta lo lhe theoretical velocity, is known as coeflicient of velocity.
Mathematically, it is expressed as :
Actual velocitv at vona contracta
^
uv = -- ttreoreticat vetocity
The theoretical velocity cI the let is measured OV VzgH, where H = head under
which the liquid is flowing.
vact
.. -
"v _ {2sH
Thevalueolcoefticiento,velocityvariesveryslightlywiththeditferentshapesolthe
the orifice. For a sharp edged orifice, the value ol Cv increases with the
"Jg"a "t
head ol water. The value ot cv varies trom 0.95 to 0.99. Average
value ol cv iS about
0.97.
(c) Coefflcient ol discharge : Al the vena contracta' the streamlines are straight'
parallel and perpendicular to lhe cross-section of the jet' The discharge (O) may be
obtained from the continuity equation :
O= Acv = (Cc'a) C rEglr = Co'arpgH
,coefficient ol discharge,. The coetlicient ol
in which C6 is a coefficient called the
discharge is the product ol the coeflicienl ol velocity and the coeflicient ot
contraclion. Expressing this mathematically,
oact
- Actual disctragg-
Cd = Theorefical drsclrarse = otheo -
O261= A,s x vs61 = &'Cv\EgH
Qth=Axvth=at/ZgH
0361 a6 Cy rPgH
"o- oth - a./zsH
= c"'cu(as f;= "" o, ? = "J

.. Ca = Cc'Cv
The value of Cd varies with the values of Cc and Cv and average value ol Cd is 0'62'
(d) coetticient ol resistance : lt is defined as the ratio of loss of kinetic energy to the
actual kinetic energy. Expressing mathematically,
Loss of K.E. Loss of head fl-d)

c, = nctuar r<E = Aatuat head =
[ .i .]
Summer 2014
State any lour types ol lluid flows.
1. ro
2. Define Bernoullies lheorem and slate its assumptions. ro!
3. With neat sketch explain construclion and working of pitot tube m!
Ans. Please reler to Article 3.6.3
rtr
A,/,"lrt n 4...
FIow Through Pipes
4.1 lntroduction
EEFR-
4.2 Loss of Energy in Pipes
4.2.1 Moior Losses
4.2.2 Minor Energy (Heod) Losses
4.2.3 Reynold's Number (Re)
4_J Lows {or Fluid Friclion
4.4 Hydroulic Grodient ond Totol Energy Line
4.5 Power Tronsmitted Through Pipes
4.6 Woler Hommer in Pipes ond lts Effects
4.7 Pipes in Series
. Solved Exomples
o lmportonl Poinls
o Proctice Questions
About this Chapter

This chopler in'troduces fhe flow of fluids through the pipes under pressure. We will discuss
the lwo importont concepts of loss of energy in pipes i.e. Moior losses ond Minor losses. This
chopler olso inlroduces lhe knowledge of concepl of fluid friction. lt includes power
lronsmitted lhrough pipe, concepl of woter hommer in pipes ond pipes connected in series.
4.1 lntroduction
The term 'pipe' is a closed conduit used to carry liquids under pressure. Pipes are
commonly circular in section, because of advantage of structural strength with that
of structural simplicity. Pipe of circular sectional area is having smallest perimeter of
the section and smallest inside wall surface area per unit length. Therefore resistance
offered by circular pipe to flow the liquid through it is less than in a pipe of any other
shaped cross-sections.
When liquid is flowing through a pipe, there is relative motion between the layers
of moving water and between layers and pipe walls. Due to this relative motion,
there exists always resistance to fluid flow. Therefore driving force is necessary to
balance this resistance and maintain the flow of fluid. This resistance offered by fluid
to flow is known as frictional resistance.
(4' 1)
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4-2 Flow Through Pipes
4.2 Lose of Energy ln Pipes

When a liquid is flowing through a pipe, the liquid experiences some resistance
due to which some of the energy of liquid is lost. There are two types of losses:
1. Major energy losses: Head lost due to friction:
(a) Darcy's Formula for frictional losses
(b) Chezy's equation for frictional losses
2. Minor energy losses.
(i) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
(ii) Loss of head due to sudden contraction
(iii) Loss of head at the entrance of the pipe
(iv) Loss of head at the exit of pipe
(v) Loss of head due to bend in a pipe
(vi) Loss of head due to obstruction
(vii) Loss of head in various other pipe fittings.
4.2.1 Major Losses @
Major energy loss is due to friction between layers of water and pipe walls. This
friction is known as fluid friction.
(a) Darcy's formula (weisbach formula) to determine loss of h€ad
(energy) due to friction, @
Consider a section of uniform long pipe (pipe having / > 500 d) as shown in
Fi . 4.t.
a
b
la
b
fi
I
Fi . 4.1r Uniform Pi
Let,
Length of pipe.
d= Diameter of pipe.
Area of cross-section of pipe = d'z
f,
Frictional resistance per unit area of wetted
surface per unit velocity.
Velocity of water in pipe.
hr= Loss of head due to friction.
Pr. = Pressure intensity at section a-a.
Pz= Pressure intensity at section b-b,
If pipe is frictionless, there will not be any drop in pressure between section a-a
and section b-b.
Since, there is always loss of head due to friction, the horizontal forces at
sections a-a and b-b are equated as:
plA = p2A + Frictional resistance
Or, Frictional resistance = -
prA p2A
Frictional resistance _ P'A - PuA
Frictional resistance _ P'-Pz

Aww
,,,(+) is loss of head due to friction and equals to hr
Frictional resista nce
hr=
Frictional resistance
7t
o,2 xw ['o=io']
4
Frictional resista nce Frictional resistance per unit area at unit velocity
x Wetted area x (Velocity)2
=f x ndl xvz
Loss of head due to friction,
hr
f xxdl xvz 4f tv2
1l .)
Ad-xw
wf
Let where, f is called as Darcy's coefficient
29
4flvz
hr= 2sd
Darcy's equation
2 40
But, a = id '=,.&
16 02
So, v' ,Io
16
v' = -7;i-
02.ln -Uarcy s equaElon
Su bstituting
We get, hr=#
(b)Chezy's formula for loss of head in Pipe: EEIE
If hydrauric mean depth = = = . t mflm##*
and i = ? = loss of head per unit length
ml , where, C is Chezy's constant
4.2.2 Minor Energ Head Losses ls-10, 13, w-12I
The loss of head or energy due to friction in a plpe is known as major loss while
loss of energy due to change in velocity of flowing liquid in magnitude or direction is
called as minor loss of energy The mlnor loss of energy includes:
(i) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement (expansion): Fig. 4.2 shows
loss of head due to sudden enlargement. As a result of sudden enlargement, liquid
flows forming eddies at the corners as shown These eddies cause loss of head.
(
Pr vr
@
Pzvz
Fi . 4.2
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,
6 = (v, av,)'
2g
(ii) Loss of head due to sudden contraction: It is observed that the loss of
head due to sudden contraction is not due to contraction but it is due to the sudden
enlargement which takes place after vena-contracta.
Head loss due to sudden contraction is
n', _= o.sZSfvi
where, v is veloci of flow of section 2.2.
@
l_
v2
.4,3 F
(iii)
Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe: When liquid enters from large
vessel into a pipe, there occurred a sudden contraction to flow of liquid and this
results in the loss of head which is equal to
o'5 v2
h".
nt_= 29
Fluid Mechanics & Machinory 4.5 Flow Through Plpes
(iv) Loss of head at exlt of a pape: The value is given by

h"r'-
,rt =
- 429
(v) Loss of head due to bend an the pipe: Because of bend or elbow in pipe,
there is change in direction of velocity of liquid. Due to this, the separation of the
flow from the boundary and also formation of eddies takes place.
kv2
Loss of head due to ben,
o = hb=)E-
where, v = Velocity of flow
k = Coefficient of bend (0.19 to O.42)
(vi)Loss of head due to obstruction: This is due to partial closed valve, a
diaphragm or pipe orifice.
obstr( ' v' I A f

Loss of head due to rction, ho = Zo LCln _ - t.1
"1
where, = c/s area of pipe
A
a = Area of obstruction
C. = Coefficient of contraction (0.52 or 0.65) I
4.2.3R olds Number (Re
Reynolds number is defined as 'the ratio of inertial force per unit volume to the
viscous force per unit volume',
The inertia forces are due to the mass and velocity of fluid particles trying to
diffuse the fluid particles.
The viscous force is the frictional force due to viscosity of fluid, Reynolds number
is given by
v.d
Re=
where v = velocity of flow in m/sec.

d = diameter of pipe
v = kinematic viscosity of fluid in m2lsec.
if = 2000, the flow is called laminar flow.
Re
Re > 3000, the flow is called turbulent flow.
The velocity of flow at which the laminar flow changes to turbulent flow is called
as critical velocity.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4.6 Flow Through Plpes
Laws for Fluid Friction ls-11, 12, W-13, 12, 09I
For steady streamline flow i.e. for laminar flow, the laws for fluid friction
ane3
(i) Frictional resistance is indePendent of pressure.
(ii) Frictional resistance is proportional to velocity of fluid.
(iii) Frictional resistance is proportional to wetted surface area'
(iv) Frictional resistance is independent of nature of surface in contact.
(v) In streamline flow, friction varies greatly with temperature.
In steady streamline flow, velocity of fluid is below critical velocity. It is also
called as viscous flow.
If the flow velocity is greater than critical velocity, the flow is said as turbulent
flow.
For turbulent flow, laws of fluid friction ares
(i) proportional to v2;
(ii) proportional to the density of fluid;
(iii) proportional to the area of surface in contact;
(iv) independent of Pressure;
(v) dependent on the nature of the surface in contact.
4.4 Hydraulic Gradient and ?otal Energy Line

[s-05, 09, 12, W-04, 11 , 12, 13]
Hydraulic Gradient Line:

The hydraulic gradient may be defined as 'an imaginary line drawn above the axis
of pipe so that the vertical distance from any point on the axis of pipe to the line
represents the pressure head at that point'.
Hydraulic gradient may also be defined as, if rows of open piezometers were
placed at frequent intervals along a pipeline, the gradient line would join the levels of
their water column. For a straight pipe of uniform section, the gradient line will be a
straight line, sloping in the direction of flow as may be seen from a study of the pipe
as shown in Fil.4.4. Hydraulic gradient line is defined as'the line which gives sum of
pressure he"d (9 and datum head (z) of flowing fluid in a pipe w.r.t. some
reference line'. It is briefly written as H.G.L. (Hydraulic Gradient Line).

z = datum head
2
2 Total ene rgy line
Hydraulic gradient line $ = pressure head
zg
4 2
I,n= velocitV head
H.G,L
z
Reference line
IS of pipe
Fi ,4.4
Total Energy Line (T.E.L.): It is defined as 'the line which gives the sum of
pressure head, datum and kinetic head of flowing fluid in the pipe with respect to
some reference line'. It can also be defined as 'the line which is obtained by joining
the tops of all vertical ordinates having sum of pressure head, kinetic head and
potential energy/head from some reference line'. It is written as T.E.L. (Total Energy
Line).
Always total energy line will be at higher level than hydraulic gradient line by
kinetic energy head.
Power Transrnitted Through Pipes 2,

Power is transmitted through pipes for considerable distance. The power
transmitted by flowing liquid depends upon:
(i) Weight of water flowing,
(ii) Total head available at the end of pipe.
In hydroelectric power plants, water.is taken from water reservoir to turbine
house through penstocks (plpes) to produce power, As water flows along the pipes,
there is loss of head due to friction. Power transmitted by pipe will be maximum
vrhen head lost due to friction is one-third of total head supplied.
If L = Length of pipe.
d = Diameter of pipe.
: r J:[:f,.ii:$:"::::
f = Coefficient of friction.
hr = Loss of head due to friction.
w= Sp, Wt. of water
W= Weight of water flowing per sec,
... w = (* "to' ,,)
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4-8 Flow Through Pipe3
H d
Drain
Turbine
house
. 4.5: Transmission of Power Th hPi

available at outlet of pipe.l [Total head at inlet] -
-,Inen IHead
L neglecting minor losses J = lLoss of head due to frictionl
= H_hr
4fLv2
=,1 _ 2Sd
Power transmitted through pipe
= (Weight of water flowing per sec) x (Head at outlet)
= (w x Volume of water flowing per sec) x (Head at outlet)
= (w x Area x Velocity of water) x (Head at outlet)
(**|a,,,,),(n *;) = w (H - hr) Power=W(H-hr)

Power available at the outlet of e
Efficiency of tra nsmission =
Power supplied at the inlet of pipe
_ w(H-hf)_H-h,
-WH-H
Condition for Maximum Transmission of Power Through the Pipe:
'. Power transmitted through pipe is given by
Power =W(H-hr)
differentiate the above equation w.r.t. velocity v and equate it to zero.
d (Pgyer)
dV = 0
d
dv [w(H - hr)] =0
tw.Q (,-g,Jl =,
d
dv
[(-i.,,) (,-#] =,
d
dv
[(-i.,) (,,-ffi] =o
d
dv
Fluid i,lechanics & Machinery 4-9 Flow Through Plp€s
,I- d f 4flv31
*' 4d' dv LH'- 2sd ] 0
,I . 4 x 3 flvzl
-l =
4d' o
LH
n-2,ffi=o
-zeo
H-3hr=0
H =3hr
nr= 5
.'. Condition for maximum transmission of power is nr =
! i.e. power transmitted
through a pipe is maximum when the head lost due to friction is one third of total
heat at inlet.
,t1,6 Y5ater l{ammer in Pipes and lt$ Effect

When liquid flowing in a long pipe is suddenly stopped by closing the valve fitted
with pipe, momentum of flowing water will be destroyed converting it into sudden
rise in pressure. This pressure moves through the pipe at high speed which creates
noise known as knocking. This phenomenon of sudden rise in pressure In the pipe is
known as 'water hammer'.
Effect of Water Hammer:
The rise in pressure may be very large which may even burst pipe and pipe joints
may open. So while designing large piping systems, it must be considered. The
magnitude of the pressure rise depends upon speed at which valve is closed, the
velocity of flow. the length of pipe, material of pipes and diameter of pipe etc,
Under normal conditions, the flow through the pipe is steady, having velocity v. If
the gate valve is closed suddenly, the velocity of flowing water will be reduced to
zero and instantaneou$ pressure will become infinite.
The simplest method of protecting pipes from water hammer effect is closing of
gate or gate valves slowly. Air chamber of sufficient size with air inside should be
connected to the pipe near gate valve to prevent effect of water hammer. Pressure
relief valves of adequate size will also absorb much of the excess pressure.
4.7 Ptpes in Series

When two or more pipes of different diameters are connected such that full
discharge of the fluid from one pipe flows into the other pipe serially. the system
represents a series pipe line.
2
l2s
Entryloss
T. L
vr2 tzg
d I P,pe
2
3
l2
l3
Fi . 4,61 Pi es in series
In Fig. 4.6 considering minor losses.

Total loss of head will be
hL h"n,* h;1 + hexp + h12 * h.on + hr3 + herit
where, h Loss of head at entrance

__ 2
u.5 v1
2g
h Loss of head due to sudden expansion
h Loss of head due to sudden contraction
h .",, = Loss of head at exit of pipeline
h11, h12 and hr3 are loss of heads due to friction in pipes 1, 2, 3.
, t,vl _ (v, -v,)2 _4f,trvl _ 0.5 vi _
2
"'. t\: _ 0.5zgvi _4f

h - zgd, - zg - 2gdz - 29 'r-
4f, l, v1
2gdz
+
v3
29
where, lt, 12, 13 are lengths of pipes 1, 2, 3 respectlvely

yy y21 y3 are velocities of flowing water in pipes 1, 2, 3
t, f2, f, are coefiiclehts of fliction of pipes 1, 2, 3
d, d2, d3 are diameters of pipes 1, 2, 3
Also by continuity, since the same discharge passes througl-r all pipes,
Q = Qr = Qz =Qs = Arvr = A2v2 = A3V3

where, e1, Q, and Q3 are discharges of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 4-1'l Flow Through Plpes
Slolved Examples
Ex.4.1: A pipe of 75 cm diameter is suddenly enlarged to 30 cm diameter, The
discharge through the pipe is 9 m3/min' Calcutate the loss of head,
sol.: Gaven: Q = 9 m3/min. = 0.15 m3lsec'
dr = 0'15 m, d. = Q'l 61
Weknowthat Q = a'v
.. For smaller diameter PiPe.
Q = orvr
o.1s = X"(0.15)'zxv,
8.493 m/s
F . 4.7
For large diameter PiPe,
a =dz v2
,T
0.15 x (0.3)2 x v,
4
"'
vz =
2'L2 m/s
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement is
2
(v'
--v')2
8.488 2,12
ht = 29 - 2 x 9.81
2.067 m of flowing liquid
=
ex. 4.2r Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 30 cm is suddenly
enlarged to a diameter of 40 cm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is
300 lit/sec.
Sol.: Given:
Diameter of smaller PiPe 30cm=0.3m
... Area of small PiPe = fto.sl' -- o.o7o7 m2
Diameter of large PiPe 40cm=0.4m

. Area = ioi=to<o.ot'
0.1256 m'z
Discharge, Q 300 lit/sec. = 0.3 m3/sec.
Fluld Mechanics & Machlhery 4-12 Flow Through Plpes
Velocity of flowing water through small pipe,
A1
= d3# = 4.24m/s
Velocity of flowing water through large pipe,
_a_
A2
= = 2 3885 m/s
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement"-#fr
h"^=@
29
(4.24 - 2.388s)'
2 x 9.81
= O,L747 m of water
Ex. 4'3: The difference in water surface revers in two tanks, which are connected
by three pipes in series of lengths 3oo m, 150 m and 200 m and of diameters 30 cm,
20 cm and 40 cm respectivery is 15,n. Determine the rate of flow of water if
coefficients of friction are a.00s, 0,0052 and o.oo4g respectivety, considering:
(i) Minor losses also.
(ii) Neglecting minor tosses.
lE{lttl
Sol.: Givent Difference of water level, H = 15 m.
Length of pipe 1, /r = 300 m; dr = 30 cm = 0.3 m and fr O.OO5
=
Length of pipe 2, 12 = 150 m; dz = 20 cm = 0.2 m and f, = 0.0052
Length of pipe 3, /3 = 200 mi da = 40 cm = 0.4 m ancl f, = 9.9649
(i) Considering minor losses: Let vl, v2 and v? be the velocities of water in
pipes 1, 2, 3 respectively. From continuity equation for continuous
flow,
A, v, = Arv2 =A3v3
L.2..
v, = +: =++=
Zoz
(3i)' .,,
2.25 vt .(i)
,t ,2
A' v, f or vt 2
A3 7t
4
d2
2 lffi ,,'
/0.3\
0.5525 v1 ...(ii)
_l
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4.13 Flow Through Plpes
The loss of head including minor losses will be

hr = h"nt + hfl + hexp * hf, * h.on + hr3 + hexit
o.s v? $, t, v? 0.5 vi 4f. t. v1

29 29dt 29 2gd,
(r, - ,r)' 4f., t, v1
2
2g
+
Zgdt
+E
Substituting v2 and v3 from equations (i) and (ii),
0.5 vi 4 x 0.005 x 300 x v?. 0.5 x (2.25 v,)2
-:-::-------!-.:i
29 29 x 0.3 29
2
+ 4 x o.oo52 ,. rso , !2'25=4)' +
2.25 v - 0.5525 v
zg , u.1 29
+
4 x 0.0048 x 200 x (0.5625 v,)2+ (0.5625 v ,),
29 x 0.4 )^
1s.0 _ _E-
0.5 v?
+ ^n +
z.fi vl 78.975 vl 2.8a v1
29
+
29 2q -zg
3.0375 vl c3l6a vl
+ +
2g 2g
2
15.0 = + +
29 [0.5 20.0 2.53 + 78.975+2.84+ 3.0375 + 0.3154]
2
1s.0 = 2q
(108.199)
= i.64e m/s
. . Rate of flow,
"ift*#,
Q= Area x Velocity
= A'xv'
,t .-
= ix (0.3)'zx 1.Ga9
= O.11650 m3/sec.
= r16.50 lit./s€c.
(ii) Neglecting minor losses: MU
Hr- = hn+h2+ hy3
_ 4f, trvl , 4f, t, vl
- 2gdt _4frtrvtr
' 2gdz ?-gd,
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 4-11 Flow Through Pipes
2 2
4x0.005x300 + 4 x 0.0052 x 150 x 2.25 +
1s.o =
+ 0.3 0.2
4 x 0.0048 x 200 x (0.5625)
o.4
2
15.0 = 2s eo + 78.97s + 3.0375)

u1
15.0 =;i ( 102.012s)
Z*rst#" = 1.6e85 m/s

Discharge, Q = Ar vr =
f tO.:l'x 1.6985
=0 .L2 m3 /s
=1 20 lit/sec,
Ex,4.42 A pipetine consists of 45 cm diameter pipe for 1000 m, 30 cm diameter
pipe for 700 m and 15 cm diameter pipe for 400 m is required to be replaced by a
pipe of uniform diameter, Find the diameter of the new pipe assuming the length to
remain the same. Also determine the discharge through the new pipe if f = 0.01 and
the pressure head at inlet as 50 m of water while that at the delivery end is 5 m of
water.
Sol.: Given: Pipeline consists of three pipes of different diameters and lengths.
Length of pipe 1, /1 = 1000 m. dl = 45 cm = 0.45 m
Length of pipe 2, lz = 7OO m, dz = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Length of pipe 3, /: = 400 m, d: = 15 cm = 0.15 m
For equivalent t=4+4+4
Pipe,;- di d; d;
2100 1000 700 400
'' d' (0'+53*(oif*(olsT
... d= 0.206 m
Head causing flow, 50 - 5 = 45m
H= 4fl v2
29d
4 x 0.01 x 2100 x v2
45= lx g.ar 0.zoo
"
1.47 mls
e = a.v =[a'"v
= X@.206)2
x t.47
= 0.049 m3/s = 49lit/sec.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4-15 Flow Thlough Pipes
Ex. 4.5: A horizontal tapered pipe having 250 mm diameter at larger end and
750 mm diameter at smaller end is used to carry water, The velocity oF water flowing
through the pipe at larger end is 3,5 m/sec. Calculate the rate of discharge and
velocity of water at the smaller end.
So!.: Given:
Diameter at larqer end = d1 = 0'25 m
Velocity of water at larger end = vr = 0.25 m
Diameter at smaller end = dz = 0.15 m
Velocit of water at smaller end = v
dr =25m
vr = 3.5 m/s \z
a
4.8
a = alvt=42V2
.. ?r Vr = dz Vz
,t., -2
J (dr )- x vr = \ {a,), u,
... dl x v, =
,2
O2x V2
(0.25)2 x 3.5 = (0.15)2 x v,

... v2 = 9,27 mls
Discharge through pipe, a arvr=X(0.15)2 x 9.72
0.171 m3/sec. = 171 lit/sec,
Ex. 4.6: The difference of pressure head between the two ends of a pipe of 25
cm diameter, 2OO mm long is 2.5 m. Calculate the rate of discharge through the pipe
if f = 0.02 (Neglect minor losses).
Sol.: Given: d = 0.25 m, I = 0.2 m, hr = 2.5 m,
f = 0.02
Loss of head due to friction can be calculated by formula,
hr=5
. 3h. ds 3x .5 x 5
5
a'= -?-= 0. 2 x 0,2

Q2 = l'831
Q = 1.35 m3/s
= 1350 llt/3ec.
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 4-16 Flow Through Pipes
Ex.4.7, A pipe 250 mm in diatneter, 150 m long is laid at a slope of 7 in 200 for
the first half length and at a slope of 7 in 150 for the remaining length. The pressure
at the upper and lower ends of the pipe are 100 kPa and 50 kPa respectively. Find
the discharge through the pipe.
Take f = 0.008.
Sol.: Difference of level between the ends of pipe
= -H3. ffi = s.zs + s.oo = 8.7s m
Let A and B refer to the upper and the lower ends of the pipe.
Taking zb = 0, we have z" = 8,75 m.
Let the velocity of flow through the pipe be v m/s.
loq{ lo3
Pressure head at point
W- gUIU
A=+
= 10.194 m
Ph 50 x 103
Pressure head at point B
9810
=
5.097 m
Applying Bernoulli's equation between sections A and B,
2 2
va
+ P" +
2g
zo+S+f+n,
But
h (za-z) + /q p"\
8.75+10.194-5.097
13.847 m
hf nt
3d'
L3.847
13.847x3x(0.25)5
2
\J
0.008 x 1500
a O,0338 m3ls
Ex. 4,8: A horizontal pipe, 40 m long is connected to a tank at one end and
discharges water freely into atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25 m of it,s
length from the tank, the pipe is 150 mm diameter and it,s diameter is suddenly
enlarged ta 300 mm. The height of water level in the tank is g m above the centre of
the pipe. Considering all losses of head which will occur, determine the rate of the
flow. Take f = 0.01 for both sections of the pipe.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4-17 Flow Through Plpgs
dz = 3000 mm
d = 150 mm
-.., -v;
\=25m lz= m
Fis. 4,9
So!,: Continuity equation
Q = arvr=?2V2,
a, v, /300\
"' v, = -i = Uso/ v, = 4v,
Loss of head at entrance to pipe
v?
= o.r&=0.5x16
uZ u1
i=8i
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
_' (v, :v.)2
_ (4v--- v")'z _ ?v,
29 - 29 '29
Loss to head due to friction in the 150 mm pipe
_ 4fN2 - 4fl1 (rs,l)
- 2gdr 2gdl
64
= -_--i- x
fl, vtr
d1 =- zg
2
64 x 0.01 x25 v2
x
0.15 29
2
t06.67
fr
Loss of head due to friction in the 300 mm pipe
4ttrv1 x15 n-4
-= zrd., -= 4x0.01
o.3o -" 2s= 29
Applying Bernoulli's equation to free water level and the outlet of pipe,
2
v2
* - t. z= Totat toss of head at outlet of pipe + 29
22
0+0+8 = f25.67 2q- zg
L25.67 v3
8= 29
,?
:3
z9 =
0.053
vz = 1.111 m/s
Discharge, Q = azvr=f {0.:)'zx f.ff f
= O.O785 m3ls
Ex. 4.9: Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe line which is 150 mm in
diameter for the first 6 m and 250 mm in diameter for the remaining 15 m length,
The entrance and exit are sharp and the change of section is sudden. The water
surface in the upper reservoir is 6 m above than in the lower reservoir, Determine
rhe /osses of head which occur and calculate the rate of flow, Take f = 0.01 for both
pipes.
Draw also hydraulic aradient and total energy gradient,
Sol.:
Total energy line
6m
t29
HYd12u1i.
gradient
line vj
B
2s
lt, dt
h ,d2
Fig.4,1O
Fig. 4.10 shows the arrangement ofthe pipes connecting the reservoirs.
If vl and v2 are velocities in 150 mm and 250 mm diameter pipes,
Due to continuity of flow, f; al u, = ! al u,
... v, = fd,\2 /2so\2 2s

[dJ u, = usoJ Yz=T vz
Loss at entrance to 150 mm pipe.ri
(x\' u' -..--
^ . l==s
, o.t =- 0.s v1
Friction loss in 150 mm pipe

A 3.8s8
2s J i=
22
4fl, ,? 4x0.01 x6 :-
= Z;'29 = o.ls - ^ z9= I.b =-
z9
r.s (25)"
fi= ,r.=oufn
Loss at sudden enlargement
= tl,;;=;if+ )'=,,u$
Friction loss in the 250 mm pipe
4ft.. x 15 vi .^ u)
= --:-Y "l = 4 x 0.01
02 -29 2,25 x 6= ^2.4v,5
vi
Total loss of head = + + + +
26 tS.ASa 12.346 3.16 2.4 0.51
= ,r.r,Ofi
Applying Bernoulli's equation to A and B,
Total energy head at A = Total energy head at B + Losses
... H = 0 + Losses
2
v2
6= 22.264
29
2
Yz_ 6
,n -= 22.264
0.269s
2x 9.81 x 0.2695
= 2.299 mls
Discharse,q=fialv,
L
=4 (0.25)'zx 2.299 = O.LL28 m3/s
To draw hydraulic Aradient and total energy line, actual values of various iosses
of head are to be calculated,
1. Loss at entrance to 150 mm PiPe
2
v"
= 3.asa lg = 3.858 x 0.2695 = 1.o4 m
2. Friction loss in the 150 mm PiPe

v.2
= 2.Uefi= 12.346 x 0.2695 = 3.32 m
3. Loss at sudden enlargement

v.2
= 3.160
fi = 3.168 x 0.2595 = O.85 m
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 4-20 Flow Through Pipes
4. Friction loss in 250 rnm pipe
2.4 n
2g =
2.4 x 0.2695 = O.55 m
5 Loss at entrance to lower !'eservoir

VZ
= o's2;=05x02695 = O.14 m
Total = 6.OO
Ex. 4,1O: A horizontal pipe, 4000 m long supplies water to a hydraulic machine
through a 200 mm diameter pipe. Find the maximum power transmitted if the
pressure at inlet to the pipe is 8000 kPa, f = 0,007,
Sol.: Given: / = 400 m, d = 200 mm, P = 8000x 103 N/m'z, f = O.OO7.
Pressure head at inlet, H
P 8000 x 103
9810
= 815.49 m of water
For maximum powe!- transmission,
h, = += 815.49
3
271.83 m
frc2
hf
tdT
2 h, x 3ds
a ft
27L.83x3.0x(0.2)s
Q,= 0.007 x 400(t = 0.0093
Q = 0.093 m3/s
Head available at the end
": T] r, =, -+ =
+
,?x81s.a9=543.66
5
''' Maximum power transmitt"lro

,, - hJ = 9810 x 0.097 x 543.66
= 517330 Watts
- 517.33 kw
Ex. 4.11: A pipeline AB of diameter 300 mm and of length 4OO m carries water
at the rate of 50 lps. The flow takes place from A to B where point B is 30 m above
A. find the pressure at A if t:he pressure at B is 19.62 N/cm2 . Take f = 0.008. @
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 4-21 Flow Through Pipes
Sol.: Given: See Fig.4.11.

d = 0.3 m, Q = 0.050 m3ls, p6 = 19.62 x 104 N/mz, f = 0.008, pa = ?
30m
s
. 4.11
discharge, q = f,a'rv
lt
0. c5 =4 x (0.3)2 x v
... v = 0.7077 mls
By Bernoulli's theorem. taking A as datum
22
ff*.o*ii = * *,"*ft *hr
But 4ftv2
va = vB and hr= zgd' w = 9810 N/m3
Substituting the values,
19.62 x 104 4x 0.008 x 4OO x (O.7O77\2
#io*o = + 30 + 2 x 9.81 x 0.3
Pa = -8ro-
1.26 x los N/m2
= 12.5O N/cm2
Ex, 4.12: Find the head lost due to friction in a pipe of 300 mm and tength SO m,
through which water is flowing at a velocity of 3 m/sec, using:
(i) Darcy's formula
(ii) Chezy's formula for which C = 60, take F = 0.0256.
Sol.: Given: d = 0.3 m, / = 50 m, f = 0.0255, v = 3 m/sec.
trU
(i) Darcy's formula:
4flv2
Head lost due to frictlon, hf = )gA
4x0.0256x50x32
2 x 9.81 x 0.3
hr = 7.828 metres
4-22 Flow Through Pipes
Fluld Mechanics & Machi
(ii)Ch€zy's formula:
d 0.3
.. c= 60, .. m =i=?= 0.07sm
. v=cfi
3=6 0.075 x i
2= euJ', o.+r, = 0.0333
but i= !L
I
loss of head = i.l = 0.0333 x 50

hr = 1.565 m as Per chezY's formula
Ex. 4.13: Pipe diameter 25 cm is suddenly enlarged to diameter of 50 cm' If
pipe
carries iSO lit./sec,, find loss of head due to expansion' EEU
Sol.: Given: dr= 25 cm = 0.25 m, dz = 50 cm = 0'50 m'
Q = 350 lit'/sec. = 0.35 m3/sec'
... Area of pipe of small dia., Qr = ioi =X(o'2s)'z = 0'04908 m2
and Area of pipe of enlarqed dia., Q2 = .Eoi =i(o's)'z = 0'1964 m2

velocity of flow, ,, = €f = d$#E = 6'82s m/sec'
and Velocitv of flow. ,, =
*q = #fu =
!J82 m/sec'
Now, loss of head due to sudden enlargement
(v, - Vr)' 6.825 - 1.7a2
2
h*= 29 2 x 9.81 = 1.296 m
Ex. 4,!4t A pipe of diameter300 mm and tength i500 m is used for

pipe is 500 m' Find the
transmission of power by water. The totat head at the intet of
maximum power available at the outtet of the pipe, if the value of f = 0'006' |[!l![
Sol.: d = 300 mm = 0.3 m, L = 3500 m, Coefficientof friction = f = 0'006'
Pressure head at inlet, H = 500 m.
For maximum Power transmission
h,=!=T=roo.ozm
'. head lost due to friaion, hr = ff
4x0 006x3500xv2
L66.67 = 2x9.81 x 0.3
v = 3.4126 m/sec.
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 4-23 Flow Through Pipes
discharge, Q = Av = |o' *, = ;Q3)'1 x3.4126
Q = 0'2412 m3lsec'
Maximum power = wQ (H - h,
= 9810 x 0.24L2 x (500 - 166'67)
= 788716.11 watts
= 7a8.715 kw
Ex. 4.153 A pipe 850 m long connects two reservoirs whose level difference is
50 m. Find the discharge in pipe in litres per sec. if diameter of pipe is 0'5 m' Take
att losses into account. Assume f = 0,07. E EI
Sol.: Given: d = 0.5m, L= 850 m, H = 50 m, f = 0'01.Q = ?
Total head loss, H = Major losses + Minor losses
+ Head loss at exit
#- Head loss at entrance
=
0.5 v2 v'
H= 4flv2
2gd' 29'29
0.5 vz
4x 0.01 x850xv2 +2r9f1 v2
50= x
2 9.81 x 0.5 " 2r9.81
50 = v2 [3.4658 + 0.02548 + 0.050968]
5O = 3.542 v2
Velocity of flow, v = 3,757 mlsec'
e = A.v =[a, "v
= f, x (0.5)'z x 3.757 = 0.7377 rrr3/sec.
a = 737.7 lit,/sec.
Ex. 4,16r Find maximum power that can be transmitted by a power station
through a hydrautic pipe 3 km long and 0.2 m diameter. The pressure at p9ut:!
station is 60 bars. Take f = 0.0075' EE
Sol.: Givenr L = 3000 m, d = 0.2 m, f = 0.0075,
p = Intensity of pressure = 60 bar = 50 x 105 N/mz
'. Pressure head, H = * = %# = 6tt.62m of water
For maximum power transm ission

Head lost due to friction, h, = + = 203.87 m
4rtuz
but h
29d
4x0.0075x3000xv2
203.87 -- 2 x 9.81 x0.2
Velocity of flow, v = 2.98 m/sec.
Fluid Mechanics & ilachinery 4-24 Flow Through Pipes
but e=AV = Laarru =f, x (0.2), x 2.98 = 0.09362 m3/sec.

Maximum pow€r = w.Q.(H - h,
= 9810 x 0.09352 (611.62 - 203.87)
= 374482.57 watts
Maximum power = 374.480 kW
Ex.4,l7t A pipeline consisting of 10 cm diameter for 105 m and 7.2 cm for 68 m
carries water at the rate of 22 lit./sec. If f = 0.005, determine major losses and
minor losses, M
Sol.: Given: dr = 10 cm = 0.1 m, dz = 7.2 cm = 0.072 m.
/r = 105 m, /2 = 68 m, Q = 22lit./sec. = 0.022 m3/sec.
a = A1V1 =A2V2
.'. v,=*=;o;=;q@':=2.8m/sec.
4 di a (0.1)'
_4. o 0.022
A2 'r .2 L.
Zoz {o.otz)'
v2 = 5.4 m/sec'
Major head lost in friction,
hr=ha*hrz
" _!d !&
nr=2gdr+2gd,
q, O.OOS x 105 x (2.8)2 4r0.005^68x(5.4)2
2 x 9.81 x 0.1 ' 2x9.81 > 0.072
.. hr = 8,391437 + 28.073
= 36.4648 motres
Minor loss in pipeline is loss of head due to contraction,
o.s vl n.5 x (5.4)2
hc= 29 _ - 2x9.81
= 0.743 m
Ex. 4.18: A pipe of 60 m long, 150 mm in diameter is connected to water tank at
one end and flows freely into the atmosphere at other end. fhe height of water level
in the tank is 2.6 m above the centre of pipe. The pipe is horizontat and f = 0.01.
Determine the discharge through the pipe in litres per sec,, if all the minor losses are
to be considered M
Sol.: Given; / = 60m, d = 0.15 m, head of water level (hr)=2.6mandf=0.01.
2.6
t F . 4.t2
d=0.15m
i=60m
Head lost, hr = Head lost at entry + Head lost due to friction

+ Loss of head at exit
. 0.5 v2 4flv2 v2
nr= 2g *zsa*,
z.o =
S(o.s *{o* r)=*(o'*aa$ft@* r)
2.6 = 2s (17.s)
2.6x2x9.8L
L7 .5 = 2.914
v = t.707 mlsec
Discharge, q = av = |O'.v
lt
=4 (0.15)2 x 1.707
Q =0 .03016 m3lsec.
Q =3 O.15 litres per sec.
Ex. 4.19i Find the head lost due to friction in pipe of diameter 30 cm and 50 m
through which water is flowing at velocity 3 m/sec. Use Darcy's formula. Take
kinematic viscosity as O,O7 stokes. @
Sol.: Given: d = 0.3 m, / = 50 m, v = 3 m/sec.
'. v = 0.01 stoke = 0.01 x 10-a m2lsec. = 10-6 m2lsec.
,\ _ 4f2gd
lv2
where f is coefficient of friction.

'. ReynoldsnumberRe=f =%+1 =9x10s
and coefficient of friction is given by r- =

0.079
€rE-
t= (r+|frfu'=o'oo2s6
4f lv2
nr = zsd
4x0.00255x50x32
2
^
,S1 ^ OjO: = O'7828 m
Ex, 4.203 Catculate the discharge through a pipe of 200 mm when the difference
of pressure head between two ends of pipe.5oo m apart is 4 m of water. Take the
vatue of f = 0.009 in the formutae (h) = 2N. @
Sol.: Givenr d = 200 mm = 0'2 m, L = 500 m.
Loss of head due to friction (hr) = 4 m, cof (f) = 0 009'
= L:t':
h'r-zgd
4=
-'f;'3:'i *
:%:i
4 4.587 L v2
A
v2 q.sB7t = O.Alt
v .tLBn
v o,9338 m/sec.
,I.
Now, Discharge, Q = 4Y ;d"xv
(0.2)'zx 0.e338
a t
0.02934 m3lsec.
a 29.33 litres/sec.
Ex. 4,21: water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of diameter 200 mm at a
velocity of 3 m/sec. A circular solid plate of diameter 750 mm is placed in the pipe to
obstruct the flow. Find the toss of head due to obstruction in the pipe if c, = 0,62.
M
Sol.: Given: d = diameter of pipe = 200 mm = 0'2 m.
diameter of obstruction = d" = 0.15 m, Cc = 0.62.
c/s area of pipe, A = io' =1<o rl'= 0'0314159 m2
c/s area of obstruction. u =.Ioi = f to.rs)' = Q.ot767L4 m2
'. Loss of head due to obstruction

2
v2t A -\
- 2q \C.(A - a)
2
^2
J 0.0314159
2 x 9.81 t 0.62 (0.0314159 - O.Ol767t4)
-1 )l
= 3.311 m of water
4-27 Flow Through Pipes
Fluid Mechsnics & irachinery
Ex. 4,22; The pressure at 1000 kPa and pressure drop is

inlet of pipetine is
2OO kPa. The pipetine is 1.5 km long'
If 1OO kW is to be transmitted over this
Take f = 0'006'
pipeline, find the diameter of pipe and efficiency of the transmission'
m@
sol.: Given: p = looo kPa = 1000 x 103 N/m =1x 105 N/mz' / = 15 km
= 1500 m
'. Pressure drop = 200 kPa = 2x 10s N/m2, f = 0 006
Power transmitted = 100 kW= 100 x 103 watts = 1 x loswatts
pipe'
Let d = diameter of pipe, Q = discharge through the
Now, Pressure head at inlet, H = ft
1x106
- 9810
= 101.936 m
given bY
Pressure droP in terms of head due to friction is
Pressure dro in m2
h f= w
2x10s
= 9810
= 20.387 m
Power = wQ (H - hr)
1 x 10s = 9810 x Q (101'936 -20'387)
.. a= 0'125 m3lsec'
flo2
But head lost due to friction hr = :F
2
0.00 6x 1500 x 0.125
20.387 = 3xd
= 0.0022992593
ds
d = 0.2967 m
H-h, 101.936 - 20,387
Efficiency = l- = 101.936
1= 0.80
rl = 80o/o
Fluid Mechanica & ilachl nery 4-28 Flow Through Plpes
Ex. 4.23: A 400 mm diameter pipe 350 meters rong connects to reser'oirs. If the
discharge through the pipe is 0.4 m3/sec, Find difference in elevation between
the
water surfaces of the two reservoirs. consider all losses take f coefficient of
friction
= 0.006. MMn
So!,: Diameter of pipe d = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Length of pipe L = 350 m
Discharge Q = 0.4 m3lsec
coefficient of friction f = 0.006
a=6.y=f;dorv
o 0.4
Velocity of water v =
7\ =,I - = 3.18 m/sec
d2
4 ox@'a)'
H=?
350 m
d= 0.4 m
Fi .4.13
Fig. 4,13 shows to reservoirs connected by a pipe of diameter d = 0.4 m and
350 meters long.
Let H = Total head loss
.'. H = Major loss + Minor losses
... .H 4fLV2
= 2Sd + Heat loss at entrance + Head loss at exit
.. 4fLV2
H=-:_-+hent+hextr
290
n= 4fLV2
.. 0.5 V2 V2
2sd * &-+'s
4 x 0.006 x 350 x 3.18), 0.5 3.18 2 (3.18)'?
H= 2x 9.81 x 0.4 + -
2 x 9.Bl z x g.8t
H= 10.8236 +0.2577 + 0.5154
H= 11.5957 meters of water
Difference in elevation H = 11.5967 m eters of water
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 4-29 Flow Through Plpes
mpertant Point
> The loss ol energy in pipe is divided into two groups i.e. maior energy loss and minor
energy loss. Major energy losses are due to lriclion in pipe whereas major energy losses
are due to sudden contraction ol pipe, sudden expansion of pipe. bends in pipe and
obstruction in pipe.
> Loss ot energy due to friction (Darcy's equation)
hr =
4til
Zs-a
Loss of head in pipe due to triction (Chezy's formula)
v = Cr/nrr
where, C = Chezy's constant
m= hydraulic mean depth
i = loss ol head per unit length
v = velocily ol flow
> Loss o, head due to sudden enlargement of pipe
(v'-v')'
^ _
- 29
,,€
where, vl = velocily in small pipe
vz = velocity in large pipe
0.5 v!
Loss ot head due to sudden construction of pipe
U-] V
Loss of head at entrance of pipe
29
Loss of head at exit of pipe hexit -29
D kv'
Loss ol head due to bend in the pipe h
29
where, k = coetficienl o, bend
= 0. 19 to 0.42
> Hydraulic Gradient Line represents sum ol pressure head and potenlial (datum) head ol a
flowing fluid at any point on the axis of pipe w.r.t. some relerence line.
! Total energy line represenls sum ol pressure head, potential head and kinetic head ol
llowing lluid in the pipe w.r.t. some reference line.
) Power transmitted by flowing water depends upon weight of lluid flowing and total head
available at lhe end ol the pipe.
Power = Weight ol water flowing per sec x Head at outlet
Xo' ,) x (H- h') = w.Q(H- h)

Power=W.(H-hr) in watts
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4-30 Flow Th.qugh Pipos
= Specific weight o, water

= Weiqht ol water {lowing per sec.
= velocity ol water in pipe
H = Total head at inlet of pipe
f = coetficient of friction
hr = loss ot head due to friction
4l h!2
h1 = zsd
L = Length ol pipe
d = diameter ol pipe
H-hr
> Efliciency ol power transmission through pipes H
i When waler llowing in a long pipe is suddenly stopped by closing the valve ,itted with
pipe, the momentum of flowing water will be destroyed converting it into sudden rise in
pressure wave ol higher intensity. This sudden rise in pressure exerts hammering action
on the walls ol pipe with higher noise is generated is known as water hammet.
> When pipes ol dillerent lengths and ditferent diamelers are connected end to end to lorm
a pipeline is called as pipes in series or compound pipe.
ractice Question
1 . What is meant by lrictional resistance lor pipe?
2. What are diflerent losses tor liquid flowing through pipe?
3. Write Darcy's lormula to lind loss ol head due to lriction.
4. Write Chezy's formula to find loss of head due to friction.
5. What do you understand by minor losses? List minor losses lor pipes.
6. State laws of triction for
(i) Steady and streamline f low,
(ii) Turbulent llow.
7. Deline Hydraulic gradienl line and Total energy line. @
8. How power is transmitted through pipe? Give relation between total head and loss of
head due to triction tor maximum power transmission.
9. What is meant by water hammer effecl? How eflect of water hammer can be reduced?
10. A reservoir built 4 km away from town has to supply water at the rate '1000 liumin'
Calculate the size of supply pipe, if the loss of head due lo Iriction and others in pipe is
20 m. Assume coetlicient ot lriction as 0.008.
1 1. A pipe of diameter 340 mm and length 40OO m is used for lhe transmission of
power by
water. The total head at the inlet ol pipe is 600 m. Find the maximum power available at
the outlet of pipe il the value of I = 0.006. lE4!11
12. Determine the velocity ol flow ol water lhrough diameter ot 20 cm and length 50 m when
one end is open to atmosphere. The pipe is horizontal and height of water in tank is 4 m
above the centre ol pipe. Consider all minor losses, take f = O.OOg and h, =H
"@ '
4.31 Flow Through PiPes
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery
s87E Ouestion s & Answer'

Summer 2Oo8
1. List the major and minor loses in a tlow through pipe. Give appropriate
lormula m
2. n pip" fin" AB of diameter 3oO mm and of length 4OO m carries water at the rate of
so'los. The llow lakes place from A to B wtlere point B is 30 m above A Find the
;i".!";'"'fi;ilJiill",",t'a"i;'rii.6;r'ri;i.r"i;i=oooa @
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex. 4.11
Winter 2008
1What are the major and minor loses in a flow through pipe @
Ans Please reter Article 4.2.
2 The pressure at inlet of pipeline is 1 000 kPa and press ure drop is
200 kPa. The Pipeline
'!00 over this pipe line, f ind the diameter ol lhe
is LS km long. ll kW is to be transmitted
pipe and efliciency ol the transmission. Take I = 0'006'
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex. 4.22.
Summer 2Oo9
1. State the meaning ol HG L and TEL. Show HGL and TEL in the
Fig.4.13
d1
l1 l2 l3
Fi .4.L4
Ans. Please reler Article 4.4 for mean ing of HGL and TEL
Please refer Article 4.7 and Fig. 4.6.
by three pipes in
2. tfre difference in water surface levels in two tanks, which are connected
30 cm, 20 cm, 40 cm respectively
."r-; in f"ngtht 3oo m, l50 m, 2oo m and ol diameter
0.005, 0.0iie
in is ,.
rinir rate of ftow of water in tit./sec. il coefficient ot friction are
0.0048 respectively neglecting minor losses l&Uill
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex. 4.3, Part (ii)
Winter 2OO9
1,
State the laws ol lluid lriction lor Turbulent tlow m
2 Find the lead lost due to friction in a pipe ol diameter 3OO mm and
length 50 m' through
which water is flowing at a velocity ol 3 misec. Using
(i) Darcy's lormula
i;; d";yl;ftL lor whictr c = 60, take F = 0 0256 @
Ans. Please reler Solved Ex. 4.1?-
3. Obtain the condition for maximum transmission of power through the pipe [E[0
Ans. Please refer Article 4.5
Summer 201O
Ans.
'1. Write Darcy's equation to lind loss of head due to friction.
Please reler to Article 4.2.1 (a).
@
Ans.
2. List ditferent types of minor losses.
Please refer to Article 4.2.2.
m
Ans.
3. What is water hammer?
M
4. Pipe diameter 25 cm is suddenry enlarged to diameter of 50 cm. lf pipe carries 350 livs,
find loss of head due to expansion. ll Ilow is made from opposite direction, find loss of
head due to sudden contraction. IiE
Winter 2OlO
Write the formula lor head lost due to friction. State the meaning ol each
1. lerm. m
Ans. Please refer Article 4.2.1 (b).
2. A pipe ot diameter 300 mm and length 3500 m is used for the transmission ol power by
waler. The total head at the intet of the pipe is 500 m. Find the maximum power available
at the outlet of the pipe. if the value of f = 0.006. @
Ans. Please reler Solved Example 4.14.
Summer 20{ 1
1 Write Chezy's equation. State lhe meaning ol each term. ro

Ans Please reler Article 4.2.1 (b).
2 A pipe 850 m long connecls two reservoirs whose level dillerence is 50 m. Find the
discharge in pipe in litres/sec., il diameter of pipe is 0.5 m. Take all losses into account.
Assume f = 0.01. [@
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex. 4. 15.
3. Find the maximum power that can be transmitted by a power station through a hydrauric
pipe 3 km long and 0.2 m diameter. The pressure at the power station is 60 bars.
Take f = 0.0075. @
Ans. Please reler Solved Ex. 4.16.
4. state the laws o, lluid friction lor laminar flow. Also explain hydraulic gradient line and
total energy line withsketch. @
Ans Please reler Article 4.3 and Article 4.4.
Winter 2O11
1. Wilh the help ol neat sketch explain Hydraulic Gradient line and Total Energy line
EEi]
2. A pipeline consisting of 0 cm diameter lor 105 m and 7.2 cm for the nexl
1
68 m carries water at the rate of 22 lit./sec. lt f = 0.005, determine major losses and minor
losses. EE
Summer 2012
1. State laws ol f luid friction for steady streamline llow. @
2. A pipe of 60 m long and 150 mm in diameter is connected to a wat6r tank at one end and
flows freely into the atmosphere al the other end. The height ol water level in the tank is
2.6 m above the centre ol the pipe. The pipe is horizontal and I = 0.01. Determinq lhe
discharge through the pipe in titreils, it att itrb minor losses are to be considered. m
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex. 4-18.
3. Explain Hydraulic gradient line and Total energy line related to tlow through pipes. @
4. Write short notes on : @
(i) Darcy's equation
(ii) Hydraulic power transmission through pipes
Ans. (i) Darcy's equation : Please refer to Article 4.2.1 (a).
(ii) Hydraulic power transmission through pipes : Please refer to Article 4.5.
Winter 2012
1. Write any four minor losses in pipe. m
2. A pipe 850 m long connects two reservoirs whose level diflerence is 50 m. Find the
discharge in pipe lit./sec. lf diameter ol pipe is 0.5 m. Take all losses inlo account.
Assume F = 0.0t. @
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex.4.15.
3. State the laws ol fluid friction lor laminar and turbulent flow. Also explain tho con ceot of
hydraulic gradient line and total energy line. tur
Ans. Please reler to Article 4.3 and Article 4.4.
4. Find the head loss due to triction in pipe of diameler 30 cm and 50 m through which
water is flowing at velocity 3 m/sec. Use Darcy's formula. Take kinematic viscosity as
0.0'l stokes. m
Summer 2O13
1. State Darcy's and Chezy's equation lor lrictional losses. Em
Ans. Please refer to Article 4.2.1 .
2. State the equations ol losses due to sudden expansion and sudden contraction of
pipes. m
Ans. Please reler to Article 4.2.2 (i) and (ii).
3. Calculate the discharge through a pipe at diameter 200 mm when the ditference of
pressure head between the two ends of pipe 500 m apart is 4 m o, water. Take the value
of'f'=0.O0ginthelormulae n,=#;
@
4. Water is llowing through a horizontal pipe ol diametor 200 mm at a velocity ol 3 m/s. A
circular solid plate of diameter 150 mm is placed in the pipe to obslruct the flow. Find the
loss ol head due to obstruclion in the pipe il C" = 0.62. lEEn
Ans. Please reler Solvod Ex. 4.21.
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 4.34 Flow Through Plpes
Winter 2Ot3
1 Write Darcy's equation lor determine lhe loss of head due to friction in pipes m
Ans. Please refer to Article 4.2.1 (a).
2. A 400 mm diameter pipe 350 meters long connects two reservoirs. ll the discharge
through the pipe is 0.4 m3/sec. Find difference in elevation between the water
sources of the two reservoirs. Consider all losses take f coefficient of friction
=0.006. m
Ans. Please reler to Solved Examples 4.23.
3. Explain Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) and Total Gradient Line (TGL). State laws ol fluid
friction for Laminar and Turbulenl flow. @
Ans. Please refer to Articles 4.3 and 4.4
4. A pipe of diameter 300 mm and lenglh 3500 m is used lor the transmission ol power by
water. The total head at the inlet of the pipe is 500 m. Find the maximum power available
0.005.
al the outlet ol the pipe. ll the value ol f = @
Ans. Please refer to Solved Ex. 4.14.
Summer 2o14
1. Write Darcy's and Chezy's equation. State the meaning of each term. m
Ans. Please refer to Article 4,2.1 (a\.
ltt
A/xalrt n5
lmpact of Jet
5.1 lntroduclion
rEil
5.2 lmpoct of Jel on fixed Verticol Flot Plote
5.3 lmpoct o{ Jet on Fixed lnclined Flot Plote
5.4 lmpoct of Jel on Sloiionory Curved Ploie
5.5 lmpod of Jet on Moving Plotes
of Jet
5.6 lmpoct o{ Jet on on lnclined Plote Moving in the Direclion
5.7 lmpoct of Jel on o Series o{ Flol Plotes Fitted on Wheel
Jet
5.8 irnp.o .f l* Centrolly on Moving Curved Plole in the Directionô{
Plote when Jel Strikes
5.9 i.i* fr"a"a by o Jet on on Uisymmetricol Moving Curved
Tongenliolly ot One oi lhe TiPs
led on the PeriPhery of o Wheel
5.10 lmpoct o{ Jel on o Series of Curved Vones Moun
. Solved Exomples
o lmportonl Points
o Proctice Queslions
About this Cha ter

impoct of iel of o {luid octing on
This chopter introduces the leorn ihe bosic concept o{
plote concepl oI ie] octing on
tr"i'i[i pflt", fixed inclined Plote, stotionory curve .The
the concepl o{ kinelic energy
movino flot olotes, moving lnclinej plotes To understond
#i,:d b; i:;,w;'ii;;;i, i;':"'
i;i, exerted bv iet on different
'triongles'
tvpes of movins curved
C.^."pi of inlet velocity triongles ond ouilel velocity
"""".-
5.{ lntroduction 1
water
The stream of a water coming out of nozzle or pipe is called as iet' The
coming out has some velocity, because of pressure in the pipe, due to which it
po,,",-.". certain amount of kinetic energy, If this jet strikes on certain obstruction,
it exerts some force on obstruction. It can be experienced that when a person is
washingaVehicle,itVibrateslittleduetoforceexertedbyjetofwater,Thisforceis
called as hydrodynamic force; it is due to motion of liquid'
(s-1)
Fluid Mechanics & Machi nery 5.2 lmpact ol Jet
For solving problems of hydrodynamic forces, Newton's second raw of motion or

impulse-momentum principle is utilized. Newton's second law of motion states that
"the resultant external force acting on any body in any direction is equat to the rate
of change of momentum of the body in that direction,,.
Knowredge of impact of jet is useful in studying turbines through which
mechanical power can be obtained from flowing water.
We will study the following cases of impact of jet in detail:
(A) Force exerted by the iet on a stationary platei
(i) when plate is normal to the jeu
(ii) when ptate is inctined to the jet;
(iii) when plate is curved.
(B) Force exerted by the jet on a moving ptate:
(i) when plate is normal to the jet;
(ii) when plate is inclined to the jet;
(iii) when plate is curved.
5.? lrmpact ol Jet on Fixed Verlical Flat Plate

Impact of jet:
The stream of water coming out of nozzle or pipe is called as ret. Jet of liquid
possesses kinetic energy.
The impact of iet means the force exerted by a jet of liquid on a stationary fixed
piate or moving plate.
Jet propulsion:
The propulsion or movement of the bodies such as ships, aircrafts. rockets with
the. help of impact of jet. The reaction of the jet of riquid coming ort or noiiru or.
orifice acting on the surfaces of the bodies is used to move the bodies. This
phenomenon is called as Jet propulsion.
Velocity of jetl
velocity of water at the time of striking the plate or a vane is called as velocity of
jet.
Relative velocity:
It is the algebraic difference between velocity of jet and velocity of moving plate
or vane.
A nozzle is a device used to increase veloci ty at the cost of reduction in pressure.
Jet of water t
i; Fixed plale
d 0=90
.._-.> '----- v=0
'
I
Pipe Nozzle
'fi
Fi . 5.1: Force Exerted a Jet Normal to Fixed Plate

Fluld llechanlcs & llachlnery 5.3 lmpact ol Jet
Consider a jet of water coming out from nozzle, strikes on fixed flat plate kept
normal to the jet.
Let, v = Velocity of jet. p = Mass density of vyater in kg
d = Diameter of jet p = 1000 kg/m3
w = p.9 = sp. wt. of water in N/m3
a = Area orjet = f; oz .. (s.1)
m = Mass of water striking/sec in kg = y6s5 fiow rate
. =o.u.u=ff ...(s.2)
As plate is fixed, the jet after striking will get deflected through 9Oo. Hence,
component of velocity ofjet (v) in the direction of jet, after striking will be zero.
Fx = The force exerted by the jet on the plate
F, = Mass flow rate x Change of velocity normal to plate
... F,, = p.a.v x (Initial velocity - Final velocity)
'. Velocity of jet before striking i.e. initial velocity is v and velocity of jet after
striking the plate is zero.
... F, = p.a.v [v _ 0]
F o'a v2 N ... (s.3)
In the above equation (5.3), F, is the force exerted by jet.
If force exerted on jet is to be calculated, it will be (Rnal velocity - initial velocity)
that is magnitude of Fx will have negative sign. In the above equation, p is in kglm':,
a is in m2 and v is in m/sec.
ls-121
Consider Fi9. 5.2 (a) in which jet is inclined with fixed flat plate at an angle 0.
vsin0
Fixed plate
v@s0 ---------i
0 v=0
0
v=0
(.) Jet lncllnGd to Fircd Flat Plate
Fn
e
F
(b) Forces Exerted by Inclined Jet on Flred Flat plate

F , 5.2
Fluld Mechanlca & Machinery 5.4 lmpacl ol Jst
Let v be velocity of jet before striking the plate. component of velocity normal to
plate will be v sin 0.
Therefore, normal force on plate = Change of momentum/sec
= Mass of water x (Velocity before impact in the direction normal to plate -
Velocity after impact in the direction normal to plate)
Fn = p.a'v (v sin 6 - 0)
= p'a.v2 sin O .. (5.4)

Force in the
oitnuj"i
- direction F'
- = Fnsino
TFI
= p.a.v2 sinexsine l. tin 6 = ;from
n-l
Fig.5.2 |
| = p.3.y2 sin2 0 in Newtons ... (s.s)

Force in the direction
normal to the jet Fv = Fnxcos0
= p.a.v2 sin e x cos e
p.a.v2 sin 2e
F
2" in N
F, =+ p.a.v2 sin 20 in Newtons ... (5.6)
(...2sinecos0=sin20)
5.4 lroBact ot Jet on 3i Curved Plate
(a) ,et strikes the curved plate at centre:
vsine
vcos0
Fixed curved plate
vcos0 Angle of deflection of jet

i
vcos0
vsin0
F . 5.3: Jet Striki Central on mmetrical Fixed Curved Plate

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.5 lmpact ot Jet
consider a fixed curved plate also called as vane. Jet is striking curved plate at
centre, after striking it will be divided in to two flows as shown. The velocity of jet
after striking will be same if plate is smooth and there is no loss of energy due to
impact of jet.
Velocity at outlet can be resolved into two components as shown:

(i) Perpendicular to direction of jet.
( ii) Along direction ofjet.
Component of velocity in the direction of the jet = -v cos 0 (negative sign is

taken because velocity at outlet is opposite to direction of jet of water coming out
from nozzle).
Component of velocity perpendicular to the jet = v sin 0.
Now force exerted by the jet in the direction of jet,
F= (Mass flowing per second x Change in velocity in that direction)
= p.a.v [v - (-v cos 0)]

F = o'a.v2 (1 + cos 0) N in Newtons (s.7)
(b) Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially:
vsin0 vsin0
vcos0 vcos()
F F
v v
Fx F
vsrne vsin0
vcos0 vcos0
(a) When Curved Plate is Symmetrical (b) When Curved plate is Unsymmetrical
Fi . 5.4
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.6 lmpact of Jet
Let a jet strike on the unsymmetrical plate as shown in Fig. 5.4 (b). About x-axis,
plate is unsymmetrical. The angle made by tangents at inlet and outlet tips be O and
0 respectively with line drawn parallel to x-axis at that points. v be the velocity of jet
of water.
If the plate is frictionless and there is no loss of energy due to impact then
velocity of water at outlet tip of curved plate will be equal to v that is equal to initial
velocity.
Resolving velocity along x and y axes at both tips as shown in Fig. 5.4 (a).
At inlet tip, velocity v can be resolved as v cos O and v sin 0 along x and y axes
respectively.
Similarly, velocity at outlet tip will be -v cos 0 and v sin e respectively. v cos O is
negative because it is opposite to direction of jet along x-axis at inlet.
Force exerted by the jet of water in x direction is
Fx = Mass striking/sec IChange in velocity in x direction]
= p.a.v [v cos 0 - (-v cos 0)]

F, = p.a.v2 [cos 0 + cos 0] when plate is unsymmetrical
When plate is symmetrical as shown in Fig. 5.4 (a),

e 0
F, = p.o.v2 [cos 0 + cos 8]
Fx = 2p'a v2 cos e ... when plate is symmetrical .. (5.8)
Similarly, force exerted by the jet of water normal to direction of the jet for
unsymmetrical plate,
Fy = p.a.v [v sin 0 - v sin 0]
Fy = p'a.v2 (sin e - sin 0) for unsymmetrical plate
When curved plate is symmetrical,

e=0
Force exerted by jet normal to direction of jet,
Fy = p.a'v2 (sin 0 - sin 0)
FY=o (s e)
lmpact of Jet on Plates

(i) Force on flat vertical plate moving in the direction of iet NEIEEEEI1'
consider Fi9. 5.5, jet is striking a flat plate which is moving in the direction ofjet.
Let, v = Absolute velocitY of jet.
u = Velocity of flat Plate'
a = Area of cross-section ofjet.
u)
lr
il Vertical moving flat plate
/
u
ilr-
lr ili
I t
Striki on Movi Flat Plate
Fi . 5,5: Jet
In previous cases when plate was fixed, jet was striking on plate with velocity of
jet. But in this case. plate is moving wlth velocity'u'. Therefore, relative velocity of
jet with it strikes the plate will be (v - u).
Mass of water striking the plate per second,
m = p x Area of jet x Relative velocity with which jet strikes the plate
m = pxax(v-u)
By im pu lse-momentu m PrinciPle,
Force exerted byjet on moving plate in the direction of iet,
Fx = Mass of water striking/sec x IChange in velocity]
= p.a.(v - u) x [(v - u) - 0]
.. Velocity ofjet after striking in that direction is zero
Fx= .a.(v - u)2 ... (s.10)
In previous cases plate was fixed, so there was no work done But here plate is
moving, so work done can be found out.
(v-u)
,:l
, (v-u)
Fi , 5.6: Jet Striki on an Inclined Movi Plate
Fluid Mechanics & Machi nery 5.8 lmpact of Jet
Distance moved in the

Work done per second direction of fo rce
by jet on plate Force x
Time
Fxx u
W.D. = .a 2x U . N.m/s or J/s or watts ... (S.11)
5.6 lmpact of Jet on an tnclined plate Moving in the Direction

Jet
consider a jet of water striking on an incrined prate moving with
unrform verocity
in the direction ofjet as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Let, v = Absolute velocity ofjet,

a = Cross_sectional area ofjet.
u = Velocity of plate in the direction ofjet.
0 = Angle of inclination between the jet and plate.
Relative velocity of jet w.r.t. plate is (v _ u)
Mass of water striking per second = p.a.(v _ u).
... Force exerted by jet on the moving plate in the direction normal to plate,
Fn = Mass of water striking/sec x (Change in velocity in that direction)
= p.a.(v - u) [(v _ u) sin e _ 0]
... (v - u) sin o will be initial velocity in that direction
= p.a (v - u)2sin e
This normal force Fn can be resolved into two components.
(i) In the direction of jet and (ii) normat to the direction jet.
of
(i) Force in the direction ofjet,
Fx=Fn.sinO = p.a(v-u)2 sinOxsine
Fx P;a (v - u)2 sin2e
(ii) Force normal to the direction ofjet,
F Fn cos 0 p a ( u )2 s n 0I c OS e
a 2 sin 2g
F (... sin 20 = 2 sin
2 O cos O)
(iii) work done per second by jet on an inclined plate

= Force in the direction of jet x Distance travelled by plate/sec
= p.a.(v - u)2 sin e x u
W.D. = a 2.u.sin20 ... N.m/s . (s.12)
5. 7 lmpact of Jet on a Series of Flat Plates Fitted on the

Periphery of Wheel
In actual practice, flat plate moving with a velocity 'u' and jet with velocity'v',
striking continuously is not possible because either we have to move pipe with
velocity 'u' to maintain relative velocity of jet (v - u) or if jet is fixed, relative velocity
or distance between jet and plate will increase.
3 n1
n
2
1
Jet of water
dv
Fi . 5.7: Flat Plates Fitted on the \'.eel
In practice, series of flat plates are mounted on the rim of wheel at a constant
distance apart. When the jet strikes the flat plate, it will experience force, which will
cause the plate to move in its own direction. But plate is fixed to wheel, so wheel will
rotate with angular velocity o). The instantaneous linear velocity of the plate will be
say 'u'. see Fig. 5.7.
Under the action of jet, the wheel starts rotating. Suppose plate no. 1 comes in
front of jet. Because of force of jet, plate no. 1 moves to position of plate no. n and
plate no. 2 takes position of plate no. 1 and so on.
Point of strike in this case is fixed as if the plates were stationary. Hence,
discharge will be Q = 3'Y.
Mass of water striking per second will be p'a'v and not p a (v - u) because on
wheel there are series of flat plates and after striking of jet on one plate. next plate
will be coming under force of jet.
Therefore, force acting on series of flat plates will be
F = o.a.v (v - u)
Fluid llechanics & Machinery 5. t0 lrnp'acl ol Jet
Work done per second = Force x Distance moved per second

= Force x Velocity of plates
= Fx u
Work er SeC = .a.v XU in N-m/sec.
Work done per newton (weight) per second
_ (v-u)u .. in N-m/sec/N/sec.
I
As jet is coming out through nozzre with high velocity v, it is possessing kinetic
energy.
Kinetic energy of jet per sec. = = L(p.a.v) v,

+ û,
K.E.ofjet=1rur,
The efficaency of series of flat plates is
Work done on Dlates per second
K.E. supplied by jet per second
a.v v-u xLl _ 2(vu ; u2)
1,
)oav-
2u v-u
For maximum efficiency, we have to difrerentiate above expression w.r.t. u and

equate it to zero.
1 dn
ai =(v-2u)=0
vul
u = zort=,
The ratio is ealled as the speed ratio.
$
Substituting, , =| in equation of efficiency,
(' -;);
!'1,n- ' v2
n-* = ] or 50o/o
The series of flat plates mounted on a wheel have the maximum efficiency of only
50o/o. This efficiency is low. It can be increased, when the work done or the force
acting on the flat plate is increased. This force acting on the flat plate can be
increased by taking help of reaction force. It can be achieved by making the flat plate
as curved vane.
5.8 lmpact of Jet Gentrally on Moving Curved Plate in the

Oirection of Jet
Let a jet strike a curved plate at the centre of the plate which is moving with
uniform velocity u in the direction of jet as shown in Fig. 5.8.
(v u) sin 0
(v - u)cos
Curved plat€
d
i .--) u
Fi . 5.8: Jet Striki Centrall on Movin Curved Plate

Let, v = Absolute velocity of jet
a= Cross-sectional area of jet = { d,
Relative velocity of jet with curved plate = (v - u).
... Velocity with which jet strikes the curved plate = (v - u).
Assuming no frictional loss (i.e. vane surface is smooth) and no loss of energy
due to impact at outlet tip, then velocity of leaving water will be (v - u).
This velocity can be resolved into two components, one in the direction ofjet and
other normal to the direction of jet.
Component of the velocity in the direction of jet
= _(v_u)cos0
[Negative sign is written as at outlet tip, direction of jet is opposite to the
direction of incoming jet.l
Component of the velocity in the direction normal to the direction ofjet
=(v-u)sine.
Mass of water striking the plate = p.a (v - u).
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery lmpact ol Jet
Force exerted by the jet on the curved plate in the direction of the jet,
Fx = Mass of water striking/sec x [Change in velocity in that direction]
= p.a {(v - u) - t- (v - u) cos 0l}

= - u) [(v - u) + (v _ u) coso]
p.a (v
Fx = p'a (v - u)2 [1 + cos e]
Work done by jet on plate/sec
= Fx x Distance travelled per sec in that direction
= Fxx U
= p.a (v - u)z [1 +cosO]xu

W.D. = a 2xu 1+cose (s.13)
Force Exerted hy a Jet on arr Unsyr[roetrieal lllloving Cgrved

Plate when Jet Sltrikes at one of the Tips
U
H
D
U
Nozzle
F . 5.9: Jet Strikin Ta entiall onanU mmetrical Curved Plate

Fig. 5.9 shows a jet of water striking on a moving curved plate tangentially at one
end (tip). In this case, plate is moving and jet is having some velocity, so jet will be
striking the plate with relative velotity ofjet with respect to plate. Again direction of
velocity of jet and curved plate are difterent. so relative velocity will be vector
ciifference of velocity of jet and velocity of the curved plate at inlet.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.13 lmpacl ol Jel
Let, Velocity of jet at inlet.

u Velocity of curved plate at inlet.
(v - I), relative velocity of jet and plate at inlet
0, Angle made by jet with direction of motion of the plate, and
called as guide blade angle or nozzle angle.
0 Angle made by relative velocity with the direction of motion
at inlet, it is also called as vane angle at inlet.
vw and vf The two components of the velocity of the jet v in the
direction of motion and normal to the direction of motion of
vane respectively.
The component of absolute velocity parallel to the direction
of motion is called as the velocity of whirl. This component
is responsible for power output.
The component of absolute velocity normal to the direction
of motion is called as the velocity of flow. fhis component
is responsible for flow of water on vane'
Absolute velocity of jet, leaving the plate (outlet).
U1 Velocity of vane at outlet.
Va, Relative velocity of the jet with respect to the vane at
outlet.
0 = Angle made by absolute velocity (v1) with the direction of
motion of the vane at outlet.
0 = Angle made by the relative velocity (v;r), with the direction
of motion of the vane at outleu it is also called as vane
angle at outlet.
VwlandVfl=componentsofabsoluteVelocity(V1)inthedirectionof
motion of vane and normal to the direction of motion of
vane at outlet.
Thus, a ABD and a EGH drawn by taking some scale are called as velocity
triangles at inlet and outlet.
Procedure for drawing velocity triangles at anlet and outlet3
1. velocity Triangle at Inlet (A ABD): Take any point A and draw line
AB = V i.e. absolute velocity of jet by taking some suitable scale, with line AB
inclined at an angle o to horizontal line AD. Initially, line AB will be a horizontal line.
with same scale draw line AC = u. If we join point c with B, we will get vector
Fluid Mechanics & Macht nery 5.14 lmpact o, Jet
difference that is relative velocity ofjet w.r.t. velocity of curved plate (u) at inlet. If
there is no loss of energy at inlet due to impact, then cB must be in tangential
direction to the curved plate at inlet. To resolve absolute velocity of jet into two
components, draw one vertical line BD in the downward direction through B to meet
line AC produced at D. Line BD will be velocity of flow of inlet = vf.
Line AD will be velocity of whirl at inlet = vw.
Z BCO = Vane angle at inlet = 0
2. Velocity Triangte at OuUet (AEGH): If vane surface is smooth

(frictionless), the loss of energy due to friction will be zero. In this case, relative
velocity of outlet tip will be equal to relative velocity at inlet tip.
To avoid loss of energy due to shock at ou et, rerative verocity at ouflet should
be in tangential direction to the vane at ouuet.
Draw EG tangent at ouflet tip of curved plate, taking E as outlet tip. Take
EG = v1, with same scale. From point G, draw a line GF i; the direction oi curved
plate at outlet and equal to ur. Join EF, which represents absolute velocity
of jet at
outlet in magnitude and direction. From E, draw a vertical line EH to meet line GF
produced at H. so we have resolved absorute velocity at outlet into two components.
EH = Velocity of flow at outlet = vfl
FH = Velocity of whirl at ouflet = vwr
0 = Angle of vane at ouflet

0 = Angle made by v1 with the direction of motion of vane at outlet.
For single curved vane moving continuously in one direction, the velocity of vane
tip at inlet u and the velocity of vane tip at ouflet u1 are same i.e.
u= ur
If there is no friction when water is gliding over curved vane,
Vr = Vrt
Now, mass of water striking vane per second = p.a.vr ... (5.14)
... Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion (F) = Mass of water
striking per second x (Initiar velocity ofjet in that direction - Final verocity ofjet in
the same direction )
... (s.1s)
Now, initial velocity of jet in the direction of motion = vr cos 0
= Vw -U from a ABD ... (5.16)

Similarly, the component of the relative velocity at outlet in the direction of

motion
= -vr coS 0 = - (u + vw1) ... (5.17)
Negative sign is taken as the component of vrl in the direction of motion is in the
opposite direction.
Substituting equations (5.14), (5.16) and (5.17) in equation (5.15).
Force exerted by jet
= F = p.a'vr [(vw - u) - {-(u1 + vwl)}]
= p.a.vr [vw - u + ut+vw1]
F = p'a.vr (vyy, + v1ryr) ... (5.18)
Above equation (5.18) is true only when angle p is acute angle (< 90o).
If p = 90o then vwr = 0
... F = p.a.vr (vw1)
If p is an obtuse (> 90o) angle then the expression on F will be
F = p.a.vr (vw _ vwr)
Thus, general equation for F is written as
F = p.a.vr (vw 1vw1)
Work done per second on the vane by jet
= Force x Distance per second moved in the direction of force
= Fxu
W.D. = p.a.vr (vw t vw1) x u
Work done per second per newton (unit weight) of fluid striking
p.a.vr (vw t vwl) x u p.a.vr (vw t vwl) x u
- Weight of fluid striking - 9 x p.a'vr
1
= n(vwtvwl) xu . (s.1e)
Similarly, workdone per sec per unit mass of fluid striking

p.a.vr (vw t vwl) x u p.a.vr (vw t vw1) x u
- Mass of fluid striking _ P'a'vr
= (vwlvwl)xu
Kinetic energy supplied by jet per unit weight of flowing water =
*.
Hence, the efficiency of the va,re will be

(vwtvwl)xu
,l= Work done on the va@ q
= v2
2g
2(vwtvwl)xu
tl= ,,
Work done by jet can be found as difference of kinetic energies at the inlet and
the outlet.
"2
Work done per second per unit weight = 2g
5.{O lmpact of Jet on a Series of Cun ed Vanes Mounted on tte

Periphery of a UUheel
Fig. 5.10 shows the series of curved vanes are mounted on the rim of wheel
which is mounted on shaft. A jet of water strikes the centre of curved vanes
successively which in turn rotates the wheel. Always one vane facing the jet so that
stream of jet is utilized in striking the vanes and rotating the wheel which in turn
rotates the shaft producing rotary power.
d = Diameter of jet
v = Velocity of jet
u = Peripheral velocity ofjet
0 = Acute angle between tangent at outlet tip of vane and the
direction of jet
0= Angle through which jet is deflected
a= Area of jet
Curved vane
ri -r 4,
Nozzle
Jet
AC
I v-u) sin 0
(v-u) cos e
Fiq.5,10
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 5.17 lmpact ol Jel
The relative velocity at which the jet strikes the curved vane is (v - u).
.'. Force exerted by the jet on vane
F, = o.a.v (v - u) . (1 + cos e) in Newtons
Work done per sec = 1ry.9. = [p.a.v(v - u) (1 + cos e)] . u ... N-m/sec
Efficiency of series of curved vanes is given by
Work done per sec a v(v - u) (1 + cos e)]u
= KÊ. ofjet = [p
'l 1.
,Pav'
[2(1 + cos 0) (v - u) . u]
n
For ma ximum eFficien cy, differentiate above equation w.r.t. u.

We get !a 2(1 + cos 0) (v-2u)=0
du
(v - 2u) 0
2u
u=1
i.e. for maximum efficiency velocity of vane is half of the velocity of jet.
1+cose
2
1
af 0 = 90" = l^". = i or 50o/o for series of flat plates
if 0 = 0o = tlmax = 1 or 100o/o for series of hemispherical vanes
Solved Examples
Ex, 5,1: A jet of water 50 mm in diameter strikes a fixed plate normally with a
velocity of 20 m/s. Find the force experienced by the flat plate.
Sol.: Given: Diameterofjet, d = 50 mm = 0.05 m, v = 20 m/s, F = ?
Area of jet = io, =f; to.osl, = 0.00195 m2

When jet strikes plate normally,
F= P'3 'Yz
= 1000 x 0.00195 x 202
= 784 N
= O.7a4 kN
Fiq. 5.11
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 5.18 lmpact ol Jet
Ex. 5,2: A jet of

water 50 mm in diameter under a constant head of 50 m
impinges on a fixed flat plate normally. Find the force exerted by the jet, if coefficient
of vetocity is 0.95. IEEII
Sol.: Diameter of jet = 50 mm = 0.05 m, H = 50 m, Cv = 0.95, F= ?
Area of jet = to.os), = o.oo1e6

Xo, = f; m2
In problem, pressure head is given as 50 m, we have to find velocity of jet.

.. Velocity of jet, v = Cv \EgH
= 0.95 x 2x9.81 x50
= 29.75 mls
Force exerted by jet normally to plate,
F= p'3.y2
= 1000 x 0.00196 x (29.75)2

= 17?4,72 N
Ex. 5.3: A 50 mm diameter jet having a velocity of 2O m/s strikes a fixed ptate
at an angle of 3Oo. Find the normal pressure on the plate. Also find the component of
force in the direction of jet and perpendicular to it.
Sot.: Oiameter of jet = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Area of jet = Xo, = f; to.osl, = 0.00196 m2

.'. Velocity of jet = v = 20 m/s
Angle made by jet with plate = 0 = 30o
Normal pressure on plate,
Fn = p '6.v2 sin 0
= 1000 x 0.00196 x (20)2 x sin 30o

= 392 N
F . 5.12
Fluld ilechanica & Mlchlnery 5.19 lmpact ol Jet
Component of force along to the direction of jet is

Fx = Fnsin e
= 392 x sin 30o

= 196N
Component of force perpendicular to the direction of jet is
FY = Fn cos 0
= 392 x cos 30o
= 339.48 ll
Ex. 5.43 A flat plate is struck normally by a jet of water 50 mm in dtameter wlth
vetocity of 25 m/s. Calcutate: ru
(a) The force on the plate when it moves in the same diietion as tfie Jet at
6 m/s.
(b) wo* done per second and the effrciency.
The
3ol.: Diameter of jet, d = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Area of Jet, a = [a, = f; to.osl, = 0.00196 m2
.'. Velocity of jet = v = 25 m/s

Veloclty of plate = u=6m/s
when Prate is movins'
":r.:',
rhr*,r, - ru
= 767.sa it
Work done = Force x Distance moved by plate per sec.
: i:;,:r;".,
= 4.245 kW
Energy supplied by jet of water
=j to'a'v) 'vz
... p.a.v = mass flovsec
i
= i x (1000 x 0.00196 x 25) x {2512
= 1El1Z.3 wrttt
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.20 lmpact ol Jet
The efficiency of plate is

work done
rl = 6ersy supplied
4245.36
15312.5 -
= 0,2772 = 27.72o/o
Ex. 5.5: A jet of water moving with a velocity of 20 m/s impinges at the centre
of curved vane, which deflects it through 150o.
(a) Calculate the force acting on the fixed vane in the direction of the iet, if the
vane is symmetrical and smooth. What will be the magnitude of resultant
force per newton of water?
(b) If now the vane is moving in the direction of jet with a velocity of I m/s,
determine the force exerted on the vane, the work done and the efficiency.
sol.: Given: v = 20mls,o = 0 = 30o, F = ?. If u = 8 m/s, D = ?,n = ?
(a) When plate is stationary,
Force exerted by jet = (p.a'v) (v + v cos 0) N (' e = 0)
But in this example. 'a'is not given and force per unit weight is asked.
... Force exerted by jet per unit weight is
F
v+vcos0 N/N/s
I
=|tr+cose)
= O*,, + cos 3oo)
=fftr.soel=3.8N/N/s
r1
d 150
t1
Fis,5.13
(b) As vane is moving with a velocity u in the direction of jet, it is approaching
and strikins the vane *'tn -'::'':
il"j:l = 20 - 8 = 12 m/s
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.21 lmpact ol Jet
In this case, force exerted by jet per Newton of flowing water,
r =f,tr+coso)
1)
= 9^81 (1 + cos 30o)
= ffi tt.essl = z.2as NlNts

Work done per sec. per newton of flowing water
= Force x Distance moved per sec
= 2.28x 8 = 18.24 t{m/s/N/s
Energy supplied by jet per newton of flowing water
1t
(20),
= ivz = r;tsT
= 20.39 Nm/s/N/s
Hence, erficiency of vane= *HffiA
= *3# = 0.8e46
= 89,460/o
The vane being symmetrical, there is no tangential force.
Hence, the normal force is the resultant force.
Ex. 5,6: A jet of water of 40 mm diameter strikes a flat plate normally, Due to
impact of jet, the plate which is stationary experiences of force of 1.5 kN Calculate
the discharge from the jet. (Take p = 1000 kg/m3).
Sol.: Area of a iet, a = fiaz
l
=4 x (0.04)2 = 0.00125 m2
wav2
Force exerted by jet. F = 29
g'8r togo 1o.,ootzs v'
1.5 x to3 - ><
2 x 9.81 '
,, = *t*t#L =,ooo
v = 48.99 m/s
Q=a'v = 0.00125 x48.99
= 0.061 m3ls
= 61 lit/sec.
Discharge from jet is 61 lit/sec.
Fluid Mechanlca & Machinery 5.22 lmpact ol Jet
Ex. 5,7: A jet of water having a velocity of 35 m/s impinges on a series of vanes
moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. The jet makes an angle of 30o to the direction of
motion of vanes when entering and leaving at an angle of 1200. Draw the triangles of
velocities at inlet and outlet and find: @
(a) the angle of vane tips so that water enters and leaves without shock,
(b) the work done per unit weight of water entering the vanes and
(c) the efficiency.
Sol.: Given: Velocity of jet, v = 35 m/s, velocity of vane, u = ur = 20 m/s.
(a) Angle of jet at inlet a = 30o, angle made by jet at outlet F = 1800 - 1200
= 600.
.. Ut . v*.
tHl<.---+i
t1
h-o-'-l
F . 5.14
From inlet velocity triangle,
vw = v cos o = 35 cos 30o = 30,31 m/s
vf = v sin o = 35 sin 30o = 17.50 m/s
tano=r
= r*-u ==.!7.5 =.,.
= 3031 -20 = 1'697
0 = tan-1 1.697, 0= 600
V; Vf V; 17.5
By sine ruie,
sin 90' = sin o or 1 - sin 600
... v. = b1ffi = 2o.21m/s
Now, Vr = Vrr = 20.21 m/s
From outlet velocity triangle,
v.r u1 20.25 20
sin 20" = sin (60'- O) or 0.886 - sin (600 - 0)
50o-4 = 53.75o
0 = 1.250
Fluid Mechanics & Mochinery 5.23 lmpact of Jet
(b) work done per unit weisht

1::,":::.":"t
=n (vw+vw1)u
But vw1 = vr1 coso - u = 20'25 cos L,25-20 = 0.24m/s
... work done/unit weight = 5h' tro.r, + 0.24) x 20 = 52.2a ilm/l{

Work done rk 62.ZA
(c) Efficiency = Energy supplied per kg - v2
29
62.28x2x9.81
(:s)z = 99.7 4o/o
Ex. 5.8: Water is flowing through a pipe with a nozzle at one end' The diameter
of nozzle is 100 mm and head of the water at the centre of nozzle is 100 m.
Find force exerted by the jet on a fixed vertical plate. Take coefficient of velocitY as
0.g5. @
sol,: Given data: d = 0.10 m, H = 100 m, , =xd, = 0.007854 m2
Velocity of jet = v = C" r/ZgH

= 0.95 2x9.81 x 100
= 42.08 m/s
Force exerted by jet on plate, (T p*".". = 1O0O kglm3)
6 = pav2 = 1000 x 0.007854 x (42.08)2
= 13,907.28 N
Ex. 5.9: A jet of water of diameter 7,5 cm strikes a curved plate at its centre with
a velocity of 20 m/sec. The curved plate is moving with a velocity of I m/sec in the
direction of jet. The jet is deflected through an angle of 1651 Assuming plate to be
smoom, rtno: iEEEI
(i) Force exerted on the plate.
(ii) Power of jet.
(iii) Efficiency of jet.
sol.: civen: v = 20 m/s, u = 8 m/s, o = 0 = 15"
d = diameter of jet = 0.075 m, F and q =?
Nozzle 1650
F 5
(i) Force exerted on moving curved plate at its centre,

F = p.a (v-u)2(1 + cosO)
= 1000 xlx (0.075)'z (20 - 8)'?x (1 + cos 15")
F
F = 1250.67 N
( ii) Workdone = lp a(v-u)'z(1 + coso)l u
F.u = 1250.67 x 8 = 10005.36 N-m/sec.
Power = 10005.36 N-m/sec. or watt
10.oos36 kw
Workdone per sec
( iii) Effi c en cy
Kinetic energy
1000s.36 10005.36
-1
jP a v- ] x rooo, { {o.ozs)' x {zo)3
r = 0.5662
I = 56.620lo
Ex. 5.1o: A jet of water of diameter 10 cm strikes a flat plate normally with a
velocity of 15 m/sec. The plate is moving with a velocity of 6 m/sec, in the direction
of jet. Find:
(i) Force exerted by jet on the plate.
(ii) workdone by jet on the plate. IIlEJl
Sol.: . v = 15 m/sec., u = 5 m/sec.
d = 10cm = 0.1 m. ... a = Area ofiet=f; d, =t(0.1), = 0.007855m2
Force exerted by jet on flat moving plate
Fx = p. a (v - u)'z = 1000x0.007855 (15 - 6)'z
= 636.2s5 N
.. Workdone per sec = p a (v - u)2 u = F, u
= 636.255 x 6
= 3817.53 watts
Ex. 5.11: A jet of water 80 mm of diameter moving with a velocity 20 m/s,
strikes a stationary plate. Find the normal force on the plate when (i) plate is normal
to jet, (ii) the angle between jet and ptate is 3d. IEEI
Sol.: . d = 80 mm = 0.08 m, v = 20 m/sec.
a = Area or jet = {6, = { to.s), = 0.005027 nr'.
(i) if jet strikes the plate normally,
F, = p.a v2 = 1000 x O.OO5O27 m2 x (20)2
.. F, = 2O10.8
(ii) When jet strikes plate at 30'
... F, = p.a.v2. sin2 0
= 1000 x 0.005027 x 202 x sin2 3oo
= 502.7 N
5.25 lmpact of Jet
Ex.5.l2:Aietofwaterofdiameter5cmandvelocity30m/sec'strikingona
curved blade having an angle of 1350 at outtet. Determine force, workdone, efficiency
if (i) single fixed blade, (ii) a singte moving blade moves with 78 m/sec' in the
direction of iet. Mm
Sol.: d = 5 cm = 0.05 m, v = 30 m/sec', F = ? W'D' = ?, \o/o = ?' u = 18 m/sec'
^
=Xd'= fi to.os)' = 0.001964 m2, e = 130o.
(i) For single fixed blade
F, = p.a v2 (1 + cos e)
= 1000 x 0'001964 x (30)2 x (1 + cos 45o)

F, = 3O17'29 N
( ii) For moving blade
= p'a (v - u)': 1r + cos e)
F"
= 1000 x 0'001964 x (30 - 18)'zx (1 + cos 45o)
F" = 482.76 N
Now work done = F, u = 482'76 x 18
= 85a9.8 N-m/sec.
Ou tDut W.D. P er sec.
Efficiency ofjet = n = l;;rt = HH = 0.3277 = 32.71o/o
] (oau) ,'
Ex. 5.13: A iet of water of 50 mm diameter is discharging under a consta nt
head
velocity
ofTom.Findtheforceexertedbythejetonafixedplate.Takecoefficientof
as 0.9. r@1
Sol.: . dia. of jet d = 50 mm = O.O5 m, H =7O m, Cv = 0'9, F = ?
.'. Area of jet of a = X O' = | to'Os)' = 0.00196 m2'
'. veloclty ofjet v = c., r/2sH

v = 0.9x 2 x 9.81 x70
v = 33'35 m/sec.
Force exerted by jet normal to the plate
g = pav2
= 1000 x 0.00196 x (33'35)'z
F = 2179.95 N
Ex. 5'14: A jet of water 75 mm in diameter having velocity of 20 m/sec'
strikes
periphery of a wheel such that each plate a ppears
the flat ptates arranged around the
successively before the iet, lf the plates are moving at a velocity of 5 m/sec.
Compute the force exerted by the iet on the plate, the workdone
per sec' on the
plate and the efficiencY of iet. t@l
Fluid M.chlnicr & 5.26 lmpact ol Jet
SoL:'. d = 75 mm = 0.075m, v = 20 m/sec., u = 5 m/sec.

... Area of jet u = Lo d, = lo.ots), = o.o442 m2
!
Force exerted by Jet on series of Fat plates
Fx=p.a.v(v-u)
= 1000 x O.OO442 x 20 (20 - 5)
F, = 1326 N
Work done per sec = pav(v_ u).u
= F,. u
= 1325x5
Workdone F€r S€c = 663O N_m
Now efficiency of jet = 1 =
2 v-u u
2 20-5 x5
(20 )
r= 0.375
= 37.5o/o
Ex. 5.15: A jet of water of SO mm diameter moving with
a velocity of 15 m/sec.
impinges on a series of vanes moving with a velocity of 6
m/sec. Find the
(i) Force exerted by jet
(ii) Work done by jet
(iii) Efficiency.
Sol.:'.' d = 50 mm = 0.05 m, v = 15 m/sec., u 6 m/sec. Mfrfi;rl
=
Area ofjet = a =
f,a,= f, , 1O.os), = 0.001964 m2
(i) Force exerted by jet on series of vanes
Fx= p.a.v(v_u)
.. F, = 1000 x 0.001964 x 15 (15 _ 6)
" F = 265.14 il
( ii) Work done byjet = p.a.v (v _ u) x u
= 265.14 x 6
.'. Work done by jet = t59O.B4 N-m/scc.
( iii) Efficiency of jet rt = 2 U
_ 2(15-6)x5
( 1s)'?
I = 0.48
\ = 48oh
OR
Fluid Mechanlcs & i,lachinery 5.27 lmpact ol Jet
Work done er
Efficiency of jet n = Kinetic energy of jet
I
Kinetic energy ofjet = i (p.a v) . v2
= ix (loo0 x 0.001964 x 15) (rs)'?
= 3314.25 N-m/sec.
r590.84
rl - 3314.25
= 0.47987
I= 0.48 say
rl = 48q6
Ex. 5.163 Water is flowing through a pipe at the end of which a nozzle is fitted.
The diameter of the nozzle is 100 mm and the head of water at the centre of nozzle
is 1OO m. Find the force exerted by jet of water on a fixed vertical plate,
The coefficient of velocity is given as 0.95. I[fi
Sol.: Dia. of nozzle or jet d = 100 mm = 0.1 m.
Head of water H = 100 m, C, = 0.95.
... Area of jet . = Xd' = f, x (0.1)'z = 0.007854 m2.
Theoretical velocity ofjet = {r6E

2x9.81 x 100
= 44.2945 mlsec.
Actual velocity of jet v = C, \EgH
v = 0.95 2 x 9.81 x 100
v = 42.0798 m/sec.
Force exerted by jet F, = p.a.v2 = 1000 x 0.007854 x (42.0798)2
= 13907.153 N
'. F = 13.9O7kIl
Ex. 5.17: A jet of water having a velocity of 40 m/sec. strikes a curved vane,
which is moving with a velocity of 20 m/sec, The jet makes an angle of 3e with
direction of motion of vane at inlet and leaves at an angle of 9d to the direction of
motion of vane at outlet. Draw velocity tiangles at inlet and outlet and determine
the vane angles at inlet and outlet so that the water enters and leaves the vane
without stock. @
Fluid Mechanics & M.chinery 5.28 lmpact of Jet
Sol.:
u,
F
G
P=90"
D
K , +c
Fis.5.16
'. Velocity of jet v = 40 m/sec.
Velocity of vane u
= 20 m/sec.
Angle made by jet at inlet a = 30o
Angle made by leaving jet = 90o
.. p = 180o - 90' = 90o
.'. vwl =0
Vane angle at inlet =e
Vane anEle at outlet =0
For this example, velocity of vane and velocity of vane tip at inlet (u), velocity of
vane tip at outlet (ur) are same.
.'. U=U1 =u2 = 20 m/sec.
From ABCD, tan 0 _CD
-BD
BD
- AD-AC
_Vr
- (v"- u)
But ln triangle BAD,
.BDV,
srna = 16=;
vr = vsino
vr = 40 sin 30" = 20 m/sec.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.29 lmpacl oI Jet
D
also cos Ct = A B -v!
vcosc= 40 x cos 30o
34.64 m/sec.
BD vr Vr )i
tan 0 CD-AD-AC-(v"-u) - (34.64 - 20)
tan 0
#=,.,uu
e tan-1 ( 1.366)
0 53.790
BD_vr
Also, from triangle BCD. sin 0
BC-v.
Vr
sin 0
20
' = sin (53.79')
= 24,78 mlsec.
... Relative velocity of jet at inlet (v|,) is equal to relative velocity of jet at outlet
tip (v.r), as the jet enters the tip of vane and leaves the tip of vane without shock,
" vr = Vrr = 24'78 m/sec'
Now, from aEFG
GF -ul
cos 0 = GE =
= #= 0.8071
0 = cos-l (0.8071) = 36.18"

O = 36.18o
Ex. 5.18r A jet of water having velocity of 15 m/sec. strikes a curved vane which
is moving with a velocity of 5 m/sec. in the same direction as that of iet at inlet.
The vane is so shaped that the iet is deflected through 13f. The diameter of iet is
1OO mm. Assume vane to be smooth' Find:
(i) Force exerted by iet on the vane in the direction of motion'
(ii) Power outPut of vane.
(iii) Efficiency of the vane. Mm
Sol.: . d = dia. of jet = 100 mm = 0'1 m.
.'. Area of jet =.Id'= { to.ro)'

"
.'.a=0.007854m'z
Iet strikes the moving curved vane

.'. v = Velocity of jet = 15 m/sec.
.'. u = Velocity of vane at inlet = 5 m/sec. = ur = velocity of vane tip at ouflet
'. Direction of velocity of jet at inlet and direction velocity of vane at the inlet is
same
.'. * = 0, therefore inlet velocity triangle is straight line ACBN.
Now, d = dia. of jet = 100 mm = 0.1 m.
.'. Area of jet a =
f,a' =f,<o.t'1,
.'. a = 0.007854 m2
u1
AC B 13f
. uJ v, -
Fi ,5,L7
Angle of deflection ofjet = 1350 = 180 -
0
0=180"-135"=45"
where 0 = Angle of vane at outlet
Also, surface of vane is smooth
-.- Vr = Vrr
From inlet velocity triangle, ABC, (straight line)
Vr=v-U = 15-5
= 10 m/sec.
vw=v=15m/sec'
From outlet velocity triangle, DGE,
V, = V.r = 10 m/sec.
coso=E3
ur + v*-
_ _-__---------,L
,l
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.31 lmpacl ol Jet
.. U1 + Vw1 = vrrCOS 0
... vwr = (vr1 cosO - ur) = (10 x cos45'- 5) = (7.O7 -5)

v"t = 2'O7 m/sec'
"'
Now,
(i) Force exerted by jet on the vane in the direction of motion is
Fx = p.a.v|'(v"1v*r)
Select + ve sign, therefore B < 90o i.e. acute angle'
... F, = p .a . v, (v* t v"r)
= 1000 x 0.007854 x 10 [15 + 2.07]
F' = 134O'54 N
"'
(ii) Power output of the vane = p . a . vr (v" t v"r) u
(work done per sec.) = Fx x U = 1340.58 x 5

Power = 6703.4 watts
= 6,7O34 kW
(iii) Emciency of vaneq =
ffi
p.a.v,(v"1vwr).u F u
n 1 1
1(p a.v)v2 ,\p a v) v2
1340.68 x 5
jx rOOO x 0.007854 x 15 x (15)2
n = 0.50578
\ = 3().57010
Ex, 5.19: A jet of water strikes on series of cup shaped vanes which deflect it
through 165". If the velocity of let is that corresponding to ahead of 40 m and
velocity of vane is such that the efficiency is maximum, find the workdone on vane
per kg of water. EE
Sol.: . Head of water H = 40 m. Velocity of jet v = q lEgH'
'. C" is not given, therefore assume Cv = 1.
v = \E-gtt = 2x9.81 x40
v = 28.014 m/sec.
0 = Angle at outlet
= 180o - 1550 = 15o
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 5.32 lmpact of Jet
Force exerted by jet on series of curved vanes

F, = p.a(v-u)2.(1 + coso)
For maximum efficiency of series of curved vanes, the condition is
Velocityof ,ane u = j
28.014
2
u = 14.007 m/sec.
F
G
( u)
165"
B
(\j -rr)
(v-u) sin e
C
-u) cos 0
Fi .5.14
Force exerted by jet
Fx= p.a (v-u)r(1 + cose)
work done bv jet Per *t
= ; l" t, - ur, (1 + cos o) . u)r N_m/sec.
work done'"""'
I ::":t; -:1"1::-,:l::Ji::;"'
t(v - u) (1 + cos 0) ul
work done on vane'"t -t
"t=
;,;t_ u) (1 + cos e) . ul
' [28.014 - f4.007] x [1 + cos 15o] x 14.007
= 385.7O6a N-m per kg of water

Ex, 5.20: A jet water of 60 mm diameter strikes a curved vane at its centre with
a velocity of 18 m/sec. The curve vane is moving with a velocity of 6 m/sec, in the
direction of the jet, The jet is deflected through an angle of 165". Assume the plate to
be smooth, Find:
(i) Force on the plate in the direction of jet
(ii) Power or the jet. IUMI
Sol.: Diameter of jet, d = 0.060m
Velocity of jet, v = 18 m/sec
Velocity of vane, u = 5 m/sec.
Angle of vane at outlet tip = e = 0 = 180 - 165o
.. e=O=15o
lt
Area of jet a= 4 dz
jet
165"
Fi .5.19
(i) Force exerted by jet on moving curved vane at its centre,
F = p.a(v-u)'z(1 + coso)
F = 1000 xlx (0.060)'z x (18 - 6)2 (1 + cos 15o)
800.53 N
( ii) Workdone = lp.a (v-u)'z(1 + cos e)1 .u

Fxu
800.53 x 6
4803.18 N-m/sec.
4803.18 N-m/sec.
Power of jet = 4803.18 N-m/sec. or watt
4.803 kW
Fluld Uechanica & M.chinery 5.34 lmpact of Jet
Work!-9_Dg-pCIE!ond
Also, Emcrency ol Jet =
4803.18 4803.18
1, av'
1P ]xrooo,f,{o.oeo),,ra.
4803. 18
'l = 8245 s6
rl = 0.5825 i.e. 58.25o/o
-
Ex, 5.21: A nozzle of 50 mm diameter delivers a stream of water at 20 m/sec,
perpendicular to a plate that moves away from the jet at 5 m/sec. Find
(i) The force on the plate
( ii) The work done
(iii) of the jet.
The elficiency mE@
Sol,3 Given: Velocity of job, v = 20 m/sec.
Diameter of nozzle = diameter of jet d = 50 mm = 0.050 m
... Area of jet, a= io'=Xx (0.05)2 = 0.001964 m2
Velocity of plateu = 5 m/sec.

(i) Force on the plate F = ?
Force exerted by jet of water perpendicular to the plate is given by

F = p. a (v - u1, = 1000 x 0.001964 x (2O - 5)2
.. F=441.9N
(ii) Work done per sec
.. Work done per sec = [p . a(v - u)2] u = F. u
= 441.9 x 5
= 2209.5 N-m/sec.
= 2209.5 watts
= 2.2095 kw
( iii) Efficiency of jet
Workdone oer sec [p a (v - u )'l u
tl = KGetileisit oiret* = 1. av'
1P
2209.5 2209.5
jx 1000x0.001964x203 7856
n = 0.28125 i.e.28.72o/o
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery lmpact of Jel
mportant Point
;. The force exerted by jet of water on stationary plate in the direction of jet is given by
F, = p.a v' ......1or a vertical flat plate
F, = p.a. v2 sin2 O ...... for inclined plate
F, = p .a v2 ('l + cos 0) ...... for curved fixed plate and jet strikes at the
centre of plate
F, = 2p.a.v'.cos e...... for a curved plate and jet strikes at onetip ot
vane
where, v = velocity ot jet
d = diameter of jet
a = area ol jet
e
angle made by jet and f ixed plate
=
> The forced exerted by a jet of water on a moving plate, in the direction of molion of the
plate is given by
F, = p . a (v - u)t ...... for vertical moving plate
F, =p a (v - u)2 sinz e ...... for inclined moving plate
F,= p a(v-u)'z.(1 + cos O) ...... for jet slriking at centre of moving
curved plate
where, velocity ol vane/plate in the direction of jet.
u=
/, Force exerted by a jet of water striking the moving curved vane at one tip and comes out
at the other tip
F= p a.v,(v"tv"1)
where, positive sign is taken if B is acute angle (i.e. < 90")
negative sign is taken if B is obtuse angle (i.e. > 90")
'. 8= angle made by absolute velocity vi with direction of motion ol vane al
outlet.
, Work done by a jet of water striking the moving plales in the direction of motion of plate is
given by
W.D. = p a (v-u)2.u...... in N-m/sec. or Joules/sec. or Watt ror a vertical
moving plate
W.D. = p a (v - u)2 u sin2 0 ...... tor an inclined moving plate
W D = [p.a (v-u)z. ('1 + cos o)] x u ...... for impact ol let cenkally on
moving curved plate in the direction of Jet
W.D. = [p a v, (v* t v",)] x u ...... for impact of jet striking the moving
curved vane at one tip and comes out at other tip
; Efficiency of vane is given by
Work done Der sec
trrrrurerruy = Kinetic energy per second supplied by jet
I ,1
K.E. ol jetpersss =2mv? "1
=2lp a v) vz=Zp a vr
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 5.36 lmpacl ol Jel
> For a series of flat plate the lorce exerled by iet of waler and workdone by vane per sec.
in given by
Fr = p.a.v.(v - u) and W.l-r. = p.a.v (v - u) . u
Also etficiency ol series ol llat plate is given by
2u(v-u)
n= vz_
Condition for maximum efliciency is u = ! and max. etficiency = 5Oo/" orl.
> For a series of curved vanes; Jet oI water stilke centrally,
Force exerted by jet F,= p.a (v- u)2.('1 + cos e) and work done by jet per sec.
W.D.=[p.a(v-u)2.(1 +cosO)] . u etficiency rl
Condition for maximum etficiency is u =;.

i.e. efliciency is m.uimum when velocity ol vane (u) is hall the velocity ol jet (v).
('l * gos e)
'" r,,"' =
1
if 0 = 90o ...... 1,", = 2 or 50% lor series ol flat plates.
it 0 = 0" ...... I.", = 1 or 100% for series ol hemispherical vanes.
Practice Question
1. How the study of impact of jet on plates is uselul lo engineers? Explain.
2. Derive an expression for lhe force experienced by stationary flat plate, when a jet of fluid
strikes normally.
3. Why a single flat plate moving continuously in one direction is not usetul in actual
practice? What is done in actual practice, show by sketch.
4. Derive expressions for the force, work done and efficiency of series of llat plates when a
jet strikes them.
5. A jet ol water 100 mm in diameter having a velocity of 20 m/s strikes a flat plate
normally. Calculate the force on the plate when:
(a) lt is stationary;
(b) lt is moving with a velocity of 5 m/s in the direction of jet. Also calculate the work
done per second per neMon of flowing water and efficiency in (b).
(Ans. 31 41.6 N, 1 767.1 4 N, 8835.72 watts, 28.125%)
6. A jet of water of diameter 25 mm strikes a vertical ,ixed plate at an angle of 60" with the
vertical. The velocity ol the jet is 20 m/s. Find the lorce on the plate in normal and
tangential directions.
(Ans. 170.04 N, 98.17 N)
7. The jet ol waler 50 mm in diameter has a velocity ol40 m/s. The jet strikes a vane which
dellects it through 135.. The vane moves with a velocity ol '10 m/s in the direction ol jet.
Determine the force, work done per second and the efficiency of the vane.
(Ans. 3016.7 N, 30166.95 watts , 48.01o/o)
8. A jet of water 250 mm in diameler impinges normally on a llat plate moving at 2 m/s in
the direction ol jet. lf lhe discharge is 0.49 m3/s, find the lorce exerted by the jet on the
plate and work done on the plate per second.
(Ans. 3'136 N, W.D./sec = 6272 Nm/s)
9. A rectangular plate of weight 60 N, is suspended vertically by a hinge on the top
horizontal edge. The C.G. ol the plate is 100 mm from the hinge. A horizontaljet ol water
20 mm diameter, whose axis is 150 mm below the hinge impinges normally on the plate
with a velocily ol 5 m/s. Find the horizontal lorce applied at the C.G. to maintain the plate
in vertical position. Find the corresponding velocity ol lhe jet, il the plate is deflected
through 30" and same,force continues to act at the C.G. of plate.
(Ans. 1 1.78 N, 9.24 m/s)
10. A jet ol water moving at 12 m/s impinges on a concave vane to deflecl the jet through
120'when stationary. ll the vane is moving at 5 m/s, lind the angle ol .iet so that there is
no shock at inlet. What is the absolute velocity ot the jet at exit in magnituds and
direction and work done per second per newton of water? Assume vr = vrr .
(Ans. 18", 3.96 m/s, 6.534 Nm/s per N per sec.)
l.....-...'1.--ql
'I
12Oo
f(.u ,l
Fis,5.20
SBIE Qrrestiors E Answe
Summer 2008
1. A jet water of diameter 7.5 cm strikes a curved plate at its centre with a velocity ot
20 m/sec. The curved plate is moving with a velocity of 8 m/sec, in the direction o, jet. The
jet is derlected through an angle ol 165". Assuming plate to be smooth. Find
(i) Force exerted on the Plate.
(ii) Power ol the jet
(iii) Efficiency of jel @ll
Ans, Please reler Solved Ex.5.9.
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 5.38 lmpact oI Jet
2. Water is llowing through a pipe with nozzle at one end. The diameter of nozzle is 100 mm
and head of water at the centre ot nozzle is '100 m. Find the force exerted bv the iet on
the fixed vertical plate. Take coellicient of velocity as 0.95. 'lEEl
Ans. Please reter Solved Ex. 5.8.
Winter 2OOB
1. A jet of water 50 mm in diameter, moving with velocity ol 15 m/sec rmprnges on a senes

of vanes moving with a velocity of 6 m/sec. Find:
(i) Force exerted by jet
(ii) Work done byjet
(iii) Efliciency of the iet. rtrN
Summer 2OO9
't. A flal plate is struct normally by jet ol water 50 mm in diameter with velocity ol 25 m/s.
Calculate work done per second. trul]
2. Why single flat plate moving continuously in one direction is not useful in actual practice?
What is done in actual practice, show by sketch. tm
Ans. Please refer Article 5.5 (i).
3. State the procedure lor drawing inlet and oullel velocity triangles for moving curved vanes
with meaning ot each nolalion used.
Winter 2OO9
1. A jet of water of diameter 10 cm strikes a flat plate normally with a velocity of 15 m/sec.
The plate is moving with a velocity ol 6 m/sec. in the direction of Jet. Find:
(i) the force exerted by the jet on the plate.
(ii) work done by the jet on the plate per sec. E[[
2.A jet of water having a velocity ot 40 m/s strikes a curved vane, which is moving with a
velocity of 20 m/s. The jet makes an angle of 30o with the direction of motion ol vane at
inlet and leaves at angle of 9Oo to the dlrection of motion ol vane at oullet. Draw the
velocity triangles at inlet and outlet and determine the vane angles at inlet and outlet so
that the water enters and leaves the vane without stock. lm
3. State the procedure ,or drawing the inlet and outlet triangles Ior moving curved vanes with
usual notations. [Note: Jet striking a moving curved vanes at one of the tips].
lGEil
Ans. Please reter Article 5.9.
Summer 2O10
1 A jet oI water 50 mm in diameter under constant head or 50 m impinges on a fixed brade
0.95.
normally. Find force exerted by jet if coerficient of velocity is
rul]
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 5.39 lmpact o, Jet
2. A jet ot waler having velocity 35 m/s impinges on a series of vanes moving with velocity
20 m/s. The jet makes an angle of 30" to the direction of motion of vanes Mlen entering
and leaving at an angle of 120o. Draw triangles of velocities at inlet and outlet find :
(i) Angle ol vane tip so that water enters and leaves without shock.
(ii) Work done per unit weight of water entering vanes.
(iii) Etficiency. IEEI
Winter 2O1O
1. A jet of water having velocity ol 15 m/s strikes a curved vane which is moving with a
velocity of 5 m/s in thp same direction as that of jet at inlet. The vane is so shaped that
the jet is deflected through 135". The diameter ol jet is 100 mm. Assume vane lo be
smooth.
Find : (i) Force exerted by the jet on the vane in the direction of motion. (ii) Power output
of the vane. (iii) Elliciency of thevane. m
Summe, 201't
1. Define the lerm impact ol jet. IIIII
Ans. Please reter Article 5.2.
2.A jet ol water strikes on series of cup shaped vanes which dellecl it through 1650. lf the
velocity ol jet is that corresponding to a head of 40 m and velocity ol vanes is such that
the efficiency is maximum, find the work done on vane per kg of water. fEEll
3. Draw a neat sketch for impact of jet on a moving vertical tlat plate and wr:te the lormula to
determine the work done with the meaning ol each lerm. t![n
Ans. Please reler Article 5.2, Fig. 5.1.
4, A jet ol water 80 mm diameter moving with a velocity 20 m/sec., strikes a stationary olate.
Find the normal force on the plate, when l@r
(i) the plate is normal to the jet,
(ii) the angle between jet and plate is 30o.
Ans. Please refer Solved Ex. 5.1 1.
Winter 20l'l
1. A jet ot water diameter 5 cm and velocity 30 m/sec. striking on a curve blade having an
angle 135o al outlet, determine force, work done and efficiency it
(i) A single fixed blade.
(ii) A single moving blade moves with 18 m/sec. in the direction of iet. EEn
Ans. Please reter Solved Ex.5.12.
Summer 2O12
1. Def ine the term impact of jet. rutrl
2. A jet of water 50 mm diaineter is discharging under a constanl head ol 70 m. Find the
0.9.
foice exerted by the jet on a lixed plate. Take coetficient of velocity as [!u
3. Draw a neat sketch of impact ol jet on inclined lixed plate and write tormula lor various
forces exerled on it. m
Ans. Please reler Fig.5.2 ol Article 5.3 and the lormula of forces.
Fluid Mechanacs & Machinery 5.40 lmpact of Jet
4. A jet oI water 75 mm in diameter having velocity ol 20 m/s strikes the llat plates arranged
around the periphery of a wheel such that each plate appears successively before thelet.
lf the plates are moving at a velocity ol 5 m/s, compute the force exerted by the jet on ihe
plate, the work done per second on the plate and the efliciency of the jet. I'ItrE
Ans. Please reter Solved Ex.5.'14.
Winte? 2012
1.Deline the term impact of jet. tfftIl
2. A jet ol water 50 mm diameter, moving with a velocity ot '15 m/sec. impinges on a series
oI vanes moving with a velocity oI 6 m/sec. Find:
(i) Force exerted by the jet (ii) Work done by the jer (iii) Etficiency [IEl]
3. Draw a neal sketch of impact of let on a fixed vertical flat plate and write the formula to
determine, force.exerted by the jet and state the meaning of each term. t![il
Ans. Please reler Article 5.2, Fio. 5.1 .
Summer 20{ 3
State the formulae of force exerted by a jet on llat vertical plate moving in the direction of
l"t.
1
Ans. Please refer Article 5.5, Fig. 5.5.

rm
2. Define the terms impact of jets and jet propulsion. m
3. Water is flowing through a pipe at the end of which a nozzle is fitted. The diameter ol the
nozzle is '100 mm and the head ol water at the centre ol nozzle is 100 m. Find the lorce
exerted by the jet ol water on a fixed vertical plate. The coefficienl ot velocity is oiven as
o.es. - |,@I
Wanter 20't 3
1 Find the lorce on impact of jet when it strikes on a flat plate at right angle when the
is lixed.
frnii
2. Draw inlet and outlet velocity diagram of impact ol jet when jet strikes tangentially at one
of the tips on curve vane. -
Ans. Please refer Article 5.9. Fig. 5.9.
Iffil]
3. A jet water 60 mm diameter strikes a curved vane at its centre with a velocity of 1g m/sec.
The curve.vane is moving with a-velocity of 6 m/sec. in the direction of the-jel. The jet is
detlected through an angle of 165o. Assume the plale to be smooth. Find:
(i) Force on the plate in the direction of jet (ii) power of the jet
mil
4. A nozzle of 50 mm diameler delivers a stream of water at 20 m/sec perpendicular to a
plate that m
9.yej aw?.y from the jet at 5 m/sec. Find: (i) The torce on the ptate, (ii) The
work done, ( iii) The eff iciency ol the jet. ,l]EEIl
Ans. Please refer Solved Example 5.21 .
Summer 2O14
1. Deline the term impact of jet.
IEI1
Ans. Please refer Article 5.2. I
2. Draw inlet and outlet velocity diagram of impact of jet pn moving curved vanes.
run
Itt
A,/nNrt r" 6
Hydrau ti c Turbines
@
6.r lnlroduction
6.2 Loyout ond Feotures o{ Hydroeleciric Power Plonl
6.3 Surge Tonk ond ils Need
6.4 Clossificotion of Hydroulic Turbines
6.5 Seleciion of Turbine on lhe Bosis o{ Heod ond Dischorge
6.6 Conslruclion ond Working Principle of Pehon Wheel Turbine
6.6.1 Velocity Triongles, Work done, Efficiency ond Power of Pelton Turbine
6.6.2 Efficiencies of Pelton Turbine (lmpulse Turbine)
6.7 Reoclion Turbines
6.7.1 Construction ond Working Principle of Froncis Turbine
5.7.2 Colculotion of Work done, Power for Froncis Turbine
6.7.3 Efficiencies o{ Reoclion Turbine
6.8 Conslruclion ond Working Principle ol Koplon Turbine
6.9 Difference belween lmpulse ond Reoclion Turbines
6.1 0 Difference between Froncis Turbine ond Koplon Turbine
'l
6.',I Droft Tubes - Types ond Conslruclion
6.1 I .I Functions of Droft Tube
6.1 1.2 Types of Droft Tubes
6.12 Covilolion in Turbines
6.1 3 Comporison o{ Pelton Wheel ond Froncis Turbine
6.14 Governing of o Pehon Wheel Turbine
6.r5 Specific Speed
6.r6 Performonce of Turbine
6.1 6. 1 Significonce of Unil Quonlilies
. Solved Exomples
. lmportonl Poinls .
. Proctice Questions
(6-1)
Fluid Mechahics & Machlnery 6.2 Hydraulic Turbinea
About thls Chapter

This chopler introduces lo understond the loyout ond feolures of hydroeleclric power
plont, surge tonks ond ils needs. To unr,erslond lhe different types of turbines ond lheir
opplicotions w.r.f. heods ovoiloble ond specific speeds of the iurbine. To understond the
conslruction ond working principles of Pelton wheel, Froncis ond Koplon Turbines ond olso to
underslond how energy conversion tokes ploce in lurbines. To develop the obility of siudent to
colculote work done, power ond efficiency of oll types of lurbines. To know the concept, types,
conslruclion o{ droft tubes. To underslond lhe concept of covilolion in droft tube
6.{ lntroduction
Hydraulic turbines are deflned as the machines which convert hydraulic energy
into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is utilized to run an electric
generator which is coupled to the shaft of hydraulic turbine. The electric power
developed by using energy of water is called as hydro electric power.
6.2 Layout and Features of Hydroelectric Power Plant ls-12, s-14I
Dam
urge tank
Head race Casing
Valve Head loss
house
Pelton wheel
Vanes
z
E
o
Penstock
o N e
o
Tail race ::: ::: ::::::: :::: :: :: :
.6.1:
Fi utofH roelectric Power Plant
The hydroelectric power plant works under a head of 25 to 25OO meters. The
capacity and power developed by the plant depends upon potential head and
quantity of water available.
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 6.3 Hydraulic Turbines
The potential energy is converted into kinetic energy which is further converted
into electrical energy using turbines.
Fig. 6.1 shows general layout of hydraulic power plant.
Features of Hydroelectrlc Power Plant
The features of hydroelectric power plant are catchment area of dam, Reservoir,
Dam, Surge tank, Forebays, Value House Penstock, Flow control valve, Hydraulic
turbine, Generator, Draft tube, Tailrace etc.
A dam is constructed at high mountains. The rain water is collected in the dam.
Water from dam is supplied to turbine house through forebays (smaller reservoir in
the form of tunnels). Then water is supplied through penstock whose rate of flow is
controlled by a suitable flow control valve. The quantity of water required at lnlet of
turbine depends upon load on the turbine.
When construction of forebays is not possible, in such case surge tank used.
When load on turbine decreases, the excess quantity of water is accumulated in
surge tank which prevents sudden rise of pressure. A valve house is constructed near
the surge tank.
The water after striking the bucket of Pelton wheel turbine is discharged into the
tail race using draft tube. The water discharged into tail race is used for lrrigation,
domestic and industrial purposes etc.
The generator coupled to the turbine generates electricity.
6.3 Surge Tank and its NecessitXr

A storage tank or reservoir is fitted on penstock to store water when valra is
suddenly closed or to supply water when increased discharge is required such a
storage tank is called a Surge Tank. (Fig. 6.1)
Surge tank is used when construction of forebays is not possable. The function of
surge tank :
1. When load on turbine decreases, the excess quantity of water is accumulated
into surge tank, preventing a sudden pressure rise which eliminates water
hammer.
2. To regulate the flow of water to the hydraulic turbine by providing retarding
head of water.
Types of Surge Tank : Simple surge tank, Orifice type surge tank, Differential
surge tank.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.4 Hydraulic Turbines
6.4 Glassification of Hvdraulic Turbines

Turbines are classified according to the type of energy available at the inlet of the
turbine, head at the inlet of the turbine, direction of flow through the vanes and
specific speed of the turbines. Following are the important classification of the
turbines.
(A) According to the type of energy at inlet: |[ft[
1. Impulse turbine: Energy available at inlet is only kinetic energy.
For example, Pelton tu rbine.
2, Reaction turbine; Energy at inlet is kinetic energy as well as pressure
e ne rgy.
For example, Francis tu rbine.
(B) According to the head at the inlet of turbine: l'ffi]
1, Low head turbine: If head available is less than 60 metres.
For example, Kaplan turbine.
2, Medium head turbine: If head available is between 60 to 250 metres.
For example, Francis turbine.
3. High head turbine: If head available is above 250 metres.
For example, Pelton turbine.
(C) According to the direction of flow through runner:
1. Tangential flow turbine: When water flows along the tangent of the runner
wheel. (Pelton wheel tu rbine).
2. Radial flow turbine: When water flows in radial direction through runner.
3. Axial flow turbine: When water flows through the runner along the
direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner.
4, Mixed flow turbine: When water flows through the runner in the radial
direction but leaves in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
runner.
(D) According to the specific speed of the turbine: mEl
The specific speed of the turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine
that would develop unit power working under unit head. According to specific speed,
tu rbines are classified as:
1. Low specific speed turbines: Having specific speed less than 60.
For example, Pelton turbine.
2. Medium specific speed turbines: Having specific speed 60 to 300.
For example, Francis turbine.
3. High specific speed turbines: Having specific speed greater than 3OO.
For example, Kaplan turbine.
6,5 Selection ot Turbine on the Basis of Head and Discharge

The potential energy of water depends on the quantity of water available and
head of water available.
The natural sources of hydraulic energy are:
(a) Large quantity of water available at high heads.
(b) Small quantity of water available at high heads.
(c) Large quantity of water available at low heads.
(d) Small quantity of water available at low heads.
The total energy available in small quantity of water at low heads is negligible.
Hence. this source of water cannot be utilized for power generation.
The iarge quantity of water available at high heads or small quantity of water
available at high speeds is utilized to run the Pelton wheel turbine to generate the
power. if the head of water is lower, the speed of Pelton wheel is lower. To obtain
maximum efficiency of Pelton wheel, the speed of the turbine has to be kept as high
as possible.
To utilize the energy of large quantity of water at medium heads, an inward radial
flow reaction turbine i.e. Francis turbine is used.
To utilize the energy of large quantity of water at lower heads. pure axial flow
reaction turbines are used. For example, Propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine, Pipe
tu rbines.
6.6 Construction and Working Principle of Pelton Wheel Turbine

1 s-1
The Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. Water coming out of
nozzle with total kinetic energy strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner. It
was designed by Pelton. an American engineer in 1880. It works under high head
and small quantity of water. Fig. 6.2 shows the layout of a hydroelectric power plant
with Pelton wheel as turbine. The water from reservoir flows through pipe called
penstocks at the outlet of which nozzle is fitted. Nozzle is used to convert pressure
energy into kinetic energy. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the
form of a jet and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner wheel.
Head race
hr= head loss
Gross head
Net head
Casing
N
Turbine
runner
Wheel
Tarl race
Fi .6.2;, ut of lectric Power Plant with Pelton Wheel

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Hydraulic Turbines
Specifications r
Type - impulse (free jet) turbine.
Type of flow - tangential.
Head - more than 250 m.
Runner shaft - generally horizontal
Specific speed - 10 to 60 rpm.
Discha rge - low
Power developed - diameter of wheel no. of buckets.
Main Parts of Pelton Turbines are:
1. Nozzle with flow regulating arrangement (spear).
2. Runner and buckets.
3. Casing
4. Brea king jet.
1. Nozzle with flow regulating arrangement: A nozzle is fitted at the end of
penstock to convert pressure energy of water into kinetic (velocity) energy. To
regulate flow of water, a spear mechanism is fitted inside the nozzle. For small units,
it is operated manually by rotating wheel fitted at the end of spear rod which is
threaded, conical needle increases or decreases cross-sectional area of nozzle
available for flow of water. (Refer Fig. 6.3)
Penstock Sphere rod
Needle (spear)
Wheel
Jet
Nozzle
6.3: Nozzle with a S ear to
Fi . ulate Flow
2, Runner and Buckets! A circular disc with number of buckets evenly spaced
on its periphery constitutes runner of pelton wheel. The shape of the buckets is
double hemispherical. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts by dividing
wall which is known as splitter. Shape of bucket is shown in Fig. 6.4. let of water
coming out of nozzle strikes on the splitter. Splitter divides the jet into two equal
parts without shock and flows over the both portion of the bucket. The bucket is
shaped in such a manner that the jet is deflected through an angle of about 1600 to
1700. The surface of the bucket ls made very smooth. It is made of Cast iron, Cast
steel, Bronze or other alloys. The advantage of having double cup-shaped buckets is
that the axial thrust is neutralised. At the lower tip of bucket, a notch is cut which
prevents the jet striking the preceding bucket being intercepted by the next bucket
very soon.
Angle of deflection
18oo e
Jet
is is connected to runner
z q'
f
-\ z
\ Spliter
Nozzle
Fig, 6.4r Shape of Bucket of Pelton Whe€l
3. casing: A casing made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates is provided for a
Pelton wheel. It has no hydraulic function to perform. It is provided only to prevent
splashing of water, to lead water to the tail race and also to act as a safeguard
against accidents.
4. Braking jet: Larger Pelton wheels are having small brake nozzle which when
opened directs a jet of water on the back of the buckets. thereby bringing the wheel
quickly to rest after it is shut down. Larger wheels are having large moment of inertia
due to which after closing jet of water, it starts rotating for long time.
6.6,1 Velocity Triangles, Work Done, Efficiency and
Power of Pelton Turbine N-111
The transfer of work from the jet of water to the buckets, takes place according to
the momentum equation as indicated in chapter 'Impact of Jet'. The jet of water from
the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter which splits-up the jet into two equal
parts. These parts at jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at outer edge,
The centre of splitter is the inner tip and respective point on outer edge of the bucket
is the outlet tip of the bucket. Therefore, inlet velocity triangle is drawn at the
splitter and outlet velocity triangle is drawn at outer edge of the bucket.
A Pelton wheel is a special type of axial flow turbine which is used for high heads.
It is called an axial flow turbine because velocity of vane at outlet and inlet tips is
same as radial distance from centre of wheel. But in the conventional sense, it is not
an axial flow turbine as direction of the jet is perpendicular to the axis of Pelton
wheel.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.8 Hyd,aulic Turblnes
u1
Angle of deflection
+
180 - .,
vr
u
Fi . 6.5: Veloci Trian les for Pelton Wheel

Since Pelton wheel is an axial flow impulse turbine, water enters the wheel
axially. Therefore, e = 0 and o = 0. Thus, inlet triangle reduces to a straight line.
Therefore, relative velocity is given by
v. = (v - u) from inlet velocity diagram.
Velocity of whirl at inlet and velocity of jet are equal
'" v* = v=18;H
V = Cr, \m
cv = coefficient of velocity
where, H is net head acting on the Pelton wheel.
Velocity of flow at inlet = vf = 0
Assume p as acute angle, velocity triangle at outlet is drawn. As initially
discussed, u = ur i.e. velocity of vane at inlet and outlet tip is same O = angle of
vane at outlet.
If there is no friction, vrr = Vr = (v - u)
From outlet velocity triangle, velocity of whirl at ouflet
vwr = (vrr cosO- u)
= (vrcos0-u)
vwr = (v-u)coso-u
'. The force exerted by jet g water in the direction of vane
F, p.av(vw+vw1)
Work done by jet on the wheel per second = Fx x u
Work done per sec =p a v(vw + vwl) U
Work done p€r sec = pav[v + ((v - u) cos 0 - u)] U
Work done r sec AV 1+cos U
Now mass of water striking the vane per sec = pa v
weight of water striking the vane Per sec = (p a v) g

Work done per sec unit weight p av(v - u) ( 1+cosO) u
of water striking Weight of water striking
o av(v - u) ( 1+ coso).u
p av I
Work done per sec unit weight _ 1
of water striking - (v-u)(1 + cos0)
S
u
Kinetic energy of jet per sec _ 1

at inlet to turbine - 2 rnr'=+1pav) v'z=]pav3
Hydraulic efficiency is defined as the ratio of the work done by runner to the
in put.
Work done Der second loav(v - u) ( 1+cosO)l u

tlhyd = Kinetic energy oJ jet per sec 1
2
pav 2
2(v-u)[ 1+cosOlu (6.2)

nhyd = v2
The efficiency will be maximum when the work done is maximum. the energy
supplied remaining constant, Hence, in the expression for the efficiency differen-
tiating the numerator and equating to zero,
i3 = * [2 (1 + coso) (v - u) u] = o
=v-2u=0
v=2u or u -2
The ratio is called as speed ratio. For maximum efficiency, speed ratio should
f
be 0.5. In actual practice, speed ratio from 0.45 to 0.47 is considered
Substituting u = in equation (6.2), we get
)
(1 + cos O)
Ihyd max = 2
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 6.10 Hydraulic Turbines
Above equation shows that maximum hydraulic efficiency of pelton wheel occurs
when the value of cos 0 is maximum. The maximum value of cos O is 1 and occurs at
0=0.
The angle of the vane tip O = 0 means the jet has to deflect through 18Oo
i.e. vane should be semicircular. In practice, jet is deflected through 160o to 17Oo to
avoid disturbance of jet coming out of nozzle.
Velocity Triangles for slow, medium and fast runner Pelton wheel
Ma 2008, 2009, Dec. 2009
lnlet velocity triangle

for Pelton wheel
F . 6,6: Inlet Veloc Trian le for Pelton Wheel
Slow runner Medium runner Fast runnor

(p . s0") (9 = 90") (0,90")
(a) (b) (cl
Fi , 6.7: Outlet Veloci Trian les for Pelton Wheel
For Pelton wheels outlet velocity triangles can be of three types viz (a), (b) anO
(c). When 0 is less than 90. it is called slow runner, when p is 90", it is called
medium runner. When p is greater than 90., it is called fast runner pelton wheel,
Efforts are however made to make the value of outlet absolute velocity (v1) as small
2
vr
as possible because represents the energy rejected to tail race per unit mass of
fi
flowing water.
Velocity of Jet:
Theoretical velocity of jet at inlet, vs6 = {&H
Actual velocity of jet at inlet, vs61 = Cv . \EgH.
where, Cv = Coefficient of velocity.
It varies from 0.98 to 0.99.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.1'l Hydraulic Turbines
Power Produced by Pelton Wheel Turbine:

The power developed by Pelton wheel turbine is given by,
P = IowQH ... in watts
where, P = Power developed in watt.

Io = Overall efficiency of turbine.
Q = Water discharge through turbine in m3/sec.
H = Net head in metres.
w= Specific weight of water = 9810 N/m3.
Design of Pelton Wheel Turbine:
The design of Pelton wheel turbine is to be calculated from the following data:
1. Diameter of jet (d):
Actual velocity of jet,
vact = Cv ' {29 H
Actua Id ischarge
through nozzle , Qact = Area ofjet x Velocity ofjet
lt_
Qact = Od, x v;,6 .. in m3/sec
2 Diameter of wheel (D):

Velocity of wheel = 0.46 x Velocity of jet
u = 0.46 v ... m/sec
U
= 0.46 = Speed ratio
Aiso, linear velocity of bucket,
rDN
U =60 in m/sec
D = Pitch diameter or mean diameter of Pelton wheel

3 Widthofbucket=5xd.
4 Depth of bucket = 1.2 x d.
5 Number of buckets on the wheel, z=s+f; ... imperical relation

Fluld llcchanlcs & lrlchlnery 6.12 Hyd.aulic Turblnes
6. let ratio = |. n ,. the ratio of pitch diameter of Pelton wheel to the diameter
of jet (d). It is taken as 12.
7. Angle of deflection ofjet through bucket is taken as 1650.
6.6.2 Efficlencies of Pelton Turbine lmpulse Turbine)
The various energy losses that may occur in a hydroelectric power plant with
impulse turbine are shown.
Efficiency may be defined as the ratio of work done to the energy supplied. We
will consider following efficiencies:
1. Hydraulic efficiency (16y6).
2. Mechanical efficiency (Imecn).

3. Overall efficiency (no).
1. Hydraullc efflcicncy (ntya): the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is the
ratio of the power developed by the runner (i.e. water power) to the net power
supplied by the water at the entrance to turbine.
Tlhyd =
2(v- u) (1 + cos 0)u
v2
Maximum hydrau lic _ (1 + cos 6)

and efficiency
rlhyd maximum = ----r-
2. ilechanlcal efficiency (Imectr): The mechanical efficiency of the turbine is
the ratio of the power obtained from the shaft at the turbine (shaft or brake power)
to the power developed by the runner (W.P.). These two powers differ by the amount
of mechanical losses.
Shaft power
rlmech - Work done on turbine runner
3. Overall effkaency(q6)r The overall efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of

the power available at the turbine shaft to the power supplied by the water at
entrance to the turbine.
Shaft oower P
'to = Wateriowe. , rlo = weH
1o = Tlhyd. xrlmech
where, P= Power in KW
Fluld Mechanics & Machlnery 6.13 Hydraulic Turblnes
!ii
e.a
IL o
o
o o
c
6(I o
.E cri
ov
EE
F
!E
(rE EP
9E-
coo
!^ -E
20
as
-q>
a2- co
:e
Et ,f} c
l> pEE
L-
E€ E'EE H
o
.9
961',XE
96
-9
a6
3; N
zo
9e
o
c $o
EO
oc
o-
--O
;b
o. o)
o-
a*
3!
!c
oo
E o
(,,9 Io
o3o do
Chart: Loss E tn llation

Fluld Mechanleg & Machinery 6.14 Hydraulic Turbines
6.7 Reaction Turbines

In reaction turbine only part of the total head of water is converted into velocity
head before it reaches the runner. It does not require nozzle at the end of penstock,
but penstock is directly connected to casing and the water completely fills all the
passages of the runner. Thus the pressure of water changes gradually as it passes
through the runner. The two reaction turbines are mainly Francis turbine, Radial flow
reaction turbine and Kaplan turbine, Axial flow reaction turbine.
6.7.{ Construction and Workin Principle of Francis Turbine
-11,S-10
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as
Francis turbine, after the name of J. B. Francis. A radial flow reaction turbine is one
in which the direction of flow of water is along the vanes such that water flows either
from the outer periphery to the axis of rotation or vice versa. When the water flows
from the axis of turbine towards the outer periphery, it is called as outward flow
turblne. When the water flows from outer periphery to the axis of the turbine, it is
called as the inward flow turbine.
In modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial
direction at outlet and leaves in the axial direction at the inlet of the runner. Thus,
modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow turbine.
Scroll cas rng
Stay vane
Shaft
Guide vane unner

or vane
wicket gate Draft tube
il race
Speed ring From stock

or stay n ng
Stay vane
Guide vane
Pelton Radial curved vane

wheel
Scrol
casing
Fi . 6.8: Francis Turbine

Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 6.15 Hydlat lic Turbines
Specifications of Francas Turbine

Type - reaction type
Type of flow - mixed (axial and radial)
Head - medium head 60 to 250 m
Specific speed - 60 to 300 rpm
Shaft position - mainly vertical
Discharge - medium
Diameter of runner
No. of vanes on runner - 16 to 24
Fig. 6.8 shows the main parts of reaction turbine (Francis and Kaplan), which are
1. Scroll casing. 2. Guide mechanism. 3. Runner. 4. Draft tube.
1. Scroll Casing: In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full
of water. The water from penstock enters casing which is of spiral shape in
which cross-sectional area goes on decreasing gradually. The casing
completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. Due to spiral shape, water
enters the runner at constant velocity throughout the circumference. The
casing is made of concrete but for high head it is made of steel plate or
casted.
2. Guide Mechanism: The water coming out of the scroll casing is made to
pass through a series of guide vanes. The guide vanes are having aerofoil
shape. They are fixed to guide ring which is connected to guide mechanism,
The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner
without shock at inlet. By suitable arrangement, the width between two
adjacent vanes of a guide mechanism can be altered so that the amount of
water striking the runner can be varied.
3. lunner: The runner is a circular wheel on which series of radial curved
vanes are mounted. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water
enters and leaves the runner without shock. In case of Francis turbine,
number of vanes are in between L6 to 24 and they are fixed, whereas in case
of Kaplan turbine. number of blades are 3 to 6 and they can rotate along
their axis.
4, Draft Tube: The pressure at exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is
generally less than atmospheric pressure. So the water at exit can be directly
discharged to the tail race. A draft tube is a tube or pipe of gradually
increasing area. It is used to discharge water from exit of the turbine to the
tail race.
Fluld Mech.nlca & Machinery 6.16 Hydraulic Turbines
ui a
lnlet velocity
triangle
6,9: lnlet and Outlet vel

Fi . Dia rams for Francis Turbine
In Francis turbine, water is directed to the wheel through guide passage external
to the wheel. Water after flowing radially inside the wheel, leaves it in a direction
parallel to the axis.
It consists of a runner mounted on the shaft and is surrounded by a ring of guide
vanes which are of aerofoil shaPe. Flow of water is controlled by guide vanes
operated by servo-motor mechanism to keep speed of turbine constant. The guide
vane ring is surrounded by a steel scroll casing which is connected to the penstock
pipe.
6.7.2 Galculation of Work Done, Power for Francis Turbine

Francis turbine is a inward radial flow turbine. The work developed by turbine is
calculated with the help of velocity triangles constrtlcted at inlet and outlet tip. Water
enters the runner from the guide blade (vane) at an angle o with an absolute velocity
v and leaves with an absolute velocity vt at an angle p.
Let r = radius of wheel at inlet of vane
11 = radius of wheel at outlet of vane
or = angular speed of wheel
Tangential velocity of vane at inlet u = ol r, = #
Tangential velocity of vane at outlet ur = o 12 ='B# ,
where, N = speed of rotation of runner
--------
Fluld Mechanlcs & Machinery 6.17 Hydraullc Tutbln.s
The inlet and outlet velocity of triangles are shown in Fig' 6'9'
. Mass of water striking the vane per sec = P a v
where, a = area of jet =[a', v = velocity of jet at inlet
Ansurar momentum
"-:T"X,':,, at inrettip
= p aV .vw. rE
"::ll;::::rvane
and angular momentum of water per second at outlet of vane
= Momentum at outlet x Radius of vane at outlet tip
= p avt Vw1 11
NowtorqueexertedbywateronwheelT=Rateofchangeofangularmomentum
Angular momentum of water Angular momentum of water-l
,=[ pir sec at inlet of vane tip - per sec at outlet of vane -l
r=[
(pav vw. r) - (-P av1 vrrr' r1)l
(-ve sign is taken as velocity v1 at outlet is in opposite direction)

T=pav[vw.r+vwr.rr]
Now work done per sec on wheel = pav [vw r + vwl 11] 'X w
= pav [vw.r.w * vrv, 11 W]
= Pav [vtv . u + vw1 ul]
u=w.r and ur=w 11
Work done per sec on wh eel p.av[vw.utvw u rl
If p acute angle, i.e. p < 90o select +ve

If p obtuse angle i.e. p > 90 select -ve
If p = 9go i.e. discharge is radial at outlet "' 'n, =0
Power produced by reaction turbine is given by

where, Io = overall efficiency ofturbine
H = Net head available in meters
Q = Water discharge m3/sec
w = Specific weight of water
P H in watts
For Francis tu rbine,

u Tanqential velocity of wheel at inlet
SPeed ratio = Velocity of jet of water
Velocit of flow at inlet
Flow ratio = Yr-
Veloicty of jet of water
where, .EsH, (H = Head of water on turbine =

* . fn)
Discharge of turbine Q= rDB.vr=rr.D1 . Br vf1
where, D= Diameter of runner at inlet

Dr= Diameter of runner at outlet
B= Width of runner at inlet
Br= Width of runner at outlet
Velocity of flow at inlet
Velocity of flow at outlet
Also a (nD-n t).B.vrj

where, n = No, of vanes on runner
t = Thickness of each vane
Radial Discharge 3 Radial dlscharge at outlet of runner means p = gQo
'*r=o
6.7.3 Efficiencies of Reaction Turbine
trl Hydraulic efficiency (16y6).
( ii) Mechanical effi ciency (Imectr).
( iii) Overall efficiency (Io).
(i) Hydraulic Efficiency of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the power
developed by the runner of a turbine to the power supplied by water. power
supplied by water may be called as water power. Actual power output of the
turbine is less than the water power as loss due to friction and other such
losses take place during flow of water over runner. It varies from g5o/o to
9Oo/o.
Power develooed bv turbin e run ner
tlhyd =
Water power
(vry u t vyrul)
9H
Fiuid Mechanics & Machi nery 6.19 Hydraulic Turbines
(ii) M€chanical Efficiency of a turbine is ratio of the power avairabre
at the
shaft of the turbine to the power developed by the runner of the
turbine.
Due to mechanical loss such as bearing losses, a power available
is less
than the power developed by the runner.
Power available at the sh aft of turbine
lmech Power d eveloped by the runner
(iii) overall Efficiency of the turbine is defined as the ratio of power available
at the shaft of the turbine to the water power.
Iffi]
_ _ Shaft power
'ro - Water power
6.8 Construction and Ulorking Principle of Kaplan Turbine
This is one of the row head turbines invented by Dr. victor Kapran.
It is pure axiar
flow reaction turbine vrhere water enters the turbine at the side and
frows paraler to
the axis of rotation. A water flows paraler to the axis, it is at a constant
distance
from the axis of rotation and hence the verocity of brade and water
is constant.
Therefore, u = v.
Number of blades are generally 4 to 6. The blades are made of stainless
steel and
are swiverred by a mechanism contained in boss or hub. This mechanism
is operated
by governor through the action of servomotor that is the blade angles are
automaticarry adjusted according to power deveroped by the turbine
i,igr,
efficiency is maintained at all loads. "no
speed of turbine genera y ranges from 60 to 220 r.p.m. and work head
varies
from 2 to 60 metres. They require large quantity of water. All components
of Kaplan
turbine are simirar to Francis turbine except runner. The runner of Kapran
turbine
closely resembres to a ship's propefler. The brades (vanes) attached to
a hub or boss
are so shaped that the water flows axiall y through the run ner.
Fi . 6.10; Ka lan Turbine Runner

6.20 HydTaulic Turbines
Fluid Mech8nics & Machlnery
Scroll Vertical shaft

Guide Axis of guide
vane
Scroll
a casing
,a a
ll
Tail race
Movi :r:
Guide vane
Draught
I
lnlet tip of vane
vane tube
Outlet tip of va
:::::L::::+i:::::
:::::::: Dh::::::::
D.:::s+ ..--->--.---
Fi .6.11: Ka anT urbine Com nts
Fig. 6.11 shows all main parts of a Kaplan

turbine The water from penstock
entersthescrollcasingandthenmovestotheguideVanesthroughtherunnerand
finally discharged through draft tube'
The discharge through the runner is obtained
as
o = { tol- oix ur
where, Do = Outer diameter of runner

Db = Diameter of boss or hub
vr = Velocity of flow at inlet
For Kaplan tu rbine,
(i) Peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal'
... u=r, =E#

where, Do = Outer diameter of runner
(ii) Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal'

... vf = vfr
2
(iii) Area of flow at inlet = area of flow at outlet = X (Da
Db
)
6.21 Hvd raulic Turbines
Fluid Mech.nics & Machinery
6.9 Difference between lmpulsa and Rcactlon

w-11
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1. The available water energy ls 1. Only a part of available energy of
converted into kinetic energy water is converted into kinetic
energy.
2. The water flows through the nozzle 2. The water is guided by guide blades
and strikes on the buckets, which are to flow over the moving curved
fixed to the outer PeriPhery of the vanes.
wheel.
3. Water strikes on the bucket with 3. Water glides over the moving curved
kinetic energy, vanes with pressure energy.
4. The pressure of flowing water is 4. wheel should alwaYs run full and
constant and is equal to atmospheric kept full of water.
p ressu re.
5. It is not essential that wheel should 5. Wheel should alwaYs run full and
run fu ll. kept fu ll of water.
6. Water is admitted over a part of 6. Water must be admitted over whole
circumference of the wheel. circumference of wheel.
7. It is possible to regulate the flow of 7. It is not possible to regulate flow of
water without loss. water without loss'
8. Work is done Purely bY change in 8. Work is done bY Partly change in
kinetic energy of jet. kinetic energy and partly by change
in pressure energy.
-----J
9. Example is Pelton wheel turbine 9. Examples are Francis, Kaplan,
Propeller turbine.
6.lO Difference between Francis Turbine and XaP lan Turbine

- 11 S.
Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine
1. Radially inward or mixed flow 1. Purely axial flow turbine.

tu rbine.
2. Suitable for medium head and 2. Suitable for low head and high
medium discharge. discharge.
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 6.22 Hydraulic Turbines
Runner vanes are fixed. 3. Runner vanes are adjustable.

4 Large number of runner vanes (16 to 4 Small number of runner va nes
24 va nes). (3 to 8).
Friction loss is more due to large Friction loss is less due to less
5
number of vanes and greater area of
I' number of vanes and less wetted
contact with water. a rea.
6. Ordinary governor is adequent. Heavy duty governor is essential.
7. Centrifugal type.
-]-
7. Propeller type
8. Horizontal or vertical shaft. 8. Only vertical shaft.
6.{ { Draft Tubes - Types and Gonstruction -1

A tube used to carry water at exit of runner to tailrace called as draft tube. Small
end of draft tube is connected to exit of runner and other is submerged in tailrace. A
draft tube has increasing cross-sectional area along its length.
6.11.{ Functions of Draft Tube -1
The functions of draft tube:

(i) The draft tube enables the reaction turbine to be installed well above the tail
race, for easy repair and maintenance.
(ii) The net head of the turbine is increased by height between exit of runner
and tail race.
(iii) The use of draft tube helps in reducing an excess amount of kinetic energy
of water at runner exit. Kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy,
which permits negative pressure head at exit of runner.
(iv) The function of draft tube is to convert negative pressure head of water at
runner exit into atmospheric pressure or above the atmospheric pressure.
(v) The work done by the reaction turbine is increased.
(vi) Also efficiency of reaction turbine is increased.
6.11.2 Types of Draft Tubes s - 11, S - 10, S - 091
There are various types of draft tubes. The most commonly used types are:
(a) Conical draft tube, (b) Be mouth draft tube, (c) Elbo type draft tube,
(d) Elbo type with rectangular outlet, (e) Moody spreading tube.
---1---- ---1----
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fi . 6.12: T of Draft Tubes

(a) Conical draft tube : The shape of this tube is like a frustum of a cone. It is
used for low specific speed, vertical shaft Francis turbine. The angle of cone
is limited to 8o to avoid losses due to separation. It is submerged well below
the tail race level. It provides maximum efficiency as 90o/o.
(b) Bell mouth type draft tube : It is suitable for vertical shaft Francis
turbine. It is used when the velocity of water at exit of runner has velocity
of whirl.
(c) Simple elbow type draft tube : It has circular cross-section at inlet with
enlarged circular cross-section area at outlet at right angles. It is used for
horizontal shaft Francis turbine. It provides less efficiency, upto Goolo.
(d) Draft tube wath circular inlet and rectangutar ou et : Vertical portion
of tube has circular cross-section at inlet and horizontal part of tube has
rectangular cross-section area at outlet which provides higher efflciency of
draft tube. It is used for any type of Francis turbines.
(e) Moody spreading tube or hydracone : It is used for Kaplan turbine. The
exit diameter of draft tube should be large to recover kinetic energy of
water at exit of runner. The flow is divided into two streams.
6.12 Cavitation in Turbines - 11, 1
Cavitation ls defined as the formation of bubbles filled wlth vapour in large

quantities, within the body of a moving fluid.
Reaction turbines are installed well above the tail race by providing draft tube to
increase the efficiency of the turbine as well as easy repair and maintenance. Due to
this negative pressure is created in the flow passage. If pressure of water in the flow
passage fall below the vapour pressure of water, the water starts vapourising and
bubbles of vapours are formed in large quantities.
These vapour bubbles are carried along by the flow, enters the high pressure
region; and gets suddenly collapsed.
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 6.24 Hydraulic Turbines
The space occupied bubbles is filled up by surrounding water. The in rush of

water into the cavities of bubbles creates noise, vibration and erosion of material
takes place, called as pitting. cavitaton occurs in reaction turbines and centrifugal
pumps.
Effects of Cavitation :
(a) sudden collapse of vapour bubbles can cause noise and vibration In various
part of tu rbine.
(b) The pitting and scoring of material makes the surface rouqh.
(c) Due to cavitation. discharge of turbine reduces which reduces power output
and efficiency of turbine'
Methods to avoid or reduce the cavitation :
1. By using stainless steel turbine runner.

2. By installing turbine below the tail race.
3. By using cavitation free runner of turbine.
4. By using highly polished blades on the runner.
5. By ru nning the turbine runner at designed speed
{3 Comparison of Pelton Wheel and Francis -10,6
Points Pelton Wheel Francis Turbine
1. Working principle This istangential flow impulse This is an inward flow reaction
turbine. The force in the buckel ol turbine having radial discharge at
wheel is exerted due to kinetic outlet. The torce ol runner exerted
energy of jet ot water, rotates lhe due to kinetic energy of water and
Pelton wheel. pressure of energy of water,
rotates the runner.
2. Head required This is high head turbine. Head of This is medium head turbine. Head
water required above 250 m. of water required is in between
60m to 250m.
3. Admission of Water is admitted over a Part of Water musl be admitted over

water circumlerence of a Pelton wheel. whole circumference of the wheel.
4. Specilic speed Low specilic speed turbine specilic Medium specific speed turbine.
speed less than 60 rpm. Specilic speed between 60 rpm to
300 rpm.
Fluld Mechanlcs & Machlnery 6.25 Hydraullc Turbines
5. Ouantity of water Large quantity of water available at Large quantity of water is required
required higher head. OR Small quantity ol medium head.
water available at high speeds.
6. Part load Part load etficiency is superior than Part load efficiency is lower than
performance Francis turbine. Pelton wheel. Bul lull load
efficiency is higher.
7. Pressure at inlet Pressure at inlet and outlet ot Pressure at inlet is excessive with
and outlet turbine is atmospheric. some kinetic energy. Both
pressure energy and kinetic energy
ot waler reduces at the outlet of
runner.
{4 Governlng of a Pelton Wheel Turbine

When load on generator changes according to the requirements, the load on
turbine changes corresponding ly, because the turbine is directly coupled to the
generator. When load on a turbine changes, its speed and the rate of flow change' To
keep the speed constant and to regulate the rate of flow (according to the changes in
load), it is known as the governing of a turbine. This is necessary because, the
normal condition of working of a turbine requires that it should be run at constant
speed, irrespective of the changes in load.
When there is normal load on a turbine, the speed is the normal speed N and
then the overall efficiency is maximum. When there is overload, the turbine speed
decreases below the normal speed N; this decrease in speed must be arrested and
the speed should then be brought up to the normal speed N. When there is part-load,
the turbine speed increases above the normal speed N; this increase in speed must
be stopped and then the speed should be brouqht down to the normal speed N.
Governing of a turbine means nothing but this speed regulation. This is achieved
by providing every turbine with a governor known as oil pressure governor which is
shown in Fig. 6.13. Its component parts are :
1. Servomotor or Relay cylinder.
2. Control valve
3. Centrifugal governor or Speed governor.
4. Oil sump.
5. Gear pump which is driven from the turbine shaft by belt driven'
6. A set of pipes, connecting oil sump with control valve and control valve with
relay cylinder.
F!uid Mechanics & Machinery 6.26 Hydraulic Turbines
When turbine is runring at the normal speed N, the position of piston, control
valve the balls of centrifugal governor and lever arm will be their normal places as
shown in Fig. 6.13. Then the oil from oil-sump will be pumped by the gear pump, to
the cylinder of control valve, it will come back to the oil-sump as the posts A and B
on the right side of cylinder of the control valve remain closed by the two wings of
the control valve.
Fly ball of Central vertical bar

cel]trifugal of C governor
governor
Lever
Sleeve
Pivoto
fulcrums
Towards
shaft of Pip es+ i
turbine Conkol
valve rod
t +
Gear pump iston rod

rds turbine
t
Control
i valve
cylinder
-
:: _O_!l
s-uIn!: :
Servo motor or
relay cylinder
Fi9 . 6.13: Governing of a Pelton wheel
Now, let the load on turbine increase, then N will decrease. Due to this vertical
bar of centrifugal governor which is connected to the turbine shaft will rotate at less
speed, bringing the two balls down. As the balls are connected to the sleeve, this
sleeve will come down. Sleeve is connected to the control valve through a lever
rocking on a fulcrum; when speed is normal, the lever remains horizontal. With the
decrease in speed and the consequent downward movement of the sleeve, the lever
rocks on the fulcrum and takes slanting position, pulling the control valve up in its
cylinder- Slight upward movement of the control valve opens part A but keeps part B
still closed, therefore oil rushes from control valve cylinder to the relay cylinder and
on the right side of the piston. Since oil is under pressure, the piston moves to the
left; piston rod, while moving to the left, opens more area of inlet passages
controlling the flow of turbine. More area of inlet passages admits more water on the
turbine which therefore runs faster i.e. its speed begins to increase. When speed
comes upto the normal speed N, lever rod again becomes horizontal and the piston,
control valve and the balls of centrifugal governor occupy their normal positions.
Fluid Mech8nica & Machlnery 6.27 Hydraulic Turbines
When the load on turbine decreases, its speed increases. Due to this, the balls go
up. the sleeve goes up, the lever rod inclines down, thus pushing the control valve
down in its cylinder. This downward movement of sleeve keeps part A still closed but
opens part B, and admits oil under pressure from control valve cylinder to the relay
cylinder and on the left side of the piston. The piston therefore moves to the right,
narrowing the inlet passages of turbine and thus decreasing the rate of flow. As the
discharge decreases. the speed decreases till it comes down to normal. When it
comes down to normal, the level rod, piston control valve. balls, etc. occupy their,
normal positions.
6.15 Specific Epeed

Specific speed is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape,
geometrical dimensions, vane angles, gate openings etc. with the actual turbine but
of such a size that it will develop unit power working under unit head.
It is used for comparing different types of turbine.
Specific speed of a turbine (N,) is given by
N =sF
where. N = Speed of runner in rpm
P = Power developed by turbine in kW
H = Head ln meters
The performance of turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the
turbine.
The values of specific speed for different types of turbines are given below.
Sr. No. Type of Turbine Specific Speed (N")
1 Pelton wheel with single jet 10 to 35 rpm
2 Pelton wheel with multiple jet 35 to 60 rpm
3 Francis tu rbine 60 to 300 rpm
4 Ka pla n or Propeller turbine 300 to 1000 rpm
6.{6 Performance of Turbine

To predict the behaviour of a turbine working under varying head, speed, output,
gate openings, the results are expressed in terms of quantities that are obtained by
reducing the head to unity. The following three unit quantities of turblne under unit
head are considered.
(1) Unit power, (2) Unit speed, (3) Unit discharge.
(1) Unit Power : The power developed by the turbine, working under a head of
one meter i.e. unit head is known as Unit Power and is given by,
P
P
t-i3,
where, P, = Unit power developed by turbine under unit head

P = Power developed by turbine under head H
H = Head of water on turbine
(2) Unit Speed : The speed of a turbine working under a head of 1 meter is
known as Unit Speed (N,) and is given by
N
N
r/H
where, N = Speed of turbine runner under a head of H meters.

(3) Unit Discharge : The discharge of a turbine working under a head of one
meters, is known as Unit Discharge (Q,) and is given by,
_s_
a
./H
where, Q = Discharge through the turbine working under a
head of H meter.
6.16.{ Si nificance of Unit Quantities (P,, N,. A,)

If a turbine is working under different heads, then the performance of the turbine
cail be easily predicted by using the values of unit quantities.
If speed, discharge, and power developed by the turbine under a head are known,
they by using the following equations, the speed, discharge and power developed by
the same turbine, under different heads can be calculated easily.
N,
N -Nr-
./Fl, .lr,
a" -a! -Sz-
./Ft, .Ir,
P, Pt
and P,
Hl',', H)''
where, Hr, Hz - are heads under which the turbine works
Pr, Pz - are the power developed by the turbine
Qr, Qz - are the discharge of turbine
Nr, Nz - are the speeds of runner of turbine in rpm
Ex.6.1: A Pelton wheel having semi-circular buckets is 1m in diameter. Pressure

head at the nozzle when it is closed is 15 bars. The discharge when the nozzle is
open is 3.5 m3/rnin. If the speed is 600 r.p.m., find power developed by wheel and
its hydraulic efficiency. Assume Cv = 0.98 and qsyssjll = 85o/o. @
Sol.: Givendata: D = 1 m, H = 15x 10sN/m2, Q = 3.5 m3/min, N = 600 r.p.m.,
p=?, 16y6 = ?
v = cvV2gH but H = # = "##'= 150 m
v= 0.98 2 x 9.81 x 150

= 53.16 m/s
rDN rx1x600
Linear velocity of wheel, u = 60= 60
= 31.4 m/s
2u (v-u) (1 +cosO)
Hydra ulic efficiency, nhyd =
(But 0 = 0" ... semicircular bucket)
2 x 31.4 s3.16 - 31.4 1+1
(s3.16)2
= 7 5.4o/o
P
Tloveratt = WQF P = leyg;311 x WQH
0.85x9810x3.5x150 q
-60 ... = ffmaTsec
= 72961.87 watts
= 73 kW
Ex, 6.2: A hydroelectric power plant is having Pelton wheel-working under a
head of 600 m produces 16000 kw at 4i0 r.p.m. If the efficiency of wheel is 90o/o,
determine: (i) discharge in m3/s, (ii) diameter of nozzle, (iii) diameter of wheel.
Assume speed rado X as 0.46 and Cv = 0.98.
Sol.: Given data: H = 600 m, P = 16,000 kW, N = 430 r.p.m,,

rloveral = 0.9
v=crr/zsH=o.sa 2 x 9.81 x 600 = 106.33 m/s
But speed ratio I = 0.46.

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.30 Hydraulic Turbanes
u = 0.46 v
= 0.46 x 106.33
= 48.91 m/s
, = %o = 48.e1 m/s
, = Ti*# = 2.17 m
P
rloveratl = frQfr
a = *r*--!-
16000 x 103
- 9810 x 600 x 0.9
= 3,O2 m3/sec
Now, q=f;0 2 xv
- 40 4x3.02
'- - lt x v - :r x 106.33
d = O.19 m
Ex. 6,3: Two jets strike the buckets of a Pelton turbine which is having shaft
power as 15,500 kW. The diameter of each jet is 200 mm. If net available head on
the turbine is 400 m, find overall efficiency of the turbine, assuming Cv = 1,0.
S'2009,4Marks]
Sol Given data: Shaft power = 15,500 kW, Number of jets, n = 2, d = 0.2 m,
H = 400 m, Cv = 1.0.
Area of jet, a = \d, =f;to.zl,

= 0.0314 m2
Velocity of each jet, v = Cv \EH
= 1.0 2x9.81 x 400
= 88.59 m/s
Discharge of each jet =axv
= 0.0314 x 88.59
= 2.78 m3/sec
Total discharge, Q = 2x2.78
= 5.56 m3lsec
Power at the inlet

of turbine = WQH
9810x5.56x400
2L8t7 .44 kW
rlo = w .P. -_ 2L8t7 .44
s.P. 15,500
O./erall efficiency,
o.7 to4
7l.O4o/o
Ex, 6.4: A Francis turbine operating under a head of 60 m runs at 420 r.p.m. If
the outer diameter is 0.90 m and inner diameter is 0'45 m; if discharge is radial
determine the vane angles at inlet and outlet, if velocity of flow is constant and 72
m/sec, hydraulic efficiency is 80o/o.
Sol,i civen data: D = 0.9 m, Dr = 0.45 m, 16y6 = 800/o
For Francis turbine, 0 = 90o
... vw, = 0, v1 = v1,
In Francis turbine, flow is from outside
diameter of runner to inside.
Velocitv at intet. u = ?O[
nxO.9x42O
60
= 19.8 m/s
urD, N
Velocity at outlet, u1 = -
rx0.45x420
60 = 9.9 m/s
U,
l+i
t1
Outlet velocity triangle

Dt=045m
lnlet velocity triangle

D=0.45m
. 5,14
Fluid Mechanics & Machine.y 6.32 Hydraulic Turbines
Now, hydraulicefficiency,
Vr,,r1 U 1Vqr,U1
rl hyd gH but vr,n1, = 0
VwU
Ihyd gH
o.a =' -.YsI99

9.81 x 60
.'. vw = 23.78 m/s
From inret velocity a, tan e = =
ffi =,l1*n
= 3'01
vt = 72 m/s
... 0 = 71.550
vf, 1')
From outlet velocity A,tan o = u, = gi = t.ZtZ
"' 0 = 5o'48o
Ex. 6,5: Francis turbine having an overall efficiency of 80o/o and a hydraulic
efficiency of 90o/o produces 3000 kW under a head of 140 m and running at 1000
r.p.m. If the speed ratio is o.g and ftow is ,utio (-!L)
find (i) Guide btade
\\2qH) 0.3,
angle, (ii) The vane angle at inlet, (iii) Diameter of runner, (iv) Width of runner at
outer diameter. Assume radial discharge. lS - 10, 8 MadGI
Sol,: Given datai qo = 0.8, Thyd = 0.9, P = 3000 kW, H = 140 m, N = 1000
r.p.m.
speed ratio = 0.9, vr= 0.3{2gH, p = 90

1ft=
u = 0.9 r/2sH = 0.9 2 x 9.81 x l4O = 47 .16 mls
But
rDN
OU
..D=tr =o.em
vf =0.3.ffin =0.: 2 x 9.81 x 140
= L5.72 mls
In Francis turbine, ,*, = O
Vw.Ll
Inyd = qH
gH nhyd
u
9.81 x 140x0.9
47 .76
= 26.2 mls
Since u > vw, the velocity triangle at inlet is as shown.
tan (180 - o) =- ---fL-
(u -vw)
15.72
(47.16 - 26.2)
= 0.75
(180-e)=36.870
0 = 143.130
vf t5.72
tan (I=w=262
-- 0.6
cr = 3O.960
u1
1
Outlet triangle
lnlet triangle
'au*,
ffi
6.15
P P ^ 103 3000
no = *qx a = *Hn" = 9810,. 140, 0s
= 2.73 m3/sec
Now, Q = rDbvt
o 2.73
' - rDv6 - r' 0.9 r 15.72
= 0.06 m
= 60 mm
Fluid Mechanics & Machlnery 6.34 Hydraulic Turbines
Ex. 6.6: A Kaplan turbine develops 18,000 kW under net head of 20 m with an
overall efficiency of 90o/o. Its speed ratio is 2 and flow ratio is 0,6, The diameter of
boss is 0.35 times outside diameter of the runner. Find the diameter, speed of the
runner and its specific speed,
Sol.: Glven data: P = 18,u00 kW, H = 20 m, 1o = 9.99
u = 2 rEsH, vf = 0.6 rBgH, o6 = 0.35 do
u = 2llasl = 2 2 x 9.81 x 20 = 39.6 m/s
vf = 0.6 {zsH = o.s 2 x 9.81 x 20 = 11.88 m/s
,r"=# a=ffi
18000 x 103
- 9810 x 20 x 0.9 =
101.9 m3lsec
o = f toi- oll vl = 1s1'e

a1o3 - to.ls D6) 2l x 11.88 = lot.e
f;<o.ans oly, rt.ee = to1.e

2 4 x 101.9
Do - 7r x 0.8775 x 11.88 = 10 1.9
Do = 3.527 m
, = $ =:s.s
^, _ 60x39.6
''' rcx3.527
= 214.43 r.p.m.
N, = #, where. P is in kW, N in r.p.m. and H in metres.
2r4.43 1 000
ZOs/4
= 680.19 r.p.m.
Ex.6,7r Two jets strike the bucket of a Pelton wheel which develops 15000 kW.
The total discharge is 6 m3/sec. If the net head on the turbine is 350 m, find the
overall efficiency of turbine.
Fluid Mechanics & Machi n€ry 6.35 Hydraulic Turbines
Sol,: Given data: p = 15000 kW, H = 350 m, e = 6 m3lsec.

P
rlo = weH
15000 x 103
- 9.81 x 103x6x350
= 0.7 2a
= 7 2.8o/o
Overall efficien cy of turbine is 72.8o/o.
Ex' 6.8: A perton wheer working under a head of 50 metres, develops Bo kw
at
230 r'p.m. calcurate the diameter of jet, if the overal efficiency is 7go/o,
Cv=0.e8. Assume
lEllffi
Sol.! Givendata: H = 50 m, p = 80 kW, N = 230 r.p.m.,Io 0.78, Cv
= = 0.98
We know that, P
,lo = weH
80 x 103
0.78 = 9.81 x103 x Q x 50
80 x 103
a-- 9.81 x 103x 0.78 x 50
= 0.209 m3/s
Againv = Cv \EgH
= 0.98 2x9.81 x50
= 30.69 rnls
but Q=a.v
q = {o"v
0.209 = fi0, ,. :O.oS
d = 0.O93 m
Diameter of jet = 93 mm
Ex. 6.9: A reaction turbine works at 450 r,p.m. under a head of 120 m. Its
diameter at inlet is 1.2 m and flow area is 0.4 m2. The angle made by
absolute and
rerative verocities at inret are 20" and 600 respectivery with the tangentiar
vetocity.
Determine:
(i) Flow rate, (ii) power devetoped and (iii) Hydraulic efficiency.
Assume radial discharge at ou et
6.36 Hydra ulic Turbines
Sol,: Given data: N = 450 r'p m', H = 120 m' D = 12 m' rDB = 04 m2'
a=20",0=600.
r1
(a) (b)
Fi .6.16
u
H = *r#_1, = 28.27 mts

vf = vw tan 20 = 0'364 vYY
and vw = (vw - u) tan o = (v* - 28'27) tan 600
.. 0'364 v* = l'73? (vw - 28'75)

vw = 35'79 m/s
. vf = 0'364 x 35'79 = 12'03 m/s
VwU (since v,,y, = 0)
We know that, ntryd = gH
= 0 8595
= 85'95%
Discharge Q = nDB vr
(. rDB = 0.4 and vr = 13 03)
= 0.4 x 13 '03
= 5.21 m3/s
Power develoPed = wQH x rlhyd
x 5.21 xJ?0x0 8595,.*
=9810 looo
= 5271.5 kw
Ex. 6.10: The external and internal diameter
of Francis turbine are 7'2 m and
is 22 m and velocity of flow through the
0.6 m res7ectivelY. The head on the turbine and
The guide blade angte is given as 70o
runner is constant and equals to 2.5 m/s.
number of vanes are radial at inlet and
outlet. Determine (i) Speed of turbine'
(ii) Vane angle at outlet of runne r, ( iii) HYdraulic efficiencY'

U-
Fis. 6.L7
Sol.: Given data: D = 1.2 m, D1 = 0.6 m, H = 22, vt = vf1 = 2.5 m/s
c= 10o, 0 = 90o
Vw= U7 V; = Vf = 2,5 m/s
,*, = 0, v1 = vlr= l.$ 61/5
From inlet velocity tria ng le,

vf vf 1.5
tan o = ; " u= t"" = t- 10 = 14.178 mls
"
.. vw = u = L4.178 mls
Speed of turbine N:
nDN r x 1.2 x N
We know, u = 60= 60
60 x 1 4.178
... N= ,tx L.2 = 225.65 r. p. m.
Vane angle at outlet of runner (0).

rDN rx0.6x225.65
We know, ur = 60= 60 = 7 .O9 mls
Considering outlet velocity triangle,
tan o =
+= jfi= o.tszo
0= 19.40
VwU 14.178 x L4.178
We know that, rlh=gH= 9.81 x 22
= o.9314 = 93,14o/o
6.38 Hydraulic Turblnes
Ex.6.11;APettonwheelworkingUnderaheadof5o0meters,producesT3000
kW at 430 rpm if efficiencY of the wheel is 85o/o Determine :
(i) the discharge of turbine
(ii) diameter of wheel and
(iii) diameter of nozzte. fUIlilI[EIEEEIl
Sol.3 Assume speed ratio $ = o.+0, C" = 0'98
H = 500 m, P = 13000 kW, N = 430 rpm, Iou".ur, = 0'85
=C, \DsH = 0.98 x 2 x 9.81 x 500 = 97.06 m/sec
But
u= 0.46
0.45 V
0.46 x 97.05
u= 44.55 m/sec
TDN
BUt 60
r.D x 430
44.65 60
Diameter of wheel D = 1.98 m
n**"" =;fu
P 13000 x 103
Also a wHrlo = 9810, 5oo x 0.85
Q = 3.12 m/sec
But Q =Av
a = td'
3.t2 = L4 o2 . 97 .06
d = 0.202 m
Diameter of jet d = 0.202 m
d = 202 mm
Ex. 6.12: A petton wheel is having a mean bucket diameter of 7 m and is running
at 1000 rpm. The net head on pelton wheel is 700 m' If iet gets deflected through an
angle of 165o and discharge through nozzle is 0,1 m"/sec Find :
(i) Power available at the nozzle and
(ii) Hydraulic efficiency of turbine. M@M]
Sol.:D= 1m, H=7OOm. N = 1000rpm, Q=0'1 m3/sec'
Angle of vane O = 180 - 165 = 15o'
Fluid Mechanics & Machi nery 6.39 Hydraulic Turbines
'' Tansential vetocity of runner, u =

# =
*+#* = s2.36 m/sec
Velocity of jet at inlet, V = C" lEgH assume Cv = 1
V = 1x 2 x 9.81 x 700
... V = 117.19 m/sec
(i) Power available at the nozzle is given by
P=WQH
P = 9810x0.1x700
P = 686700 Watts
P = 686.7 kW
(ii) Hydraulic efficiency of turbine
rlhyd -
2U 1+ cos
2 x 52.36 777.t9 - 52.36 1 + cos 15o

Irya = (1 17. 1e)
Invo = 0.9718 i.e. 97.78o/o

Ex.6.13: A pelton wheer 2,5 m diameter operates under the fortowing condition.
Net available head = 300 m, speed = 300 rpm, coefficient of velocity of jet
= 0.9g,
Blade friction coelncient = 0.95, Blade anQle = 1650, Diameter of jet = 20 cm,
Mechanical efficiency = 0.95. Determine:
(i) Power developed, (ii) Hydrautic efficiency, (iii) Specific spe"d.
EIIEEEftt]
Sol.: D= 2.5m, H=300m, N= 300 rpm, C" = 0.98, d = 0.2 m
. Tangential velocity of runner,
.. _ rDN _rx2.5x300
-60
"- 60
.. u = 39.2 7 m/sec,
Velocity of jet v = C,V2gH = 0.98 X 2 x 9.81 x 300
V = 75.1 9 m/sec
Angle of vane tip I = (180 - 165) = 15o
DischargeQ=a.v= fr a'z v = f; x @.2), x 75.L9 = 2.362 m3/sec

"
Now hydrau lic efficiency,
Tlr,yo =
2u 1+cos
Hydra ulic Turbines
6.40
2 x 39.27 75 19 - 39.27 1 + cos 15o

Ythyd (7s.19)
*
0 981
1616
x rltva
But overall efficiency, rlo = rlmecn
q" = 0'95 x 0'981
q" = 0 93195 i'e 93 195o/o
Power develoPed, P = 1" WQH
P = 0 93195 x 9810 x 2'362 x 30O
= 5478325 5437 Watts
P = 6478'325 kW
rurfP 30 6 47 L325
Now specific sPeed, N. = HYr = (300)
24146.472 1q 34
^,
rrs - 1248.537
=
N tY,5a rpm
P, P)
Power P2 :
H1',', H",,
Pz = Prx
f,:-- 1e86.s2s ,<
( 20\3/
EfFz
2
H1t2
P 142t.44 kW
under a head of 35 m at the rate
Ex' 6'14: A pelton wheel is supptied with water
jet through an angle of 1600 and mean
of 40.5 kilolitre/min. The bucket deflects the
power and hYdraulic efficiencY of the turbine'
bucket speed is 73 m/sec' Catcutate the
E@@r
Sol.:H=35m, O=180-160"=20o' u = 13 m/sec'
40s00...
40.5 kilolitre/min = 40500 litres/min = -ff lit'/sec
Q=
Q = 675 lit/sec = ffi .'/r". = 0'675 m3/sec'

'' velocity of jet' v = c'\EH' assume c' = 1'
2 x 9.81 x35 ... V = 26.20 m/sec
Power develoPed, P = II.WQH . rlo is not given, assume 1o = 100o/o

P= 1x 9810 x 0.675 x 35 = 231761'25 Watts
P = 231.76 kW
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.41 l_iydraulic Turbines
efficiency, 2u(v - u) (1 + cos o)

Now hydraulic Ihyd = nT
2 x L3(26.2O - 13) (1 + cos 20o)
O620-
q6r6 = 0.9698 .1 lnvo = 96.980/o
Ex. 6.15: A pelton wheel turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m to 200 rpm.
If the discharge is gm3/sec and turbine efficiency g0%o, calculate the power
generated by the turbine, specific speed oi the turbine and performance of the
turbineunderheadof20m.Alsostatethetypeofturbine'@
Sol.:H=25m, N = 2OOrpm, Q = 9 m3/sec, n"= 0.90
P
l" = waH o.so = *rj* 25
... Power generated P = 1986525 Watts
= 1986.525 kW
Now, specific speed, N,=s= 200 x 25198 6.5 25
... N, = -*P = 1ss.46 rpm

'. Specific speed of turbines lies between 60 to 300 rpm.
.. Type of turbine is Francis Turbine.
For performance of turbine under head Hz = 2O m means to calculate speed,
discharge and power developed by turbine working under head of 20 m.
.'. Say Hz=20m, Hr=25m
Nz=? Nr = 200rPm
Qz=? Qr = 9 m3/sec
Pz=? Pr = 1986.525 kW
ForspeedN2r +=+
VH, - ./H,
...ru,=liE
'''' - {l'l,
Nz = 200 x @ = 178.8854 rpm
./2s
say Nr 178.88 rDm
For Discharge Q2:

a,
./tn
a,
./lr, a2
&
./ Ft'
a, = n,E = 8.04e8 m3/sec
say Q, 8.05 m3/sec

Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 6.42 Hydraulic Turbines
Ex, 6.16: A Francis turbine produces 3160 kW under a head of 144 m at an

overall efficiency of 860/0. It rotates at 1000 rpm. Taking speed ratio as 0.9 and flow
ratio as 0.3. Find guide blade angle, vane angle at inlet, diameter of runner and
width of runner at inlet. Assume radial discharge and hydraulic efficiency of 90o/o'
ME@Etr
Sol.: H = 144 m, rt" = 0.86, P = 3160 kW
Speed ratio =t= o.t .'. P= 3160 x 103 watts. N = 1OOO rpm'
Flow ratio = Yt
v = O.S = +
vtgH
= 0.3, nr,"a = 0.90
For radial discharge at outlet, 0 = 0. Find (t. 0, 0, D = ?
u.
|l+
t1
F .6.18
Ftowratio=ffi=0.,
vr = 0.3 x r/2g[-l = 0.3 x 2x9.8Lx144
vr = 15.946 m/sec.
Velocity of jet, v=c"r/2gl=1x 2 x 9.81 x144
v = 53.15 m/sec
overall efficiency is, ," = ,h .. 0.85 = ###$;

Discharge = Q = 2.6011 m3lsec
Speed ratio = i= O.n .'. u = 0.9V= 0'9x 53.15
Tangential velocity of wheel, u = 47.835 rn/sec

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.43 Hydrsulic Turbinog
But u= NDN
60
. 47 .83s
Diameter of ru nner O 0.9134 m
But discharge is given by e = pDBvr
2.6011 = rx 0.9134x B x 15.946
B = 0.05684 m .'.8=56.84mm
Hydraulic efficiency is Tlhyd
rhyd=t# o.eo=ffi*#s
.'. vw = 26.58 m/sec,
We found that, v|al <u
... Inlet velocity triangle is shown in the Fig. 6.19 below.
t- vr, -t- x -l
I- -t-
U
F . 5.19
From this tria ng le, x=u_vw
x = 47.835 - 26.58=2
tan (180 - -- 15 945
U-Vw-47.835-26.58
tan (180 - 0) = 0.75022
(180 - e) = tan-1 0.75072 = 36.87790
0 143. 12o (va ne anqle at in )
Now, tan 0 Jr =
= i?+tt = o.Seee
0. 30.960 u ide blade an le
Ex. 5.17: An inward flow reaction turbine has external and internal diameters as
1 m and 0.5 m respectively. The velocity of flow through the runner is constant and
is equat to 7.5 m/sec. Determine, ltr!!!f,fiEfi
(i) discharge through the runner,
(ii) width of runner at outlet if width of turbine at inlet is 200 mm,
Sol.: Outside diameter of turbine runner = 1 m = D = diameter at inlet
Internal diameter of turbine runner = 0.5 m = Dl = diameter outlet
Velocity of flow at inlet-and outlet = vr = vr1 = 1.5 m/sec
With runner at inlet = B = 0.20 m

Let width of runner at outlet = 81
Discharge, Q =:tDBvr = rx 1x0.2x1'5
.. a = 0'9425 m3lsec
Also nDBvl = ID1B1V1'
But ,tvr = ,tvrr
... Equation becomes, DB = DrBr
Br = width of runner at outlet =

t#'
H =
Br=0.4m=400mm.
Ex. 6,18: An outward flow reaction turbine has internal and external of runners
as 0.6 m and 7.2 m respectively. The guide blade angle is 15o and velocity of flow
through the runner constant and equat to 4 m/sec, If the speed of the turbine is
200 rpm, head on turbine is 10 m and discharge at outlet is radial, determine :
(i) runner vane angle at inlet and outlet
(ii) work done by water per second per unit weight of water
( iii) hydrautic efriciency. lMEf'filElEi
Sot.: Internal diameter D = 0.6 m, External diameter Dr = L,2,
Guide blade angle a = 15o
. Velocity of flow through runner is constant' .. vr = vr1 = 4
Speed of runner = N = 200 rpm, Net head H = 10 m
'. Discharge at outlet is radial
... B = 90o
... Vr = Vrt
and vwr =
Ru nner
Fi .6,20
Fig. 6.20 shows inlet and outlet velocity triangles for outward flow reaction
turbine.
Now tangential velocity of runner at inlet,
u= nDN
60 =
nx0.6x200
60
u = 6.283 m/sec
Similarly, tangential velocity of runner at outlet is
rD,N rc x L.2 x 2OO
"r- 60 - 60
u1 = 12.565 m/sec.
vt4
From inlet velocity triangle, tan c = *& tana-tan15o
.. vw = 14'928 m/sec
(i) Runner vane angles at inlet (e) and at outlet (0)
... From inlet velocity triangle,
tan e =
ffij =O6#-1,2t= 0.4627
.'. e = tan-1 (0.4627) = 24.830

and from outlet velocity triangle,
Vr- A
tanO= ui=Tr.s*=0.3183
0 = tan-r (0.3183) .. 0 = 17.650
(ii) Work done by water per sec per unit weight of water
=_!s (vw.utVwr.ur) vwr=0asB=0
=-!I (v* ' u)

= ,*t, , 14.928 x 6.283
= 9.561 N -m/sec/N of water

x 6.283
( iii) Hydraulic efficiency, ,ro=1#= 14.928
9.81 x 10
rlr'va = 0.9561 i.e. 95.61olo

Ex. 6.19: The following data is given for a Francis turbine Net head = 70 m,
Speed = 700 rpm, Shaft power = 330 kW, Io,erau = 85o/o, 16y6.3,1;" = 92o/o,
Flow Ratio = 0.22, Breadth Ratio = 0.1.
Outer diameter of Runner = 2 x Inner diameter of runner.
The thickness of vanes occup| 5olo of circumferential area of the runner.
Velocity of flow is constant at inlet.
Outlet discharge is radial at outlet.
Determine:
(i) Rate of flow
( ii) cuide blade angle
(iii) Inner and Outer diameter of runner
(iv) Runner vane angle at inlet. |[@m
Sol.: Given, Shaft Power P = 330 kW = 330 x 103 watts
Speed N = 700 rpm, Net head H = 70 m
n" = 0.85. Ir,va = 0.92
Ftow ratio =\v = o.zz = #
V2qH
... vt = o.22.,[2s{
vc = 0.22 2x9.87x7O
vr = 8.153 m/sec.
Discharge is radial at outlet,
B = 90o, .'. Vr, = Vl and Vw1 = 0
Outerdiameter of runner = 2 x Inner diameter of runner

Dr=2D
Width ratio of Breadth ratio = B
Width of runner
Diameter of runner
= 0.1
Thickness of vane = 6010 of circumferential area of runner
Actual area of flow = 0,94 x n.D x B
Velocity of flow ir eonstant
Vr = Vrr
= 8.153 m/sec
+-#---l
F .6.21
. Overall efficient, rr" = #
.._ 330x 103
'"-9810,ex70
a= 0.56536 mr/sec.
But a area of flow x velocity of ftow
: :.jrj
a= 0.94xzxDx(0.1 D) x 8.153
0.56536 = 2.4080 D'z
.. D = 0.4845m
R
Now,
.U Breadth ratio =i = 0.1
.. B= 0.1D=0.1x0.4845
.. B = 0.04845m
Now, Outer diameter of runner,
Dr = 2D=2x0.4845
Dr = 0'969 m
Tangentia I velocity of runner
u= nDN
60 =
nx O.4845 x 7OO
60
u = L7.76 mlsec.
Hydraulic efficiency ls given bY
,r. = r$
.. O'"'=\##
v" = 35'57 m/sec
..
(i) Rate of flow Q = 0.56536 m3/sec
(ii) Guide blade angle: (c)
From inlet velocitY triang le,
tancl=JL=9++
v* - 35.57
..- tana = 0.2292
... (l = tan-1 (0.2292)
.. c = 12.90"
(iii) Inner and outer diameter of runner
Inner diameter of runner D = 0.4845 m
Outer diameter of runner Dr = 0.969 m
(iv) Runner vane angle at inlet (0)
Vr
tan0=t;:U
8.153
... tane = GssZ_ rZ76)
= o.4578
0 = tan-l (0.4578)
o = 24.60"
tmportant Point
i Hydraulic machines are the machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy, which used to generate electric power.
i Gross head is the ditterence between Head race level and Tail race level.
i Net head available at inlet ol turbine is difference behveen gross head and loss of head
due to lriction in Penstock.
i Petton wheel turbine is a tangential llow impulse turbine and is used lor high heads
;. ln pelton wheel, inlet velocity V = C, lpgH and u = ur
> Work done by jet on runner per sec is given by,
Work done per sec by jet on the runner = [p av(v - u) (1 + cos 0)]u
2(v - u) (1-, cos o) u
Efficiency of pelton wheel 1616 -
v
For maximum efficiencY u = 2
and maximum hydraulic efliciency of pelton wheel is
(1 + cos 0)
2
6.49 Hydra ulic Turbines
Power develop€d bY Pelton wheel P = n.WQH in watts.
where, lo = Overall efficiency, H = Net head in meters

W = Specilic weight of water in N/m3'
> Francis turbine is an inward radial llow reaction turbine having radial discharge at oullet
Angle made by absolute velocity v1 at outlet tip is 901 i'e B = 90' ' v*, = 0'
Work done per sec on wheel =p av[vw utvw,'url
Power developed by Francis turbine P = q" WQH.
Discharge through Francis Turbine Q = IDBV or Q = nDrBrVrr
> Kaplan Turbine: lt is axial flow reaction turbine works under low head. water enter the
turbine at the side and llows parallel to the axis of rotation. The peripheral velocity at inlet
and outlet are equal i.e. u = ur.
>DralttubeisaDipeolgraduallyincreasingareaisusedlordischargingwaterlromexitof
a reaction turbine to the taii race
Practice Question
1. Classily the type of water turbines. For high, medium and low head, which turbines are
used.
2.DescribewithsimpleSketchworkingolhydroelectricpowerplantwithPeltonwheel.
3. State the 'lifference between impulse and reaclion turbine. EEE
4. Explain with neat sketches governing of Pelton and Francis turbine'
5. What are functions ol a draft tube? Draw any four types ol draft tube'
6. What is meant by cavitation? Explain how cavitation occur in reaction turbine'
7. A Pelton wheel has mean bucket speed of 30 m/s with a,et of water flowing at the rate of
1 m3/sec under a head of 250 m. The buckets deflect jet through-an angle ol 170".
Caiculate power developed and the efficiency ol the turbine Assume Cv = 0 98'
S.APeltonwheelishavingameanbucketdiameterollmandisrunningat1000r.p.m.
The net head on the Pelton wheel is 700 m. lf iet is deflecled through 165" and discharge
throughnozzleiso.lm3/s,lindpoweravailableatendolnozzleandhydraulicefficiency
ol turbine.
(Ans. 686.7 kW,97.18%)
'l
g. A Francis turbine has external and internal diameters as O m and 0 6 m respectively
Thehydraulicefficiencyoftheturbineisgo%whentheheadontheturbineis36m.The
at
velocity of flow at outlet is 2.5 m/s and discharge at outlet is radial lf the vane angle
outletisl5.andwidthofthewheelis,loommatinletandoutlet,determine(i)guide
blade angle, (ii) speed of turbine, (iii) power developed
Fluid Mechanics & Mac hinery 6.50 Hydraulic Turbines
10 Classily turbines according to energy at intet and head. IEEII

11
12
^xSi:ilffi,,TJ:,T"*'J;f:[ililJ',:1ffi,';*,"n Francisturbine ffi
-'ffi
13
14
State
used
the. procedure tor drawing inlet and ouflat velocity triangles for. moringffiE
15
[:':iilJn,I"XTilt1,",[3::notation
Draw a neat sketch ol pelton wheel showing atl important components. Give complete
classification of pelton wheet. State the shape of bucket.
16
lukE,]
state the procedure for drawing the inlet and outlet triangles for moving curved-vanes
with usual notations.
[Note: Jet striking a movin g curved canes at one ol the ti psl
SBrE Qarestio, E.Answe
rcl
Summer 2oo8
1.A pelton wheel working under a head of 50 m develops BO kW at 230 rpm. Calculate the
diameter ol let if the overall etficiency is 78%. Assume C, = 0.98. rEEI]
Ans. Refer Example No. 6.8.
2. Draw outlet velocity triangles lor slow, medium and last runner of a pelton wheel with
usual nolation. reEI
Ans. Refer Fig. no. 6.7.
Winter 2OO8
1. Drax/ the.layout of hydroelectric power plant and exptain. I![il
Ans. Reler to Article 6.2.
2. A--Pelton wheel working under a head ol 500 meters, produces 13000 kW at 430 rpm if
Ans. HltL"li$L',,i3meterof
nozzre
etficiency of the wheel is 85yo. Determine : (i) The discharge ol turbine, (ii) Diameier ol
ml
Summer 2OO9
1. Classily turbines according to direction ol ftow. m
Ans. Refer to Arlicle 6.4 (c).
2. T,wo jet strike the buckets ol pelton turbine which is having shaft power as 15500 kW. The
diameter of each jet is 200 mm. lf net available head on the turbine is 4oo m. Find overall
efliciency of turbine. Take Cv = 1 .0. [!En
Ans. Refer Example No. 6.3.
3 State.name of turbine you select lor m
-High speed and minimum discharge
Ans. Pelton wheel
-Minimum discharge and high head
Ans. Pelton wheel
-Moderate discharge and head
Ans. Francis turbine
-Maximum discharge and low head.
Ans. Propeller or Kaplan turbine
4. A pelton wheel having semi circular buckets is 'r m in diameter. pressure head at nozzre
when it is closed is 15 bar. The discharge when nozzle s open is 3.5 m/min. It speed is
600 rpm. Calculate power developed 1nd hydraulic efticiency. Take Cv 0.98, qo g57..
= =
Ans. Reter Exampte No. 6.1 . iI[Il

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 6.51 Hydraulic Turblnes
Winter 2009
't. State the types ol draft tubes. fml
Ans. Refer to Article 6.'l 1.2.
2. Draw a neat sketch of Pellon wheel showing all important components. Give complele
classilication of 'Pelton wheel'. State the shape ol bucket. flEll
Ans. Rerer lo Article 6.6 and 6.5, Fig. 6.2 and 6.4.
3. An inward flow reaction turbine has external and internal diameters as 'l m and 0.5 m
respectively. The velocity ol flow through the runner is constant and is equal to 1.5 m/s.
Determine , fEfill
(i) Oischarge through the runner.
(ii) Width of the turbine at outlet if the width of the turbine at inlet = 200 m.
Ans. Reter Example No.6.17.
4. A Pelton wheel is having a mean bucket diameter ol 1 m and is running at 1000 rpm. The
nel head on the Pelton wheel is 700 m. lf jet gets daflected through an angle ol i 65. and
discharge through nozzle is 0.1 m3/s. Find :
(i) Power available at the nozzle, and
(ii) Hydraulic efiiciency ol turbine. EEI
Ans Refer Example No.6.12.
Summer 2O1O
't. Classify turbine according to : (i) Energy at inlet, (ii) Head. fEEn
Ans. Refer Arlicle 6.4 (a) and (b).
2. State different types of draft tubes in reaction turbine m
Ans. Reler to Article 6.1 1 .2.
3. Explain the concept o, cavilation in turbines. [IEI]
Ans. Refer to Article 6. 12.
4. A Francis turbine having an overall elficiency of 80% and hydraulic elficiency ol 90./"
produces 3000 kW under head of '140 m and running at 1000 rpm. lf speed ratio is
0.9 and flow r"to is 0.3. Find: (i) cuide btade angte, (ii) vane angte at intet,
ffin)
(iii) Diameter of runner, (iv) Width ol runner at outer diameter. m
Ans. Rerer Example No. 6.5.
5. Explain with neat sketch construction and working of Francis turbine. |![l]
Ans. Refer to Article 6.7.1 .
YYinter 2010
1.Slate lhe lunction of nozzle in pelton turbine. MT
2. Give complete specificalion ol pelton turbine Write the names of major part of pelton
turbine. Comment on the shape of bucket. rml
Ans. Refer to Article 0.6.
FluiC Mechanics & Machinery Hydraullc furbines
3. Compare Pelton turbine and Francis turbine on the lollowing points :
(i) Working principle, (ii) Head required. (iii) Specific speed, (iv) Admission ol ryqlg!
(v) Ouantity of water required, (vi) Part load performance. @
Ans Befer to Article 6.13.
4 An outward llow reaction turbine has internal and external diameters ol the runner as
0.6 m and 1.2 m respectively. The guide blade angle is 15" and velocity ol llow through
the runner is constant and equal to 4 m/s. lf the speed ol the turbine is 200 rpm, head on
the turbine is 10 m and discharge at outlet is radial, determine :
(i) The runner vane angles at inlet and outlet-

(ia) Work done by the water per second per unit weight of water.
(iii) Hydraulic etficiency. M
Ans. Beter Example No.6.18.
5. Practically it is not possible to keep outlet angle of bucket of Pelton turbine equal to zero.
State the reason and draw velocity triangle for this situation. [EEI]
Ans. if angle of deflection is kept 0'i.e. 180" (since, in
opposite direction ol jet), the water
bucket, which exerts a retarding force on the pelton wheel. Hence, power developed by
the pelton turbine is alfected.
Therelore in actual practice, it is not possible lo keep outlet angle ol bucket of pelton
turbine equal to zero. But angle ot detlection is kept as '1651
u1
t1
Outlet
velocity
triangles
Angle oI deflection
o
180 -
1650
O
u
u U
(a) Angle oI dellection is 165' (b) Angle of dellection is 180"

F . 6.22 : Velo tri les lor Pelton turbine
Fig. 6.22 shows velocity triangles at inlet and outlet tips for angle ol deflection outlet is
165'and 180'.
Summer 2O1{
1. Deline cavitation in turbines. tEil
2. What are the different types ol drart tubes ? Explain any one with neat sketch rfiil
Ans. Refer to Article 6.1 1.2.
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 6_53 Hydraulic Turbines
3 A pelton wheel 2.5 m diameter operates under the lollowing conditions :

Net available head = 300 m, Speed = 300 rpm, Coefficient of velocity ol Jet = 0,98'
Blade friction coelficient = 0.95, Blade angle = 165', Diameter ol the jet = 20 cm'
Mechanical efficiency = 0.95. Determine : (i) Power developed, (ii) Hvdraulic etficiency,
(iii) Specific speed fEEIl
Ans. Reler Example No.6.13.
4. Co.pai" xiprrn turbine and Francis turbine. m
Ans. Refer to Article 6.10
winter 20l'l
1. Draw the inlet and outlet velocity triangle tor the buckets in Pelton wheel with the m
oI the terms.
"ffi
Ans. Refer to Article 6.5,
2. Explain with a neal sketch Governing of a Pelton wheel ml
3. Why Draft tube is provided in case ol a Reaction Turbine ? Sketch Elbow type circular
dratt tube. truil
Ans. Refer to Article 6.1'1
4. Define the term specilic speed in case ot a turbine. lf the specific speed of a turbine is
68 rpm, determine the lype of a turbine. I(llU
5. what is the dilference between impulse turbine and reaction turbine ? Give atleast eight
points. EEI1
Summer 2O12
't. Compare lmpulse Turbine and Reaction Turbine. m
Ans. Ref er to Article 6.9.
2. state necessity or orafl tube in turbines. Explain any one with sketch lEEll
Ans. Reler to Article 6.1 and 6.1 1 .1.
3. A Pelton wheel turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m at 200 rpm' lf lhe discharge.is
g m3/s and turbine etticiency is 9O%, calculate power generated by the turbine, spec1ic
ipeed of the turbine and performance of the turbine under a head ol 20 m. Also state the
type of turbine. EEn
4 Draw a layout of Hydro-electric power plant and write function ol i1s maior comPonenifutr!
Ans. Reler Fig 6.'1 ol Article 6.2

Winter 2O12
1. How are hydraulic turbines classified according to the action ol water ? m
Ans. Refer to Article 6.4 (c).
2. A Francis turbine produces 3160 kw under a head ol 144 m at an overall efficiency of
8670. lt rotates at 1OOO rpm. Taking speed ratio as 0.9 and llow ratio as 0 3 Find the
guide otaoe angle, vane ahgle at inlet, diameter of runner and width of the runner at inlet.
iisume raoiat lischarge an? hydraulic elficiency ol 90%. lE[l]
3. Erpi"in ,itt' near working of Pelton wheel. IruI
Ans. "ketch
Befer to Article 6.6, Fig. 6.2.
4. Eipiain with neat sketih construction and working of Kaplan turbine EEn
Ans. Refer io Article 6.8. Fig. 6.11
Fluid Mechanics & Machi nery 6.54 Hydraulic Turbihes
Summer 2Ot3
1. What is cavitation in turbines ? froI
Ans. Reler to Article 6.'12.
2. Explain with a neat sketch, the construction and working of pelton wheel. mI
Ans. Refer to Article 6.6, Fig. 6.2.
3. what is the function oI a Dratt rube ? Exprain with neat sketches, the various tvoes ot
drafl lubes. ''l'f[I]
Ans. Refer to Article 6.1 1 .
4. A Pelton wheel is supplied with water under a head of 35 m at the rate ol 40.5 kilo
litre/min. The bucket deflects the let through an angle of 160 " and the mean bucket soeed
is '1.3 m/s. Calculate the power and hydrautic etficiency of the turbine. Iful
Ans. Refer Example No.6.14.
5. State principle of working of impulse turbines ? ml
Ans. At inlet of turbine, energy available is only kinetic energy. The iet of water strikelthe
bucket of Pelton wheel. The kinetic energy ol water in the iorm ol let of water is utilized to
rotate the lurbine.
Winter 2013
't. State function ol dralt tube in reaction turbine.
Ans. Refer to Article 6.1 1 .
tm
2. Explain the working ol Pelton wheel with neat sketch.
rol
3. The following data is given lor a Francis turbine Net head = 70 m, Speed
= 700 rpm,
Shaft..power = 330 kW, love.ar = 857o, 1616,",;;" = 927", Flow ,atio = O;.22,
Breadth ratio = 0.1 .
Outer diameter of runner = 2 x lnnerdiameter of runner.
The thickness oI vanes occupy 6y" ol ckcumferential area ol the runner.
Velocity of flow is conslant at inlet.
Outlet discharge is radial at outlet.
Determine: (i) Rate of flow, (ii) Guide btade angle, (iii) tnner and Outer diameter of runner,
(iv) Runner vane angle at inlet.
Ans. Refer to Solved Ex. 6.19.
4. Give selection criteria for a Turbine at a particular location/place.
Ans. Befer to Article 6.5.
Summer 2014
1.
Ans.
Draw a neat labelled layout of hydroelectric power plant.
Reter to Article 6.2.
ml
2.
Ans.
Explain with neat sketch Pelton wheel turbine.
Reler to Article 6.6.
ffil
3.
Ans.
Compare impulse and reaction turbines (any lour points)
Beter to Article 6.9.
MI
Aj,npt n7
Gentrifugal Pumps
7.1 lnlroduclion
7.2 -T'EEil
Working Principle of o Centrifugol Pump
Moin Components of o Centrifugol Pump
7.3.1 Construction of Cenlrifugol Pumps
7.4 Priming of o Centrifugol Pump
7.5 Covilotion in o Centrifugol Pump
7.6 Work Done by lmpeller of o Centrifugol Pump on Woter
7.7 Definitions of Heods ond Efficiencies of o Cenlrifugol Pump
7.8 Nel Positive Suction Heod (NPSH)
7.9 Performonce Chorocterisiic of Cenirifugol Pumps
7.9.1 Moin Chorocterislics

7.9.2 Operoting or Consloni Speed Chorocterislics
7.10 Trouble Shooting ond Remedies in Centrifugol Pumps
7 .11 Conslruction, Working ond Applicotions of Multistoge Pumps
7.1'1.1 Multisioge Centrifugol Pumps in Porollel
7. I 1 .2 Multistoge Cenirifugol Pumps in Series
7.12 Advonloges of o Cenlrifugol Pump

7.13 Applicolions of Cenlrifugol Pumps
7 .14 Jet Pump
7 .15 Submercible Pump
o Solved Exomples
o lmporlonl Poinls
. Proctice Queslions
. MSBTE Queslions ond Answers
(7-r)
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Centrilugal Pumps
About this Chapter

This chopter introduces the principle o{ operolion of cenlri{ugol pumps, moin ports of
cenlrifugol pump. To underslond lhe concepl of mullisloge centrifugol pumps, priming of
centri{ugol pumps, concepi of covilotion in centrifugol pumps. To leorn the differenl heods,
ond efficiencies of o centrifugol pump. To underslond the work done by impeller of o
centrifugol pump. To leorn concepl of NPSH. To know lhe concept o{ moin choroclerislic ond
operoting chorocterisiics of o centrifugol pumps. Troubleshooting ond remedies in centrifugol
pumps. Advonloges ond opPlicolions of centrifugol pump. To leorn concepl of ief PUmp ond
submercible pumps.
7.{ lntroduction
As we have seen, hydraulic turbine is a device which is used to convert hydraulic
energy of water into mechanical energy. So it is called as a power-producing device.
Whereas pump is a device which is used to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. It is a power-absorbing device. Centrifugal pumps are also called as
rotodynamic type of pumps because dynamic Pressure developed by it enables the
lifting of liquids from a lower to a higher level. The hydraulic energy can be lifting a
liquid from low level to higher level, circulating a liquid, forcing liquid in a system,
exhausting liquid.
7.2 Ytlorking Principle of a Centritugal Pump

A centrifugal pump is a pump in which an impeller rotating inside a close fitting
casing draws in liquid at the ceiltre and by virtue of centrifugal force, throws out
through an opening or openings at the side of casing.
In operation, the pump is filled with water and the impeller is rotated. The blades
cause the liquid to rotate with the impeller and in turn, impart a high velocity to the
water particles. The centrifugal force causes the water particles to be thrown from
the impeller into casing. The forward flow through the impeller reduces pressure at
the inlet, allowing more water to be drawn in through the suction pipe by
atmospheric pressure or an external pressure' The liquid passes into the casing,
where its high velocity is reduced and converted into pressure and the water is
pumped out through the discharge pipe.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.3 Centrifugal Pumps
lt, a
)
t\ 1
=?
(a) (c)
I \
I)
/r, )
---'' )
(b) (d)
Fig.7.lr Elementary Principle of Centrifugal Pump
The principle of operation of centrifugal pump can be explained by the
phenomenon of a bucket of water whirling round in a circular path as shown in
Fig. 7.L. when the bucket of water is whirled round with high speed, no water will
spill. even when the bucket is in the vertically downward position because of
centrifugal force acting on the surface of water and holding water against the bottom
of the bucket. If hole is made in the bottom of bucket, the centrifugal force of
rotation throws the water through the hole. If the water in the bucket is connected to
a continuous supply of water, water is sucked from the supply and is continuously
thrown out through the hole.
7.3 Main Gornponents of a Centrifugal Pump

Following are the main components of a centrifugal pump:
(i) Irnpeller,
( ii) Casing,
(iii) Suction,
(iv) Delivery pipe,
(v) Foot valve with strainer.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.4 Cent.ifugal Pumps
Fig. 7.2 shows installation of a centrifugal pump
Delivery pipe
:: Delivery tank t ivery valve
Pressure gauge
t Priming funnel
2 Vanes
Shaft driven by +
electric motor '-L Vacuum
gau9e
lmpeller
Eye of impeller -----|

Su ctio n
Volute casi pipe
Fool valve
Strainer
F . 7.2: Installation of a Cent

al Pum
(i) Types of Impellers: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called as
impeller. It is mounted on a shaft coupled to prime mover like electric motor.
Impeller consists of a series of backward curved vanes. Depending upon the type of
liquid handled by the pump, three types of impellers are used: (a) Fully-closed type,
(b) Semi-closed type and (c) Open type. (See Fig. 7.3)
Runne Hub lor

VANES
shaft
Base
plates
(a) closed Type (b) Semi-Closed Type (c) Open Type

. 7.3t es of Im llers
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Centrifugal Pumps
Fully-closed type impeller has circular plate on each side which totally encloses
the vanes, hence the waterway from eye of impeller to the periphery of the impeller
is Formed. There are less chances of slipping of water as vanes are closed by plates.
It is suitable for handling clear and thin liquids.
In semi-closed impeller, only one circular plate on one side of vanes is fitted.
Such impeller is suitable even if the liquids are charged with some debris.
In open impeller, there is no circular plate on any side. The vanes are open. Such
impellers are useful in the pumping of liquids containing suspended solid matter,
such as paper pulp. sewage and water containing sand or grit.
(ii) Types of Casing: The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of
a reaction turbine. It is an air-tight passage surrounding the impeller. Large amount
of kinetic energy of liquid coming out of impeller is converted into pressure energy by
casins. Il@EIf,sI
Following are the types of casing:
(i) Volute casing,
(ii) Vortex or whirlpool casing,

(iii) Casing with guide blades (Diffuser). Refer Fig. 7,4.
(a) Volute Casing: The impeller is surrounded by a spiral casing. The water
leaving the impeller flows in this casing circumferentially, velocity of water
decreasing with the increasing area of cross-section. When water reaches the
delivery pipe, the velocity becomes small. so the pressure increases
correspondingly. (Refer Fig. 7.4 (a)) mffifi$
(b) Vortex or Whirlpool Casing: If a circular chamber is introduced between
. the casing and the impeller as shown in Fig. 7.4, then the casing is known as
vortex or whirlpool casing. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of
energy due to the formation of eddies is reduced, so efficiency of pump
increases. (Refer Fig. 7.4 (b)) lEllEklI]
(c) Casing with Guide Blades: In this casing, impeller is surrounded by a
series of guide vanes mounted on a ring called as diffuser ring. The liquid
after leaving the impeller passes through passages between two adjacent
guide blades having increasing area, wherein the velocity of flow decreases
and the pressure increases. (Refer Fig.7.4 (c))
Fluld Mochanlcs & Machinery 7.6 Centriftlgal Pumps
Discharge
Volute casing Oischarge
lmpeller Vortex casing
Vortex chamber
Vanes
1
i'
Impeller
Su port
(a) Volute Type (b) Whirlpool or vortex Type
Discha rge
Vanes
Guide blade
Stationary
diffuser
Impeller
asrng
(c) Casing with Guide Blades

Fi . 7.4| of Casin s
(iii) SuctionPiper It is a pipe which is connected at its upper end to the inlet of
the pump or to the centre of the impeller which is called as eye. The lower end of the
suction pipe dips into llquid in a suction tank or a sump from which the liquid is to be
pumped or lifted up. The diameter of suction pipe is kept larger than delivery pipe to
avoid cavitation.
(iv) Delivery Pipe: It is a pipe which is connected at its lower end to the outlet
of the pump and it delivers the liquid to the required height.
(v) Foot Valve with Strainer: The lower end of the suction pipe is fitted with a
foot valve and strainer. Strainer is provided in order to keep the debris such as
leaves, wooden pieces away from the pump. It then passes through the foot valve to
enter the suction pipe. A foot valve is non-return or one way tyPe of valve which
opens only in the upward direction. So liquid can pass through the foot valve
upwards only, but cannot return downwards.
.------.-\
7,3.1 Construction of a Gentrifu a! Pum

The construction of a centrifugal pump is as shown in Fig. 7.5.
Pump outlet
Discharge
Funnel fo priming
Vane
Pu mp
Pump shaft
inlel
Packing
Casing
lmpeller
Fi . 7.5: Construction of a centrifu um

It consist of a rotating element i.e. impeller mounted on shaft supported on
bearings. The impeller is housed inside the stationary casing with packings provided
to prevent the leakage of liquid.
7.4 Priming of a Centrifugal Pu 1 t 1 w-t 1

Priming of a centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which the suction
pipe, casing of the pump and a portion of the delivery pipe upto the delivery valve is
completely filled by the liquid. Thus, the air from these parts of the pump is removed
and these parts are filled with the liquid to be pumped.
The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per second is known as
the head generated by the pump. This means if air is present in pump casing, head
generated will be in terms of metre of air. If water is filled then head generated will
be in terms of metre of water. But as density of air is very low, the generated head of
air in terms of equivalent metre of water head is negligible and hence the water may
not be sucked from the sump, To avoid this difficulty, priming is necessary.
Methods used For Priming of a Centrifugal Pump:
1. The ordinary type of priming consists of pouring water through a funnel into
the casing thus allowing the air to escape through the air vents.
[Refer Fig. 7.6 (a)]
2. In some cases, the casing is filled up from city water mains or from an
elevated tank. The petcock is kept open to allow the air to escape, When jet
of water comes through petcock, all air is escaped out and cock is closed and
pump is started. IRefer Fig. 7.6 (b)]
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.8 Centrifuqal Pumps
To ci maln
Funnel Delivery
head
Air vent Pet

cock
o o
Suction pipe
Reservoir
(a) With Fun nel (b) With City Main Connection

Fi .7.6: Manual Primin of a Centr al Pum
3 Priming of Centrifugal Pump with Self-Priming Device: It consists of a
tank ditided into two compartments U and L by a horizontal plate P as shown
in Fig. 7.7. The lower compartment L is filled with water' When the pump
starts working, it pumps water from the compartment L to the compartment
U, thus reducing the air pressure in the suction line Until water flows into
the chamber L and then to the pump, regular operation continues' When the
pump stops working, water flows by gravity from U into the pump and the
iower compartment L. Thus the pump is primed for the next operation
lRefer Fig. 7.71
:::: U ::: Vacuum breaker
. 7.7r Prirnin with Self-Primi Device
7.5 Cavitation in a Gentrifugal Pump

While pumping water, if the pressure at any point inside a pump drops below the
vapour pressure, corresponding to the temperature of the liquid, the liquid will
vapourise and form cavities of va.pour. The bubbles of vapour are carrled along with
the stream until a region of higher pressure is reached, when they collapse or
explode with tremendous shock on adjacent walls. This phenomenon is called as
cavitation.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.9 Centrituqal Pumps
The sudden in-rush of liquid into the cavity created by the collapsed vapour
bubbles causes mechanical destruction or erosion. There is an accompanying noise,
varying from a low rumbling to loud knocks and a resultant heavy vibration of the
pumping unit. The energy required to accelerate the flow of water to fill the hollow
spaces results in loss of power. Thus, cavitation is accomPanied by a reduction in
efficiency of a pump.
Prevention of Cavitation:
To prevent cavitation, following are some of the precautions:
1. The temperature of liquid should be as low as possible to keep down vapour
pressure.
2. Suction velocity should be as low as possible'
3. The pump speed should be reasonably low speed means lower value of
specific speed. A higher specific speed means a more compact pump. So
compromise should be done.
4. As far as possible, the sharp bends in suction pipe should be as low as
possible.
5. There should be sufficient number of vanes, for impeller to guide the water
properly to reduce tu rbulence.
Work Done by lmpeller of a Gentrifugal Pump on Water
Outlet velocity triangle
Tangent 1o impeller at outlet
lmpeller
o
4
o
Tangent to impeller---),
at inlet J
nlet velocity
triangle
Fi . 7.8: V Tria n les at Inlet and Outlet Ti of Im ller

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.10 Cenlrifugal Pumps
The work is done by impeller on water. The water enters the impeller radially at
inlet. The absolute velocity of water v makes an angle o = 90o and velocity compo-
nent of whirl is v,, = g.
Fig. 7.8 shows velocity triangles at inlet and outlet tips of the vanes fixed to
impeller.
Let, v = Absolute velocity of water at inlet.
u= peripherat velocity of impe er at intet =
+#
vr = Relative velocity of water at inlet.
vf = Velocity of flow at inlet.
D = Diameter of impeller at inlet.
Dr = Diameter of impeller at outlet.
N= Speed of impeller in r.p.m.
o = Angle made by absolute velocity (v) at inlet with the

direction of motion of vane.
e = Angle made by relative velocity (vr) at inlet with the
direction of motion of vane.
v*, = Velocity of whirl at outlet tip.
Similarly, vr, u1, vr1, v1r, p and O are corresponding values at outlet tip. Also, b
and b1 are width of impeller at inlet and outlet tip.
Since, the water enters the impeller at inlet tip radially, then a = 90o and v* = 6.
In case of radially inward flow reaction turbine. the work done by water on the
runner per second = p Q(vw.u -vryr.u1)
Since centrifugal pump is just reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine.
.'. Work done by impelleron water per second = - p,Q.(v*.u - vwr.ur)
Work done by impeller per sec = p. Q (vw u1 - vra . U) Q = a'v.
But for cr = 90o, vw = 0

Work done by impeller per sec = p . (vw, . ur)
But Specific weight of water, w= p . g ..... N/m' (9810 N/m3)

Flrrid Mechanics & Machinery 7.11 Centrltugal Pumps
Work done by impeller per sec = (v*r. ur1

f
Also W = Weightof water=w.Q
W
Work done by impeller per sec ( ur)
Also Work done by impeller/sec on water per unit weight of water =

f trr, ur)
Discharge of pump a nDbVl = rD1b1V;,
Power Requared to Drive a Centrifugal Pump 3
1. According to velocity t|iangle

w Q (]*' ut)
shaft power, p= ..... in water
where, w = Specific weight of water = 9810 N/m3
Q = a.v = discharge in m3,/sec

vw1 = Velocity component of whirl at outlet
u1 = Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet

2. As per manometric head,
shaft power, t = of!-..... in watts
where, 1o = Overall efficiency of pump

Hnl = Manometric head of water in meters
?.7 Definitions of ileads & Efficienclos of a Conlrltugial

{Refer 7.9)
1. Suction Head or Suction Lift (hs): It is Cefined as the elevation difference
between the water level in the sump from which water is to be pumped and
centre of the pump. m@[
2, Delivery tlead or Delivery Lift (h6): The difference of level between the
centre of the pump anC the centre line of the delivery pipe at exit is called as
delivery head.
3. Statac Head (hs131;s): Static head is defined as the difference of level
between the water surface in the sump from which water is lifted and the
centre line of the delivery pipe at exit.
h5131;6+hs+h6
- a 2.^
t zg
Lvd
-7 - i-n to
hd
H
h
F
hs
L -l
_.! s
t l29
7.9: Different Heads related to a Centrifu I Pum

Fi .
4. Manometric Head (Hm): The manometric head of a centrifugal pump is
defined as the head against which the pump has to work.
v< vd
Hm = hs + h6 + h6s + nta +7i+2[
where, hfs = Loss of head in suction pipe
hfd = Loss of head in delivery PiPe
vs = Velocity of liquid in suction pipe
vd = Velocity of liquid in delivery pipe
Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump: @
In centrifugal pump, rotating impeller imparts power to liquid by centrifugal
action. There are three types of efficiencies of a centrifugal pump: M
(i) Manometricefficiency;
(ii) Mechanical efficiency;
( iii) Overall efficiency.
Manometric Efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the ratio of the

manometric head to the work done by impeller per newton of flowing water.
Manometric head
Work done by impeller
Hm
Vw, Ur
I
qH-
Mechanical Efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the ratio of the power

transmitted by the impeller to the power available at the shaft of the impeller.
Pow er transmitted bv imoeller to water
Power available at the shaft of the impeller
w.Q (v*r'ur)
I
Shaft power
Overall Efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the ratio of the output

power to the input power of the pump. sl!!
Ou ut wer of UM
In put power of pump
WQH.
Ioverall S haft r
Also, "lover.ll = Imano x rlmech
.8 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

NPSH is defined as the net head in meters of liquid required to force the liquid
into the pump through the suction pipe.
It is also defined as the head required to make the liquid to flow through the
suction pipe and enters to the eye of the impeller.
the atmospheric pressure head at the inlet of the pump
NPSH is also defined as
minus sum of static suction head, vapour presaure head, frictional head loss in
suction pipe and kinetic head loss in suction pipe.
Atmosoheric IStatic suction+ VaDour Dressure +
NPSH = pressure head - L head head
"'
Frictional head loss Kinetic head loss'l
-
in suction PiPe ' in suction PiPe .l
p^ [ p.. ,:l
... NPSH = il-Lh.+il+hf,+2e.1
,rs,-, = [fr - ] - n, - ^,. -*]
2-1
OR nesH=[n"-H"-h.-hrs- 2r)
where, P" = atmospheric pressure in N/m2,

P, = Vapour pressure of liquid in N/m'?
Hu = atmospheric pressure in meters
H" = vapour pressure of liquid in mters

h' = static suction head
hr. = loss of head due to friction in suction pipe
2
V.
d = ,ot. of velocity head in suction pipe.
The factors affecting NPSH are diameter of suction pipe, inlet and outlet
diameters of impeller. shape of impeller, number of vanes on impeller, area of flow
between the vanes, shaft diameter.
For any pump installation, a distinction is usually made between the required
NPSH and the available NPSH. The required NPSH varies with speed of purnp and its
capacity and pump design. Available NPSH depends upon the available equipments
and the site conditions. For smooth working of pump the available NPSH should be
more or equal to required NPSH.
7.9 Performance Characteristics of Gentrifugal Pumps

The characteristics of a centrifugal pump are similar to that of reaction turbine.
Characteristic curves of centrifugal pump are defined as the curves which are plotted
from the results of a number of tests on the centrifugal pump. The characteristic
curves are useful in predicting the behaviour and the performance of the pump when
operating under different conditions of head, discharge and power.
Following are the characteristic curves for pumps:
(i) Main characteristics.
(ii) Operating or constant speed characteristics.
7.9.1 Main Characteristics
@
The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump are obtained by varying
manometric head, power and discharge with respect to the speed. For obtaining
curve of speed against the head, discharge is kept constant and for the speed against
power, both head and the discharge is kept constant. The main characteristic curves
are useful in indicating the performance of the pump at different speeds.
lRefer Fig. 7.101
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.15 Centrilugal Pumps
P(Hm&Qconst.)
+P H.r
1",
,o (Q const.)
(Hm const.)
------+ N
Fig. 7,10: Main Characteristic Curves for a Centrifugal Pump
7.9.2 Operating or Gonstant Speed Characteristics

If speed is kept constant. the variation of monometric head, power and efficiency
@
with respect to discharge gives the operating characteristics of the pump. In
centrifugal pump, operating characteristics are more important, The values of the
head and the discharge corresponding to the maximum efficiency are known as the
normal or designed head and normal or designed discharge of a pump as shown in
Fig. 7.7t.
rlo Hnormar
rlo
H
P P
H
P
Discharge Q -------t
Fi . 7,11: O ratin Characteristics of a Centr al Pum
7.lO Trouble Shooting and Remedies in Centrifugal Pumps

1
Some of the troubles, commonly experienced during the operation of the

centrifugal pumps and the remedial measures to be taken are:
1. Pump fails to start pumping water: (No water is delivered)
(a) Pump not Properly Primed: Reprime the pump correctly and check for
leakage in foot valve and suction pipe.
(b) Speed of Prime Mover too Low: In case of electric motor, voltage may be
low. In case of an engine driven pump, the fuel supply and governor settings
are to be checked.
(c) Discharge Head too Hirh: Principle reasons are - a partially closed sluice
valve on delivery side or blocking of the suction or delivery pipe with solids
entrained in water.
Remedy: Reduce the delivery head and check for opening of valves.
(d) Suction Lift too High: This may be due to the clogging of the pump inlet
with mud, gravel or some other obstruction. Other reason could be broken
disc or a clogged strainer of foot valve. Total suction lift should be within
6.5 m.
Remedy: Reduce the suction lift.
(e) Vapour Lock in Suction Line: Vapour pockets may develop in the pump
suction line due to excessive suction head and inadequate submergence of
the foot valve.
Remedy: Reduce suction lift and remove the vapours.
2 Pump is not working at the required capacity: (Not enough water is
delivered)
(a) Air leakage into the pump may take place through suction line.
Remedy: Seal the leakage.
(b) Speed of pump may be too low.
Remedy: Check the speed with tachometer and increase the speed.
(c) Impeller may be partly clogged.
Remedy: Clean the pump casing, strainer, suction line.
(d) Rotation of impeller may be in wrong direction.
Remedy: Check the direction of rotation of impeller and change it.
3 Pump starts and stops pumping waters
(a) Improper priming or leakage in suction line.
Remedy: Check for leakage. Seal the leakage. Prime the pump properly.
(b) Air pockets in suction line,
Remedy: Remove air pockets by priming.
(c) Suction lift may be too high.
Remedy: Reduce the suction lift.
4 Pump has very low efficiency. It takes too much power.
(a) Speed may be high.
Remedy: Reduce the speed.
(b) Head may be too low and pump discharge is more.
Remedy: Reduce the discharge or change the pump.
(c) Impeller may be rotating in wrong direction.
Remedy: Correct the direction of rotation of impeller.
(d) Shaft may be bent, impeller may be rubbing on casing, stuffing box may be
too tig ht.
Remedy: Repair the affected parts.
(e) Liquid handled may have very high viscosity.
Remedy: Check specific gravity and viscosity of liquid.
5. Excessive vibrations:
Excessive vibrations result due to misalignment of shaft, worn or loose bearing,
unbalanced rotor, bent shaft, etc.
Remedy: Check these parts and repair these parts.
7,1{ Multistage Centrifugal Pqmps

A centrifugal pump having only one, impeller on shaft, it is called as single stage
centrifugal pump.
If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called as a
multistage centrifugal pump. The impellers may be mounted on same shaft or on
different shafts. Multistage pump has two functions :
1. To discharge larger quantity of liquid.
2. To produce a high head.
To produce higher discharge of liquid, the impellers are connected in parallel.
To produce higher heads, the impellers are connected in series.
7.{ {.1 Multistage Gentrifugal Pumps in Parallel

To obtain higher discharge, the pumps are connected in parallel as shown in
Fiq. 7.t2. Every pump receives the water from the reservoir and discharges the flow
of water to a common pipe to which delivery pipes of each pump is connected.
Total discharge, Q =Qr+Qz
-------_ er Q,* o
1 1
Q1 Q2
1 Reservoir
Fi , 7,L21 Pum s in Parallel

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.18 Centrirugal Pumps
7.11.2 Multis e Gent a! Pumps in Series

To develop high heads, a number of impellers are connected in series mounted on
one shaft as shown in Fig. 7.13.
To delivery pipe
)
From
suction
Shaft
lmpeller,I lmpeller 2
\
.\-
Fi . 7.13: Im lers in series
The water enters through suction pipe of impeller 1 and is discharged at outlet
with increased pressure. This water at exit of impeller 1 is allowed to enter the inlet
of impeller 2 through a pipe. The higher pressure of water is obtained at the outlet of
impeller 2.
... Total Head, H = Hr + Hz
The various advantages of centrifugal pumps are:

1. As impeller is the single rotating part, losses due to friction are reduced to a
minimum.
2. It is having no valves, pistons so no reciprocating parts, therefore
maintenance is much less.
3. Discharge is consta nt.
4, No shocks, vibrations, so heavy foundation is not required.
5. It is simple to design.
6. Because of high speed, the discharge capacity is high.
Ftuid Mechanics & Machinery 7.19 Centrifugal Pumps
3 Applications of Centrifugal Punnps IEi,.:;.il

1. Drinking water and drainage systems.
2. Agricultural and irrigation purposes.
3. Thermal power plants.
4. Process industries-pa per, pulp, chemicals, pharmaceuticals etc. to convey
raw materials and finished products from one place to other.
5. Hyd raulic control systems.
6. Textile - bleaching of fabrics and silk.
7. Food - sugar refining bleaching etc.
8. Electronics - acid waste transfer.
7.14 Jet Pump

Fi?.7.74 shows the jet pump. It consists of a pipe having convergent end at the
bottom. The other end of the pipe is connected to the delivery pipe. The steam of
water under high pressure is introduced through a nozzle wherein pressure energy of
steam is converted into kinetic energy. Due to this pressure in convergent portion is
reduced considerably, causing the water from reservoir to be sucked in the pipe. This
sucked water comes in contact with jet and passes into the delivery pipe.
<- Steam of water
Delivery end
Water from reservoir
Fis, 7.L4t Jet Pump

The kinetic head of steam of water is converted into pressure head which fcrces
the water into delivery pipe.
It is used for feeding water to boilers.
?.15 Submercible Puffp IMIIIII

A submercible pump is having hermetically sealed motor closely coupled to the
pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the water to be pumped.
The operating principle is same as that of multistage centrifugal pump. The
impellers supported by motor shaft, rotate inside the vane diffuser which transfer the
liquid leaving each impeller towards the suction opening of the next impeller. Once
the liquid has passed through the series of impellers, it is expelled via the delivery
opening. Each impeller and its respective vane diffuser constitutes a pumping stage
which, according to operatlng principle of the centrifugal machines, generates a
pressure increase in the fluids which is added to each subsequent pressure increase
induced by the other stages in series. IRefer Fi9. 7.15]
HEaute
@
o o Control
Control valve
panel
Delivery pipe
Cable
with guard
Stage casing
I
Strainer
Bore hole
I Wet type
I motor
F ,7.15: Submercible Pum

Advantages: The advantage of these pumps is that it can provide a significant
lifting force as it does not rely on external air pressure to lift the fluid.
There are no suction losses. It has low initial cost and low operating cost. It
provides safety and noiseless and quiet in operation. It provides more reliability and
ensures longer life. It provides higher flow rates and higher heads.
The flow rates vary f!-om 15 GPM to 2500 GPM and the heads ranging from 15 ft
to 300 ft.
Applications; Single-stage pumps are used for drainage, sewage pumping,
general industrial pumping and slurry pumping. It is suitable for water supply from
wells or reservoirs, for domestic use, for civil and industrial applications. for garden
use and irrigation, in washing, in pressure boosting systems and fire fighting
purposes.
Fluid Mechanica & Machinery 7.21 Centfitugal Pump!
Solved Examples
Ex. 7.1: A centifugal pump has an impeller of outer diameter 3O cm. The vane
tips are radial at the outlet, For a rotative speed of 1450 rpm, calculate the net head
developed. Assume nmano = 0.82.
So!.3 From outlet radial velocity triangle,

vwl = ul
and v1 cos F - ut = Vwr
oH _ oll
'lmano-urvrnr-ui
... 0.82 = 9.q1r!
(22.78\2
... H = 43.36m
F . 7.16: Veloci Trian le at Outiet

Ex,7.21 A centrifugal pump delivers water against a net head of 1O.O m at a
design speed of 1000 rpm, The vanes are curyed backward and made an angle of 3@
with the tangent at the outer periphery, The impeller diameter is iO cm and has a
width of 5 cm at the outlet. Determine the discharge of the pump if the manometric
efficiency is 95o/o.
Sol.: Given: H =10 m, N = 1000 rpm, 0 = 30o, D, = 0.3 m, br = 0.05 m,
nm = 95.
ul = Tangential velocity of the impeller at the outlet
_ rDrN _ rx0.321000 = t>. / mls
-60- 60
oH
'lmano ,rr*, (Assuming outflow as radial)
0." = *%#t
0.95 x i5.708 r r*, 9.81 x 100
'" vwt = 6'574 mls
Fluid Mechanlcs & Machinery 7.22 Centritugal PumPs
From the outlet velocity triangle,

uf,
tan q =
tan 3oo = f,j/:;:"*

Yft=5'274mls
Discharge, Q = nD1b1v6,
= rx0.3x0.05x5.274
-- 0.249 m3/s
= 249 litl sec
u,
-,
I '* -, tq-"L
F 7.L7
Ex.7.3. A centrifugal pumi is to discharge 110 lit/sec at a speed of 1440 r.p'm',

against a head of 25 m. The impeller diameter is 250 mm and its width is 50 mm at
outlet. Find the vane angle at outlet assuming a manometric efficiency of 80o/o'
@
sol.: Given: Q = 0.110 m3/s, N = 1440 r.p.m., H = 25 m, D1 = lJQ66 =
0.25 m, b1 = 50 mm = 0.05 m,0 = ?
We know,
Q= nD1b1v1,
.. 0.11 = tx0.25x0'05vf,
'" vfr = 2'8 m/s
:rD1N
Again ur = -66-
rx0.25x1440
60
= 18.84 m/s
t1
(=90
Fi . 7.t8
_oH 9.81 x 25
But l.nano ,*rrt x 18.85 = 0.8
1
vwt = 16'27 m/s

From outlet velocitY triangle,
ut
tan o = ---- -= -?!-
=Gaa4
= _ 1627) = r.oa
r.,.
vsq)@-
o = 47,260
Ex. 7.4. Find the power required to drive a centrifugal pump which delivers
0.04 m3 of water per second to a height of 20 m through a 15 cm diameter pipe of
1OO m length. The overall efficiency of pump is 70o/o and coefficient of friction is
f = 0.015. @
Sol.: Given: Q = O.O4 m3ls, H = 20 m, d = 0'15 m, I = 100 m, 1o = 0'7,
f = 0.015
We know that, q ={or"u
where, d= Diameter of pipe
v = Velocity of water in pipe
o.o4 = (0.1s)2 x v
X,
v = 2.26
Now, hr = Head loss during flow
4f tvz 4 x 0.015 x 100 x 2.26
= 2sd = 2 x 9.81 x 0.15
hf = 1041 m
"
.. Total head will be H1 = 20 + !0,4t = 30.41 m
WQH
Now, lo = SP
sP= (w = e.81 x 103)

#
9.81 x 103 x 0.04 x 30.41
SP = = L7046.97 watts = 17.05 kW
o.7
Ex. 7.5: Find the power required to drive the centrifugat pump which detivers
0.05 m3 of water per second to a height of 22 m through a 16 cm diameter pipe of
120 m length. The overall efficiency of the pump is 75o/o. (Take coefficient of friction,
f = 0.01s)
Sol.: Given: Q = 0.05 m3ls, h = 22 m, d = 0.16 m, t -- tZO m, Io = 0.75,
f = 0.015
Loss of head due to friction,
h. = gE
3ds -
o'015-x 1?o x (9'05)2
3 x (0.15)s
''' hr = 14'3 m
Total head through which pump has to lift water
H = h+hL=22+L4.3
.'. H = 36.3 m
We knowthat, l" = #
... p= wOH_9.81 x 101x-O05 x 36.3
no = 0.75 = 23740 watts
.. Power required to drive pump is
P = 23.74 kW
Ex,7.6i A centrifugal pump has an impeller with an outer diameter of 70 cm and
inner diameter of 35 cm. The angles of vane at inlet and outtet are 4Oo and
250 respectively. The width at the inlet is 7 cm and at ou et is 3 cm, The pump runs
at 1440 r,p,m. Assuming radial entry at inlet of the pump and vanes bent backwards,
calculate the discharge, power required to drive the punp. lffiEmEEEIl
Sol.: Given: d = 0.35 m, b = 0.07 m, dl = 0.70 m, bl = 0.03 m,
N = 1440 rpm, 0
= 40o, 0 = 25o
Velocity of vane tip of the impeller at inlet is
ndN zr x 0.35 x 1440
u = 60 = 60
u = 26.3 m/s
Similarly, velocity of vane tip of the impeller at outlet is

rdlN
ut=-66-= rxO,760x L44O
.. ut = 52.7 m/s
From the inlet velocity triangle,
vf = u tan 0 = 26.39 tan 40o = 22.74 mls
Discharge through pump is
Q = kttdbvr
Assuming k = 1, Q = 1xrx0.35 xO.O7 x22.L4
.. a = 1700 m3lsec = 17oO lit./sec.
Also, Q = knd 1b1vy,
... 1.1 = lxnxO,Tx 0.03 x vf,
1'7
.. vt, = ;, o;: a$ = 2s.77 m/s
,f,
tan Q =
tan 2so = #\
52.78 - vw
1
=m=55.26
= 7.48 mls
..
H = -'*rU,
2.48 x 52.78
q- = 9€1: = 13.34 m
P = wQH = 9.81 x 103 x 1.7 x 13.34 = 222.47 kW
This is the power required to drive the pump.
Ex. 7,7? A centrifugal pump has an impeller of 500 mm external diameter and
250 mm internal dianteter and runs at 1000 r.p.m. The vanes are set back at an
angle of 300 to the outer rim. If the radial velocity of water through the impelter is
maintained constant at 2 m/s, find (a) the angles of vanes at inlet, (b) the velocity
and direction of vrater at ou et, (c) the work done when the velocity at inlet
circumference of the wheel is half the velocity of the outer circumference of the
wheet. [54l
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.26 Centrifuqal Pumps
Sol.: Given: dr = 500 mm = 0.5 m, d = 0.25 m.

N = 1000 r.p.m., 0 = 30o, vf = vf t= 2 mls
To find u, v1, 0 and work done.
IdrN
ur=Z0= rx0'5x1000
60
.. ut = 26'2 n/s
... 1
u =ru1
26.2
''. u ==;= 13'1 m/s
From Fi9.7.19,
vf)
tane=u=dJ=o.ts:
.'. e = 8.690
vf_
tan e = Ut--]- 16.l - Yw, =0.5774
- Vwt = ==+-.
t1
F 7 .L9
Ywr = 22'73 m/sec
22
(22.7 3)2 + (2)t = 22,81 nnls

2
Vf,
tan0=t;=zz}t
= 0'08766
F=5o
Work done = vr,1,,, ut = 27.73 x26.2 = 595.52 N.m
Ex, 7,8: A centrifugal pump is running at 5OO r.p.m. and discharging at I m3/min
against a head of 10 m. It has an impeller of 500 mm diameter and inner diameter
as 250 mm. Vanes are set at outlet at an angle of 45o. The constant velocitY of flow
is 2 m/s. Determine (i) the manometric efficiency, (ii) vane angle at inlet.
Sot,: Given: N = 500 rpm, Q = 8 m3lmin = 0.133 m3/sec, H = 10 m,
dr = 0.5 m, d = 0.25 m. O = 45o, vft= 2m/s,l-ano= ?. 0
=?
u1
F . 7,20
Neglecting other hydraulic losses in suction and delivery pipe assuming 10 m as

manometric head, then
Hm = 10m'
Hm
'rmano Vw, x ur
and u1 can be obtained from outlet velocity triangle diagram'

ldlN nx0.5x500
u1 =-60 = 60
= 13 m/sec
,f,
Now, tan 0 = ur
- Vwr
tan 4so =
"=,2
7 - 13-v* 1
= 11 m/s
Fluld Mcchanics & M.chlnery 7.2E Centrlfugal Pumps
9Hm _ 10x9.81 0.695

r.ano - 11x 13 =
Vry, X u1 = 69.5010
v1 = Angle at inlet i.e.0
tan o =f Herevy = 2 mls and, = + = 6.5 m/s as d = 0.25
tane = 6t=0.307
0=l7o
Ex. 7.9: A centrifugal pump delivers water through a net head of 14.5 m at rated
speed of 1000 rpm. The vanes are curved back at an angle of 30o with periphery.
Diameter of impeller is 300 mm with outlet width 5A mm. Determine discharge of
pump with manometric efficiency 95a/o.
Sol.: Given: Hm = 14.5 m, N = 1000 rpm, O = 30o, Outlet diameter Dr = 0.3 m,
br = 0.05 m, 1n,'"no = 0.95
u1
1 r1
Li
, 7,2L
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet,
aDrN_nx0.3x1000
Ur = 60- 60
L5.7 mls
9Hm
We know that, manO ,*,
Tl
U,
o.ss=ffis
vwr = 9'54 m/s
Fluid Mechahics & Machirrery 7.29 Centritugal Purnps

,f,
tan 0 =
vf ,f,
tan 30c = 15.7 - 9S4 = 6:f6
vf, = 6'16 tan 30o = 3.555 m/s
Discharge, Q = tD1b1v6,
= r x 0.3 x 0.05 x 3.555 = O.1575 m3ls

Ex, 7.1O: A centrifugal pump having outer diameter equal to two times the inner
diameter and running at 1000 rpm works against a total head of 40 m. The velocity
of flow through the impeller is constant and equal to 2.5 m/s. The vanes are 4@ at
outlet and set backwards. If the outer diameter of impeller is 500 mm and width at
outlet is 50 mm, determine (i) vane angle at inlet, (ii) work done by impeller on
water per second and manometric efficiency. @
lJ1
tF-_li---N
Fi , 7.22
Sol,: Given: N = 1000 rpm. Hm = 40 m, vf = vf1 = 2.5 m/s, q = 4go
D.
Dr=0.5m,D= Z =O.2m, br=0,05m
Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet and outlet are
u= rDN
60 =
nx0.25x 1000
60 = 13.09 m/s
ul =56-= nx0.50r
nDlN 1000
60 = 26.18 m/s
Discharge, Q = rD1b1v6, = rx 0.5 x 2.5
Q = 0.1963 rr,/s
From inlet velocity triangle, vane angle at inlet (0) is given by

vf ,q
tan 0
u- 13.09 - 0. 191
0 = 1O.81o
Work done by impeller on water per second
= Weight of water x Work done per newton per second

Iv*, ur)
= pxexarl--]
1000 x 9.81 x 0.1963
= -ffix(v*rx26.18)
But v,,1 can be calculated from outlet velocity triangle as follows.
t"^ 0 = ,rh -
2.5
26.18 - vy,,
... 26.18-u*, =**=#fo =2.e7e

.'. vwr = 26'18 - 2.979 = 23.2 mls
.. Work done by impeller on water per second is
* = a*n Hi* x23.2x26.18
... W = 119,23 kN.m/s

Manometric efficiency is given by
9Hm 9.81 x 40
r.ano u1- 23,2 x 26.18
1
n,mano = 0.646
= 64.60/o
Ex,7,LL't The internal and external diameters of impeller of centrifugal pump are
200 mm and 400 mm respectively. The pump is running at 1200 r'p'm' The vane
angles at inlet and outlet are 20" and 30" respectively. The water enters the impeller
radiatty and vetocity of flow is constant. Determine the work done by the impeller
per
unit weight of water. s-08, 6 Marks; S-13, I Marks
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.31 Centrifugal PumPs
5ol,: Given data: See Fi} 7.23.
7.23
Vr= Vfr, d = O.2m,dr = 0.4 m, N = 1200 r'p'm, 0 = 20",0= 30''
lt x 0.2 x 1200
u= rdN
60 = 60 = 1.2568 m/s
nd, N rx0.4x1200
ur = 60 60 = 2.5136 m/s
tane=f, .. tan 20 = llt66

... vr = Vfr = 0.457 mls since vr is constant

Vf,
tan 0 =
0.457
tan 30 -- 2.5136 - v* 1
1
= 1.7276 mls
work done by impeller per unit welght of water =

+]!
L.7216 x 2.5136
= 9s1
= 0.441 Nm/s/N
Fluid Mechanics & M.chlnery Cenlritugal Pumps
8x.7.7.21 A centrifugal pump delivers 30 liters of water per second to a height of

18 meters through a pipe 90 m long and 100 mm diameter, if overall efficiency of
pump is 75oh. Find the power required to drive the pump. Take f = 0.012.
Q = 30 lit/sec = 0.0i m?/sec, ha = 18 m, ta = 90 m, do = 100 mm = 0.1 m

0o = 4.75, f = 0.012 W-97, 6 M6*st 912,.8 Maiks I
Sol.: Discharge of a pump O ={Oj V ... v = Velocity of water
dd = diameter of deliver pipe

... o.o3=;x(0.10)2xV
.'. V = 3.819 m/sec
Loss of head due to friction in delivery pipe.
4fLV2 4x0.0i2x90x (3.819)'?
' 'td - 2gdd - 2 x 9.81 x 0.10
"' =hrd 32' 11 m

... Total head H = h6 * hl,6 = 18 + 32.11 = 50.11 m
Now overall efficiency, n" =

q#
. . Power required to drive the pump p = I Tlo
... p __
9810 x Q.03 x 50.11
0.75
P = 19663.164 Watts
P = 19.66 kW
Ex. 7.13f The outer diameter of an impeller of a centrifugal pump is 400 mm and
outlet width is 50 mm. The pump is running at BO0 rpm and is working aga;nst a
total head of 15 m. The vane angle at ou et is 4Oo and manometric efficiency ig
75o/o. Determine : (i) velocity of flow at outlet, (ii) velocity of water leaving the
vane, (iii) angle made by absolute at outlet with the direction of motion at ou et,
(iv)discharse. TUEEkEEEEI
Sol.: Dr =400mm = 0.4 m, br = 50 mm = 0.05 m, N = 800 rpm, Hm= 15m,
vane angle at outlet 0 = 40o, 1n1"no = 0.75
Fluid Mecha6ics & Machlnery 7.33 Certrilugal Pumps
u1
7.24
Fig, 7.24
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet tip
,. _ ,rD1N __ 2rx0.4"800
":_ 60 60
.'. ur = 15.75 m/sec

Also, Manometric efficiency,
oH-
-rlmano -., V,rr r Lt
-._ 9.81 x15

.,'- vnrxL6.75
'" v"1 = 11'71 m/sec
From outlet velocity triangle, shown in Fig. 7.24
trn o' = I
Ur -V*r
tan 4oo = . vr, = 4.23 m/sec
C6.zs+rr}rl .
(i) Velocity of flow at outlet v,1 = 4.23 m/sec

(ii) Velocity of water leaving the vane (vr) : From outlet velocity triangle.
22
(4.23) + (11.71)
.'. vl = 12.45 m/sec
(iii) Angle made by absolute velocity at outlet (B)
vr! 4 )?
.'. tanB=il=Tffi=036
... B=,ui-',o.ru, .'. B=1e.8oo
(iv) Discharge of pump (Q) :
. a = zrDrbr vrr = (n x 0.4 x 0.05 x 4.23)
Q = 0.2558 m3/sec.
Ex,7.L4t A centrifugat pump is to discharge water at the rate of 110 litres/sec at
the speed of 1450 rpm against a head of 23 meters' The impeller diameter is 250
mm and its width 50 mm, if manometric efficiency is 75o/o. Determine the vane angle
at outer periphery ? mEEEEtrEIl
Sol,: Q= 0.110 m3/s, N = 1450 rpm, H = 23 m, Dr = 250 mm = 0.25 m,
br=50mm=0'05m,0=?
u1
a=90o
F , 7.2s
We know, Discharge, Q = nD1b1V6,
0.11 = t x 0.25 x 0.05 Vt,

''' vrt = 2'8 m/s
nDrN
Again 60
r x 0.25 x 1450
:60
= 18.9880 m/s
qH
But V*, x 18.9880 = 0.8
'" V*r = 16 14 m/s

2.8
tan 0 - (u, - V*,) - ( 18.9880 - 16.14)
2.8
- 2.848
tan 0 = 0.9831
0 = 44.510
Ex, 7.15: A centrifugal pump works against 10 m at 1000 rpm, The vanes are
curved back at an angle of 30o to the tngent at outer periphery' The impeller
diameter is i0 cm and has width 5 cm at outlet. Determine the discharge if
manometric efficiency is 95o/o. Also determine power required to operate the pump if
overall efficiency is 650/o. f$mm
Sol.: H. = 10 m, N = 1000 rpm, 0 = 30o = Angle of vane at outlet
Dr = 0.30 m, br = 0.05 m, I.""" = 0.95, q" = 0.65
lJ1
t1
Fi . 7.26
Tangential velocity of vane at outlet tip (uL)

nDrN rx0.3x 1000
ur = t6- = -=T =: = 15.7 m/sec
Also manometric efficiency,
__oH-
rlmano - r/
V*r lJr
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.36 Centlllugal Pumps
... 3.@
'-' -= Y*r x 15.7
o.ss
V"r = 6'557 m/sec

"'
tan 0 = (u,
- V",)
tan 30o = (ts.7
- 6.s77)
'" Vrr = 5'267 m/sec
Now, discharge of pump, Q = rD1b1V1,
.'. a = r x 0.30 x 0.05 x 5.257

.'. a = 0.248 m3/sec
Power required to drive the pump is
QH- _ 9810x0.248x
o_w l'lo 10
- 0.65
P= 37428.92 Watts
P= 37.4289 kW
lmporlani Point
> A device useC to converl mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by means ol
centrifugal force is called as centrifugal pump.
> The centrifugal pump acts as a reverse of an inward radialllow reaction turbine.
> The vertical distance from cenlre line of a centrifugal pump from the water surface in the
reservoir or sump is called as suction head (h").
> The distance between centreline of pump to the csnlreline ol delivery pipe at exit is called
as delivery head (hd).
, The addition of static head and delivery head is called as static head (hstaft).
hsh16 = hs+ h6
> The head against which the centrifugal pump has to work is called as Manometric head
(h,.)
V:
Hm - hs+no*nn*nr*$* 29
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 7.37 Centritug6l Pumps
where, hr" = loss ol head in suction pipe

htd = loss of head in delivery pipe
V" = velocity ol liquid in suction pipe
Vo = vetocity ol liquid in delivery pipe
> Work done by impeller on wat€r per sec = p . Q (V"i . u1)
= f {v*, ,,)
Work done by impetter per sec =
$ tV*, ,,)
where, W= Weight of water=w.O
w= Specilic weight o, waler = 9810 N/m3
Work done by impeller per sec per unit weight of water = (V*r . ul)
i
> Discharge of pump Q = TrDbVr = 1ID1blVrr.
) Power required to drive the centrilugal pump.
, -wQ
rlo
H'
..... in wans
and also e=f tV-, . ur) ..... in Watts

> Efficiencies of centrifugal pump are manometric etficiency mechanical efliciency and
overall etficiency.
Manometric etficiency, r."* = q; H- oH-
Mechanical efficiency, f rv*,

Shatt power
,,1
overall efficiency. n" = #dfu;

, lf pump consist ol two or more number of impellers, then the pump is called as multi-
stage centrifugal pump.
> To produce high heads impellers are connected in series. To discharge large quantity ol
liquid impellers are connected in parallel.
> characteristic curves are used lo predict the behaviour and perrormance of the pump,
when it is working under different values of head, speed and flow rates.
> cavitation is derined as the phenomenon ol formation vapour bubbles and collapsing ol
sudden vapour bubbles which causes mechanical destruction o:. erosion of material
of
pump parts.
NPSH is delined as the net heaci in meters of liquid required to force the
liquid into the
pump through the suction pipe.
@g;;Waiq,A
1 Explain with neat sketches the working of a centr:lugal pump.
2 Derine the terms: Suction lllt, delivery head, static lift, manometric head. Draw a neat
sketch to show these.
What are the ditferent types of impellers? Where these types are specially used?
4 What are the different types ol casing used in centritugal pump?
5 What is the meaning of the term NPSH?
6 What do you understand by cavitation? How to avoid cavilation?
7 What are the characteristic curves ol centrifugal pump? What is the use ol these
curves?
8. What are multistage pumps? What are their advantages?
9. Draw neat labelldl ifetch of (i) vortex casing, (ii) volute casing. EEE,]
'10 A centrilugal pump discharges 0.15 m3/s ol water againsl a head of 12.5 m, the speed of
pump being 6000 r.p.m. The outer and inner diameters ol impeller are 500 mm and 250
mm respectively and the vanes are bent back at 35o to the tangent at exit. ll area ol llow
remains O.O7 m2 lrom inlet and outlet, calculate manometric efliciency, vane angles at
inlet.
(Ans. 61 .8%, 15.8%)
11. The ouler diameter of an impeller of a centrifugal pump is 400 mm and outlel widlh
50 mm. The pump is running at 800 rpm and is working against a total head of 15 m.
The vane angle at outlet is 40o and manometric efficiency is 75ol.. Determine velocity of
flow at outlet, angle made by absolute velocity at outlet and discharge through lhe pump.
(Ans. 4.23, 19.8o, 0.265 m3/s)

12 A four stage centrifugal pump has four identical impellers, mounted on same shaFt
rotating at 400 r.p.m. Manometric head developed by each stage is 10 m. The discharge
through the pump is 0.2 m3/s. The outlet angle (0) lor each vane is 45o. lf width and
diameter of each impeller al outlel is 5 cm and 60 cm respectively, lind manometric
etficiency.
(Ans. 74.82'k\
Hint: Manometric head for each stage is given, so make calculations by using regular
formulae lor single-stage centrifugal pump.
13 State any two taults and their remedies centrilugal pump. EEU
14 state any three troubles and their remedies commonly experienced during operation of
centrifugat pump. EEEI
'15
Draw neat labelied sketch of multi-stage centrifugal of pump U/hy piiming is
a
necessary? Give reason. IEEEI]
16 Detine'suction Lift' and 'suction Head'for a centrilugal pun]p. Draw the block diagram
showingthepositionotcentrilugalpumpWithrespecttosuchonliftandsuctionhead.ln
which tositioning priming is not necessary MEgl
17 Name dilferent types ol casing need lor centrifugal pump. Explain any one ot them wlth
neat and labelled sketch. MEgl
Summer 2OO8
1. State hydraulic function of casing which is used for centrifugal pump. Imn
Ans. Refer to Article 7.3 (ii).
2. What is NPSH for centrilugal pump ? How it is calculated ? What is its significance in the
installation of centrilugal pump ? lron
3. What is Priming ? Why it is necessary for centrifugal pumps ? EEil
4. The internal and external diameter ol impeller ol a centrilugal pump are 200 mm and 400
mm respectively. The pump is running at 1200 rpm. The vane angles at inlet and outlet
are 20" and 30' respectively. The water enters the impeller radially and velocity ol llow is
constanl. Determine the work done by the impeller per unit weight oI water. EEil
Ans. Reler Example 7.1 1.
Winter 2OOB
1. Explain the different types ol casings lor a centrilugal pump. m

Ans. Reler to Article 7.3 (ii).
2. A centritugal pump delivers 30 liters of water per second to a height of '18 meters through
a pipe 90 m long and 100 mm diameter if overall efficiency of pump is 75%. Find the
power required to drive the pump. Take f = 0.012. ft[!]
Ans. Refer Example 7.12
Summer 2OO9
1. Draw a neat labelled sketch of f![ll
(i) Vortex casing.
Ans. Refer lo Article 7.3 (ii), (b).
(ii) Volute casing.
Ans. Refer to Article 7.3 (ii), (a).
2. State the mean oI NPSH. A centrifugal pump has an impeller with ouler diameter of
70 cm and inner diameter ol 35 cm. Angles of vane at inlet and outlet are 40'and 25'
respectively. The width at the inlet is 7 cm anci outlet 3 cm. Pump runs at 1440. Assume
radial entry at inlet ol the pump and vanes bent backwards, calculate discharge, power
required to drive the pump. ftflE
Ans. Refer Example 7.6 and lor NPSH - Refer to Arlicle 7.8.
3. State any three troubles and their remedies commonly experienced during operation of
centrifugal pump. m[
Ans, Refer to Article 7.'l.
Winter 2009
1 Deline 'Suction Lift' and 'Suction Head' for a centrifugal pump. Draw the block diagram
showing the posltion of centrifugal purnp with respect to suction litt and suction head. ln
which position priming is not necessary ? lruI
Ans. Refer to Article 7.7, Fig.7.9.
Fluid Mechanics & Machine.y 7.40 Centrifugal Pumps
a ol
2.
Ans.
Draw neat iabelled sketch of multi-stage centrifugal
necessary? Give reason
Refer to Artacle 7.1 1.
pump. Why primi
ffi
3.Name different types of casing used for centrifugal pump. Explain any one ol them with
neat and labelled sketch. ro]
4. The outer diameter of an impeller ol a centrifugal pump is 400 mm and outlel width 50
mm. The pump is running at 800 rpm and is working against a total head of 15 m. The
vanes angle at outlet is 40'and manometric efficiency is 75%. Determine , E[l]
(i) Velocity oI llow at outlet (ii) Velocity of water leaving the vane (iii) Angle made by the
absolute at outlet with the direction of motion at outlet and (iv) Discharge.
Ans. Refer Example 7.1 3.
Summer 201O
1. List different types of casing used in centrifugal pump with their applications. EEE
Ans. Bef er to Article 7.3 (ii).
2. State any two faults in centrifugal pump and their remedies. m]
3. What is priming ? What are its methods ? IEEI1
4. A centrifugal pump has an impeller of 500 mm external diameter and 250 mm internal
diameler and runs at 1000 rpm. The vanes are et back at an angle of 30"1o outer rim. ll
radial velocity of water through impeller is maintained constant at 2 m/s, lind : IEEI]
(i) anlges at inlet,
(ii) velocity of water outlet.
(iii) work done when velocity at inlet circumlerence oI the wheel is half the velocity ol
outer circumterence oI the wheel.
Ans. Reler Example 7.7.
Winter 20lO
State any four reasons for the fault 'no liquid delivered' in fault rinding of centrifugal pump.

ml
2.Draw main characteristic curves and operating characteristic curves for a centrifugal
pump. State the reason lor the following points from the curve , E[l]
(i)Hm V/s N is parabolic in nature.
(ii) O V/s N is straight line curve.
(iii) O V/s H curve is drooping in nature.
(iv) Define shut-off head.
Ans. Befer to Article 7.9.
3. Define the following terms with respect to centrifugal pump: [E[0
(i) Total head, (ii) Manometric head, (iii) Manometric elf iciency. (iv) Overall etficiency.
Ans. Reler to Arlicle 7.7.
4. A centrifugal pump is discharge water at the rate ot 110 litres/sec. at the speed ol 1450
rpm, against head ot 23 metres. The impeller diameter is250 mm and its width 50 mm. ll
manometric efficiency is 75%, determine the vane angle at outer periphery. lG[l]
Ans. Reler Example 7.14.
Summer 2O1{
1. What is Priming
? m
2. Explain construction and working ol submersible pump. tiln
3. Write any eight applications oI centrifugal pump. t@I
4. State and explain the possible causes if centrifugal pump lail to start pumping rml
Ans. Reter to Article 7.10.
Winter 2O11
1. What is Priming ? Why it is required in case of a Centrifugal Pump ? f([il
2. List out the various types ol casing used in centrifugal pump and draw neat sketch ol
volute casing. fruil
3. Centrifugal pump is not delivering water, give atleast four reasons and remedies. lEEil
Ans. Rerer to Article 7.1 .
4. A centrifugal pump works against 10 m at 1000 rpm. The vanes are curved back at an
angle ol 30'to the tangent at the outer periphery. The impeller diameter is 30 cm and has
width 5 cm at outlet. Determine the discharge if manometric efliciency is 95%, alo
determine power required to operate the pump if the overall efficiency is 65%. GEn
Ans Reler to Article 7.15.
Summer 2012
'1. Why priming is necessary for centrif ugal pump ? m]
2.Why is NPSH related to centrirugal pump ? Iru]]
3. Explain conslruction and working of submersible pump with sketch. EIU
4. A centrilugal pump delivers 30 litres of water per second to a height of 18 m through a
pipe 90 m long and of 100 mm diameter. lf overall efliciency of the pump is 75%, find the
power required to dri./e the pump. Take f = 0.012. If,fil]
Ans Refer Example 7.12.
Winter 2O12
1. Def ine cavitation in centrifugal pump. IEEI1
2. What is meant by mullistage pump ? Explain multistage pump with impeller in series.ffi
Ans. Refer to Article 7.'t 1 .
3. State and explain the possible causes if centrilugal pump fails to start pumping. IIEil
4. Draw and explain the main characteristics curves of centrifugal pump in following cases.
(i) Discharge Vs H-.
(ii) Discharge Vs Overall efficiency. run
Summer 2O{ 3
1. Define suction and delivery head. EI]
2. Derine static and manometric head. rEn
3. What is Priming ? tm
4. Explain with a neat sketch, the principle and working ol a centrilugal pump rffiil
Ans. Reler to Article 7.2 and 7.3.
5. Explain with neat sketches the types of casings and impellers of a centrifugal pump. [EEI]
Ans. Ref er to Article 7.3 (ii)
6. The internal and external diameter of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 200 mm and
400 mm respectively. The pump is running at 1200 rpm. The vane angles ol the impeller
at inlet and outlet are 20'and 30' respectively. The water enters the impeller radially and
velocity of flow is constant. Determine the work done by the impeller per unit weight ol
water. IEEII
Ans. Refer Exa 7 .11
Winter 20{ 3
1. What is priming in centrif ugal pump? Why is it necessary? l'Eil
2. A centrifugal pump having outer diameter equal to two times the inner diameter and
running at 1000 rpm works against a total head of 40 m. The velocity of tlow through the
impeller is constant and equal to 2.5 m/sec. The vanes are sel back at an angle at 40o at
outlet. lf the outer of the impeller is 500 mm and width at outlet is 50 mm determined:
(i) Vane angle at inlet
(ii) Work done by impeller on water per second
(iii) Manometric etticiency. lEEn
Ans. Refer to Solve E le 7.'1 0
Sumrner 2O14
1.
Ans.
What is meant by priming of centrilugal pump?
Reler to Article 7.4.
m
2. List any lour types of casings used in centrifugal pump.
Refer ro Article 7.3 (ii).
Ans.
3. Define following terms related to centrif ugal pump:
(i) manometric head, (ii) manometric eff iciency, (iii) overall etf iciency, (iv) NPSH
m
Ans. Refer Page 7.12 and 7.13 for (i), (ii), (iii) and Section 7.8 for (iv) respectively.
4. Write any eight applications ol centrilugal pump. E[[1
ITT
-a-,
a,hwfu I
Reciprocating Pumps
8.1 lnlroduction
8.2 Conslructicn, Principle of Working of o Single-Acting Reciprocoting Pump
8.3 Conslruction ond Working Principle of o Double-Acting Reciprocoting Pump
8.4 Concepl of Slip, Negolive Slip
8.5 Work Done by o Reciprocoting Pump
8.5.'l Single-Acting Reciprocoting Pump
8.5.2 Double-Acting Reciprocoiing Pump
8.6 lndicotor Diogrom for Reciprocoling Pump
8.6.1 Effecr of Accelerotion Heod on Pressure Voriotion
8.6.2 Elled of Friction in Pipes
8.7 Covilotion ond Seporolion in Reciprocoling Pump
8.8 Use of Air Vessel
8.9 Comporison between Cenlri{ugoi Pump ond Reciprocofing Pump
8.1 0 Applicolions of Reciprocoiing Pumps
. Solved Exomples
. lmporlonl Points
o Proctice Questions
o MSBTE Questions ond Answers
About this Cha ter
This chopter introduces to undei'stonC lhe concepl oi working principle, conslruction o{ o
single octing reciprocoting pu,mp. To underslond working principle ond construclion of
double octing reciprocoting pump. To leorn concepl o{ slip, negotive slip, concept of work
done by single ond double octing reciprocoiing pumps. To underslond lhe effect of
occelerolion heod ond friclionol heod on on indicotor diogrom. To understond lhe concept o{
seporolion ond covitotion in recipr-ocoling pump ond concepl o{ use of oir vessel ond
opplicotions o{ reciprocoting pumps.
(8-1)
Fluld Mechanics & Machinery 8.2 Reciprocating Pumps
{ lntroduction
A pump is a mechanical appliance used to increase the pressure energy of a liquid,
in order to lift it from a lower to a higher level. This is usually achieved by creating a
low pressure at the inlet of pump than atmospheric pressure at reservoir level. In a
positive displacement pump, the fluid is physically displaced by mechanical devices
such as the plunger, piston, gears, cams, screws. vanes and other such devices. We
will be studying reciprocating pumps in this chapter.
8.2 Construction, Principle of Worfting of a Single.acting

Reciprocating Pttmp
Main components of a Reciprocating Pump: l$@ll
Following are the main components of a reciprocating pump:
(i) Plunger: It is cylindrical in shape and reciprocates in cyiinder due to which

suction and increase in pressure takes place in between cylinder and piston.
(ii) Piston Rod: Piston rod connects connecting rod to piston and transfers
reciprocating motion to piston from connecting rod.
(iii) Connecting Rod: One end of connecting rod is connected to crank and
other end to piston rod.
(iv) Crank: Crank and connecting rod convert rotary motion of prime mover to
reciprocating motion.
(v) Suctaon Pipe: It

connects water of reservoit' to inlet of pump cylinder and
supplies water from reservoir to pump cylinder.
(vi) Suction Valve and Delivery Valve: These valves are non-return valves
and allow liquid to enter from one direction only. Valve fitted at inlet of
pump is called as suction valve. Valve fitted at outlet of pump is called as
delivery valve.
(vii) Delivery Pipe: Pipe used for carrying liquid from pump to delivery tank is
called as delivery pipe.
(viii)Cylinder: Generally, cylinder is a casting having finished bore and

arrangement for valve sheet. f[@[[![[!f,[ll]
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Beciprocating Pumps
<-- Delivery pipe

,.1 Delivery valve
Cylinder
B
Piston rod
Ic
n id"' .. Crank i od"
Hs Suction valve
Piston D
Suction pipe L=2t
t-
Reservoir:-:::
F . 8,1 a : Main Conr nts of a Reci n Pum
working of a single-Acting Reciprocating Pump: EEEI

crank of reciprocating pump is connected to prime mover like an electric motor.
crank and connecting rod convert rotary motion to reciprocating or to and fro motion.
If 'A' is the initial position of crank, from A to C (via B), plunger starts moving from
left to right. During this vacuum is created in between cylinder and piston as delivery
valve is closed and suction pipe is in reservoir. when crank reaches the position c, it
is the extreme right position of the plunger. This stroke is called as suction stroke.
During suction stroke, suction valve opens and there will be flow of liquid from the
sump in the suction pipe and hence to cylinder'
When the crank sta rts rotating from C to D to A, the plunger starts moving from
right to left or its return stroke. During this stroke. the plunger causes pressure on
the water entered in the cylinder. Hence the pressure of water increases from
vacuum to positive value. Due to high pressure of liquid in cylinder, delivery valve
opens and the water pressed by the plunger rushes in the delivery pipe and is finally
discharged out. The delivery of this pump is intermittent as shown in Fig' 8.1 (b)'
I
Discharge
90 180 270 360 Crank angle
Fi . 8.1 b
Fluid Mechanics & Mach!nery 8.4 Beciprocating Pumps
8.3 Construction a.,d Working Principle of a

Reciprocating Pump
Delivery Delivery
end Delivery
pipe-1 pipe-2
Hd
Connecti ng rod
Dt D2 Piston rod B
nk
c
od
H
s1 Piston 2 D
Suction .1-Suction
Reservoir pipe-1 pipe-2
Fi .8.2 a : Double-Actin Reci Pum

In a double-acting reciprocating pump, there are two suction and delivery pipes
and one delivery pipe on each side. In a double-acting reciptocating pump, the
suction and delivery strokes occur slmultaneously.
when the crank rotates from one inner dead centre in the crockwise direction, a
vacuum is created on the left side of the piston and the liquid is sucked through ihe
suction valve sr. At the same time, the riquid on the right side of the piston is piesseJ
and a high pressure causes the derivery varve D2 to open and the riquid flows into the
delivery pipe 2. This process continues till the crank reaches the outer dead centre.
As the crank now rotates from the outer dead centre towards the inner dead
centre, the liquid is sucked through the suction pipe 2 and delivered throu
9h the
delivery pipe 1. When tlte crank reaches the inner dead centre the piston is in
extreme dead centre, the piston is in the extreme left position.-fhus, one cycle is
completed. As the crank rotates, the cycles are repeat ed. The discharge is obtained
more or less continuous as shcwn in Fig. 8.2 (b)
I
Discharge
Mean discharge
0 90 180 270 360

Crank angle
Fi .8.2 b
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.5 Becip.ocating Pumps
4,4 Concept of Slip, N Slip

Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and
actual discharge of the pump. The actual discharge of a pump is less than the
theoretical discharge due to leakage.
SliP = qtn - Qactual
Generally, slip is expressed as percentage slip which is given as
Qttr - Qaa
Percentage sliO = -ft;- x 100
I Qact)
= [1 - Eth.,J x 1oo
( - = Qaa)
=(1 -C6)x100 (srnce. Ld ath l
If actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge, the slip of the pump will
become negative. In that case, the slip of the pump is known as negative slip. It
occurs when the delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and pump is running at
high speed.
8.5 Work done by a Pump [s--fi

8.5.1 Sin !e-Actin Reciprocati Pum
A single-acting reciprocating pump has one suction stroke and one delivery stroke
- for one rotation of crank. The liquid is delivered by the pump during delivery stroke
only.
Let r = Radius of crank, L=Lengthofstroke=2'r
If A = Area of cross-section of piston, then volume swept by the piston for one
stroke is given by,
Volume of liquid/stroke = Cross-sectional area of cylinder x Stroke length
=A.L
If N is the speed of pump in r.p.m,, then number of strokes Fer second is $.
.'. Discharge of pump per second.
Q = Discharge in one revolution x No. of revolutions per second
a = A,.L,#=+H
.. Weight of water discharged per second is given by
w.ALN
W=w.Q 60
Weight of water
Now, Work done by pump = discharged per I - [Total heig ht throughl
t secon d l L which water is lifted l
Fluid Mechanics & Uachanery 8.5 Beciprocating Pumps
Work done = W.(Hs+Hd)

Power required to drive the pump is given by,
P =W.(Hs+Hd)
p =
*l=LN
(Hs + Hd) N-m/sec or watts
60
8.5.2 Double-Acting Reciprocatin Pum
,,Ou
of piston, delivery stroke will be from back side of piston. Therefore discharge
(theoretical) for double-acting reciprocating pump will be
q =
e*1Fs
work done/seco"d = att#![ (Hs + H6) N/s
Power required to drive the pump,
, = ?IL#![ (Hs + Hd) watts
lndicator Diagram for Reciprocatiag Pump

The graph between the p!'essure head in the cylinder and the stroke length of the
piston for one complete revolution of the crank under ideal conditions is called as
Ideal or Theoretical indicator diagram.
Fig. 8.3 shows an indicator diagram of a reciprocating pump. The area of the
indicator diagram is proportional to the work done by the pump during one cycle to
raise the water.
Delivery stroke .-
f e
1
Pressure Hd
head d
a Atmospheric pressure
l-.1
b I c
10.33 m of water
H",.
Sucticn stroke
0 Absolute pressure
0 90 18oo 0
Fi , 8.3: Theoretical Indicator Dia ram for Reci rocati Pum

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.7 Beciprocating Pumps
Pressure on one side of the piston is plotted as vertical ordinate while the length
of the stroke is represented by the horizontal ordinate on the diagram.
Line 0 - 0 represents absolute pressure, while line a-d represents atmospheric
pressure or gauge zero pressure. The pressure in the cylinder during suction stroke is
negative (vacuum) and is equal to suction lift Hs. This is plotted as ordinate a-b and is
the beginning of the suction stroke. It is assumed here that the negative pressure in
the cylinder is constant throughout the suction stroke. This is shown by line b-c, the
length of which is equal to the suction stroke.
When the plunger starts its return stroke or the delivery stroke, the plunger
compresses liquid (water) in the cylinder, therefore pressure of liquid is increased
from a negative value of Hs to a positive pressure value equal to H6. This change in
pressure is assumed to take place instantaneously. This is shown by vertical ordinate
c-e. This is the beginning of delivery stroke, represented by the polnt e on the
indicator diagram.
In delivery stroke. delivery pressure Hd is constant and represented by line e-f.
Point f is end of the delivery stroke. Thus, cycle of operation is f-b-c-e-f.
8,6.1 Effect of Acceleration Head @

The piston is connected to the rotating crank by a crank shaft. It is thus obvious,
that the piston will move, to and fro, with a simple harmonic motion. Therefore, the
velocity of the piston will not be uniform at all points; it will be zero at its extreme
and it will be maximum at its centre as shown in Fig. 8.4.
Piston rod C rank

Conne cting
A
x
Rotating crank
.8.4 F
Moreover, the reciprocating motion of the piston causes an acceleration at the

beginning of each stroke and a retardation at the end of each stroke. This transmits a
corresponding acceleration and retardation to the water in the suction and delivery
pipes.
Fluid Mechanics & ilachinery 8.8 Reciprocating Pumps
I Hd
Deliverypipe
valve
connedcting
a]: I 18oo
valve
Suction pipe Rotating crank
Hs
Water level
Fis.8.5
Let, A - Area of the cylinder
a - Area of the pipe
o - Angular velocity ofthe rotating crank in radian/sec
r - Radius of rotating crank
/. and /d - Length of the suction and delivery pipes
Let'o' be the angular velocity and't'be the time taken by the crank to rotate
through the angle 0, therefore,
0 = rot
Let 'x' be the linear displacement of the piston from the beginning of the suction
strcke. (See Fig.8.4 and 8.5).
Therefore, x = r-rcose
= r- rcos(ot
where, 'r' is the length of the crank.
We know that the velocity of the piston is,
dx
v=dt o r'sinot
= (D.r .si ne ... (i)
dv
Acceleration of the piston = F=
dt to' r cos o t=o2.rcoso .. ( ii)
As per equation of continuity,

Discharge through pipe = Discharge through cylinder
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Reciprocating Pumps
Area of pipe x velocity of pipe= Area of cylinder x velocity of flow in the cylinder
AXV = AXV
Hence velocity of flow in the pipe is
A
x Velocity in the cylinder
A A
ct
or sin (Dt ..v=; 0r.sin0 ( iii)
and acceleration of water

'" 'l'i : oi r cos ort (iv)
a
If i is length of pipe, then weight of water contained in the pipe =

'Lf--l
't
= co'a'/
Force = Mass x Acceleration
o.a./ ,;A
P6.a =-g ozr cos (l)t
Hence, the pressure head required to accelerate (,)a/ in the pipe line,
Ha =ou
I 4.,,/.coso (...0 = 0t) ... (iv)
a
Equation(v)indicatesthatthepressureheaddueaccelerationorretardationof
the Piston varies with angle 0'
1. When 0=0 o (i.e. at the beginning of stroke)
I A,
n" =g x;(o- r
2. When 0 =9 0o (i.e. at the mid of stroke)
H"=0
3. When e = 1800 (i.e. at the end of stroke)
/ A-
H" = -n>JrD' r
(a) Effect of acceleration on the suction pipe

Let us consider the piston at the beginninq of the stroke. As the piston moves
towards right, it should create not only a negative pressure equal to the suction head
(H,) but it should also accelerate the water. Let the acceleration head be'Hu." Then
the total negative pressure at the beginning of the suction stroke is (H" + H,.).
From equatiorr (v), the acceleration head at the beginning of the suction stroke
i.e. crank at 0o,
/.xA
H*= 9xa. o'. r
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.10 Reciprocating Pumps
Negative pressure (or vacuum) = H, * Hu. = H. + fi+ <o2.r (vi)

Absolute H. = H",- - (Hs + Has)
At the middle of the stroke, as the acceleration head is zero, the negative
pressure is equal to 'Hs'. At the end of the stroke, the water causes a positive
pressure on the piston, when it is retarding. This reduces the vacuum pi-essure in
the
cylinder. The negative pressure head at the end of the stroke is given by,
H. - Hu, = H. - #* ,' . ... (vii)

(b) Effect of acceleration on the delivery pipe
The water in the derivery pipe is accelerated at the beginning of the stroke and
retarded at the end of the delivery stroke, as in the case of the suction pipe. Let '/d,
and 'ad' be the length and the cross-sectional area of the delivery pipe.
Gauge pressure at the beginning of the delivery stroke
Hd+ Had = Ho+ffi tr' r)

Gauge pressure at the middle of the delivery stroke = Ho.
Gauge pressure at the end of the delivery stroke
= ,o - #*. (.' .)
e _r
1 I
1
E
Hd I F.. "Jf"o
Almospheric pressur€
q)
-c
lIr a
d --r'-
E H] 10.33 m
l
E
IL b :F"" afulator
H",-"
b'
Absol zero prebsure
0" 90. 1800 Stroke ------>
8.6: Effect of A cceleration Head on Suction and Deli
Fi . Pi
The absolute pressure at the end of the stroke is given by Hatm + Hd - H,d. This
absolute pressure should not be less than the vapour pressure to avoid separation.
The indicator diagram modified for the acceleration on head is shown in Fig. g.g.
The new diagram is represented by a'a'c'c'. It will be noted that the area of the
indicator diagram remains unaffected. Thus, the total work done !-emains the same.
The main effect of the acceleration of the head is that it increases the negative head
at the beginning of the suction stroke.
Fluld Mechaoics & Machi nery 8.11 Feclprocating Pu mps
I 6 .2 Effec t of |. rict o n In P pes on I n d I c to f Dia ta m

when water flows in the suction and derivery pipes, there wi be loss of head due
to friction. This loss of head reduces the height of water by which this water is to be
lifted. Therefore to compensate for the frictional head loss, it is added in the indicator
diagram. This mcdified diagram is shown in Fig. 8.7.
Loss of head due to friction :
..
nr= 4fL vz 4fL tA \l
d 29= 254 Eo)rsin e/
At the beginning of stroke, 0
= 0o then Hr = 0
At the mid stroke, 0 = 90o, sin e = 1, then Hr becomes maximum.
4ft lA \2
max :---
Hr = 290 G*/
At the end of stroke 0 = 1800, then Hr = 0, as the velocity of water is
zero,
Hro
x1 €'-T
+ J H..
I
I
!o
a)
Hd F" ft d
Atmospheric pressure
a
Hs c
Tn 10.33 m
o)
I
H
-r b c afulator
H"t,"
o- ":L b Hol
i Absol zero Prebsure
90" 1800 Stroke -----)
F!9. 8'7: rndicator Diagram showing Effect of Acceleration Head and

Friction Head on
Suction and Delive Pi
The parabora b'yc' shows the work done against friction in the suction pipe
and
parabora d'xe' shows the work done against friction for
derivery pipe. Now the totar
work done during suction stroke is represented by ab,yc,.
Head lost due to friction in suction pipe,
4f lv2
nrs = (wnere,v=f r.rinr)
ET
4fl A \2
= 2sd (;0r sin eJ
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.12 Beciprocatinq Pumps
(i) At the beginning of stroke,

sine =0, Hfs=0
(ii) At the middle of stroke.
sin 90o = 1
4ft (A \2
Hrr = zsd [5 a)
(iii) At the end of stroke,
sin 1800 = 0, Hfs = 0
Cavatataon and Separation in Reciprocating Pump

1
If the vacuum pressure negative pressure exceeds 10.33 m of water

or
(atmospheric pressure) and absolute pressute of water falls below 2.6 m of water,
then the dissolved gases will start appearing in the liquid and the continuous flow is
obstructed. This phenomenon is known as separation or cavitation in the reciprocating
pump.
Separation and cavitation is the phenomenon by which steady, continuous flow of
fluid is obstructed due to evolution of air and gases in the flowing liquid.
From the indicator dlagram shown in Fig. 8.3, it is clear that at the beginning of
suction stroke, the negative pressure head to be created to lift the liquid from sump
into the cylinder is (Hs + Has). If the value of this quantity is too much or if the
absolute pressure head H31rp - (Hs + Has) at this point of stroke is too small, a
phenomenon known as 'separation' will take place. The physical significance of
separation is that the piston runs faster to the right, the liquid is not able to keep
pace with it and there is an air gap between the liquid and the left face of piston. In
other words, the liquid is not in intimate contact with the piston but there is a
separation of liquid from the piston face. This separation remains for a very short
time immediately after which the liquid races up and comes with a severe bang on the
piston face. This phenomenon is known as 'cavitation' which may occur at the
beginning of every suction stroke. Hence, in the case of reciprocating pump, the
phenomenon of separation and that of cavitation may go hand in hand'
Toavoidseparationandcavitation,thepressureinthecylindermustnotbe
allowed to fall to the value at which dissolved gases are liberated from the liquid,
since under these conditions, the cavitation may occur and the continuity of flow may
not exist. For water, the value of this limiting pressure is about 2.6 m of water
absolute or if atmospheric pressure is 10.3 m of water (Hs + Has) at any
point during
suction stroke must not be greater than (10 3 - 2'6) = 7 7 m of water'
The maximum permissible speed of a reciprocating pump to avoid separation can

be computed from the following expression:
H5sp=Hr+H..
=n=+fn",, r
= n' *f; *"(^.J' r
where. Hsep is the pressure head below atmospheric pressure head at

which
separation and cavitation may occur which can be controlled by suitably adjusting Hs,
/s and A/as for the pump.
But, it may not be always possible to develop completely cavitation free regions in
various flow systems. In such cases, use of special cavitation resistant materials or
coatings may be made. Aluminium bronze, stainless steel are some cavitation
resistant materials.
Higher the speed of pump, greater will be the acceleration head and lower will be
the pressure in the cylinder at the beginning of the suction stroke. The pressure in the
cylinder must not be allowed to fall tc the value at which dissolved gases are liberated
from the liquid. Since under these conditions the cavitation may occur and continuity
of flow may not exist. Therefore, reciprocating pump is not coupled directly to the
motor generally speed of which is also very high.
Methods Used to Avoid Separation :
1. Pump speed should not be high.

2, Suction lift should not be too long beyond permissible limits.
3. Suction pressure inside the cylinder should not fall beyond permissible limits.
4. Use air vessel on suction and delivery sides.
5. Suction delivery pipe should not be too long.
6. The diameters of suction and delivery pipes should not be reduced than that
of designed value.
8,8 Use of Air Vessel 1, $10, W-10, W-09, W-1
The air vessel of reciprocating pump is a cast iron or fabricated steel chamber.
It has an opening at the base through which water can flow. One chamber is fitted on
the suction pipe just near to the suction valve and one on the delivery pipe just near
to delivery valve.
Air being a compressible fluid, air in the air vessel compresses or expands to
absorb pressure fluctuations. When level of water in the air vessel rises, the air in the
air vessel is compressed. This compressed air forces the water out when the pressure
in the pipe fatls down. Since the air slowly dissolves in the water at higher pressure/
therefore, these air vessels are required to be charged periodically.
Delivery pipe
Air vessel
o
Connecting rod
Crank
o
Delivery valve
Shaft
o
I
id" od"
Suction
c inder L r-i lJ -1
valve f-
Suclion
pipe
f: E:::::
Sump well
:::::
(a) Reciprocating Pump with Air vessels
Air chamber
To pipe
(b) Air vessel tor Reciprocatlng Pump

.8.8
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.15 Reciprocaling Pumps
The maximum speed of a reciprocating pump is limited by the acceleration head

because of limitation of negative pressure in the cylinder which should not fall below
separation limit. The acceleration head can be reduced to a great extent by providing
a large vessel, either on delivery side or on both the sides as close to the pump as
possible.
Working of Air Vessel:

During the middle of the delivery stroke, when pump is forcing the water into the
delivery pipe at a velocity greater than the average, excess water flows into the air
vessel and compresses the trapped air in the upper portion of the chamber. At the
end of the stroke this water flows out of vessel to keep discharge more uniform as
now pressure in delivery pipe is decreased. This fluctuating water column causes the
acceleration head to be reduced to that in between pump cylinder and the air vessel.
which allows the pump to run at higher speeds. Thus in this way it saves large power
lost in developing acceleration head.
On suction side, water first collects in the air vessel and then flows to the cylinder.
On delivery side, water first goes to the air vessel and then flows within a uniform
velocity.
An air vessel provided in a reciprocating pump acts like a flywheel provided for
I.C. engine.
Functions and Advantages of Air vessel: l'ElE[lEl
1. Reduces the possibility of separation and cavitation.
2 Allows the pump to run at a higher speed
3 Suction head can be increased by increasing the length of pipe below the air
vessel,
4. Large amount of power is saved due to lesser acceleration head
5. Uniform discharge.
6. Efficiency is increased,
7. It prevents acceleration and retardation of air and liquid.

8. It also serves as a temporary reservoir.
9. Loss of head is uniform in suction pipe and delivery pipe.

Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.16 Beciprocaling Pumps
8.9 Gomparison between Centrifugal Pump and Reciprocating

Punrp ililtllEfiililil,-i
Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump
1 Simple in construction, beca use of 1. Complicated in construction, because
less number of parts. of more number of parts.
2. Total weight of the pump is less for a 2. Total weight of the pump is more for
given discha rge. a given discharge.
r
3 Suitable for large discharge and 3 Suitable for less discharge and higher
smaller heads. heads.
4 Requires less floor area and simple 4 Requires moTe floor area and
fou ndation. comparatively heavy foundation.
5 Since it has rotating element, there 5. Since it has reciprocating element,
is less wear and tear. there is more wear and tear.
6. N.laintenance cost is less. 6. Maintenance cost is more.
7 Can handle d irty water. 7. Cannot handle dirty water
8 Can run at higher speeds. 8. Cannot run at higher speeds.
9 Its delivery is continuous. _9. Its delivery is pulsating.
10 No air vessels are required. 10. Air vessels are required.
i l
11. Thrust on the crank shaft is uniform. 11. Thrust on the crank shaft is not
uniform.
12. Operation is quite simple. 12. Much care is required on operation
13. It has less efficiency. 13. It has more efficiency.
14. Stgrting torque is more. I
14. Starting torque is less
15. Suction and delivery valves are not 15. Suction and delivery valves are
necessary. necessary.
16. Balancing is proper. 16. Balancing is not proper.

l
8.{O Applications of Reciprocating PumPs Ml
Reciprocating pumps are used in industrial hydraulic systems, pneumatic pressure
systems. It is used in oil drilling operations. This type of pump is used to handle
water, soluble oil in water, fire resistant hydraulic fluids, water treatment chemicals
and liquids such as acids, solvents and general industrial fluids, feeding small boilers.
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 4.17 Reciprocali ng Pumps
Piston pump - used for low head are higher discharge

Plunger pump - used for higher head and less discharge and is also
used to pup fluid having high density
Single cylinder pump - used where fluctuating and pulsating delivery is
required
Double acting pump is used where continuous flow is desired.
Multicylinder pump is used for continuous, uniform and uninterrupted flow'
Solved Examples
Ex. 8.1: A single reciprocating pump having bore of 150 mm and stroke 300 mm
and running at 50 rpm has to deliver water through 20 m height' Find:
(i) Power required to drive the pumpt
( ii) Theoretical discharge,
(iii) Percentage slip and coefficient of discharge if actual discharge is

2500 lit/min.
Sol.: Given: H = 20 m, d = 0'15 m, L= 0.3 m, N = 50rPm, Qact= 2500 lit/min,
P = ?, Qth = ?, Percentage sliP S = ?, C6 = l
(i) q,h =id2>1"n, n = N for single-acting pump
f x (o.rs)'zx (0.3) x 50
0.2651 m3/min
2651 lit/min
( ii) P= wQH = e810 x {fl,. zo
since w for water = 9810 N/m3

866.87 watts
0.867 kW
( iii) Percentaqe sliP

9tE&s!
qth roo
^
= 4ffi@ ,,,00
= 5.7o/o
Qact 2500
o.943
(iv) Coefficient of discha rge Qtn 2657 -
Fluid Mechanlca & Mac hinery 8.18 Reciprocating Pumps
Ex. 8.2: Find the power required to drive a double-acting pump and the quantity
of water delivered per hour under following conditions:
Head of water exclusive of friction = 16m
Diameter of main = 100 cm
Length of main = 2000 m
Diameter of piston = 75 cm
Length of stroke = 2 m
SPeed of PumP = 20 r.P.m.
Positive sliP = 5o/o
Mechanical efficiency = 80o/o

Coefficient of friction = 0.01
Sol.3 civenr H = 15 m, dm = 100 cm, /d = 2 km, dp = 73 cm, L = 2 m, S = 5ol0,
N = 20 rpm, lmech = 8Oo/o, f = 0.01, Find p, Q.
(i) a =fxLxsx2Nx60
(Since N =
2N for double-acting pump. So to convert ciischarge per hour,
S = 0.95 as percent slip = 5;
,Ix o.75 2
a= 4
x2x0.95x2x20x60
= 2074.55 m3/hr
= 2O14,55 x 103 lit/hr
( ii) t=#+ butH=h+hp
'mecn
4f lv2
h1 = ,sd
ALNxSx2
But a.v = --Eo- where, 2 is n for double-acting pump
ALNxSx2
a
75\2 20 x 0.95 x 2
(
-Uool ^ 6o
=0 3563 m/s
4 x 0.01 x2x1000x(0.3563 \2
hf
2 x 9.81 x 1
= 0.5176
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery 8.t9 Reciprocating Pumps
- 9810 x 2014.55 x (16 + 0.5176)

60x60> 0.8
= 113344.7777 walls
= 113 kW
Ex. 8.3: A single cylinder, single-acting reciprocating pump has a plunger
diameter af 125 mm and the stroke 300 r.p.m. The diameter of the suction pipe is 75
mm and length is 10 m. The pump is set with its axis 3 m above water level in the
sump. If speed of pump is 30 r.p.m., determine:
(i) Acceleraticn head in suction pipe at the beginning of suction stroke.
(ii) Pressure head in the cylinder also at the beginning of suction stroke.
Sol.: Given: D = 125 mm = 0.125 m, L = 300 rnm = 0.3 m,
ds = 75 mm = 0.075 m, /s = 10m, hs=3m, N=30rpm
The acceleration head in the suction pipe is
h"'=i ._A. orr dS

2;rN
But o= 60
Zrc x 30
= GO = ,r radlsec
n. = n* (."^*rrl'x ,,2 x 0.015
= 1,01937 x 2.7778 x (3.14)2 x 0.01 5

! =f=o.ott,
stnce, r = 2
hs = 4'192 m
"
The pressure head at the beginning of suction stroke is
p=hs+has
3 + 4.L92
= 7 .L92 m of water
14.33-7.192=3,138mof bsolu te)
Ex. 8.4: A single-acting pump runs at 45 rpm. It has piston diameter of 15 cm
and stroP,e length as 20 crn. The suction pipe diameter is 15 cm and length 20 m.
Determine the maximum suction lift, assuming vapour pressure of water as 2.4 m of
water.
Sol.; Given: N = 45 rpm, D = 0.15 m, L= 0.2m,d, = 9.15 n1, /s = 20m?
Maximum suction lift = ?
nut =6 *.r'.
A . 2rN
Acceleration head, srnce, o = 60
20 / 0.15 \2 tzn x 45\2 o.2 .L

Slncerr=r= o.2
= s-81 '(oJsl " \ Go ./ " 2 2
= 2,O3a7 x 1x 22.1841 x 0.1

'" Has = 46m
To avoid separation Hs + Has + Hr < 10.33 m of water where
Hs = Suction lift
Hv = VaPour Pressure of water
... Hs + 4.6 + 2.4 < 10.33
... Hs < 3.33 m
Therefore, maximum suction lift is 3.33 m of water.
Ex. 8.5: A single-acting reciprocating pump having piston diameter as 20 cm and

stroke length 40 cm is running at 50 rpm and delivers 0.01 m3/s of water. Determine
theoretical discharge of pump, Cd, slip and percentage slip of pump.
Sol.: Given: N = 50 rpm, Q6s1 = 0,01 m2/s,d = 0.2 m, L= 0.4 m
Area of piston, a=[az= \" 1o.21' = 0.031416 m2
Theoretical discharge, Qtn

ALN 0.031416x0.4x50
= 60= 60
= O.O1O47 m3ls
Coefficient of discharge,
Qact O.O1
C6 = a* = 0-0104? = o'955
Slip of pump = Qtr, - Qact = 0.01047 - 0.01 = 0.00047 m3/s

o/o srip = S5$ roo
"
0.01047 - 0.01
0-01047 x 100 = 4.489olo
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery a.21 Reciprocating Pumps
mportant Point
> Reciprocating pump consists of a cylinder, piston, suction and delivery pipes, suction
and delivery valves with crank and connecting rod mechanism'
> lf liquid acts only on one side of piston, it is called as single acting reciprocating pump'
> lf liquid acts on both sides of piston, then it is called as double acting reciprocaling pump.
, siip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and actual
discharge of a pump. Actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge
SliP = 6'n-q"o
> Slip is expressed as percentage slip and is given by

o.-_!*^tO0
% slip = --th
> lf actual discharge is greater than theoretical discharge, then the slip ol pump is known
as Negative SliP.
> Work done per second by a single acting reciprocating pump is given by
Work done Per sec =W (H" + Ho)
and power required to drive the pump is given by
P = W(H"+H6)
p - * l=LN (H" + H6) ..... N-m/sec or watt
50
where, w= Specilic weight of water = 9810 N/m3
L= Length ol stroke = 2 x radius of crank
A= Cross-sectional area of the piston
H" and H6 are the suction delivery heads
N= Speed of rotalion ot PumP in rpm
) Power required lo drive the double acting reciprocating pump is twice the power required
to drive the single acting reciprocating pump.
> lndicator diagram is a graph between pressure head in the cylinder and the distance
travelled by piston lrom inner dead centre for one complete revolution ol the crank-
> To obtain conlinuous water supply at unilorm rate, an air vessel is used. Air vessel is
used either on both sides i.e. suction and delivery sides.

Fluid Mechanics & Machi nery 8.22 Reciprocating Pumps
Practice Quistion
What is reciprocating pump? Describe the principle and working of a reciprocating pump
with a neat sketch. lEffitmlm!![l
2 Differentiate between centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump,
e What is difference between single-acting and double-acting pump?
4 Def ine slip, percentage slip and negative slip of a reciprocatingpump. IEEEI]
c what is the effect of accereration of the piston on the velocity and accelerarion ol water
in suction and delivery pipes?
r, UJrite an expression for the head lost due to friction in suction and delivery pipes.
7 Draw theoretical indicator diagram lor single-acting reciprocating pump. IEEgl
8 Draw an indicator diagram considering the effect of acceleration and friction in suction
and delivery pipes.
L What is an air vessel? Describe the function of air vessel for reciprocating pump.
'10
pump.
Explain the f unction of Air Vessel retaled to centrifugal
lflpl
'11
What is -ve sign in case ol reclprocating pump? When il occurs? Also explain
cavitation. E@l
12 state the procedure lor drawing inret and ouflel verocity triangles for moving curved
vanes with meaning of each notation used. [f[![
13 What is an air vessei? Explain the function of the air vessel lor reciprocating pumps.
Sketch the system. List the types of fluid flows
m@
5A7G Oiresfirin t Inb
Summer 2O08
'1. Define 'Slip' in case of reciprocating pump
ffiu
2 Distinguish between centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump on the basis of working
principle. pressure head, and discharge. m|]
Ans. Pefer to Article E.9.
3. Describe with a neat sketch the working of singte acting reciprocating pump. mI]
Ans. Refer to Article 8.2, Fig. 8.1 (a).
4.Why is a reciprocating pump not coupled direcfly lo the molor ? Give reason. [f,ffi
Draw neat sketch ol double acting reciprccating pump and label the components.
[EEI]
Ans. Refer to Article 8.3. Fig. 8.3 (a).
Winter 2OOB
Draw an indicator diagram with efJect ol acceleration head and frictional head for a
reciprocating pump. ftftn
Ans Refer to Article 8.6.1 and 8.6.2
rGt
gcbomo SECOND IPLOMA COURSE IN
ester
Sern MECHANICAL GROUP
fv
THERMAL ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
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THEORY OF MACHINES MANUTACTT.JRING

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S. L (; VHALE
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NIRALI PRAKASHAN
As Per Revised MSBTE's S yllabus, 'G' Scheme
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Semester lV
. ENVIRONMENTALSTUDIES
Dr. D. K. Gupta, V. K. Sonarkar
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h----

ET{VIRONMENTAI STT.IDIES THERMAL ENGINEERING

G .,.,r. r ." "

FLIIID MECHANICS FLI,IID MECHAMCS

S*^* S .r" rr*

3. FLOW THROUGH PIPES 14

2. FTUID PRESSURE AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 2.L - 2.

3. FLUID FIOW 3.1 -

J.Z Types of Fluid Flows 3.2

3.6.3 Pitot Tube 3.r3

FLOW THROUGH PIPES 4.1. - 4.14

4.2 Loss o{ Energy in Pipes 4.2

8. RECIPRO€ATING PUMPS 8.1 -

Ans. '' VelocitV gradient

1 .5.3 Viscosity lndex (V)

1.6 Surfoce Tension (o)

About this Chapter

1.2 Functions of hydraulic fluid

{.3 Typcs of Fluids

1.4 Properties of Fluid

It is a reciprocal of mass density. Its unit is m37kg. vn

1.4.4 S c Gravi Relative Density

F.1.1: Shearin Acti on of Fluid Between Parallel Plates

directly proportional to the rate of strain.

where, I Coefficient of viscosity (dynamic viscosity)

{.5.{ Dynamic Viscosity lw-11, w-13, S-14

Its unit is m2lsec, stoke. stoke = 0.1 x 10-3 m2lsec,

Kinematic viscosity = 1.75 x 1O 5 m2ls

1.6 Surface Tension (o) ls-l0, 12, w- 11I

Unit of surface tension is N/m.

{.7 Gapillarity , $12,

(a) Capillary Rise (b) Capillary Depression

For clean glass tube and water,

1.8 Compressability IS-12, W- 11I

1.9 Vapour Pressure ls-12, s-l1, W- 111

{.tO Oxidation Stability (Chemica! Stability}

{.1{ Neutralisation umber (Total Acid Number}

{.12 Flash Point

t.l3 Pour Point

1.1 5 Lubrieity (Lubricating

Surface tension on droplet =" =+

p= 0.11 x 104 kg/m3

Specific weight of liquid = 0.9 x 9810 = 8:129 N/m3

> Poise is unit of dynamic viscosity. (1 Poise = 0.1 N-sec./m2)

2.{ lntroduction ls-12, w-l11

A= Area on which the force acts in m2

2.2 Pressure Head [$12, W-l1, S-05]I

Fi , 2,1: Pressure head of li uid

The intensity of pressure on base of cylinder,

Pascal's Law ls-l0, s-osl

(b) Pipe (c) Cylinder

Fi . 2.3: Force Multi ication As ct of Pascal's Law

Force exerted at piston No. 2

2.4 Goncept of Absolute Vacuum, Gauge Pressure,

2.4.1 Atmos heric Pressure

2.4.2 Gauge Pressure ls-12, w-11, S-10, S-141

Fig. 2.6t Vacuum Pressure Measurement by Piezometer Tube

(a) For Gauge Pressure (b) For Negative Pressure

(ii) For negative pressure IFig.2.7 (b)].

(c) Single Column Manometer (l'l icromanometer): It is a modified form of

It is used for measuring low pressures with a great accuracy

Fi . 2.8: Vertical Si le Column Manometer Micromanometer

S^ S .r" rr*

. Manometric liquid _____________r