M.

Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

Architecture of Shadows
Mansoureh Tahbaz

PhD. in Architecture, Professor Assistant,

School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Evin, Tehran, Iran
Tel: 0098 21 29902871, Fax: 0098 21 22400440, Email: m-tahbaz@cc.sbu.ac.ir

Abstract
Clear sky and high intensity of solar energy is one of the specifics of hot climates. Producing shadow in open
areas and passages is a very effective element to cool environment and reduce temperature in such conditions.
For 2/3 to 3/4 periods of a year shadow is necessary in hot climates, which is the reason of innovating manifest
samples of vernacular umbrageous architecture. To following this culture and to create umbrageous new
architecture these questions are propounded:
1. How is it possible to distinguish shadow need periods during a year in a specific climate?
2. How is it possible to produce shadow in hot periods without being deprived of pleasant sunshine in cold
periods?
Using Ðshading mask of OlgyayÑ this article will introduce a method that will help architects: to determine
shadow need periods according to climatic considerations, to design sunshade for hot periods and to evaluate its
efficiency in a pattern year.

Keywords: Thermal Comfort in Open Area, Solar Energy, Climatic Needs Calendar, Shading Mask, Sky Dome,
Sun-Path Chart, Shadow Angle Protractor

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the aims of climatic architecture is to prepare thermal comfort for residents.
Inside buildings, it is possible to achieve thermal comfort by using HVAC systems, even with
no regards to climatic considerations. But in open areas achieving thermal comfort is
completely dependent on the knowledge of climatic architecture. Also microclimate of
surrounding open areas will affect the climatic conditions of buildings. Considering climate in
designing open areas is a great step to achieve thermal comfort inside the buildings, energy
saving and preserving the environment.

In hot climates, producing shadow in open areas and passages is one of the effective
ways to reduce temperature and to achieve thermal comfort. It would be desired if the shadow
being produced in hot periods would not deprive pleasant sunshine in cold periods. To
achieve this aim it is necessary to have enough knowledge about climate of the region, human
thermal comfort conditions, and location of the sun. An example will show the necessity of
this knowledge:

In a conference performed in Bam Citadel in April 2006, some parts of the program
were performed in open spaces. For this reason a shade was constructed in Hoseinieh yard of
the citadel. The shade was settled just on the top of the sitting area. In the middle of the day
the appropriate shadow was created by the shade. By moving sun to the east after 2 pm.
sunshine reached the chairs and audiences had to escape to the shadow of the surrounding
walls. The shade in top of the sitting area had lost its efficiency. This example shows the

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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

importance of paying attention to climatic conditions and sun location to produce appropriate
shadow for achieving thermal comfort in open areas. (Fig 1)

Figure 1: Bam Citadel Hoseinieh Yard by moving sun to the east after 2 pm. sunshine reached the sitting
area and audiences had to escape to the shelter of the surrounding walls.

2. DETERMINING SHADOW NEED PERIODS

2.1. Analysing Climatic Conditions

To design open areas considering climatic, it is necessary to have enough knowledge
about it. Analysing climatic data of a place - that is gathered by meteorology stations - is a
common method in this regard. There are several standards to distinguish climatic needs of a
place by analysing climatic data.

One of the appropriate standards according to thermal comfort in open areas is

ÐPenwarden standardÑ1. This standard considers human thermal comfort by paying attention
to climatic elements: temperature, wind speed and solar radiation; human factors: body
activity level as pedestrian and clothing rate for different seasons. This standard determines
boundaries of thermal comfort for passers in sunshine or shadow in different seasons. (Fig 2)

1
- Penwarden 1975 p. 41.
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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

Figure 2 : Penwarden Comfort Standard for Open Areas

2.2. Climatic Needs Calendar2

Drawing thermal comfort boundaries on Ðclimatic needs calendarÑ shows the needs for
using open areas in different periods of a pattern year: sunshine need, shadow need,
inadequate sunshine or shadow, very cold critical conditions in winter and very hot conditions
in summer.

ÐClimatic needs calendarÑ has two perpendicular axes for days and hours which cover
all periods of a year, and makes it possible to show climatic conditions on it (Fig 3). ÐClimatic
needs calendarÑ of hot climates indicates that in warm periods one of the main conditions to
prepare thermal comfort is to produce appropriate shadows. Importance of shadow need
periods in each climate depends on the intensity of solar energy on that region. In hot climates
solar energy has the most intensity while in 2/3 to 3/4 of a year weather is hot and sunshine is
unpleasant. The question is that in such conditions how is it possible to produce shadow in hot
periods without being deprived of pleasant sunshine in cold periods? 1 - ÐClimatic needs calendarÑ
is a calendar proposed by Victor Olgyay, adding up all climatic needs in a graphic shape. It is a graph with two
perpendicular axes of days and hours cover all periods of a pattern year. It gives opportunity to gum up all
climatic needs of a year in a simple shape. (Olgyay 1975 pp. 26-31)

- ÐClimatic needs calendarÑ is a calendar proposed by Victor Olgyay, adding up all climatic needs in a
2

graphic shape. It is a graph with two perpendicular axes of days and hours cover all periods of a pattern year.
It gives opportunity to gum up all climatic needs of a year in a simple shape. (Olgyay 1975 pp. 26-31)
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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

Climatic Needs Calendar

Open Areas
24

2 45-50
4 40-45
35-40
6
30-35
8
25-30
10 20-25
12 15-20
10-15
14
5-10
16 >40° Critical Hot Periods
0-5
18 -5-0 35-40° Inadequate Wind Flow &
20 -10--5 Evaporation
22
25-35° Adequate Wind Flow & Evaporation
>20° Shadow Need Periods
24
5-20° Conditional Comfortable Periods
< 5° Cold Periods
Month <0° Critical Cold Periods

Figure 3: Climatic needs Calendar of Bam

3. PRODUCING APPROPRIATE SHADOW

3.1. ÐSky dome conceptÑ: Ðsun-path chartÑ and Ðshading maskÑ

Shadow is the dark area behind an opaque matter that obstacles the radiant heat and
direct light from radiant source. It will be possible to produce shadow if the location of sun as
the light and solar energy source is known and determined. Sky dome concept is a simple
graphical method, innovated by Swedish architect Gunner Pleijel in 19543 and has been used
by several architects for different purposes. Some solar overlays are prepared by sky dome
concept that give architects the opportunity to determine sun location and shadow casting
conditions. ÐShading mask methodÑ proposed by Victor Olgyay on 19574, uses sun-path chart
and shadow angle protractor to achieve this aim. Using shading mask method, it is possible to
design appropriate shadows for architectural areas.
This article introduces the method of using Ðshading maskÑ to design appropriate
shadows for open area in six steps.

3.2. Steps to design sunshade by Ðshading maskÑ of Olgyay

Six steps must be passed to design appropriate shadow for open areas. To simplify
understanding the steps, designing the sunshade of Hoseineih yard of Bam Citadel is chosen
as an example.

Example: Design a sunshade for Hoseineih yard of Bam Citadel to perform some parts
of the conference program in open space. The program will be held at 2-5 pm. in every
proposed month of the year. Design the sunshade of the yard so that it can produce the
appropriate shadow in hot periods so that in cold periods there be enough pleasant sunshine.
(Fig 4)

3
- Pleijel 1954.
4
- Olgyay & Olgyay 1957.
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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

north

20 m

10 m

Rooms around the yard

Hoseineih yard of Yard area

Bam Citadel Chaird location

Figure 4: The selected area to be shaded

Step 1: Analysing climatic data by using thermal comfort standards to draw Ðclimatic
needs calendarÑ. In this step average climatic data of several years of the region is the base of
the analysing process. (Fig 5)

-40854 I.R OF IR AN METEROLOGI CAL ORGNIZATIO N (IRI MO)

DATA PROCE SSING C NTER

CL IMATOL OGICAL ORMALSFOR THEPERIOD -1956 2003

JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEP. OCT. NOV. DEC. ANNUAL

10.4 13.3 18.2 23.8 29 33.3 34 32.3 29.1 23.8 17 12 23

4.8 7.3 11.9 17.2 22 26.2 27.4 25.5 22.1 17.1 11 6.3 16.6
0 0 0.3 5.9 21 29.6 30.9 30.2 21.5 4.2 0 0 143.6
0.4 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.8
4.4 1.7 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 2.3 8.7
-9 -5 -3 4 9.5 18 19 15 11 6 -2 -7 -9
May-73 May-72 60-21 Feb-67 Feb-89 Mar-69 Sep-57 57-23 62-28 61-29 57-25 72-26 May-73

16.5 19.4 24.2 29.9 35.1 39.1 39.3 37.9 35.3 30.5 23.7 18.5 29.1
0 0.2 4.1 16.7 28.2 29.9 31 31 28.5 19.1 2.1 0.2 191
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
) 30.0 30.6 36 39.6 44 46 46.6 47 43.6 40 34 32 47
66-31 Jan-94 68-15 2-29 70-31 77-21 Sep-98 Jul-70 Aug-83 May-80 01-Mar Sep-78 Jul-70

11.7 12.1 12.3 12.7 13.1 12.9 11.9 12.4 13.2 13.4 12.7 12.2 12.5

10.7 13.4 18.1 23.6 28.5 32.6 33.3 31.7 28.7 23.8 17.3 12.4 22.8
STANDARD DEVIATION OF MDT(C) 1.96 2.09 1.81 1.82 1.7 1.33 1.29 1.45 1.54 1.59 1.77 2.1 1.7

0.2 0.9 17.2 95.3 230 348.7 382.5 333.1 231.9 100.6 8.6 0.6 1749.6
HEATING DEG. DAYS(BASE 18 0C) 229.4 138.6 52.2 5.5 0.1 0 0 0 0 2.7 56.7 177.7 662.9

-1.6 -0.8 1.8 4.5 6.4 7.1 8 6.8 4.6 2.9 0.3 -1.4 3.2
4.03 4.33 5.22 6.3 7.22 7.65 8.19 7.58 6.44 5.62 4.68 4.09 5.95
5.77 6.18 7.42 8.94 10.2 10.76 11.47 10.65 9.11 8.01 6.7 5.86 8.42
SATURATION DEF. (HPA) 7.77 10.27 14.9 22.4 32.09 42.8 43.62 39.82 33.38 23.35 14.12 9.33 24.49

47 41 37 32 26 22 22 22 23 28 35 43 31
63 58 52 46 37 30 30 30 31 38 47 57 43
33 28 25 22 19 16 16 16 16 20 25 30 22
C) 57 52 47 41 33 26 27 27 27 33 41 50 38
C) 36 31 28 24 20 17 18 18 18 21 26 32 24
C) 46 39 34 30 25 20 20 20 22 28 37 44 30

Figure 5: Average data of bam in the period of 1956-2003

Step 2: Determining important thermal conditions according to use open space in

different periods of a pattern year and showing it on the Ðclimatic needs calendarÑ; including:
1- sunshine and shadow need periods, 2- natural ventilation and evaporation need periods, 3-
critical periods in hot conditions when shadow, wind flow and evaporation is useless to
achieve thermal comfort, 4- critical periods in very cold conditions when flowing of winds
cooperate with chill factor, harsh rain or snow, make using of open areas difficult and
uncomfortable. By the help of one of the comfort standards in open areas such as Penwarden

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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

standard, different periods of the year will be classified on Ðclimatic needs calendarÑ with
isothermal curves5.
Using climatology data of bam, different conditions on its “ climatic needs calendar”
will be explained as bellow (Fig 3):
More than half of the year, shadow is needed in Bam. In this period nights are warm
and it is no need to re-radiation of warmed materials. So using materials with low
albedo6, and re-radiation toward night sky to cool the environment is a good strategy.
In most hot periods, using air flow and evaporation will prepare appropriate thermal
comfort in open spaces. So it is necessary to have enough desired wind flow and water
ponds or green spaces in open areas.
In noon and afternoon of summer periods, the temperature will be more than 35
centigrade which is more than toleration. In these periods using open areas is not
suggested. So it is better to stay inside buildings especially in basements and cellars.
In cold periods winds cooperate with chill factor and freezing weather will seldom
happen. So using open spaces is a good opportunity in winter daytimes in sunshine
conditions.
Bam weather is dry. Precipitation and freezing is very few. So using open spaces has
no limitation according to these climatic phenomena.

Step 3: transferring these information on appropriate sun-path chart of the region to

determine the periods that need shadow, air flow and evaporation in open areas. Also
determine the critical periods which using open space is not appropriate because of intensity
of cold or hot whether. (Fig 6)

Shadow need
all the time
Shadow need in
warm seasons
Shadow need periods
Critical hot periods
in half of the year Critical hot season Critical hot periods
all the year

Figure 6: left: sun-path chart of Bam with different shadow need conditions on it,
right: selected shadow need periods on sun-path chart

Latitude of Bam is 29° 6´ north. So the sun-path chart of 30° north latitude is chosen.
On this chart the shadow need periods boundary (20° centigrade) is drawn.
The great amount of shadow need periods in Bam firmly shows the importance of
preparing shadows for open spaces.

5
- To determine the important thermal conditions, some helpful standards are used here. (Givoni 1976, Givoni
1998, Razjouyan 2000, Tahbaz 2006)
6
- The albedo is the speciality of the surface and colour that determine the solar energy absorption of the
material.
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Inadequate periods of air flow and evaporation boundary (35° centigrade); that using
open spaces is not appropriate; is shown on the sun-path chart.
For better use of open spaces, critical very hot periods (more than 35° ) are emitted
from shadow need periods.
According to design requirements, the shadow need periods in open spaces, is drawn
as green patch on the sun-path chart of Bam.

Step 4: overlapping shadow angle protractor on sun-path chart of the region and
drawing shading mask pattern for the shadow need periods in open spaces. This mask will be
determined so that the cold periods are not deprived of sunshine in open areas while in warm
periods appropriate shadows are produced.
To draw appropriate shading mask pattern in Bam Citadel Hoseinieh Yard, first of all
the sections of the yard is drawn. It determines the angles of seen-able sky from the
location of the chairs. According to these angles the shading mask of the walls are
drawn to show the possible shadows in the yard. (Fig 7)
According to shading mask of the walls, the shading mask of the shadow need periods
is drawn. This mask is the optimum mask that will cover the warm periods without
shading the cold periods. (Fig 8)

30 m
5m
7 degree 7 degree

50 m
south/ north section

10 m
5m
18 degree
east/ west section
20 m

Figure 7: sections of the yard

7°

18° 18°
20°

18°
75°
40°

7°

Shading mask of the walls Proposal shading

Shadow need periods
mask of the sunshade

Figure 8: left: shading mask of the walls, right: proposed shading mask of the sunshade

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Step 5: designing sunshade pattern according to shading mask pattern. Sunshade pattern
shows only the dimensions of the area that must be shaded by using opaque matters. It is not
the main sunshade design. To determine sunshade pattern it is necessary to draw plans and
sections of the site. Using the angles of the shading mask pattern, the shadow need area will
be assigning.
In Bam Citadel Hoseinieh Yard, the columns of the sunshade structure are located in
four parts outside the chairs location.
Sunshade pattern is drawn on plan and section of the yard.
The height of the columns is better to be higher than the walls of the yard. So natural
ventilation is prepared to avoid overheating under the shade. In this example height of
the columns are proposed 10 meters while the height of the walls are 5 meters. (Fig 9)

75°

east/ west section

18°

40°
10 m
5m

7° south/ north section

Figure 9: left: sunshade mask pattern in the section

Step 6: designing several alternatives of sunshade according to other elements like

aesthetic, material, strength, construction, maintenance, economy and other climatic elements
such as wind speed, precipitation, freezing, chill factor and so on. It is interesting that with a
single sunshade pattern, several sunshades will be designed. Analysing benefits and wick
point of these sunshades, the optimum choice will be selected to construct.

In Bam Citadel example, according to small amount of precipitation and freezing

period in a year, wind flow and ventilation are taking into consideration under the
sunshade. Sunshade must be tall enough to avoid confinement of air flow.
To prepare natural ventilation that is necessary in warm periods, some parts of the
shade is opened to allow air flow. (Fig 10)
Nylon or oil material clothes are not appropriate for the shade because they will
absorb solar energy of sunshine. It is better to use Cotton clothes with light colour.
Short height of the shade, bad materials and no air flow possibility, will cause
overheat and uncomfortable weather under the shade. In this case the shaded green
areas outside the sunshade will have better thermal conditions. (Fig 11)
Using cold beverages, water surfaces or green spaces will help to increase
evaporation in the shadow need periods especially in the case that the temperature is
more than 25° centigrade.

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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

north north

20° 20°

18° 75° 18° 75°

40° 40°
Plan of the yard

Figure 10: left: sunshade mask pattern in the section

right: sunshade mask pattern with ventilation possibility

Figure 11: left: bad sunshade will cause overheat and uncomfortable weather under the shade
right: in this case green areas outside the sunshade will have better thermal conditions

3.3 Benefits of designing sunshade by the shading mask of Olgyay

Designing sunshade by shading mask of Olgyay has several advantages as bellow:

1. It gives the ability to control shadow and sunshine in a period of a year. By giving
the architect a full knowledge of climatic conditions, he is able to design a sunshade just for
the shadow need period and place. So he can avoid of making unnecessary sunshades that
imposes only extra expenses and deprived of useful sunshine in cold periods.

2. By using sunshade pattern it is possible to design different alternative shades. It

helps architect to design shadings with similar shadows and different abilities according to
design elements, construction and so on. So he has the possibility to choose the optimum one
which has better answer to all needs.

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 M. Tahbaz, ÐArchitecture of ShadowsÑ

3. Shading mask method is based on drawing and geometry that will be learned easily.
It is a familiar and understandable method for architects.
4. Because of using sky dome concept that has two temporal and local coordinates, it
has the ability to convert the information to climatic needs calendar that has the same
coordinates. So it is possible to evaluate and control the sunshade efficiency with other
climatic elements such as pleasant and unpleasant wind flows, precipitation, freezing, critical
hot or cold periods; and make decisions according to all effective climatic elements.

4. CONCLUSION

According to high amount of sunshine hours and high intensity of solar energy in hot
climates, making shadow is an effective way to reduce temperature in warm periods. This
article discusses the importance of making appropriate shadows and explained the way of
using shading mask method of Olgyay in six steps. Step 1: taking the climatic data and
analysing it by using appropriate thermal comfort standards to draw the climatic needs
calendar of the region. Step 2: determining the important climatic periods according to use
open spaces for some activities. Step 3: converting these information on the sun-path chart of
the region. Step 4: overlapping the shadow angle protractor on sun-path chart to determine the
shadow need period and draw the shading mask pattern. Step 5: designing the sunshade
pattern according to shading mask pattern. Step 6: designing different alternatives of
sunshades according to several elements like aesthetic, material, strength, construction,
economy, maintenance and other climatic elements such as wind speed, precipitation,
freezing, chill factor and so on. At the end the advantages of this method was discussed as the
ability to control sunshine and shadow in a period of a year: the ability to design several
alternative shades using the same shading mask and sunshade pattern, simplicity of this
method because of its base on geometrical knowledge, the ability of generalization the results
to climatic needs calendar and evaluate the sunshade efficiency according to other climatic
elements.

REFFERENCES

1. Givoni, Baruch. 1976 ÐMan, Climate, and ArchitectureÑ. 2nd Edition, Elsevier, New
York, (Paperback 1981).
2. Givoni, Baruch, 1998, ÐClimate Considerations in Building and Urban DesignÑ, New
york, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
3. Olgyay, Aladar, and Victor Olgyay, 1957, ÐSolar Control and Shading DevicesÑ,
Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
4. Olgyay, Victor, 1975: ÐDesign with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural
RegionalismÑ, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
5. Penwarden, A. D. and A. F. E. Wise, 1975, ÐWind Environment around BuildingsÑ,
London, Building Research Establishment Report.
6. Pleijel, Gunnar, 1954, ÐThe Computation of Natural Radiation in Architecture and
Town PlanningÑ, Victor PetersonÓs bokindustri Aktiebolag, Stockholm.
7. Razjouyan, Mahmoud, 2000, ÐWind and Comfort: Design Whit ClimateÑ, Tehran,
Shahid Beheshti University.
8. Tahbaz, Mansoureh, 2006, ÐThermal Comfort in Open Areas and PassagesÑ, Tehran,
Shahid Beheshti University.

ÐLiving in Deserts: Is a sustainable urban design still possible in arid and hot regions?Ñ 54
Ghardaïa, Algeria, 9-12 December 2006.