Pressure Measurement

Pressure
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings.
Pressure, P, is a function of force, F, and area, A: and P = F/A.
• The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (N/m2), but other common units of pressure
include pounds per square inch (psi), Atmospheres (atm), Bars, Inches of mercury
(in Hg), Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), and Torr.
• A pressure measurement can be described as either (i) - Static and (2) - Dynamic.
• Static Pressure: The pressure in cases with no motion is static pressure. Examples
of static pressure include the pressure of the air inside a balloon or water inside a
basin.
• Dynamic Pressure: Often, the motion of a fluid changes the force applied to its
surroundings. For example, say the pressure of water in a hose with the nozzle
closed is 40 pounds per square inch (force per unit area). If you open the nozzle,
the pressure drops to a lower value as you pour out water. A thorough pressure
measurement must note the circumstances under which it is made.
• Many factors including flow, compressibility of the fluid, and external forces can
affect pressure.
Pressure and Its Levels
 Pressure : Units and Values
• The bar is a widely used metric unit of measurement for pressure.
• 1 bar =1.01325x105 N/m2 (1,01,325 Pascal) [1.01325x105 or 105 Pascal]
• 1 atm = 1 bar = 1,01,325 N/m2 = 𝝆xgxh (With Liquid Column)
For Mercury 1,01,325 N/m2 = 13.6x1000 𝒌𝒈Τ𝒎𝟑 x 9.8 𝒎Τ𝒔𝟐 x h 𝒎 ⇒ h = 0.76 m
For Water 1,01,325 N/m2 = 1000 𝒌𝒈Τ𝒎𝟑 x 9.8 𝒎Τ𝒔𝟐 x h 𝒎 ⇒ h = 13.34 m
• 1 psi = 1 pound per square inch
• 1 Torr = 1 mm Hg (760 mm Hg = 760 Torr) at standard atmosphere condition.
Unit of Vacuum is Torr (After name of Torricelli)
• Pl Find out the values of (1) – psi in terms of Pascal
(2) – psi in terms of Torr
(3) – psi in terms of Hg & Water column.
 Pressure : Units and Values
• 1 psi = 1 pound per square inch = 1 lbf/in2 = 6894.73 N/m2 = 6894.73 Pascal
1 psi = 6894.73 Pascal = 0.068046 atmospheres = 0.068094 Bar
(As 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = = 1.01325x105 Pascals )
• 1 Torr = 1 mm Hg (760 mm Hg = 760 Torr) at standard atmosphere condition
Unit of Vacuum is Torr (After name of Torricelli)
• 1 psi = 51.7149 Torr = 2.03602 inches Hg = 27.7076 inches of water column

• psi term is short for “pound-force per square inch,” typically referring to gas or
liquid.
• psig is the term used for psi in relation to atmospheric pressure. psig is also known
as Gauge Pressure.
• The ambient pressure at sea level is about 14.7 psia, but ambient psig is always 0.
 Pressure : Units and Values
• 1 psi = 1 pound per square inch = 1 lbf/in2 = 6894.73 N/m2 = 6894.73 Pascal
[As Pound-force can be expressed as 1 lbf = 32.174049 lb.ft/in2
= 32.174049x0.453.59Kgx0.3048 Kgm/s2 = 4.4482 Kg.m/s2 ]
1 psi = 6894.73 Pascal = 0.068046 atmospheres = 0.068094 Bar
(As 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = = 1.01325x105 Pascals )
• 1 Torr = 1 mm Hg (760 mm Hg = 760 Torr) at standard atmosphere condition
Unit of Vacuum is Torr (After name of Torricelli)
• 1 psi = 51.7149 Torr = 2.03602 inches Hg = 27.7076 inches of water column
 Ranges of Pressure measurement
• Respective level of Pressure in terms very low to very high is relative, in all kind of
pressure measurements, which also depends greatly on particular application/field.
• But, level wise a typical classification may be taken as below:

• Very High Pressure Measurement (Pressure above 1000 atm).

• High Pressure Measurement (Pressure above 70 atm).
• Moderate Pressure Measurement (Pressure up to 70 atm).
• Low Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement (Below 760 & up to 1 mm Hg).
• Very Low Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement (1 mm Hg or below).

Pressure (Vacuum)
• Medium Vacuum 1 – 10-3 Torr
• High Vacuum 10-3 – 10-7 Torr
• Very High Vacuum - Below 10-7 Torr
 Pressure measurement methods
• A pressure measurement can further be described by the type of measurement being performed. The three methods for
measuring pressure are absolute, gauge, and differential. Absolute pressure is referenced to the pressure in a vacuum, whereas
gauge and differential pressures are referenced to another pressure such as the ambient atmospheric pressure or pressure in an
adjacent vessel.
• (1) - Absolute Pressure (2) - Gauge Pressure (3) - Differential Pressure
• Absolute Pressure :
• The absolute measurement method is relative to 0 Pa, the static pressure in a vacuum. The pressure being measured is acted upon
by atmospheric pressure in addition to the pressure of interest. Therefore, absolute pressure measurement includes the effects of
atmospheric pressure. This type of measurement is well-suited for atmospheric pressures such as those used in altimeters or
vacuum pressures. Often, the abbreviations Paa (Pascal’s absolute) or psia (pounds per square inch absolute) are used to describe
absolute pressure.
• Gauge Pressure :
• Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient atmospheric pressure. This means that both the reference and the pressure of
interest are acted upon by atmospheric pressures. Therefore, gauge pressure measurement excludes the effects of atmospheric
pressure. These types of measurements include tire pressure and blood pressure measurements. Similar to absolute pressure, the
abbreviations Pag (Pascal’s gauge) or psig (pounds per square inch gauge) are used to describe gauge pressure.
• Differential Pressure :
• Differential pressure is similar to gauge pressure; however, the reference is another pressure point in the system rather than the
ambient atmospheric pressure. You can use this method to maintain relative pressure between two vessels such as a compressor
tank and an associated feed line. Also, the abbreviations Pad (Pascal’s differential) or PSID (pounds per square inch differential) are
used to describe differential pressure.
 Type of Measurement
• Direct measurement – Barometer, Manoameter tube, Bourdan tube,
Diaphragm etc

• Indirect Measurement – Mcload Gauge, Pirani Gauge & Ionization

Gauge etc
 Barometric Pressure Atmospheric Pressure
• Always present and acting around and over us.
 Measurement of Pressure
(Manometer)
• Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are
used to measure the difference in pressure between two points or
between a certain point and the atmosphere.
• The manometer is a device used to measure pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another fluid.
• Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is
basically the modified form of the Piezometric tube.
• Manometers are of two types:
- Simple Manometer
- Differential Manometer
 Simple Manometer
• A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends
connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end
remains open to atmosphere.
• There are many types of simple manometers as mentioned below.
• Piezometer
• U-tube manometer
For gauge pressure
For vacuum pressure
• Single Column Manometer
• Inclined tube manometer or Sensitive Manometer
 Simple Manometers : Piezometer
• For measuring the pressure inside a
vessel or pipe in which liquid is there,
a tube is attached to the walls of the
container or pipe in which the liquid
remains so liquid can rise in the tube.
By determining the height to which
liquid rises and using the relation p =
ρgh, a gauge pressure of the liquid can
be determined.
• Such a device is known as Piezometer.
To avoid capillary forces, a piezometer
tube has to be about 1/2 inch or
more. It is essential that the opening
of the instrument to be tangential to
any fluid motion, otherwise an
incorrect reading will result.
 Simple Manometers : U-tube Manometer
• As shown in the figure it consists of a
glass tube bent in U-shape, with one
end is connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured and the
other end remains open to the
atmosphere.
• U-tube manometer
• The tube carries mercury or any other
liquid or fluid whose specific gravity is
much higher than the specific gravity
of the liquid whose pressure is to be
measured.

• For gauge pressure

• For vacuum pressure
 Simple Manometers : Single Column Manometer
• Consider a vertical tube micro
manometer connected to a pipe
containing light liquid under very
high pressure. The pressure in the
pipe will force the lighter liquid in
the basin to push the heavier liquid
downwards.
• Due to the larger area of the basin,
the fall of a heavy liquid level will
be very small. This downward
movement of heavy liquid into the
basin will result in a significant rise
of heavy liquid in the right limb.
 Simple Manometers : Inclined Tube Manometer
• If the vertical tube of the
micromanometer is made inclined
as shown in figure then it is called
inclined tube micromanometer.
• This type of inclined
micromanometer is more sensitive
than the vertical tube type. Due to
inclination, the distance moved by
the heavy liquid in the right limb is
comparatively more. Thus it can
give a higher reading for the given
pressure.
Differential Manometer
 Differential Manometer
• The differential manometer is a device used to measure the pressure
difference between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes.
• A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy
liquid, with two ends connected by points whose pressure difference
is to be measured:
• Types of differential manometers are:

- Two piezometer manometer

- U-tube differential manometer
- Inverted differential manometer
Differential Manometer : Two Piezometer Manometer
• It consists of two piezometers
mounted at two different gauge
points where the pressure
difference is to be measured.
The pressure difference between
two points can be simply
measured by the difference in
the level of liquid between the
two tubes. It possesses some
limitations in the form of
piezometers.
Differential Manometer : U-tube Differential Manometer
• It is a device that is used to measure
the pressure difference between two
points in a pipe or between two
different pipes. this manometer is
consists of a U shaped tube containing
a heavy liquid.
• The two ends are connected to the
two desired points in the pipe whose
difference of pressure is required.
• Let pressure at point B be more than
at point A. Then the greater pressure
at B will force the heavy liquid in U-
tube to move downwards. This
downwards movement of the heavy
liquid in the left limb will cause a
corresponding rise of the heavy liquid
in the right limb.
 Differential Manometer : Inverted Differential
Manometer
• In this type of manometer, the U-
tube is inverted and contains a light
liquid. The two ends of the tube
are connected to the points whose
pressure difference is to be
measured.
• It is used for measuring the
difference in low pressures. The
figure shows an inverted U-tube a
differential manometer connected
to the two points A and B. Let the
pressure at point A is more than
the pressure at point B.
 Advantages/Disadvantages of Manometers
• Advantages of Manometers
• It is simple to construct.
• It has great accuracy.
• Used to measure pressure,
temperature, flow and other
process variables.
• Disadvantages of Manometers
• The manometer has a smaller
dynamic response.
• They are fragile and therefore
provide low portability.
• They have small operational
limits which are on the order of
1000 kN/m2.
• The density of manometric fluid
depends on temperature.
Therefore errors may occur due
to change in temperature.
 Application of Manometers

• Following are the main application of manometer:

• Used in the maintenance of heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems, and gas systems.
• Used in climate forecasting.
• In clinical applications such as blood pressure measuring and
physiotherapy.
Mechanical Pressure Gauges
 Mechanical Pressure Gauges
• These are kind of pressure gauges (meant for pressure
measurement), based on some mechanical principle (being
mechanical in nature), e.g. by using mechanical operation with
diaphragm, spring or dead weight etc.
• Following are the commonly used mechanical pressure gauges:
- Bourdon tube pressure gauge
- Diaphragm pressure gauge
- Bellows pressure gauge
- Dead-weight pressure gauge
Measurement of Pressure
(Simple Bourdan Tube)
 Mechanical Pressure Gauges :
Bourdon’s Tube Pressure Gauge
• A mechanical pressure-measuring instrument employing as its • Advantages of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
sensing element a curved or twisted metal tube flattened in
cross-section and closed known as Bourdon tube. • Construction is simple and the cost is low.
• It is a device for measuring the pressure of gases or liquids. It • It has excellent sensitivities.
consisting of a semicircular or coiled, flexible metal tube • It has high accuracy.
connected to a gauge, which records the degree to which the
tube is straightened by the pressure of the gas or liquid inside. • This gauge is available for various ranges
Generally, it is used for measuring high pressures.
• Disadvantages of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
• The instrument is connected to the fluid which is under pressure
flows into the Bourdon’s tube. As a result of the increased • Slow response to a change in pressure.
pressure, the tube tends to straighten itself. Since the tube is
encased in a circular cover, therefore it tends to become circular • Prone to shock and vibrations.
instead of straight.
• It is subjected to hysteresis.
• With the help of a simple pinion and sector arrangement, the
elastic deformation of the Bourdon’s tube rotates the pointer. • Not available for the low-pressure condition.
This pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which directly gives • Application of Bourdon Tube Pressure gauge
the pressure.
• Gas distribution system.
• Used in the hydraulic installation.
• Used in pneumatic installation.
Pressure measurement by Elastic elements
Measurement of Pressure
Sensor (LVDT) based
 Mechanical Pressure Gauges :
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
• A mechanical pressure-measuring instrument used to measure
pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure. It is usually
employed to measure relatively low pressures. A diaphragm
pressure gauge, in its simplest form, consists of a corrugated
diaphragm.
• The gauge is connected to the fluid which is under pressure
causes some deformation to the diaphragm. With the help of
pinion system, elastic deformation of the diaphragm rotates the
pointer. This pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which directly
gives the pressure.
• Advantages of Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
• This is good for low pressure.
• It is inexpensive.
• It has a wide range
• Used to measure gauge, atmospheric and differential.
• it is very reliable.
• Disadvantages of Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Impact resistance is not good.
• Difficulty in maintenance.
• Lower measurement pressure.
Pressure measurement by Diaphragm elements
Mechanical Pressure Gauges : Bellows Pressure
Gauge
• It is a device, the pressure
responsive element is made of a
thin metal tube with a deep
circumference when the pressure
changes as the elastic elements
increase or decrease.
• A pointer is connected to it which
indicates reading on the circular
dial. It expands when the pressure
increases and when the pressure is
low the elastic elements in the
pressure gauge are contracts.
Pressure measurement by Elastic elements
Mechanical Pressure Gauges :
Dead weight Pressure Gauge
• A dead weight tester apparatus
uses known traceable weights to
apply pressure to a fluid for
checking the accuracy of
readings from a pressure gauge.
... Typically deadweight testers
are used in calibration
laboratories to calibrate pressure
transfer standards like electronic
pressure measuring devices.
Miscellaneous methods of
Measurement of Pressure
 Measurement of Pressure
Load Cell (Strain gauge) based
 Sensor based Pressure Measurement :
Bridge-Based Pressure Sensors
• Of all the pressure sensors, Wheatstone bridge
(strain based) sensors are the most common
because they offer solutions that meet varying
accuracy, size, ruggedness, and cost constraints.
Bridge-based sensors can measure absolute,
gauge, or differential pressure in both high- and
low-pressure applications. They use a strain gage
to detect the deformity of a diaphragm subjected
to the applied pressure.
• When a change in pressure causes the diaphragm
to deflect, a corresponding change in resistance is
induced on the strain gage, which you can measure
with a conditioned DAQ system. You can bond foil
strain gages directly to a diaphragm or to an
element that is connected mechanically to the
diaphragm. Silicon strain gages are sometimes
used as well. For this method, you etch resistors on
a silicon-based substrate and use transmission fluid
to transmit the pressure from the diaphragm to
the substrate.
 Sensor based Pressure Measurement :
Capacitive Pressure Sensors

• A variable capacitance pressure

transducer measures the change
in capacitance between a metal
diaphragm and a fixed metal
plate. The capacitance between
two metal plates changes if the
distance between these two
plates changes due to applied
pressure.
 Piezoelectricity
• When stretched or compressed generate electric charges with one
face of the material becoming positively charged and the opposite
face negatively charged. As a result, a voltage is produced.
 Sensor based Pressure Measurement :
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
• Piezoelectric sensors rely on the
electrical properties of quartz
crystals rather than a resistive
bridge transducer. These crystals
generate an electrical charge when
they are strained. Electrodes
transfer the charge from the
crystals to an amplifier built into
the sensor. These sensors do not
require an external excitation
source, but they are susceptible to
shock and vibration.