Class - XI Psychology What is Psychology?

-Notes

INTRODUCTION
• The term psychology is derived from two Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos meaning
science or study of a subject.
• Psychology was a study of the soul or mind.
• A discipline is defined both in terms of what it studies and how it studies.
• Psychology is defined formally as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and
behaviour in different contexts.
• In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically.

Mental Processes

• We refer to states of consciousness or awareness or mental processes.

• We use or mental processes when we think or try to solve a problem, to know or remember
something.
• Level at which these mental processes are reflected in the brain activity.
• We cannot say that brain activity and mental processes are the same, although they are
interdependent.
• Mental activities and neural activities are mutually overlapping processes but, they are not identical.
• Unlike the brain, the mind does not have a physical structure nor has a location. Mind emerges and
evolves as our interaction and experiences in this world get dynamically organised in the form of a
system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes.
• Consciousness of our own experiences and mental processes are much more than the neural or brain
activities.

Experiences

• Experiences are subjective in nature.

• We cannot directly observe or know someone else’s experiences.
• Only the experiencing person can be aware or be conscious of her or his experiences.
• Experiences are embedded in our awareness or consciousness.
• Esoteric experiences attract attention of psychologists, such as when a yogi meditates to enter a
different level of consciousness and creates a new kind of experience or when a drug addict takes a
particular kind of drug to get a high, even though such drugs are extremely harmful.
• Experiences are influenced by internal and the external conditions of the experiencer.
• The nature of experience can only be understood by analysing a complex set of internal and external
conditions.

Behaviours

• Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activity we engage in.

• Behaviours may be simple or complex, short or enduring.
• Some behaviour is overt. They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an observer.
• Some are internal or covert.

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• When you are in a difficult situation while playing a game of chess you almost feel your hand
muscles twitching, trying to experiment with a move.
• All behaviours, covert or overt, are associated with or triggered by some stimulus in the environment
or changes that happen internally.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE

• Psychology studies behaviour, experience and mental processes.

• It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental processes result in
different behaviours.
• When we observe others our own points of view or our ways of understanding the world influence
our interpretations of their behaviours and experiences.
• Psychologists try to minimise such biases in their explanations of behaviour and experience in
various ways.
• Some do so by seeking to make their analysis scientific and objective.
• Others seek to explain the behaviour from the point of view of the experiencing persons because they
think that subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience.
• Psychologists have also begun to emphasise the role of self- reflection and self-knowledge in
understanding human behaviour and experience.
• Psychology, though it is a very old knowledge discipline, is a young science, if one were to take the
year of the founding of the first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in Leipzig.
• Science is psychology, still remains a matter of debate, particularly because of the new interfaces of
it that have emerged in recent times. Psychology is generally categorised as a social science.
• The most sought after emerging disciplines which continuously borrow from psychology are
Neuroscience and Computer Science.
• Psychology as a discipline today has two parallel streams.
• One which makes use of the method in physical and biological sciences and the other which makes
use of the method of social and cultural sciences in studying various psychological and social
phenomena.
• These streams sometimes converge only to drift apart and go their separate ways.
• In the first case, psychology considers itself as a discipline, which focuses largely on biological
principles to explain human behaviour. Here the aim of the researcher is to know the cause and effect
relationship so that so that the prediction of the behavioural phenomenon can be made and behaviour
can be controlled if need be.
• On the other hand, psychology as asocial science focuses on how behavioural phenomenon cab be
explained in terms of the interaction that takes place between the person and the sociocultural
context of which s/he is a part.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A NATURAL SCIENCE

• Developments in physics have grown by following what is called a hypothetic-deductive model.

• The model suggests that scientific advancement cab take place if you have a theory to explain a
phenomenon.
• Theory is nothing else but a set of statements about how a certain complex phenomenon can be
explained with the help of propositions which are interrelated.
• Scientists deduce or propose a hypothesis that offers a tentative explanation of how certain
phenomenon take place.

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• The theory is revised if data gathered point in different direction than the one suggested by the
hypothesis.
• Psychologists have developed theories of learning, memory, attention, perception, motivation and
emotion etc. and have made significant progress.
• Psychologists have also been considerably influenced by the evolutionary approach which is
dominant in biological science.
• This approach has also been used to explain diverse kinds of psychological phenomenon such as
attachment and aggression to mention just a few.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE

• We mentioned above the psychology is recognised more as a social science because it studies the
behaviour of human beings in their socio-cultural contexts.
• Psychology as a social science discipline focuses on human as social beings.
• There are variations in their behaviours and experiences which would be difficult to predict using the
known psychological principles.
• People became antisocial under similar circumstances indulging in looting and exploitation when
some crises occur.
• This shows psychology deals with human behaviour and experience in the context of their society
and culture.
• Thus, psychology is a social science with focus on the individuals and communities in relation to
their sociocultural and physical environment.

UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR

• Psychology was once defined as a science of the mind. For many decades, the mind remained a
taboo in psychology because it could not be defined in concrete behavioural terms or its location
could be indicated.
• It is true that mind cannot exist without brain, but mind is separate entity.
• Patients whose occipital lobes, which are responsible for vision, were surgically removed have been
found to be responding correctly to location and configuration of visual cues.
• The person had suffered from damage of some part of the brain but his “mind” has remained intact.
It was earlier believed by scientists that there is no relationship between the mind and the body and
that they were parallel to each other.
• There is relationship between mind and behaviour.
• Using positive visualisation techniques and feeling positive emotions, one can bring about significant
changes in bodily processes.
• Use of mental imagery, i.e. images generated by a person in his/her mind, has been used to cure
various kinds of phobias.
• A new discipline called psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which emphasises the role played by
the mind in strengthening the immune system.
POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Most of us have developed our own theory of human behaviour.
• If we want some worker to perform better than s/he has in the past, we know that we will need to
push her/him. Such popular theories of human behaviour based on common sense may or may not be
true if investigated scientifically.
• Common sensical explanations of human behaviour are based on hindsight and explain very little.
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• Explanation follows the occurrence of behaviour
• Common sense is based on hindsight. Psychology as a science looks for patterns of behaviour which
can be predicted and not explained after the behaviour occurs.
• Scientific knowledge generated by psychology often runs against common sense.
• One such example is a study performed by Dweck (1975). She was concerned with children who
gave up too easily when faced with a difficult problem or failure. She wondered how they could be
helped.
• Common sense tells us to give them easy problem in order to increase their success rate so that their
confidence goes up. Only later should we give them difficult problems which they will be able to
solve because of their new-found confidence.
• What Dweck found goes against common belief? Those who had always succeeded because they
were given easy problems gave up much faster when they faced failure than those who had
experience of both success and failure and were taught to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
• Common sense also tell us that one is not able to give one’s best if you are asked to perform before a
large audience. But according to psychology if you have practiced well, you may actually perform
better because the presence of others helps your performance.
• Psychologists are different from astrologers, tantric and palm readers because they systematically
examine propositions based on data to develop principles about human behaviour and other
psychological phenomena.

EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology as a modern discipline, which is influenced to a large extent by western
development.
• It grew out of ancient philosophy concerned with questions of psychological significance.
Structuralists
• The formal beginning of modern psychology is traced back to 1879 when the first experimental
laboratory was established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Wundt was interested in the study of conscious experience and wanted to analyse the constituents
or the building blocks of mind.
• Psychologist during Wundt’s time analysed the structure of mind through introspection and
therefore were called Structuralists.
• Introspection was a procedure in which individuals or subjects in psychology experiments were
asked to describe in detail, their own mental processes or experiences.
• Introspection was considered less scientific because the introspection reports could not be
verified by outside observers.
Functionalist
• An American psychologist, William James, who had set up a psychological laboratory in Cambridge,
and developed what was called a functionalist approach to the study of the human mind.
• William James believed that instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, psychology should
study that mind does and how behaviour functions is making people deal with their environment.
• Functionalist focused on how behaviour enabled people to satisfy their needs.
• According to William James, consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental processes interacting
with the environment formed the core of psychology.
• John Dewey, used functionalism to argue that human beings seek to function effectively by adapting
to the environment.
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 Gestalt psychology
• A new perspective called Gestalt psychology emerged in Germany as a reaction to the structuralism
of Wundt.
• It focused on the organisation of perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at the components of the
mind,
• Gestalt psychologist argued that when we look at the world our perceptual experience is more than
the sum of the components of the perception.
• What we experience is more than the inputs received from our environment.
• Our perceptual experience is more than the elements.
• Experience is holistic, it is a Gestalt.
Behaviourism
• John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as a subject matter of psychology.
• He was greatly influenced by the work of psychologist like Pavlov on classical conditioning.
• For Watson, mind is not observable and introspection is subjective because it cannot be verified by
another observer. According to him, scientific psychology must focus on what is observable and
verifiable.
• He defined psychology as study of behaviour or responses which can be measured and studied
objectively.
• Behaviourism of Watson was further developed by many influential psychologists who are known as
behaviourists.
• Skinner who applied behaviourism to a wide range of situations and popularised the approach.
• Behaviourists dominated the field of psychology for several decades after Watson.
Psychoanalysis
• Freud viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts.
• He founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders.
• While Freudian psychoanalysis viewed human beings as motivated by unconscious desire for
gratification of pleasure seeking desires.
Humanistic perspective
• The humanistic perspective in psychology took a more positive view of human nature.
• Humanistic, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasised the free will oh human beings
and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential.
• They argued that behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour as determined by environment
conditions undermines human freedom and dignity and takes a mechanistic view of human nature.
Cognitive perspective
• Gestalt approach and structuralism were combined and led to the development of the cognitive
perspective with focuses on how we know the world.
• Cognition is the process of knowing.
• It involves thinking, understanding, perceiving, memorising, problem solving and a host of other
mental processes by which our knowledge of the world develops, making us able to deal with the
environment in specific ways.
• Psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like the computer.

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Constructivism
• Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through their
exploration into the physical and the social world.
• This view is sometimes called constructivism. Piaget’s view of child development which will be
discussed later is considered a constructivist theory of development in mind.
• Psychologist Vygotsky went even further to suggest that the human mind develops through social
and cultural processes.

DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA

• The India philosophical traditions are rich in its focus on mental processes and reflection on human
consciousness, self, mind-body relations, and a variety of mental functions such as cognition,
perception, illusion.
• Unfortunately, philosophical roots in the Indian tradition have not influenced the development of
modern psychology in India.
• The development of the discipline in India continues to be dominated by western psychology,
although some attempts have been made to find points of departure both within the country and
abroad.
• These attempts have tried to stablish the truth value of various assertions in Indian philosophical
traditions through scientific studies.
• The modern era of Indian psychology began in the Department of Philosophy at Calcutta University
where the first syllabus of experimental psychology was introduced and the first psychology
laboratory was established in 1915.
• Professor G. Bose was trained in Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which influenced the early
development of psychology in India.
• Professor Bose established Indian Psychoanalytical Association in 1922. Departments of Psychology
in the Universities of Mysore and Patna were other early centres of teaching and research in
psychology.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive psychology

• It investigates mental processes involved in acquisition, storage, manipulation and transformation of

information received from the environment along with its use and communication.
• The major cognitive processes are attention, perception, reasoning, memory, problem solving,
decision making and language.
• Psychologists conduct experiments in laboratory settings.
• An ecological approach is an approach which focuses on the environmental factors, to study
cognitive processes in a natural setting.
• Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with neuroscientists and computer scientists.

Biological psychology

• It focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the physical system, including the brain and the
rest of the nervous system, the immune system, and genetics.
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• Biological psychologists often collaborate with neuroscientists, zoologists and anthropologists.
Neuropsychology
• Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of research where psychologists and neuroscientists are
working together.
• Researchers are studying the role of neurotransmitters or chemical substances which are responsible
for the neural communication in different areas of the brain and therefore in associated mental
functions.
• They do their research on people with normal functioning brain as well as people with damaged
brain by following advanced technologies like EEG, PET and FMRI, etc.
Developmental psychology
• Developmental psychology studies the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at
different ages and stages over a life-span, from conception to old age.
• The primary concern of developmental psychologists is how we became what we are.
• For many years the major emphasis was on child and adolescent development.
• They focus on the biological, socio-cultural and environmental factors that influence psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition, emotion, temperament, morality and social
relationship.
• Developmental psychologists collaborate with anthropologists, educationists, neurologists and social
workers, counsellors and almost every branch of knowledge where there is a concern for growth and
development of a human being.
Social psychology
• Social psychology explores how people are affected by their social environments, hoe people think
about and influence others.
• Social psychologists are interested in such topics as attitudes, conformity, and obedience to authority,
interpersonal attractions, helpful behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social motivation, inter groups
and so on.
Cross-cultural and cultural psychology
• Cross-cultural and cultural psychology examines the role of culture in understanding behaviour,
thought and emotions.
• It assumes that human behaviour is not only a reflection of human-biological but also a product of
culture.
• Therefore behaviour should be studied in social-cultural context.
• Environmental psychology studies interaction of physical factors such as temperature, humidity,
pollution, and natural disasters on human behaviour waste disposal, population explosion,
community resources.
Health Psychology

• Health psychology focuses on the role of psychological factors (for example, stress, anxiety) in the
development, prevention and treatment of illness.
• Clinical and Counselling psychology deals with causes, treatment, and prevention of different types
of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, eating disorders and chronic substance abuse.
• Industrial/Organizational psychology deals with workplace behaviour – workers and organizations.
• Educational psychology studies how people of all ages learn – school psychology.

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• Sports psychology applies psychological principles to improve sports performance by enhancing
their motivation.
Themes in Psychology
• Theme 1: Psychology like other sciences attempts to develop principles of behaviour and mental
processes draw conclusions which are supported by data. Experimental, comparative, psychological,
developmental, social and differential and abnormal psychology are generally regarded as domains
representing “basic psychology”.
• Theme 2: Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of persons and environment. Kurt Lewin
first proposed B=f (P, E) – which suggests that behaviour is the product of a person and her/his
environment. Different psychology, which focused on individual differences.
• Theme 3: Human behaviour is caused – all human behaviour can be explain in terms of causes
which are internal ( to the organism) or external having location in the outside environment.
• Theme 4: Understanding of human behaviour is culturally constructed – dialectical approach which
will accommodate both female and male perspectives in understanding human behaviour.
• Theme 5: Human behaviour can be controlled and modified through the application of psychological
principles – make interventions into lives of needy people.
Basic vs. Applied Psychology
• Basic psychology – theories and principles that form the basis of application of psychology –
research oriented.
• Applied psychology – different context in which the theories and principles derived from research
can be meaningfully applied – application oriented.
Interdisciplinary Nature
• Philosophy – nature of mind and how human come to know their motivations.
• Medicine – psychological counselling post operation, in ICU.
• Economics – economic behaviour – saving and decision making – predict growth (Simon, Schelling
and Kahneman won Nobel Prize in economics).
• Political science – voting behaviour, pattern.
• Sociology – intergroup conflict, socialization.
• Computer science – organized, sequential and simultaneous (read parallel) processing of
information.
• Law and Criminology – remember accident, decision by jury.
• Mass communication – attitude of people, journalist.
Psychologists at work
• Clinical psychologists – help client with behavioural problems -anxiety, stress at home and work.
• Counselling psychologists – suffer from motivational and emotional problems - rehabilitation,
hospitals, and schools.
• Community psychologists – rehabilitation.
• School psychologists – administer test, interpret results.
• Organizational psychologists – deal with problems that executives and employees face -specialize
in HRD.
Applications in Everyday life
• Personal (Daughter having to face an alcoholic father or a mother dealing with a problem child).
• Family (Lack of communication and interaction among family members).
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• Community setting ( Terrorist groups or socially isolated communities )
• National level ( environment , social justice, women development , intergroup relations )

IMPORTANT: The notes are basic guidelines of the chapter and the guidelines for framing the
answers. Please note the answers are to be detailed as given in the NCERT. Kindly do not only
depend on the notes for the course and subject content. You need to be well versed with the
NCERT as well.
➢ Click on the following links for further explanation of the topics discussed above:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hf6NIZ-gTQY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bYQArfZRKE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lh8VCCgeyRI

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Let’s revise some important points:

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Important definitions to remember
1. Behaviour: Any covert or overt action/reaction a person or animal does that can be
observed in some way.
2. Behaviourism: A school of thought that emphasises objectivity, observable
behavioural responses, learning, and environmental determinants.
3. Cognition: All the mental activities associated with knowing; namely, perceiving,
thinking, and remembering, etc. These are associated with processing, understanding,
and communication information.
4. Cognitive economy: A term to denote maximum and efficient use of the capacity of
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 long-term memory through organisation of concepts in a hierarchical network.
5. Consciousness: Awareness of the general condition of one’s mind, awareness of
particular mental contents, or self-awareness.
6. Constructivism: Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively
constructing their minds through their exploration into the physical and the social
world.
7. Developmental Psychology: A branch of psychology which establishes the physical,
social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages over a life-
span, from conception to old age.
8. Functionalism / Functional fixedness: The tendency to think of thinks only in terms of
their usual functions, impediments to problem solving. The school of psychology that
emphasised the utilitarian, adaptive functions of the human mind or consciousness.
9. Gestalt: An organised whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasise our tendency to integrate
pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
10. Gestalt psychology: A branch of psychology in which behaviour is viewed as an
integrated whole, greater than the sum of its parts.
11. Humanistic approach: The approach to Psychology that emphasises the person, or the
self, and personal growth land development.
12. Hue: Property of chromatic colours or name of the colours.
13. Introspection: The process of looking inward to one’s feeling and conscious experience.
14. Mind: Mind is a concept, which refers to unique set of individual’s sensations,
perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams, motives and emotional feelings.
15. Neuro psychology: It is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes as
function of brain activity and the nervous system.
16. Physiological psychology: A scientific study of human and animal behaviour based on
the relationship of physiological processes like those of nervous system, hormones,
sensory organs and the behavioural parameters.
17. Psychoanalysis: A method of psychology in which the therapist attempts to bring
repressed unconscious material into conscious.
18. Sociology: The systematic study of the biological basis for social behaviour.
19. Stimulus: Any well-defined element in the environment affecting the organism, which
may lead to an overt or a covert response.
20. Structuralism: Associated with Wilhelm Wundt, the approach to psychology that seeks
to understand the structure and operation of consciousness, or the human mind.

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 Xsyfdcmcky w`s liugifgj oy Jgsf`rtgs- Xdlmcscpdgr, b`tdgb`fl`i, sflgist.
 Dg jgvgmcpgj Dypctdgfc ‖jgjufvg bcjgm.
 @ffcrjlik tc tdls bcjgm, Vflgif `jv`ifgbgit f`i t`ag pm`fg le wg d`vg ` tdgcry tc gxpm`li
tdg pdgicbgici.
 @ tdgcry ls ` sgt ce st`tgbgits `ocut ` fcbpmgx pdgicbgici (e`ft)
 O`sgj ci tdg tdgcry sflgists prcpcsg ` dypctdgsls
0. Xrcpcsg ` dypctdgsls ‖ td`t cgrs ` tgit`vg gxpm`i`ci ce dcw ` fgrt`li pdgicbgici
t`ags pm`fg.

?. Zdls tgstgj `ij prcvgj trug cr e`msg o`sgj ci tdg gbplrlf`m j`t`. This document is...
6. J`t` ls rgvlsgj le tdg j`t` k`tdgrgj ls li `ictdgr jlrgfci.  
 ‖ 
Wslik tdls `pprc`fd psyfdcmcklsts d`vg jgvgmcpgj tdgcrlgs ce mg`rilik, pgrfgpci,
 
bgbcry, `gici bcv`ci `ij gbccis.
 ‖ 
Gvcmuci`ry `pprc`fd li olcmcklf`m sflgifgs ‖ Zdls `pprc`fd d`s `msc oggi usgj tc
gxpm`li jlvgrsg alijs ce psyfdcmcklf`m pdgicbgici sufd `s ``fdbgit, `kkrgsslci
gtf.
ofXsyfdcmcky
13 `s ` scfl`m sflgifg 

 Xsyfdcmcky `s ` Vcfl`m Vflgifg ‖Vtujlgs ogd`vlcr ce dub`i ogliks li scflc-fumtur`m fcitgxt.

 Dub`i ogliks ict cimy kgt liugifgj oy tdg scflc-fumtur`m fcitgxt out `msc frg`tgs tdgb.
 Lt ecfusgs ci dub`is `s scfl`m ogliks.
 Lt jg`ms wltd dub`i ogd`vlcr `ij gxpgrlgifg li tdg fcitgxt ce tdglr scflgty `ij fumturg.

_gm`ci Ogtwggi Blij & Ogd`vlcr

 Xsyfdcmcky w`s cifg jgigj `s ` sflgifg ce tdg blij.
 Zdg blij rgb`ligj ` t`occ li psyfdcmcky ogf`usg lt fcumj ict og jgigj li fcifrgtg
ogd`vlcr`m tgrbs, cr lts mcf`ci fcumj ict og lijlf`tgj.
 Lt ls trug td`t blij f`iict gxlst wltdcut or`li, out blij ls ` sgp`r`tg gity.
 X`gits wdcsg cfflplt`m mcogs, wdlfd `rg rgspcislomg ecr vlslci, wgrg surklf`mmy rgbcvgj
d`vg oggi ecuij tc og rgspcijlik fcrrgftmy tc mcf`ci `ij fcikur`ci ce vlsu`m fugs.
 Zdg pgrsci d`j sugrgj ercb j`b`kg ce scbg p`rt ce tdg or`li, out dls ”blij‒ d`j
rgb`ligj lit`ft.
 Wslik Xcslvg Ulsu`mlz`ci tgfdilqugs `ij eggmlik pcslvg gbccis, cig f`i orlik `ocut
slkilf`it fd`ikgs li ocjlmy prcfgssgs.
 Wsg ce bgit`m lb`kgry, l.g., lb`kgs kgigr`tgj oy ` pgrsci li dgr/dls blij, d`vg oggi usgj
tc furg v`rlcus alijs ce pdcol`s - Vtujy oy Crilsd (@ pgrsci wltd omcfagj `rtgrlgs w`s b`jg
tc vlsu`mlzg td`t omccj w`s cwlik tdrcukd dgr/ dls omcfagj `rtgrlgs. @gr pr`fflik tdls
cvgr ` pgrlcj ce bg, slkilf`it rgmlge w`s cot`ligj oy tdgsg p`gits `s tdg jgkrgg ce
omcfa`kg ogf`bg slkilf`itmy mgss.)
 @ igw jlsflpmlig f`mmgj Xsyfdcigurclbbuicmcky d`s gbgrkgj wdlfd gbpd`slzgs tdg rcmg
pm`ygj oy tdg blij li strgiktdgilik tdg lbbuig systgb.

Xcpum`r Iccis @ocut tdg Jlsflpmlig ce Xsyfdcmcky

 Fcbbcisgislf`m gxpm`i`cis `rg o`sgj ci dlijslkdt (uijgrst`ijlik cr gxpm`lilik `gr
gvgit d`s d`ppgigj) `ij lt gxpm`lis vgry mlmg.
 Xsyfdcmcky `s ` sflgifg mccas ecr p`gris ce ogd`vlcr wdlfd f`i og prgjlftgj `ij ict
gxpm`ligj `gr tdg ogd`vlcr cffurs.
 Xsyfdcmcklsts `rg jlgrgit ercb `strcmckgrs, t`itrlas `ij p`mb rg`jgrs ogf`usg tdgy
systgb`f`mmy gx`blig o`sgj ci j`t` tc jgvgmcp prliflpmgs `ocut dub`i ogd`vlcr `ij ctdgr
psyfdcmcklf`m pdgicbgi`.

Fcbbci sgisg vs sflgif aicwmgjkg

 Vflgif aicwmgjkg kgigr`tgj oy psyfdcmcky cgi ruis `k`list fcbbci sgisg.
 Cig sufd gx`bpmg ls ` stujy pgrecrbgj oy Jwgfa (0<;7). Vdg w`s fcifgrigj wltd fdlmjrgi 
This document is...
wdc k`vg up tcc g`slmy wdgi e`fgj wltd ` jlfumt prcomgb cr e`lmurg. Vdg wcijgrgj dcw
 
tdgy fcumj og dgmpgj.
 Fcbbci sgisg tgmms us tc klvg tdgb g`sy prcomgbs li crjgr tc lifrg`sg tdglr suffgss r`tg sc
 

 Zdcsg wdc d`j `mw`ys suffggjgj ogf`usg tdgy wgrg klvgi g`sy prcomgbs, k`vg up bufd
of 13 e`stgr wdgi tdgy e`fgj e`lmurg td`i
tdcsg wdc d`j gxpgrlgifg ce octd suffgss `ij e`lmurg
`ij wgrg t`ukdt tc `rloutg e`lmurg tc tdglr m`fa ce gcrt.
 Vubb`ry Ce Jwgfa's Vtujy> ? Krcups ce stujgits. ? _cuijs.
 0st rcuij> Krp 0- Cimy G`sy subs.

Krp ?- Blx ce G`sy & Jlfumt

 Bcv`tgj wdgi tdgy w`itgj tc klvg up.

?ij rcuij> Krp0- Jl subs- K`vg up g`slmy.

  Krp ?- Jl subs- Xgrslstgj oggr.

Gvcmuci Ce Xsyfdcmcky
 Xsyfdcmcky `s ` bcjgri jlsflpmlig, wdlfd ls liugifgj tc ` m`rkg gxtgit oy [gstgri
jgvgmcpbgits,
 Lt krgw cut ce `iflgit pdlmcscpdy fcifgrigj wltd qugscis ce psyfdcmcklf`m slkilf`ifg.

Vtruftur`mlsts
 Zdg ecrb`m ogkliilik ce bcjgri psyfdcmcky ls tr`fgj o`fa tc 04;< wdgi tdg rst
gxpgrlbgit`m m`ocr`tcry w`s gst`omlsdgj li Mglpzlk, Kgrb`iy oy [lmdgmb [uijt.
 [uijt w`s litgrgstgj li tdg stujy ce fcisflcus gxpgrlgifg `ij w`itgj tc `i`myzg
tdg fcistugits cr tdg oulmjlik omcfas ce tdg blij.
 Xsyfdcmcklsts jurlik [uijt“s bg `i`myzgj tdg strufturg ce tdg blij tdrcukd
litrcspgfci `ij tdgrgecrg wgrg f`mmgj struftur`mlsts.
 Litrcspgfci w`s ` prcfgjurg li wdlfd lijlvlju`ms cr suongfts li psyfdcmcklf`m
gxpgrlbgits wgrg `sagj tc jgsfrlog li jgt`lm, tdglr cwi bgit`m prcfgssgs cr
gxpgrlgifgs.
 Litrcspgfci w`s fcisljgrgj mgss sflgif ogf`usg tdg litrcspgfvg rgpcrts
fcumj ict og vgrlgj oy cutsljg cosgrvgrs.

  Euifci`mlsts
 @i @bgrlf`i psyfdcmcklst, [lmml`b N`bgs, wdc d`j sgt up ` psyfdcmcklf`m m`ocr`tcry li
F`borljkg, `ij jgvgmcpgj wd`t w`s f`mmgj ` euifci`mlst `pprc`fd tc tdg stujy ce tdg
dub`i blij.
 [lmml`b N`bgs ogmlgvgj td`t listg`j ce ecfuslik ci tdg strufturg ce tdg blij, psyfdcmcky
sdcumj listg`j stujy wd`t tdg blij jcgs `ij dcw ogd`vlcr euifcis li b`alik pgcpmg
jg`m wltd tdglr givlrcibgit.
 Euifci`mlsts ecfusgj ci dcw ogd`vlcr gi`omgj pgcpmg tc s`sey tdglr iggjs.
 Ncdi Jgwgy usgj euifci`mlsb tc `rkug td`t dub`i ogliks sgga tc euifci ggfvgmy
oy `j`pik tc tdglr givlrcibgit. 
This document is...

 
 

  Kgst`mt psyfdcmcky
 @ igw pgrspgfvg f`mmgj Kgst`mt psyfdcmcky gbgrkgj li Kgrb`iy `s ` rg`fci tc tdg
 Kgst`mt psyfdcmcklsts `rkugj td`t wdgi wg mcca `t tdg wcrmj cur pgrfgptu`m gxpgrlgifg ls
struftur`mlsb ce [uijt.
of 13  bcrg td`ici
Lt ecfusgj tdgtdg
sub ce tdg fcbpcigits
crk`ilz`ci ce tdggxpgrlgifgs.
cepgrfgptu`m pgrfgpci.
 [d`t wg gxpgrlgifg ls bcrg td`i tdg liputs rgfglvgj ercb cur givlrcibgit.
 Cur pgrfgptu`m gxpgrlgifg ls bcrg td`i tdg gmgbgits.
 Gxpgrlgifg ls dcmlsf1 lt ls ` Kgst`mt (puik tckgtdgr)

  Ogd`vlcrlsb - Ncdi [`tsci

 @ffcrjlik tc [`tsci, blij ls ict cosgrv`omg, `ij litrcspgfci ls suongfvg ogf`usg
lt f`iict og vgrlgj oy `ictdgr cosgrvgr.
 @ffcrjlik tc dlb, sflgif psyfdcmcky bust ecfus ci wd`t ls cosgrv`omg `ij
vgrl`omg.
 Dg jgigj psyfdcmcky `s ` stujy ce ogd`vlcr cr rgspcisgs wdlfd f`i og bg`surgj
`ij stujlgj congfvgmy.
 Ogd`vlcrlsb ce [`tsci w`s eurtdgr jgvgmcpgj oy b`iy psyfdcmcklsts wdc `rg aicwi
`s ogd`vlcrlsts.
 Ogd`vlcrlsts jcbli`tgj tdg gmj ce psyfdcmcky ecr sgvgr`m jgf`jgs `gr [`tsci.

  Xsyfdc`i`mysls
 Erguj vlgwgj dub`i ogd`vlcr `s ` b`ilegst`ci ce uifcisflcus jgslrgs `ij fcilfts.

 Dg ecuijgj psyfdc`i`mysls `s ` systgb tc uijgrst`ij `ij furg psyfdcmcklf`m jlscrjgrs.

 [dlmg Ergujl`i psyfdc`i`mysls vlgwgj dub`i ogliks `s bcv`tgj oy uifcisflcus jgslrg ecr

kr`f`ci ce pmg`surg-sggalik jgslrgs

  Dub`ilsf pgrspgfvg
 Zdg dub`ilsf pgrspgfvg li psyfdcmcky tcca ` bcrg pcslvg vlgw ce dub`i i`turg.

 Dub`ilsts, sufd `s F`rm _ckgrs `ij @or`d`b B`smcw, gbpd`slzgj tdg ergg wlmm ce dub`i

ogliks `ij tdglr i`tur`m strlvlik tc krcw `ij uiecmj tdglr liigr pctgi`m.
 Zdgy `rkugj td`t ogd`vlcrlsb wltd lts gbpd`sls ci ogd`vlcr `s jgtgrbligj oy

givlrcibgit`m fcijlcis uijgrbligs dub`i erggjcb `ij jlkilty.

Fckilvg pgrspgfvg
 Kgst`mt `pprc`fd `ij struftur`mlsb wgrg fcboligj `ij mgj tc tdg jgvgmcpbgit ce tdg

fckilvg pgrspgfvg wdlfd ecfusgs ci dcw wg aicw `ocut tdg wcrmj.

 Fckilci ls tdg prcfgss ce aicwlik.

 Lt livcmvgs tdlialik, uijgrst`ijlik, pgrfglvlik, bgbcrlzlik, prcomgb scmvlik `ij ` dcst ce

ctdgr bgit`m prcfgssgs oy wdlfd cur aicwmgjkg ce tdg wcrmj jgvgmcps, b`alik us `omg tc
jg`m wltd tdg givlrcibgit li spgflf w`ys.
 Xsyfdcmcklsts vlgw tdg  dub`i blij `s `i liecrb`ci prcfgsslik systgb mlag tdg fcbputgr.

This document is...
Fcistrufvlsb  
 Bcjgri fckilvg psyfdcmcky vlgws dub`i ogliks `s `fvgmy fcistrufik tdglr blijs 
 

 ‖ 
Xl`kgt ‖fdlmjrgi `fvgmy fcistruft tdglr cwi blijs.
of 13
 ‖ 
Uykctsay -blij ls vlgwgj`s ` nclit fumtur`m fcistrufci tdrcukd nclit litgr`fci
ogtwggi fdlmjrgi `ij `jumts.

Jgvgmcpbgit ce psyfdcmcky li Lijl`

 Dg tr`fgs bcjgri psyfdcmcky `s scfl`m sflgifg li : pd`sgs>
 0st pd`sg ‖mm lijgpgijgifg gxpgrlbgits `ij psyfdcmcklf`m tgsik
 ?ij pd`sg- gxp`islci ce psyfdcmcky li Lijl` litc jlgrgit or`ifdgs ‖Lijl`i psyfdcmcklst
sdcwgj jgslrg tc d`vg `i Lijl`i ljgity oy sggalik tc mlia [gstgri psyfdcmcky tc Lijl`i
fcitgxt.
 6rj pd`sg ‖ Xrcomgb crlgitgj rgsg`rfd, `jjrgsslik prcomgbs ce Lijl`i scflgty.
 :td pd`sg ‖Jgvgmcpbgit li lijlkgicus psyfdcmcky wdlfd crlkli`tgj ercb tdg Lijl`i fumtur`m
fcitgxt `ij w`s rgmgv`it ecr scflgty `ij Lijl`i psyfdcmcky o`sgj ci Lijl`i tr`jlci`m
aicwmgjkg systgb.
 Xsyfdcmcky ls `ppmlgj li jlvgrsg prcegsslci`m `rg`s>
 ‖ 
Fdlmjrgi wltd spgfl`m iggjs
 ‖ 
Dcsplt`ms
 ‖ 
Crk`ilz`cis li D_J
 ‖ 
@jvgrslik jgp`rtbgits
 ‖ 
Vpcrts

Or`ifdgs Ce Xsyfdcmcky
 Fckilvg Xsyfdcmcky livgsk`tgs bgit`m prcfgssgs livcmvgj li `fqulslci, stcr`kg,
b`ilpum`ci, `ij tr`isecrb`ci ce liecrb`ci rgfglvgj ercb tdg givlrcibgit `mcik wltd
lts usg `ij fcbbuilf`ci.
 ‖ 
Zdg b`ncr fckilvg prcfgssgs `rg `gici, pgrfgpci, bgbcry, rg`scilik, prcomgb
scmvlik, jgflslci-b`alik `ij m`iku`kg.
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklsts fcijuft gxpgrlbgits li m`ocr`tcry sgiks. Vcbg ce tdgb `msc ecmmcw
`i gfcmcklf`m `pprc`fd, l.g., `i `pprc`fd wdlfd ecfusgs ci tdg givlrcibgit`m e`ftcrs,
tc stujy fckilvg prcfgssgs li ` i`tur`m sgik.
 ‖ 
Fckilvg psyfdcmcklsts cgi fcmm`ocr`tg wltd igurcsflgists `ij fcbputgr
sflgists.
 Olcmcklf`m Xsyfdcmcky ecfusgs ci tdg rgm`cisdlp ogtwggi ogd`vlcr `ij tdg pdyslf`m
systgb, lifmujlik tdg or`li `ij tdg rgst ce tdg igrvcus systgb, tdg lbbuig systgb, `ij
kgigfs.
 ‖ 
Olcmcklf`m psyfdcmcklsts cgi fcmm`ocr`tg wltd igurcsflgists, zccmcklsts, `ij
`itdrcpcmcklsts.
 ‖ 
Igurcpsyfdcmcky d`s gbgrkgj `s ` gmj ce rgsg`rfd wdgrg psyfdcmcklsts `ij

igurcsflgists `rg wcralik tckgtdgr. This document is...
 ‖ 
_gsg`rfdgrs `rg stujylik tdg rcmg ce igurctr`isblgrs cr fdgblf`m suost`ifgs wdlfd  
`rg rgspcislomg ecr igur`m fcbbuilf`ci li jlgrgit `rg`s ce tdg or`li `ij tdgrgecrg
  li `sscfl`tgj bgit`m euifcis.
 ‖ 
Zdgy jc tdglr rgsg`rfd ci pgcpmg wltd icrb`m euifcilik or`li `s wgmm `s ci pgcpmg
wltd j`b`kgj or`li oy ecmmcwlik `jv`ifgj tgfdicmcklgs mlag GGK, XGZ `ij eB_L, gtf.
 ‖ 
Li g`rmlgr yg`rs b`ncr gbpd`sls w`s ci fdlmj `ij `jcmgsfgit jgvgmcpbgit, tcj`y `i
 Jgvgmcpbgit`m Xsyfdcmcky stujlgs tdg pdyslf`m, scfl`m `ij psyfdcmcklf`m fd`ikgs td`t cffur
of 13 lifrg`slik iubogr ce jgvgmcpbgit`m psyfdcmcklsts sdcw strcik litgrgst li `jumt
`t jlgrgit `kgs `ij st`kgs cvgr `  mlegsp`i, ercb fcifgpci tc cmj `kg.
jgvgmcpbgit `ij `kglik.
 ‖ 
Zdgy ecfus ci tdg olcmcklf`m, scflc-fumtur`m `ij givlrcibgit`m e`ftcrs td`t liugifg
psyfdcmcklf`m fd`r`ftgrlsfs sufd `s litgmmlkgifg, fckilci, gbcci, tgbpgr`bgit,
bcr`mlty, `ij scfl`m rgm`cisdlp.
 ‖ 
Jgvgmcpbgit`m psyfdcmcklsts fcmm`ocr`tg wltd `itdrcpcmcklsts, gjuf`cilsts,
igurcmcklsts, scfl`m wcragrs, fcuisgmmcrs `ij `mbcst gvgry or`ifd ce aicwmgjkg wdgrg
tdgrg ls ` fcifgri ecr krcwtd `ij jgvgmcpbgit ce ` dub`i oglik.
 Vcfl`m Xsyfdcmcky gxpmcrgs dcw pgcpmg `rg `gftgj oy tdglr scfl`m givlrcibgits, dcw
pgcpmg tdlia `ocut `ij liugifg ctdgrs.
 ‖ 
Vcfl`m psyfdcmcklsts `rg litgrgstgj li sufd tcplfs `s `tujgs, fciecrblty `ij
cogjlgifg tc `utdcrlty, litgrpgrsci`m `r`fci, dgmpeum ogd`vlcr, prgnujlfg,
`kkrgsslci, scfl`m bcv`ci, litgr-krcup rgm`cis `ij sc ci.
 Frcss-fumtur`m `ij Fumtur`m Xsyfdcmcky gx`bligs tdg rcmg ce fumturg li uijgrst`ijlik
ogd`vlcr, tdcukdt, `ij gbcci.
 ‖ 
Lt `ssubgs td`t dub`i ogd`vlcr ls ict cimy ` rggfci ce dub`i-olcmcklf`m pctgi`m
out `msc ` prcjuft ce fumturg. 
 ‖ 
Zdgrgecrg, ogd`vlcr sdcumj og stujlgj li lts scflc-fumtur`m fcitgxt.
 ‖ 
Fumturg liugifgs dub`i ogd`vlcr li b`iy w`ys `ij li v`rylik jgkrggs.
 Givlrcibgit`m Xsyfdcmcky stujlgs tdg litgr`fci ce  pdyslf`m e`ftcrs sufd `s tgbpgr`turg,
dubljlty, pcmmuci, `ij i`tur`m jls`stgrs ci dub`i ogd`vlcr.
 ‖ 
Zdg liugifg ce pdyslf`m `rr`ikgbgit ce tdg wcrapm`fg ci dg`mtd, tdg gbcci`m
st`tg, `ij litgrpgrsci`m rgm`cis `rg `msc livgsk`tgj.
 ‖ 
Furrgit tcplfs ce rgsg`rfd li tdls gmj `rg tdg gxtgit tc wdlfd, jlspcs`m ce w`stg,
pcpum`ci gxpmcslci, gflgit usg ce fcbbuilty rgscurfgs ls `sscfl`tgj wltd `ij `rg
euifcis ce dub`i ogd`vlcr.
 Dg`mtd Xsyfdcmcky ecfusgs ci tdg rcmg ce psyfdcmcklf`m e`ftcrs (ecr gx`bpmg, strgss, `ixlgty)
li tdg jgvgmcpbgit, prgvgici `ij trg`tbgit ce lmmigss.
 ‖ 
@rg`s ce litgrgst ecr ` dg`mtd psyfdcmcklst `rg strgss `ij fcplik, tdg rgm`cisdlp
ogtwggi psyfdcmcklf`m e`ftcrs `ij dg`mtd, p`git-jcftcr rgm`cisdlp `ij w`ys ce
prcbcik dg`mtd gid`iflik e`ftcrs.
 Fmlilf`m `ij Fcuisgmmlik Xsyfdcmcky jg`ms wltd f`usgs, trg`tbgit `ij prgvgici ce
jlgrgit typgs ce psyfdcmcklf`m jlscrjgrs sufd `s `ixlgty, jgprgsslci, g`ik jlscrjgrs `ij
fdrcilf suost`ifg `ousg.
 ‖ 
@ rgm`tgj `rg` ls fcuisgmmlik, wdlfd `lbs tc lbprcvg gvgryj`y euifcilik oy dgmplik
pgcpmg scmvg prcomgbs li j`lmy mlvlik `ij fcpg bcrg ggfvgmy wltd fd`mmgiklik 
This document is...
sltu`cis.
 
 ‖ 
Zdg wcra ce fmlilf`m psyfdcmcklsts jcgs ict jlgr ercb td`t ce fcuisgmmlik
psyfdcmcklsts `mtdcukd ` fcuisgmmlik psyfdcmcklst scbgbgs jg`ms wltd pgcpmg wdc
 

 ‖ 
Mlag fmlilf`m psyfdcmcklsts, psyfdl`trlsts `msc stujy tdg f`usgs, trg`tbgit, `ij
of 13 prgvgici ce psyfdcmcklf`m jlscrjgrs.


FMLILF@M XV\FDCMCKLVZ XV\FDL@Z_LVZ

@ fmlilf`m psyfdcmcklst d`s ` jgkrgg li
psyfdcmcky, wdlfd lifmujgs litgislvg tr`lilik
li trg`ik pgcpmg wltd psyfdcmcklf`m
jlscrjgrs.
Fmlilf`m psyfdcmcklst f`iict prgsfrlog
bgjlf`cis `ij klvg gmgftrcsdcfa
trg`tbgits.
@ psyfdl`trlst d`s ` bgjlf`m jgkrgg wltd yg`rs ce
spgfl`mlzgj tr`lilik li tdg trg`tbgit ce
psyfdcmcklf`m jlscrjgrs.
Xsyfdl`trlsts f`i prgsfrlog bgjlf`cis `ij klvg
gmgftrcsdcfa trg`tbgits.

 Lijustrl`m/Crk`ilz`ci`m Xsyfdcmcky jg`ms wltd wcrapm`fg ogd`vlcr, ecfuslik ci octd tdg

wcragrs `ij tdg crk`ilz`cis td`t gbpmcy tdgb.
Lijustrl`m/crk`ilz`ci`m psyfdcmcklsts `rg fcifgrigj wltd tr`lilik gbpmcyggs,
 ‖ 

lbprcvlik wcra fcijlcis, `ij jgvgmcplik frltgrl` ecr sgmgfik gbpmcyggs.

Zdg o`fakrcuij ce lijustrl`m `ij crk`ilz`ci`m psyfdcmcklsts cgi lifmujgs
 ‖ 

tr`lilik li fckilvg `ij scfl`m psyfdcmcky.

 Vpcrts Xsyfdcmcky `ppmlgs psyfdcmcklf`m prliflpmgs tc lbprcvg spcrts pgrecrb`ifg oy
gid`iflik tdglr bcv`ci. 
Vpcrts psyfdcmcky ls ` rgm`vgmy igw gmj out ls k`lilik `ffgpt`ifg wcrmjwljg.
 ‖ 

 Gjuf`ci`m Xsyfdcmcky stujlgs dcw pgcpmg ce `mm `kgs mg`ri.

Gjuf`ci`m psyfdcmcklsts prlb`rlmy dgmp jgvgmcp listrufci`m bgtdcjs `ij b`tgrl`ms
 ‖ 

usgj tc tr`li pgcpmg li octd gjuf`ci`m `ij wcra sgiks.

Zdgy `rg `msc fcifgrigj wltd rgsg`rfd ci lssugs ce rgmgv`ifg ecr gjuf`ci,
 ‖ 

fcuisgmmlik `ij mg`rilik prcomgbs.

@ rgm`tgj gmj, sfdccm psyfdcmcky, ecfusgs ci jgslkilik prckr`bbgs td`t
 ‖ 

prcbctg litgmmgftu`m, scfl`m, `ij gbcci`m jgvgmcpbgit ce fdlmjrgi, lifmujlik tdcsg

wltd spgfl`m iggjs. Zdgy try tc `ppmy aicwmgjkg ce psyfdcmcky li ` sfdccm sgik.
 Ctdgr Gbgrklik Or`ifdgs ce Xsyfdcmcky> Zdg litgrjlsflpmli`ry ecfus ci rgsg`rfd `ij
`ppmlf`ci ce psyfdcmcky d`s mgj tc tdg gbgrkgifg ce v`rlgj `rg`s mlag `vl`ci psyfdcmcky,
sp`fg psyfdcmcky, blmlt`ry psyfdcmcky, ecrgislf psyfdcmcky, rur`m psyfdcmcky, gikliggrlik
psyfdcmcky, b`i`kgrl`m psyfdcmcky, fcbbuilty psyfdcmcky, psyfdcmcky ce wcbgi, `ij
pcmlf`m psyfdcmcky, tc i`bg ` egw.

Zdgbgs Ce _gsg`rfd `ij @ppmlf`cis

Zdgrg `rg sgvgr`m tdgbgs wdlfd prcvljg jlrgfci tc rgsg`rfd `ij `ppmlf`ci. Vcbg ce tdg tdgbgs
`rg> 
This document is...
Zdgbg 0> Xsyfdcmcky mlag ctdgr sflgifgs `gbpts tc jgvgmcp prliflpmgs ce ogd`vlcr `ij bgit`m
 
prcfgssgs.
Li rgsg`rfd, tdg b`li fcifgri ls wltd tdg uijgrst`ijlik `ij gxpm`i`ci ce ogd`vlcr `ij
 ‖ 
 

bgit`m gvgits `ij prcfgssgs.

 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklsts, wdc fdccsg tc gik`kg li rgsg`rfd, euifci bcrg mlag ctdgr sflgists. Mlag
gxpgrlbgits cr stujlgs
tdgb, tdgy jr`w uijgr wdlfd
fcifmuslcis fcitrcmmgj  fcijlcis
`rg suppcrtgj oyci ` wljg
j`t` r`ikg
. Zdgy ce psyfdcmcklf`m
jgslki `ij fcijuft
of 13 pdgicbgi`. 
 ‖ 
Zdg purpcsg ls tc jgvgmcp kgigr`m prliflpmgs `ocut ogd`vlcr `ij bgit`m prcfgssgs.
 ‖ 
Zdg fcifmuslcis jr`wi ci tdg o`sls ce sufd stujlgs `ppmy tc gvgryocjy `ij `rg,
tdgrgecrg, uilvgrs`m.
 ‖ 
Gxpgrlbgit`m, fcbp`r`vg, pdyslcmcklf`m, jgvgmcpbgit`m,
 ‖ 
scfl`m, jlgrgi`m `ij `oicrb`m psyfdcmcky `rg kgigr`mmy rgk`rjgj `s jcb`lis
rgprgsgiik ”o`slf psyfdcmcky‒.
 ‖ 
Zdg tdgbgs ce rgsg`rfd li tdgsg gmjs jlgr ercb g`fd ctdgr. Ecr gx`bpmg, gxpgrlbgit`m
psyfdcmcklsts stujy tdg prcfgssgs ce pgrfgpci, mg`rilik, bgbcry, tdlialik, `ij
bcv`ci, gtf., uslik gxpgrlbgit `s tdglr bgtdcj ce giqulry, wdgrg`s pdyslcmcklf`m
psyfdcmcklsts `gbpt tc gx`blig pdyslcmcklf`m o`sgs ce tdgsg ogd`vlcrs.
 ‖ 
Jgvgmcpbgit`m psyfdcmcklsts“ stujy qu`mlt`vg `ij qu`it`vg fd`ikgs li ogd`vlcr
ercb tdg ogkliilik ce dub`i mleg tc lts gij, wdgrg`s scfl`m psyfdcmcklsts ecfus ci tdg
stujy ce gxpgrlgifg `ij ogd`vlcr ce lijlvlju`ms `s tdgy t`ag pm`fg li scfl`m fcitgxts.

Zdgbg ?> Dub`i ogd`vlcr ls ` euifci ce tdg `rloutgs ce pgrscis `ij givlrcibgit.
 ‖ 
Aurt Mgwli rst prcpcsgj tdg e`bcus gqu`ci O 2 e (X, G)  ‖ wdlfd sukkgsts td`t ogd`vlcr ls
tdg prcjuft ce ` pgrsci `ij dgr/ dls givlrcibgit.
 ‖ 
Lt s`ys td`t -Zdg v`rl`cis wg ij li dub`i ogd`vlcr `rg m`rkgmy jug tc tdg e`ft td`t pgrscis
jlgr wltd rgspgft tc tdglr v`rlcus `rloutgs ogf`usg ce tdglr kgigf gijcwbgits `ij
jlvgrsg gxpgrlgifgs `ij sc jc tdg givlrcibgits tdgy `rg pm`fgj li.
 ‖ 
Ic twc lijlvlju`ms `rg tdg s`bg le cig fcisljgrs tdglr psyfdcmcklf`m `rloutgs.
 ‖ 
Zdgy v`ry wltd rgspgft tc tdglr litgmmlkgifg, litgrgsts, v`mugs, `ptujgs `ij v`rlcus ctdgr
pgrsci`mlty fd`r`ftgrlsfs. Xsyfdcmcklf`m tgsts f`bg tc og fcistruftgj tc bg`surg sufd
jlgrgifgs.
 ‖ 
Jlgrgi`m psyfdcmcky ls ` jlsflpmlig wdlfd ecfusgj ci lijlvlju`m jlgrgifgs curlsdgj li
tdg m`tg iligtggitd `ij g`rmy twgigtd fgitury.
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklsts ogmlgvg td`t `mtdcukd, fcrg psyfdcmcklf`m prcfgssgs `rg uilvgrs`m, tdgy `rg
susfgpomg tc lijlvlju`m jlspcslcis. 
 ‖ 
Ogsljgs lijlvlju`m jlgrgifgs, psyfdcmcklsts `msc ogmlgvg td`t tdgrg `rg v`rl`cis li
ogd`vlcr wdlfd cffur jug tc givlrcibgit`m e`ftcrs wdlfd ls ` vlgw psyfdcmcklst d`vg t`agi
ercb `itdrcpcmcklsts, gvcmuci`ry tdgcrlsts `ij olcmcklsts.
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklsts mcca ecr gxpm`i`cis ce v`rlcus psyfdcmcklf`m pdgicbgi` o`sgj ci lijlvlju`m-
givlrcibgit litgr`fcis.

Zdgbg 6> Dub`i ogd`vlcr ls f`usgj. 

This document is...
 ‖ 
Bcst psyfdcmcklsts ogmlgvg td`t `mm dub`i ogd`vlcr f`i og gxpm`ligj li tgrbs ce f`usgs
 
wdlfd `rg litgri`m (tc tdg crk`ilsb) cr gxtgri`m d`vlik mcf`ci li tdg cutsljg
givlrcibgit.
 

 ‖ 
@mtdcukd, psyfdcmcklsts mcca ecr f`us`m gxpm`i`cis ce ogd`vlcr, tdgy `msc rg`mlzg tdcsg
of 13 slbpmg mlig`r gxpm`i`cis, sufd `s  T F`uslik \ jc ict dcmj trug. Zdgrg ls ic cig f`usg ce
ogd`vlcr. Dub`i ogd`vlcr d`s bumpmg f`usgs.
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklsts, tdgrgecrg, mcca ecr litgrjgpgijgit v`rl`omgs `rg usgj tc gxpm`li ` ogd`vlcr.
 ‖ 
[dgi lt ls s`lj td`t ogd`vlcr d`s bumpmg f`usgs, lt bg`is td`t lt ls jlfumt tc plipclit cig
f`usg ce ` ogd`vlcr ogf`usg lt b`y ltsgme og f`usgj oy `ictdgr v`rl`omg, wdlfd li turi b`y
og f`usgj oy scbg ctdgr.

Zdgbg :> Wijgrst`ijlik ce dub`i ogd`vlcr ls fumtur`mmy fcistruftgj.

@ tdgbg wdlfd d`s rgfgitmy sure`fgj.
 ‖ 

Zdgrg `rg psyfdcmcklsts wdc ogmlgvg td`t bcst psyfdcmcklf`m tdgcrlgs `ij bcjgms `rg Gurc-
 ‖ 

@bgrlf`i li i`turg `ij tdgrgecrg, jc ict dgmp us li uijgrst`ijlik ogd`vlcrs li ctdgr

fumtur`m sgiks.
Xsyfdcmcklsts ercb @sl`, @erlf` `ij M`i @bgrlf` d`vg oggi frlf`m ce Gurc-@bgrlf`i
 ‖ 

`pprc`fdgs wdlfd `rg prcp`k`tgj `s uilvgrs`m.

@ slblm`r frlqug ls b`jg oy egblilsts wdc `rkug td`t psyfdcmcky cgrs ` b`mg pgrspgfvg
 ‖ 

`ij lkicrgs tdg pgrspgfvg ce wcbgi.

Zdgy `rkug li e`vcr ce ` jl`mgff`m `pprc`fd wdlfd wlmm `ffcbbcj`tg octd b`mg `ij egb`mg
 ‖ 

pgrspgfvgs li uijgrst`ijlik dub`i ogd`vlcr.

Zdgbg 7> Dub`i ogd`vlcr f`i og fcitrcmmgj `ij bcjlgj tdrcukd tdg `ppmlf`ci ce
psyfdcmcklf`m prliflpmgs.
Vflgists, tdglr fcifgri `rlsgs ercb tdglr jgslrg tc jgvgmcp tgfdilqugs cr bgtdcjs td`t wlmm
 ‖ 

lbprcvg tdg qu`mlty ce dub`i mleg. Xsyfdcmcklsts `msc sgga tdg s`bg wdlmg.
`ppmylik aicwmgjkg kgigr`tgj oy tdgb.
 ‖ 

Xsyfdcmcklsts b`ag fgrt`li litgrvgicis litc tdg mlvgs ce iggjy pgcpmg.

 ‖ 

Zdls `ppmlgj rcmg ce psyfdcmcklsts d`s ci tdg cig d`ij, orcukdt tdg suongft fmcsgr tc tdg mleg
 ‖ 

ce pgcpmg li kgigr`m.
Ci tdg ctdgr d`ij, tdls rcmg d`s `msc oggi vgry dgmpeum li pcpum`rlzlik psyfdcmcky `s `
 ‖ 

suongft li ltsgme.
Zdus, sgvgr`m lijgpgijgit or`ifdgs ce psyfdcmcky d`vg gbgrkgj td`t try tc usg
 ‖ 

psyfdcmcklf`m tdgcrlgs, prliflpmgs `ij e`fts tc jl`kicsg `ij rgscmvg prcomgbs rgm`tgj tc

lijustrl`m `ij crk`ilz`ci`m sgiks, fmlilf`m sgrvlfgs, gjuf`ci, givlrcibgit, dg`mtd,
fcbbuilty jgvgmcpbgit `ij sc ci.
Lijustrl`m psyfdcmcky, crk`ilz`ci`m psyfdcmcky, fmlilf`m psyfdcmcky, gjuf`ci`m psyfdcmcky,
 ‖ 

gikliggrlik psyfdcmcky `ij spcrts psyfdcmcky rgprgsgit scbg ce tdg `rg`s li wdlfd
psyfdcmcklsts `rg gik`kgj li jgmlvgrlik sgrvlfgs tc lijlvlju`ms, krcups cr listucis.

O`slf vs @ppmlgj Xsyfdcmcky. 

This document is...
 U`rlcus `rg`s ce Xsyfdcmcky `rg put uijgr ”o`slf‒ `ij ”`ppmlgj‒ psyfdcmcky ci tdg o`sls ce
 
tdglr gbpd`sls ci tdg stujy ce fgrt`li suongft b`grs `ij orc`jgr fcifgris. Zdgrg ls ic
sd`rp fmg`v`kg ogtwggi rgsg`rfd `ij `ppmlf`ci ce psyfdcmcky.
 

 O`slf psyfdcmcky prcvljgs us wltd tdgcrlgs `ij prliflpmgs td`t ecrb tdg o`sls ce `ppmlf`ci
ce psyfdcmcky.
 _gsg`rfd ls `i litgkr`m p`rt ce psyfdcmcky.
 @ij `ppmlgj psyfdcmcky prcvljgs us wltd jlgrgit fcitgxts li wdlfd tdg tdgcrlgs `ij
of 13 Jug tc gvgr lifrg`slik jgb`ijs
 ‖ 

 ogce`ppmlgj.
psyfdcmcky li jlgrgit sgiks, b`iy gmjs td`t
prliflpmgs jgrlvgj ercb rgsg`rfd f`i
wgrg rgk`rjgj `s prlb`rlmy ”rgsg`rfd crlgitgj‒ d`vg `msc kr`ju`mmy turigj litc
”`ppmlf`ci-crlgitgj‒.
 Ic Euij`bgit`m jlgrgifg tdgsg `fvlgs `rg litgrrgm`tgj `ij rgliecrflik.

Xsyfdcmcky `ij ctdgr jlsflpmligs

 @iy jlsflpmlig, wdlfd jg`ms wltd pgcpmg, wcumj jgiltgmy rgfckilzg tdg rgmgv`ifg ce tdg
aicwmgjkg ce psyfdcmcky. Vlblm`rmy, psyfdcmcklsts `msc `faicwmgjkg tdg rgmgv`ifg ce ctdgr
jlsflpmligs li uijgrst`ijlik dub`i ogd`vlcr.
 Li stujylik or`li `ij ogd`vlcr, psyfdcmcky sd`rgs lts aicwmgjkg wltd igurcmcky, pdyslcmcky,
olcmcky, bgjlflig `ij fcbputgr sflgifg.
 Li stujylik dub`i ogd`vlcr li ` scflc-fumtur`m fcitgxt, psyfdcmcky sd`rgs lts aicwmgjkg wltd
`itdrcpcmcky, scflcmcky, scfl`m wcra, pcmlf`m sflgifg `ij gfcicblfs.
 Li stujylik bgit`m `fvlgs livcmvgj li frg`ci ce mltgr`ry tgxts, buslf `ij jr`b`,
psyfdcmcky sd`rgs lts aicwmgjkg wltd mltgr`turg, `rt `ij buslf.
 Vcbg ce tdg b`ncr jlsflpmligs mliagj tc tdg gmj ce psyfdcmcky `rg jlsfussgj ogmcw -

 Xdlmcscpdy
Wim tdg gij ce tdg 0<td fgitury, wd`t ls tdg i`turg ce tdg blij cr dcw jc dub`is
 ‖ 

fcbg tc aicw tdglr bcv`cis `ij gbccis wgrg tdg fcifgris ce pdlmcscpdgrs.
Li tdg m`tgr p`rt ce tdg 0<td fgitury, [uijt `ij ctdgr psyfdcmcklsts `jcptgj `i
 ‖ 

gxpgrlbgit`m `pprc`fd tc tdgsg qugscis `ij fcitgbpcr`ry psyfdcmcky gbgrkgj.

 Gfcicblfs, Xcmlf`m Vflgifg `ij Vcflcmcky
Xsyfdcmcky d`s fcitrloutgj ` krg`t jg`m tc tdg stujy ce blfrc-mgvgm gfcicblf 
 ‖ 

ogd`vlcr, p`rfum`rmy li uijgrst`ijlik fcisubgr ogd`vlcr, s`vliks ogd`vlcr `ij li

jgflslci b`alik.
Xcmlf`m sflgifg tcc jr`ws fcisljgr`omy ercb psyfdcmcky, p`rfum`rmy, li
 ‖ 

uijgrst`ijlik lssugs rgm`tgj tc gxgrflsg ce pcwgr `ij `utdcrlty, i`turg ce pcmlf`m

fcilfts `ij tdglr rgscmucis, `ij vcik ogd`vlcr.
Vcflcmcky `ij psyfdcmcky fcbg tckgtdgr tc gxpm`li `ij uijgrst`ij tdg ogd`vlcr ce
 ‖ 

lijlvlju`ms wltdli jlgrgit scflc-fumtur`m fcitgxts. Lssugs rgm`tgj tc scfl`mlz`ci,

krcup `ij fcmmgfvg ogd`vlcr, `ij litgrkrcup fcilfts k`li ercb octd tdgsg
jlsflpmligs.


 Fcbputgr Vflgifg This document is...

 ‖ 
Ercb tdg vgry ogkliilik, tdg gcrt ce fcbputgr sflgifg d`s oggi li blblfalik tdg  
dub`i blij.
 

 ‖ 
Jcftcrs d`vg rg`mlzgj td`t tdg b`xlb, - dg`mtdy ocjy rgqulrgs ` dg`mtdy blij, ls `ftu`mmy
of 13 trug. @ m`rkg iubogr ce dcsplt`ms icw gbpmcy psyfdcmcklsts. Zdg rcmg ce psyfdcmcklsts li
prgvgiik pgcpmg ercb gik`klik li dg`mtd d`z`rjcus ogd`vlcrs `ij li `jdgrlik tc tdg
prgsfrlogj jcftcrs“ rgklbgi `rg scbg ce tdg lbpcrt`it `rg`s wdgrg tdg twc jlsflpmligs
d`vg fcbg tckgtdgr.
 ‖ 
[dlmg trg`ik p`gits sugrlik ercb f`ifgr, @LJV, `ij tdg pdyslf`mmy fd`mmgikgj gtf.
jcftcrs d`vg `msc egmt tdg iggj ecr psyfdcmcklf`m fcuisgmmlik.
 M`w `ij Frlblicmcky
 ‖ 
@ salmmgj m`wygr `ij ` frlblicmcklst rgqulrg aicwmgjkg ce psyfdcmcky li `iswgrlik sufd
qugscis `s> Dcw wgmm ` wltigss rgbgbogrs `i `ffljgit, ` strggt kdt, cr ` burjgr3
Dcw wgmm f`i s/dg rgpcrt sufd e`fts wdgi t`alik tdg wltigss st`ij li tdg fcurt3 [d`t `rg
tdg jgpgij`omg slkis ce kulmt `ij e`msgdccj3
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklsts sgga tc `iswgr tdgsg qugscis tdrcukd rgsg`rfd. Zdgsg `iswgrs wcumj
dgmp tdg mgk`m systgb ce tdg fcuitry li tdg euturg.
 B`ss Fcbbuilf`ci
 ‖ 
Zdg prlit `ij tdg gmgftrcilf bgjl` d`vg gitgrgj li cur mlvgs li ` vgry olk w`y. Zdgy d`vg
` b`ncr liugifg ci cur tdlialik, `tujgs `ij cur gbccis.
 ‖ 
Zdg lbp`ft ce bgjl` ci tdg ecrb`ci ce `tujgs ce fdlmjrgi `ij tdglr ogd`vlcr
 ‖ 
@ ncuri`mlst li rgpcrik igws bust aicw tdg rg`jgr“s litgrgsts li tdg stcry.
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcky `msc dgmps li jgvgmcplik str`tgklgs ecr oggr `ij ggfvg fcbbuilf`ci.
 Buslf `ij Elig @rts
 ‖ 
Buslf `ij psyfdcmcky d`vg fcivgrkgj li b`iy `rg`s.
 ‖ 
Vflgists d`vg b`jg usg ce buslf li r`lslik wcra pgrecrb`ifg.
 ‖ 
Buslf `ij gbccis `rg `ictdgr `rg` li wdlfd ` iubogr ce stujlgs d`vg oggi
f`rrlgj cut.
 ‖ 
Buslfl`is li Lijl` d`vg rgfgitmy st`rtgj gxpgrlbgiik —Buslf Zdgr`py“.
 ‖ 
Li tdls tdgy usg jlgrgit —_`k`s“ ecr furlik fgrt`li pdyslf`m `lmbgits.
 ‖ 
Zdg gf`fy ce buslf tdgr`py smm rgb`lis tc og prcvgi.
 @rfdltgfturg `ij Gikliggrlik
 ‖ 
@sa `iy `rfdltgft, s/dg bust s`sey dgr/dls fmlgits oy prcvljlik bgit`m `ij pdyslf`m
sp`fg tdrcukd dgr jgslki `ij s`sey `gstdgf`mmy.
 ‖ 
Gikliggrs bust `msc t`ag litc `ffcuit dub`i d`olts li tdglr pm`is ecr s`egty, ecr gx`bpmg,
ci strggts `ij dlkdw`ys.
 ‖ 
Xsyfdcmcklf`m aicwmgjkg dgmps li ` olk w`y li jgslkilik ce `mm bgfd`ilf`m jgvlfgs `ij
jlspm`y.

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 Fmlilf`m psyfdcmcklsts spgfl`mlzg li dgmplik fmlgits wltd ogd`vlcr`m prcomgbs oy prcvljlik
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jlfumt sltu`cis ce mleg. `ij wcra ecr puomlf `kgiflgs sufd `s bgit`m dg`mtd fgitgrs,
of 13 dcsplt`ms, sfdccms, fcmmgkgs `ij uilvgrslgs.
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wcra wltd spgfl`m pcpum`cis sufd `s tdg gmjgrmy cr tdg pdyslf`mmy cr bgit`mmy fd`mmgikgj.
 Vfdccm psyfdcmcklsts -wcra li gjuf`ci`m systgbs dgmplik li tdg ecrbum`ci ce sfdccm
pcmlflgs `ij tc e`flmlt`tg fcbbuilf`ci ogtwggi p`rgits, tg`fdgrs `ij `jblilstr`tcrs gtf.
 Crk`ilz`ci`m psyfdcmcklsts -rgijgr dgmp li jg`mlik wltd prcomgbs td`t tdg gxgfuvgs `ij
gbpmcyggs ce `i crk`ilz`ci tgij tc e`fg li tdglr rgspgfvg rcmgs `ij wcra wltd
crk`ilz`cis `ij fcbp`ilgs. Zdgy crk`ilzg salmm tr`lilik prckr`bbgs li crjgr tc gid`ifg
tdglr gflgify `ij ggfvgigss.

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 O`sgj ci ycur lijlvlju`m gxpgrlgifg, gxpm`li dcw psyfdcmcky dgmp us li gvgryj`y mleg.
 Jg`ms wltd pgrsci`m prcomgbs ‖ lijlvlju`m prcomgbs.
 E`blmy- m`fa ce fcbbuilf`ci, litgr`fci wltd e`blmy bgbogrs
 M`rkgr krcup, fcbbuilty, i`ci cr litgri`ci`m jlbgislcis ‖ tgrrcrlst krcup cr scfl`mmy
lscm`tgj fcbbuilty
 Xrcomgbs rgm`tgj tc gjuf`ci, dg`mtd, givlrcibgit, scfl`m linusfg - scmucis b`y og
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 B`iy ce tdgsg prcomgbs `rg jug tc uidg`mtdy tdlialik, e`umty p`rgiik, igk`vg `tujg
tcw`rjs pgcpmg `ij sgme.
 Bgjl` pm`ys ` vlt`m rcmg ‖fcuisgmcrs, tdgr`plsts sukkgsik scmucis,
 Dgmps li Jgslkilik `ij jgvgmcplik litgrvgici prckr`bbgs tc prcvljg oggr qu`mlty ce mleg.
 Wijgrst`ij scfl`m prcomgbs mlag pcpum`ci, pcvgrty, litgrpgrsci`m rgm`cisdlp,
litgrpgrsci`m cr litgrkrcup vlcmgifg.
 Xsyfdcmcky ls rgmgv`it li uijgrst`ijlik `ij `i`myzlik ycur rgm`ci tc ctdgrs.
 [g iggj tc d`vg ` pcslvg `ij o`m`ifgj uijgrst`ijlik ce cigsgme.
 Xsyfdcmcklf`m prliflpmgs fcumj og `ppmlgj li jgvgmcplik kccj stujy d`olts, mg`rilik, bgbcry,
jgflslci b`alik, scmvlik pgrsci`m `ij litgrpgrsci`m prcomgbs.

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General Psychology
Uploaded by Nigussie Berhanu on Aug 12, 2022

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Chapter One: Essence of Psychology

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
Define psychology
Show historical roots of psychology as a science
Point out the goals of psychology
Identify early schools and modern perspectives of psychology
Discuss the basis of differences among perspectives of
 psychology
Identify subfields of psychology
Differentiate the major research methods in psychology
Explore the major steps of scientific research in psychology
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1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts

 The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words

' 
 psyche' and -logos‟.

  Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit while logos means study,

knowledge or discourse.

 Therefore, by combining the two Greek words the term

"psychology" epistemologically refers to the study of the
mind, soul, or sprit and it is often represented by the Greek

letter ᴪ (psi) which is read as ("sy").

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Cont’d
 The widely agreed definition of psychology
  Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and the
underlying mental process
 In the above definition, there are three aspects

Science : psychology uses scientific methods to study

 behavior and mental processes in both humans and animals.

Behavior: refers both overt actions and reactions  and

covert behavior.
Mental processes: refer to all the internal,
covert activities of our minds, such as
thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.

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Figure 2 Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.

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1.2. The four goals of psychology

A. Description: It involves observing the behavior and

noticing everything about it. It is a search for answers for
questions like:
 What is happening?
 Where does it happen?
 To whom does it happen?
 Under what circumstances does it seem to happen?.

Eg. A teacher might notice that a young freshman boy in his

general psychology classroom is behaving oddly. He is not
turning to his homework, his results are slipping badly, and he
seems to have a very negative attitude toward the course.

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Cont’d

B. Explanation (Why is it happening?)

 Explanation is about trying to find reasons for the observed behavior. This
helps in the process of forming theories of behavior.

 It is explanation of a set of observations or facts.

C. Prediction(forecasting about what will happen in the future)

  Will it happen again?

 It is about determining what will happen in the future.

 In the above example, the case of the freshman boy, the psychologist or
counselor would predict (based on previous research into similar situations)
that this boy may never be able to reach her full learning potential.

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Cont’d
D. Control: How can it be changed?

 In the example above, certain learning strategies can be used to

help the girl so that she will be successful in her academic
endeavor.
 How can it be changed?

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1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in

Psychology

 Relatively psychology is young discipline about 125 years

old.

  It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany,

with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in the
University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt.

  Wundt developed the technique of objective introspection to

scientifically examine mental experiences.

  Wundt as its founder or "father of modern psychology .”

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1.3.1. Early schools of psychology

 A school of thought is a system of thinking about a certain

issue, say, for example, about human behavior or mind.

 You may, for example, think that human behavior is all the
result of inheritance(biological approach), or you, may,
instead, say it is all the result of interaction with the
environment (an environmental approach ).

  There are five such early schools of psychology.

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1.Structuralism

 structuralism views psychology

as a study of structure of mind .

 It is an expansion of Wundt‘s
ideas by his student named Edward
Titchener (1867-1927).

 Titchener is the founder of structuralism.

 The goal of structuralists was to find out the units or elements,

which make up the mind such as; sensations, images, and feelings.

 The best-known method used by them was introspection  -looking

inward into our consciousness.

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2. Functionalism ( study of function of the mind)

 William James (1848-1910), who was the first American

 psychologist and the author of the first psychology textbook was
the founder.
 Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James  focused on how the mind
allows people to function in the real world; how people work,
 play, and adapt to their surroundings, a viewpoint he  called
functionalism.
 He developed many research
methods other than introspection
including questionnaires, mental tests
 and objective descriptions of behavior.
 According to functionalists, psychological processes are
adaptive. They allow humans to survive and to adapt
successfully to their surroundings.

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3.Gestalt psychology (study of the whole mind)

 Max Wertheimer and his colleagues founded this school of thought

in Germany in the 20th century.

 Gestalt psychologists argued that the mind is not made up of

combinations of elements.

 The German word "gestalt" refers to form, whole, configuration or

 pattern.

Figure Closure suggests that we will perceive a complete circle and

rectangle rather than a series of segments.

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  According to them " the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.”

 Generally what is common to all the three schools of though

is the fact that they all try to examine the human mind;
which is an internal, no-visible, and hidden experience of
human beings.

 This has led to the birth of a new paradigm of thought about

 psychology called behaviorism.

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4.Behaviorism

 Behaviorists view psychology as a study of observable and

measurable behaviors.
 John B. Watson , E. Thorndike and F. Skinner were proponents

 For Watson, psychology was the study

of observable and measurable behavior
and nothing more about hidden mental
 processes.

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As to Watson, behaviorism had three other important

characteristics in addition to its focus on behavior;

conditioned response as the elements or building blocks of

 behavior,
learned rather than unlearned behaviors,
and focus on animal behavior.

 He believed that all behaviors are learned but not inherited

and learners are passive and reactive  (they are not initiating
their learning but they respond when the environment
stimulates them).

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They used experimental observation as a means of

study

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5. Psychoanalysis

 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of psychoanalysis.

 Psychology studies about the components of the unconscious

 part of the human mind .

 As a physician, Sigmund Freud became convinced that some of

the physical illnesses of his patients didn‘t have medical or
bodily causes; but non-physical or emotional causes .

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 Freud argued that conscious

awareness is the tip of the
mental iceberg beneath the
visible tip lays the
unconscious part of the
mind.

 He used clinical case studies

(hypnosis and dream analysis) as
a method.
 

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1.3.2. Modern schools of psychology

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A. Psychodynamic perspective –

 Emphasizes the unconscious dynamics within the individual such as

inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy. The psychodynamic
approach emphasizes:

 The influence of unconscious mental behavior on everyday behavior

 The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult personality
 The role of intrapersonal  conflict in determining human behavior

 Psychodynamic perspective tries to dig below the surface of a person's

 behavior to get into unconscious motives; psychodynamists think of
themselves as archaeologists of the mind .

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2. Behavioral Perspective
 It emphasizes the role of learning experiences in shaping the
behavior of an organism.

 It is concerned with how the environment affects the person‘s

actions.

 Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions (e.g. rewards, and

 punishments) that maintain or discourage specific behaviors.

 The behavioral perspective is sometimes called the " black box"

approach in psychology because it treats the mind as less useful
in understanding human behavior and focus on what goes in to
and out of the box , but not on the processes that take place inside.

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  Stimuli Response
Mental
 process

 This means, behaviorists are only interested in the effects of

the environment (input) on behavior (output) but not in the
process inside the box.

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3. Humanistic Perspective

 According to this perspective, human

 behavior is not determined either by
unconscious dynamics or the environment.

 Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human beings and focuses

on human values and subjective experiences.

 This perspective places greater

importance on the individual‘s free will .

 The goal of humanistic psychology was helping people to

express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential or
self-actualization (developing the human potential to its fullest).

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4.Cognitive Perspective

 It emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people reason,

remember, understand language, solve problems, explain
experiences and form beliefs.

 This perspective is concerned

about the mental processes.

 show how people's thoughts and explanations affect their actions,

 feelings, and choices .

 Techniques used to explore behavior from a cognitive perspective

include electrical recording of brain activity , electrical stimulation
and radioactive tracing of metabolic activity in the nervous
system.

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5. Biological Perspective-
 It focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning of the
 body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts.

 It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals affect
 psychological processes such as learning, performance,
 perception of reality, the experience of emotions, etc.

 This perspective emphasizes that biology and behavior interact

in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and behavior in
turn affecting biology.

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6. Socio-cultural Perspective

 It focuses on the social and cultural

factors that affects human behavior.

E.g. Social psychologists examine how group membership affects

attitudes and behaviors, why authority and other people (like
spouse, lovers, friends, bosses, parents, and strangers) affect each of
us.

 Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural rules and

values (both explicit and unspoken) affect people's development,
behavior, and feelings.

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Summary of School of psychology

School of  Description Important contributors

 psychology

Structuralism Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener
elements or “structures” of psychological experience

Functionalism Attempts to understand why animals and humans have William James
developed the particular psychological aspects that they
currently possess
Psychodynamic Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler,
feelings, and memories and our early childhood Erik Erickson
experiences in determining behavior
Behaviorism Based on the premise that it is not possible to John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner
objectively study the mind, and therefore that
 psychologists should limit their attention to the study of
 behavior itself

Cognitive The study of mental processes, including perception, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederic
thinking, memory, and judgments Bartlett, Jean Piaget

Social-cultural The study of how the social situations and the cultures Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley
in which people find themselves influence thinking and Schachter 
 behavior

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1.4. Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology

  Developmental psychology  – studies the physical, cognitive and

 psychological changes across the life span.

  Personality Psychology - it focuses on the relatively enduring

traits and characteristics   of individuals. Personality
 psychologists study topics such as self-concept, aggression,
moral development, etc.

 Social Psychology - deals with people‘s social interactions,

relationships, social perception, and attitudes.

 Cross-cultural Psychology - examines the role of culture in

understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.

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Cont’d 

  Industrial psychology  – applies psychological principles in

industries and organizations to increase the productivity of that
organization.

    Forensic psychology - applies psychological principles to

improve the legal system (police, testimony, etc..).

  Educational Psychology - concerned with the application of

 psychological principles and theories in improving the
educational process including curriculum, teaching, and
administration of academic programs.

  Health Psychology - applies psychological principles to the

 prevention and treatment of physical illness and diseases.

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Cont’d 

 Clinical Psychology:-is a field that applies psychological

 principles to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
 psychological disorders.

 Counseling Psychology: - is a field having the same concern

as clinical psychology but helps individuals with less severe
 problems than those treated by clinical psychologists.

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1.5. Research Methods in Psychology

 A. Basic terms

 Scientific method - a process of testing ideas through
systematic observations, experimentations, and statistical
analysis.
 Theory - is an integrated set of principles about observed
facts that is intended to describe and explain some aspects
of experience.
 Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition about the
relationship between two or more variables or phenomena.
E.g. Females have high self - confidence in making
decisions than males.

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Figure The scientific method of research includes proposing hypotheses,

conducting research, and creating or modifying theories based on results

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B. Major types of research methods

There are three major types of research methods: descriptive, correlational

and experimental research methods.
1. Descriptive research - in this type of research, the researcher simply
records what she/he has systematically observed.

 Naturalistic observation
Case study
Survey

 Naturalistic observation

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2. Correlational research -is a research method that measures the

relationship between two or more variables .
Eg. The relation b/n self-esteem and academic achievement

Figure Examples of Scatter Plots

Some examples of relationships between two variables as shown in scatter plots.
 Note that the pearson correlation coefficient (r ) between variables that have
curvilinear relationships will likely be close to zero.
r= range from+1to-1 including zero

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3. Experimental Research

It is a research method that allows researchers to study the cause

and effect relationship between variables .

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Eg.

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Independent and dependent variables

When psychologists set up an

experiment, they think, “If I do X,
then my participants will do Y.”
The “X” represents the independent
variable. The “Y” represents the
dependent variable.

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Comparison of research methods

Method Uses Limitation
1. Descriptive To create a snapshot of the Does not assess relationships among
current state of affairs variables. May be unethical if participants
do not know they are being observed.

  Naturalistic Reveals phenomenon as Generalizability

observation they occur out side of the  observer effect
laboratory.  Can’t establish causation

 Case study Reveals individual   Generalizability

 psychological dynamics   Can’t establish causation

 Survey Reveal attitudes or self- Self-report bias.

reported behavior of  Can’t establish causation
large sample of people.

2. Correlation Reveals relationship  Cannot be used to draw inferences

 between variables as they about the causal relationships between
exist in nature. and among the variables.

3. Experimental Demonstrate causal   Results may not apply other cases.

relationship  Cannot experimentally manipulate
many important variables. May be
expensive and time consuming.

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C. Steps of scientific research

 Step one - Defining the Problem

  Step two - Formulating the Hypothesis
  Step three - Testing the Hypothesis
  Step four - Drawing Conclusions
 Step five - Reporting Results

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Questions for discussion

1. Compare and contrast the five early schools of thought in
 psychology.
2. Compare and contrast the modern psychological perspectives.
3. Please reflect on the relationship between the goals of psychology
and the three types of research methods using examples.
4. Mention the steps of conducting research in psychology.
5. A psychologist is interested in exploring the effect of tutorial
support on students‘ academic performance and assign students
into two groups. Students in group one get the tutorial support and
those in group two do not. In this example, what is the
a) Dependent variable
 b) Independent variable
c) Control group
d) Experimental group
//////////////////END OF CHAPTER ONE////////////////

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CHAPTER 1- WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

Q Define Psychology (short question)

Ans The term psychology is derived from two Greek words  psyche meaning soul
and logos meaning science or study of a subject psychology was a study of the soul
or mind.
However subsequently as research came into practice, the focus shifted and
 psychology was established as a scientific discipline . A discipline is defined both
in terms of what it studies and how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how or
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view,  psychology is defined formally as a science
which studies mental processes, experiences and behaviour in different contexts.
Q Describe nature of Psychology (long question)
Ans The term psychology is derived from two Greek words  psyche meaning soul
and logos meaning science or study of a subject psychology was a study of the soul
or mind.
However subsequently as research came into practice, the focus shifted and
 psychology was established as a scientific discipline . A discipline is defined both
in terms of what it studies and how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how or
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view,  psychology is defined formally as a science
which studies mental processes, experiences and behaviour in different contexts.
Mental processes  are experiences are internal to the experiencing person.
Mental processes, such as remembering, learning, knowing, perceiving, feeling are
of interest to psychologists. They study these processes to try to understand how
the mind works and to help us improve the uses and applications of these mental
capacities
Experiences  are subjective in nature. We cannot directly observe or know
someone else’s experience. Only the experiencing person can be aware or be
conscious of her or his experiences. Thus, experiences are embedded in our
awareness or consciousness. Experiences are influenced by internal and the
external conditions of the experiencer and the nature of experience can only be
understood by analysing a complex set of internal and external conditions.
Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. Some
 behaviours are overt. They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an observer. Some 
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are internal or covert. All behaviours, covert or overt, are associated with or
triggered by some stimulus in the environment or changes that happen internally.
Q Differentiate between Mind and Brain.
Ans
•
Brain has a physical structure and location, whereas mind doesn’t.
•
Brain activity can be observed by using different techniques of brain
imaging, however how mind works cannot be observed.
•
Brain is a biological structure present since birth whereas, Mind emerges
and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get
dynamically organised in the form of a system which is responsible for the
occurrence of various mental processes.
•
How brain functions can be observed and measured on the other hand how
mind functions can only be assessed by clues received from brain activities.

Psychology as a Discipline
•
It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different
mental processes result in different behaviours.  
•
Psychologists seeks to minimize personal biases in their explanation of
 behavior and experiences, making their analysis scientific and objective.  
•
It places emphasis on Subjective aspect of an individual’s experience, like
in our Indian tradition self-reflection and analysis of our conscious
experiences, is held to be a major source of psychological understanding.
Many western psychologists have also begun to emphasise the role of self-
reflection and self-knowledge in understanding human behaviour and
experience. 
•
Psychology seeks to study and understand mental processes, experiences and
 behavior in a systematic and verifiable manner.  
•
Psychology has contributed to biological( neuroscience) and physical
(computer sciences) which has led to inception of development of MRI and
EEG etc and in IT to the development of Artificial Intellicence.  
•
Psychology, on one hand considers itself as a discipline, which focuses
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difficult problems which they will be able to solve because of their new-
found confidence. Dweck tested this.
•
. Dweck’s study tested this. She took two groups of students who were
trained for 25 days in solving math problems. The first group was given easy
 problems which they were always able to solve. The second group had a mix
of easy and difficult problems.
•
  Obviously, in case of difficult problems, they failed. Whenever this
happened Dweck told them that their failure was because they had not tried
hard enough and persuaded them not to give up and keep trying.
•
After the training period was over, a new set of math problems were given to
the two groups. What Dweck found goes against common belief. Those who
had always succeeded because they were given easy problems, gave up
much faster when they faced failure than those who had experience of both
success and failure and were taught to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
Therefore other study completely override the common sensical explanations.
Same was proven in another case where Common sense also tells us that one is
not able to give one’s best if you are asked to perform before a large audience.
Psychological studies have shown that if you have practiced well, you may
actually perform better because the presence of others helps your performance.
Evolution of psychology
Psychology as a modem discipline has a short history but a long past. It grew out
of ancient
 philosophy. It emerges as a scientific discipline in the following phases:
1. Structuralism:
It is the oldest school/approach to psychology, and it was proposed by William
Wundt. Structuralists
were interested in analysis of human mind and its structure.
! They were interested in conscious experience and wanted to study the building
 blocks of mind.
! They used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.
2. Functionalism:
It is an approach to psychology, developed by an American Psychologist William
James.
! They (Functionalists) emphasised on what the mind does and the function of
consciousness in
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! According to them consciousness is an on-going stream of mental process, it can’t

 be broken
down into parts.
! They also used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.
3. Behaviourism:
Proposed by John B. Watson who viewed psychology as the science of behaviour
and behaviour could
 be described objectively in terms of stimuli and responses (S-R).
! This approach proposed that mentalist concepts such as consciousness, image or
mind cannot
 be measured or studied objectively and scientifically.
! Watson emphasised on observable and verifiable response to stimuli.
! He was influenced by Pavlov’s classical conditioning and was interested in the
study of
learning.
4. Gestalt Psychology:
This approach was a revolt against structuralism, founded in Germany by
Wertheimer, Kohler and
Koffka
! It focused on perceptual organisation (organisation of what we see) and they also
demonstrated the laws of perceptual organisation.
! Structuralist wanted to break down perception into elements but Gestalt stated
that when we
look at the world, our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the
components of the
 perceptions i.e. we give meaning to perception.
! For example, when we look at a table we do not see four wooden legs and
trapezoid plain
surface above it but we recognise it as a table.
5. Psychoanalysis:
This approach was proposed by Dr. Sigmund Freud.
! He viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires
and conflicts
of which we are not aware at present.
! He used psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological
disorders.
6. Humanism:
It was advocated by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
! They emphasised on the free will of human beings i.e. people are free to do 
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understanding based on a framework, which was culturally and socially

relevant. this phase is characterised by development in indigenous
 psychology, which originated from the Indian cultural context and was
relevant for society and Indian psychology based on the Indian traditional
knowledge system.
It has become more contextual emphasising the need for developing psychological
 principles, which are rooted in our own social and cultural context.
Themes of Research and Application
Theme 1 :  Psychology like other sciences  attempts to develop principles of
behaviour and mental processes.

•
the main concern is with the understanding and explanation of behaviour and
mental events and processes.
•
Psychologist engage in research like scientists Like them, they draw
conclusions which are supported by data. They design and conduct
experiments or studies under controlled conditions on a wide range of
 psychological phenomena.
•
The purpose is to develop general principles about behaviour and mental
 processes. The conclusions drawn on the basis of such studies apply to
everybody and are, therefore, universal.
•
  Experimental, comparative, physiological, developmental, social,
differential and abnormal psychology are generally regarded as domains
representing “basic psychology”. The themes of research in these fields
differ from each other as per their respective study area.
Theme 2 :  Human behaviour is a function of   the attributes of persons and
environment.
•

•
Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous equation B = f(P,E) – which
suggests that behaviour is the product of a person and her/ his
environment. This means that individuals differ with respect to their
various attributes because of their genetic endowments and diverse
experiences and so do the environments they are placed in. Here the
environment is conceptualised as it is perceived or made sense of by the
 person.
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•
Psychologists have been emphasizing on no two individuals are the,
individual differences exist. People vary with respect to their intelligence,
interests, values, aptitudes and various other personality characteristics
which led to inception a discipline Differential psychology, wherein
individual differences are studied
•
Environmental factors also shape human behavior, for which psychologist
collaborate with anthropologist, evolutionary theorist and biologists and
look for explanation for various psychological phenomenon based on
individual-environmental interaction.
Theme 3 :  Human behaviour is caused.  Most psychologists believe that all
human
•

•
 behaviour can be explained in terms of causes which are internal (to the
organism) or external having location in the outside environment.
•
Causal explanations are central to all sciences because without
understanding them no prediction will be possible, however there is never
single cause for behavior rather multiple. Psychologists, therefore, look for
causal models where a set of interdependent variables are used to explain a
 behaviour. When it is said that behaviour has multiple causes, it means that it
is difficult to pinpoint one cause of a behaviour because it may itself be
caused by another variable, which in turn may be caused by some other.
Theme 4 : Understanding of human behaviour  is culturally constructed.
•

Since most of the principle of psychology are Euro American in nature, and are
defined as universal, but they do not help understand behavior in other cultural
settings. Therefore though very recent branch of psychology but it addresses to
realizing cultural specific contexts.
Similarly, a critique is made by feminists who argue that psychology offers a
male perspective and ignores the perspective of women. They argue in favour
of a dialectical approach which will accommodate both male and female
 perspectives in understanding human behaviour.
Theme 5 :  Human behaviour can be controlled   and modified through the
application of psychological principles.

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•
Psychologists chief concern arises from their desire to develop techniques or
methods that will improve the quality of human life. Psychologists also seek
the same while applying knowledge generated by them.This often requires
removal of certain difficulties or adverse conditions that individuals
experience in different phases of their life. Consequently, psychologists
make certain interventions into the lives of needy people.
•
This applied role of psychologists has, brought the subject closer to the life
of people in general than other social science subjects and in knowing the
limits of the applicability of its principles. and has also been very helpful in
 popularising psychology as a subject in itself.
•
Thus, several independent branches of psychology have emerged that try to
use psychological theories, principles and facts to diagnose and resolve
 problems related to several areas such industrial, educational, cognitive,
developmental etc.

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11 Psychology - CHAPTER 1 PSYCH Goals of Psych WHAT IS 1 INTRODUCTION What is Educational

What is… NOTES Added by Simon… PSYCHOLOGY?… Added by joseph… TO PRACTICAL psychology Psychology.B
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