Department of Business Administration.

Assignment no.02
Computer Application for Business.

Project Advisor
Rashid Mahmood

Submitted By
Waseem Saeed
Roll AD-512530
Semester 2nd

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN.

Spring 2009

1
 I dedicate it to my beloved parents and respected teachers.

  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

2
 All praise and thanks is due to Allah, the Lord of mankind
and all that exists, for His blessings, benevolence, and guidance at every
stage of our life.
I am deeply grateful to my supervisor, Prof.Rashid Mahmood,
for his guidance, support, and patience. He has been an invaluable
source of knowledge and has certainly helped inspire many of the ideas
expressed in this assignment.
My words will fail to express my deepest heartfelt thanks to my
family, especially my parents, for all what they did, and still doing, to
help me be at this position and for their continuous support and
encouragement. Any mistakes that remain are mine! I thank you all.

3
 Our Nation’s critical infrastructures are composed of public and
private institutions in the sectors of agriculture, food, water, public
health, emergency services, government, defense industrial base,
information and telecommunications, energy, transportation, banking
and finance, chemicals and hazardous materials, and postal and
shipping. Cyberspace is their nervous system—the control system of our
country.
Cyberspace is composed of hundreds of thousands of
interconnected computers, servers, routers, switches, and fiber optic
cables that allow our critical infrastructures to work. Thus, the healthy
functioning of cyberspace is essential to our economy and our national
security.

Cyberspace represents the new medium of communication,

electronic communication, which is fast outmoding, or even replacing,
more traditional methods of communication. We often send emails in
place of paper letters, we leave electronic messages on bulletin boards
rather than pinning slips of card to wooden notice boards, and more and
more frequently we are able to read texts on-line in e-journals, for
instance—rather than on good old-fashioned wood pulp. The physical
objects of traditional communication (letters, books and so on) are being
superseded by new electronic objects. And, just as physical objects exist
in physical space, so these cyber objects exist in cyberspace.

4
 Cyberspace. This word has stormed into our language and
invaded our collective consciousness like no other. As the technology
improves and ownership of home computers increases, we competently
navigate our way around cyberspace, downloading information, reading
and writing to newsgroups, and receiving and sending emails.

With the advent and growth of electronic communication, the

word "cyberspace" has entered into everyday parlance. But what does
this word signify? I begin by sketching equivalence between physical
space and cyberspace, showing that they share the concepts of place,
distance, size and route in common. With this mutual framework in
place, I go on to examine various theories—substantial, relational,
Einsteinium and Kantian—concerning the nature of physical space.

Cyberspace represents the new medium of communication,

electronic communication, which is fast outmoding, or even replacing,
more traditional methods of communication. We often send emails in
place of paper letters, we leave electronic messages on bulletin boards
rather than pinning slips of card to wooden notice boards, and more and
more frequently we are able to read texts on-line in e-journals, for
instance—rather than on good old-fashioned wood pulp.

The physical objects of traditional communication (letters,

books and so on) are being superseded by new electronic objects. And,
just as physical objects exist in physical space, so these cyber objects
exist in cyberspace.

We see that, while cyberspace shares some of the properties of

physical space isolated by each of these theories, still it cannot be
subsumed under any one theory.

5
 We also see that cyberspace exhibits several novel properties,
projecting it far beyond the scope of any existing theory and setting it
apart as an exciting new spatial medium.

A visualization tool for WWW, "Labyrinth", which uses WWW

and a newly defined protocol, Cyberspace Protocol (CP) to visualize and
maintain a uniform definition of objects, scene arrangement, and spatial-
location which is consistent across all of Internet. Several technologies
have been invented to handle the scaling problems associated with
widely-shared spaces, including a distributed server methodology for
resolving spatial requests. A new language, Virtual Reality Markup
Language (VRML) is introduced as a beginning proposal for WWW
visualization.

6
 The emergence, in 1991, of the World Wide Web, added a new
dimension of accessibility and functionality to Internet. For the first time,
both users and programmers of Internet could access all of the various
types of Internet services (FTP, Gopher, Telnet, etc.) through a consistent
and abstract mechanism. In addition, WWW added two new services,
HTTP, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which provides a rapid file-
transfer mechanism; and the Uniform Resource Locator, or URL, which
defines a universal locator mechanism for a data set resident anywhere
within Internet’s domain.

The first major consequence of the presence of WWW on

Internet has manifested itself in an explosion in the usability of data sets
within it. This is directly creatable to the navigability of these data sets:
in other words, Internet is useful (and will be used) to the degree it is
capable of conforming to requests made of it. WWW has made Internet
navigable, where it was not before, except in the most occult and
hermetic manner. Furthermore, it added a universal organization to the
data within it; through WWW, all four million Internet hosts can be
treated as a single, unified data source, and all of the data can be treated
as a single, albeit complexly structured, document.

It would appear that WWW, as a phenomenon, has induced two

other processes to begin. The first is an upswing in the amount of traffic
on Internet (1993 WWW traffic was 3000x greater than in 1992!); the
second is a process of organization: the data available on Internet is
being restructured, tailored to fit within WWW. (This is a clear example of
“the medium is the message”, as the presence of a new medium, WWW,
forces a reconfiguration of all pre- existing media into it.) This
organization is occurring at right angles to the previous form of

7
organization; that is to say that, previously, Internet appeared as a linear
source, a unidimensional stream, while now, an arbitrary linkage of
documents, in at least two dimensions (generally defined as “pages”), is
possible. As fitting the organization skills most common in Western
Civilization, this structure is often hierarchical, with occasional
exceptions. (Most rare are anti-hierarchical documents which are not
intrinsically confusing.)

Navigability in a purely symbolic domain has limits. The

amount of “depth” present in a subject before it exceeds human capacity
for comprehension (and hence, navigation) is finite and relatively limited.
Humans, however, are superb visualizes, holding within their craniums
the most powerful visualization tool known. Human beings navigate in
three dimensions; we are born to it, and, except in the case of severe
organic damage, have a comprehensive ability to spatio-locate and
spatio-organize.

It seems reasonable to propose that WWW should be extended;

bringing its conceptual model from two dimensions, out, at a right angle,
into three. To do this, two things are required; extensions to HTML to
describe both geometry and space; and a unified representation of
“space” across Internet. This work proposes solutions to both of these
issues, and describes a WWW client built upon them, called “Labyrinth”,
which visualizes WWW as a space.

8
Cyberspace: The experience of time, distance, people, travel, shopping and
information you encounter while in the world of the Internet. The only physical activity
needed in cyberspace is using a keyboard & mouse.

Internet

The Internet is a world wide net of computers, which can exchange data
over lines. It is decent rally organized and every computer –PCs, Macs,
and so on – can be linked to it.

History of Internet:

The Internet had its roots during the 1960's as a project of the
United States government's Department of Defense, to create a non-
centralized network designed to survive partial outages (i.e. nuclear war)
and still function when parts of the network were down or destroyed.

9
This project was called Arpanet (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network), created by the Pentagon's Advanced Research Projects Agency
established in 1969 to provide a secure and survivable communications
network for organizations engaged in defense-related research.

In order to make the network more global a new sophisticated

and standard protocol was needed. They developed IP (Internet Protocol)
technology, which defined how electronic messages were packaged,
addressed, and sent over the network. The standard protocol was
invented in 1977 and was called TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).

TCP/IP allowed users to link various branches of other complex

networks directly to the Arpanet, which soon came to be called the
Internet. Arpanet grew during the 1970's, and was upgraded to a high-
speed network by linking several powerful supercomputer stations called
nodes.

In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) began a

program to establish Internet access across the United States. They
created a backbone called the NSFNET and opened their doors to all-
educational facilities, academic researchers, government agencies, and
international research organizations. By the 1990's the Internet
experienced explosive growth. It is estimated that the number of
computers connected to the Internet was doubling every year. Once the
protocols were in place, the various developers formulated much of the
software and services that make up the Internet.

Services:

"http://" stands for "hypertext transfer protocol", which is how the World
Wide Web works. There are other protocols for electronic mail, simple
computer file transfers and many more.

10
  E-mail (electronic mail)
 News (forum of discussion)

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Telnet (use of far computers)

 World Wide Web (WWW or W3)

E-mail:

With e-mail you can send your letters and documents to other E-Mail-
Users. You can be an E-Mail-User if you have an e-mail-address.

News:

The news is like a board where you can put small letters and questions.
Every user can see this 'news' and can answer it. There are a lot of such
boards called newsgroups. They all have their own topic. So, there exists
a group for market, for programmers, for music, and so on. The language
of most of the newsgroups is English.

File Transfer Protocol:

This is very useful to exchange data, for example programs.

Telnet:

With telnet you can use programs which are on other computers. For
many libraries such as the one of the ETH Zurich, you use telnet.

World Wide Web:

This is the service used most. You surf with programs called Explorer or
Netscape.

11
 You have to type the address of the page you want to go to.
Such an address looks like http://www.yahoo.com. The explorer will
look for this page and show it.

On a homepage the firm or the person write who they are and
what they do, what they offer. Such a page contains links (hypertext) to
other pages, which will show the linked page after clicking them. On
many pages you can buy things, from food to textiles to computers.
Mostly you pay them with credit cards. You can imagine that there are
an enormous number of pages. You find information also about science,
computers, education, business, etc. Unfortunately also criminals exist
in the Internet.

How can you find information on something? You would have to

type an address if you want that. For this, the most important things are
the Search-Engines, like Alta-Vista, Yahoo, Sear.ch and WebCrawler.
These have indexed millions of pages, so you can easily search
something you want.

Server:

A computer, or a software package, that provides a specific kind

of service to client software running on other computers. The term can
refer to a particular piece of software, such as a WWW server, or to the
machine on which the software is running, e.g. "Our mail server is down
today, that's why e-mail isn't getting out."

A single server machine can (and often does) have several

different server software packages running on it, thus providing many
different servers to clients on the network.

12
Sometimes server software is designed so that additional capabilities can
be added to the main program by adding small programs known as
servlets.

The server is the heart of client server network. It houses the network
operating system, it provides file and application services to the clients, it
manage network data storage, it provides in method for the sharing of
information through electronic mail, and provides for network security

Types of servers

1. File Server
2. Application Server
3. Remote Server
4. Slave Server
5. Caching Only Server
6. proxy server
7. terminal server

File Server

It is used as centralized depository for your cooperation data, it need to

be reliable fast secure and expandable.

Each small intranet has its own file server in which they can
save their database, so it requires high memories, large hard drives the
RAM must be 128mb, the selection of hardware need to be made for the
mother board for at least 128mb of expansion capacity the PCI and EISA
Slots must be available which will be used for the backward compatibility
without suffering a great loss of speed in data transfer to the server.

13
Application Server

An application server is the central figure in the mission critical

database client/server systems. It must be very high performance and
offer armored fault protection it served as a fire wall between the user
and the domain server. No one user can have illegal access. So by using
this protection to the retrieval of data from the main server is protected.

Remote Server

A Remote Server is an option given to people who would like to

use a name server from their workstation or on a machine that has a
limited amount of memory and CPU cycles. With this option you can run
all of the networking programs that use the name server without the
name server running on the local machine.

All of the queries are serviced by a name server that is running

on another machine on the network. A host which has an
/etc/resolv.conf file listing only remote hosts, and which does not run a
name server of its own, is sometimes called a Remote Server (because the
actual server is remote?) but more often it is called simply a DNS Client.
This kind of host is technically not a ``server'', since it has no cache and
does not answer queries.

Slave Server

A Slave Server is a server that always forwards queries it cannot

satisfy from its cache, to a fixed list of forwarding servers instead of
interacting with the name servers for the root and other domains. The
queries to the forwarding servers are recursive queries. There may be one
or more forwarding servers, and they are tried in turn until the list is
exhausted. A Slave and forwarder configuration is typically used when
you do not wish all the servers at a given site to interact with the rest of

14
the Internet servers. A typical scenario would involve a number of
workstations and a departmental timesharing machine with Internet
access. The workstations might be administratively prohibited from
having Internet access. To give the workstations the appearance of
access to the Internet domain system, the workstations could be Slave
servers to the timesharing machine which would forward the queries and
interact with other name servers to resolve the query before returning the
answer. An added benefit of using the forwarding feature is that the
central machine develops a much more complete cache of information
that all the workstations can take advantage of. The use of Slave mode
and forwarding is discussed further under the description of the named
boot file commands.

There is no prohibition against declaring a server to be a slave

even though it has primary and/or secondary zones as well; the effect
will still be that anything in the local server's cache or zones will be
answered, and anything else will be forwarded using the forwarders list.

Caching Only Server

All servers are caching servers. This means that the server
caches the information that it receives for use until the data expires. A
Caching Only Server is a server that is not authoritative for any zone.
This server services queries and asks other servers, who have the
authority, for the information needed. All servers keep data in their cache
until the data expires, based on a TTL (``Time To Live'') field which is
maintained for all resource records.

Proxy Server

A Proxy Server sits in between a Client and the "real" Server

that a Client is trying to use. Clients are sometimes configured to use a
Proxy Server, usually an HTTP server.

15
 The clients makes all of it's requests from the Proxy Server,
which then makes requests from the "real" server and passes the result
back to the Client. Sometimes the Proxy server will store the results and
give a stored result instead of making a new one (to reduce use of a
Network). Proxy servers are commonly established on Local Area
Networks
Terminal Server

A special purpose computer that has places to plug in many

modem son one side and a connection to a LAN or host machine on the
other side. Thus the terminal server does the work of answering the calls
and passes the connections on to the appropriate node. Most terminal
servers can provide PPP or SLIP services if connected to the Internet.

16
Cyberspace is the global domain of electro-magnetic; the electronic
medium in which communication and control is executed through the
modulation of electromagnetic energy across specified networks. It is
readily identified with the interconnected information technology
required to achieve the wide range of system capabilities associated with
the transport of communication and control products and services.
Current technology integrates a number of capabilities (sensors,
signals, connections, transmissions, processors, and controllers)
sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience accessible
regardless of a geographic location. In pragmatic terms, operations
within this global domain allow an interdependent network of
information technology infrastructures (ITI), telecommunications
networks, and computer processing systems, integrated sensors, system
control networks, embedded processors and controllers common to
global control and communications across the electro-magnetic
environment.
As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange
ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business,
direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political
discussion, and so on.
The term is rooted in the science of cybernetics from the Greek
(steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder) and Norbert Wiener’s pioneering
work in electronic communication and control science, a forerunner to
current information theory and computer science. The term “cyberspace”
was first used by the cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson.
Which he would later describe as an "evocative and essentially
meaningless" buzzword that could serve as a cipher for all of his
cybernetic musings (see origins of the term below).

17
 Originally coined by science fiction writer William Gibson to
describe data matrices existing in a dark distant future, the term
cyberspace has entered into the common lexicon. It has come to mean
the information spaces created by the technology of digital networked
computer systems, most of which ultimately connect with the mother of
all networks, the Internet.

Information, of course, is something that people are as well as make.

Like any other human identity or activity, cyberspace is intensely social.
But in this social realm, the definitions of cyberspace become less
bounded and more diverse.

The Information Superhighway or the Infobahn. The Wild West.

The Web, as in the World Wide Web or as in the web that binds people
together in relationships. There are as many experiences of cyberspace
as there are perceptions of real space. Yet, as Donna Haraway suggests,
one cannot comprehend the condition of modernity or post modernity
without somehow comprehending some core image of cyberspace.

For the purposes of continuity in navigation, it is necessary to

create a unified conceptualization of space spanning the entire Internet,
a spatial equivalent of WWW. This has been called “Cyberspace”, in the
sense that it has at least three dimensions, but exists only as a
“consensual hallucination” on the part of the hosts and users which
participate within it. There is only one cyberspace, just as there is only
one WWW; to imply multiplicity is to defeat the objective of unity.

18
 At its fundamental level, cyberspace is a map that is maintained
between a regular spatial topology and an irregular network
topology. The continuity of cyberspace implies nothing about the
internet work upon which it exists. Cyberspace is complete abstraction,
divorced at every point from concrete representation.

All of the examples used in the following explanation of the

algorithmic nature of cyberspace are derived from our implementation of
a system that conforms to this basic principle, a system developed for
TCP/IP and Internet.

19
 Internet defines an address “space” for its hosts, specifying
these addresses as 32-bit numbers, expressed in dotted octet notation,
where the general form is {s.t.u.v}. Into this unidimensional address
space, cyberspace places a map of N dimensions (N = 3 in the canonical,
“Gibsonian” cyberspace under discussion here), so that any “place” can
be uniquely identified by the tuple {x.y.z}.

In order to ensure sufficient volume and density within

cyberspace, it is necessary to use a numbering system which has a truly
vast dynamic range. We have developed a system of “address elements”
where each element contains a specific portion of the entire expressible
dynamic range in the form: {p.x.y.z}

Where p is the place value, and x, y and z are the metrics for
each dimension. The address element is currently implemented as a 32-
bit construct, so the range of p is +31 to -32, and x, y, and z, are signed
octets.

Address elements may be concatenated to any level of

resolution desired; as most operations in cyberspace occur within a
constrained context, 32, or at most, 64 bits is sufficient to express the
vast majority of interactions. This gives the numbering system the twin
benefits of wide dynamic range and compactness; compactness is an
essential quality in a networked environment.

This is only one possible numbering scheme; others may be developed

which conform to the principles as given, perhaps more effectively.

20
 Cyberspace has now been given a universal, unique, dense
numbering system; it is now possible to quantify it. The first
quantification is that of existence (metrics); the second quantification is
that of content. Content is not provided by cyberspace itself, but rather
by the participants within it. The only service cyberspace needs to
provide is a binding between a spatial descriptor and a host address.
This can be described by the function:

f(s) => a

Where s is a spatial identifier, and a is an internet work address.

This is the essential mathematical construction of cyberspace.

21
 If cyberspace is reducible to a simple function, it can be
expressed through a transaction-based protocol, where every request
yields a reply, even if that reply is NULL. In the implementation under
examination, cyberspace protocol (CP) is implemented through a
straightforward client-server mechanism, in which there are very few
basic operations; registration, investigation, and deletion.

In the registration process, a cyberspace client announces to a

server that it has populated a volume of space; in this sense, cyberspace
does not exist until it is populated: this is a corollary to Benedict’s
Principle of Indifference, which states: “absence from cyberspace will have
a cost.”

The investigation process will be discussed in detail later in this

work. The basic transaction is simple: given a circumscribed volume of
space, return a set of all hosts which contribute to it. The reply to such a
transaction could be NULL or practically infinite (consider the case where
the request specifies a volume which describes the entirety of
cyberspace); this implies that level-of-detail must be implemented within
the transaction (and hence, within registration), in order to optimize the
process of investigation.

Often, it is enough to know cyberspace is populated, nothing

more, and many other times, it is enough to know only the gross features
of the landscape, not the particularities of it. In this sense, level of detail
is a quality intrinsic to cyberspace.

22
 Registration contains within it the investigation process; before
a volume can be registered successfully, “permission” must be received
from cyberspace itself, and this must include an active collaboration and
authentication process with whatever other hosts help to define the
volume. This is an enforcement of the rule which forbids interpenetration
of objects within the physical world; it need not be enforced, but unless it
is observed in most situations, cyberspace will tend toward being
intrinsically disorienting.

Finally, the deletion process is the logical inverse of the

registration process, where a volume defined by a client is removed from
cyberspace. These three basic transactions form the core of cyberspace
protocol, as implemented between the client and the server.

23
 Cyberspace is a unified whole; therefore, from a transaction-
oriented point of view, every server must behave exactly like any other
server (specifically with respect to investigation requests). The same
requests should evoke the same responses. This would appear to imply
that every server must comprehend the “totality” of cyberspace, a
requirement which is functionally beyond any computer yet conceived of,
or it places a severe restriction on the total content of cyberspace. Both
of these constraints are unacceptable, and a methodology to surmount
these constraints must be incorporated into the cyberspace server
implementation.

The cyberspace server is implemented as a three-dimensional

database with at least three implemented operations; insertion, deletion,
and search. These correspond to the registration, deletion, and
investigation transactions. Each element within the database is
composed of at least three items of data; the volumetric identifier of the
space; the IP address of the host which “manifests” within that space;
and the IP address of the cyberspace server through which it is
registered.

The investigation transaction is the core of the server

implementation. Cyberspace servers use a repeated, refined query
mechanism, which iteratively narrows the possible range of servers
which are capable of affirmatively answering an investigation request
until the set exactly conforms to the volumetric parameters of the
request. This set of servers contains the entire possible list of hosts
which collaborate in creating some volume of cyberspace, and will return
a non-null reply to an investigation request for a given volume of space.
The complete details of the investigation algorithm are beyond the scope

24
of the current work and will be explained in greater detail in a
subsequent publication.

An assumption implicit in the investigation algorithm is that

investigative searches have “depth”, that investigation is not performed to
its exhaustive limit, but to some limit determined by both client and
server, based upon the “importance” of the request. Registrations, on the
other hand, must be performed exhaustively, but can (and should) occur
asynchronously.

The primary side-effect of this methodology is that cyberspace is not

instantaneous, but is bounded by bandwidth, processor capacity, and
level of detail, in the form:

where c is a constant, the “speed limit” of cyberspace (as c is the

speed of light in physical space), l is the level of detail, b is bandwidth of
the internet work, p is processor capacity, D is the number of dimensions
of the cyberspace, and r is the position within the space. The function
rho defines the "density" of a volume of cyberspace under examination.

This expression is intended to describe the primary

relationships between the elements which create cyberspace, and is not
mathematically rigorous, but can be deduced from Benedikt'’s Law.

Finally, because cyberspace servers do not attempt to contain

the entirety of cyberspace, but rather, search through it, based upon
client transaction requests, it can be seen that the content of a
cyberspace server is entirely determined by the requests made to it
by its clients.

25
 Having defined, specified, and implemented an architecture
which provides a binding between spatio-location and data set location;
this architecture needs to be integrated with the existing WWW libraries
so that their functionality can be similarly extended. As “location” is
being augmented by the addition of CP to WWW, it is the Universal
Resource Locator which must be extended to incorporate these new
capabilities.

The URL, in its present definition, has three parts: an access

identifier (type of service), a host name (specified either as an IP address
or DNS-resolvable name), and a “filename”, which is really more of a
message passed along to the host at the point of service. Cyberspace
Protocol fits well into this model, with two exceptions; multiple hosts
which collaborate on a space and the identification of a “filename”
associated with a registered volume of space.

We propose a new URL of the following form:

cs://{pa.x.y.z}{pb.x.y.z}.../filename

Where {pn...} is a set of CP address elements.

Resolution of this URL into a data set is a two-stage process:

first the client CP mechanism must be used to translate the given spatio-
location into a host address, and then the request must be sent to the
host address.

Two issues arise here; multiple host addresses, as mentioned

previously and a default access mechanism for CP. If a set of host
addresses are returned by CP, a request must be sent to each specified
host; otherwise, the description of the space will be incomplete. Ideally,

26
all visualized WWW clients will implement a threaded execution
mechanism (with re-entrant WWW libraries) so that these requests can
occur simultaneously and asynchronously.

A default access mechanism for CP within WWW must be

selected. The authors have chosen HTTP, for two reasons; it is efficient,
and it is available at all WWW servers. Nonetheless, this is not a closed
issue; it may make sense to allow for some variety of access mechanisms,
or perhaps a fallback mechanism; if one service is not present at a host,
another attempt, on another service, could be made.

27
 It is now possible, from the previous discussion, to describe the
architecture and operation of a fully visualized WWW client. It is
composed of several pieces; WWW libraries with an integrated CP client
interface; an interpreter for an VRML-derived language which describes
object geometry, placement, and linkage; and a user interface which
presents a navigable “window on the web”.

The operation of the client is very straightforward, as is the case

of the other WWW clients. After launching, the client queries the “space”
at “home”, and loads the world as the axis monde of the client's view of
the web.

As a user moves through cyberspace, the client makes requests,

through CP, to determine the content of all spaces passed through or
looked upon. A great deal of design effort needs to be put into the
development of look-ahead caching algorithms for cyberspace viewers;
without them, the user will experience a discontinuous, “jerky” trip
through cyberspace. The optimal design of these algorithms will be the
subject of a subsequent work.

At this time, visualized objects in WWW have only two possible

behaviors; no behavior at all, or linkage, through an attached URL, to
another data set. This linkage could be to another “world” (actually
another place in cyberspace), which is called a “portal”, or it could link to
another data type, in which case the client must launch the appropriate
viewer. Labyrinth is designed to augment the functionality of existing
WWW viewers, such as NCSA Mosaic, rather than to supplant them, and
therefore does not need a well-integrated facility for viewing other types
of HTML documents.

28
 Cyberspace Protocol is a specific implementation of a general
theory, which has implications well beyond WWW. CP is the solution, in
three dimensions, of an N-dimensional practice for data set location
abstraction. Data abstraction places a referent between the “name” of a
data set locator and the physical location, allowing physical data set
location to become mutable.

If an implementation were to be developed for the case where N

= 1, it would be an effective replacement Internet’s Domain Name Service
(DNS), which maintains a static mapping of “names” to IP addresses. Any
network which used a dynamic abstraction mechanism could mirror or
reassign hosts on a continuous basis (assuming that all write-through
mirroring could be maintained by the hosts themselves), so that the
selection of a host for a transaction could be made based upon criteria
that would tend to optimize the performance of the network from the
perspective of the transaction. It would also be easy to create a data set
which could “follow” its user(s), adjusting its location dynamically in
response to changes in the physical location or connectivity of the user.
In an age of wireless, worldwide networking, this could be a very
powerful methodology.

These are the things that are important to discuss:

1. The business of cyberization. Everything cyberized will be put into

cyberspace. I like the word cyberized versus digitized, but I mean
roughly the same thing. The question is, “Is that a goal, a quest or is
it a fake?” As Negroponte says, “We are moving from a world of atoms
to a world of electrons” where the same bit is represented with

29
 electrons versus atoms, like a newspaper that one now gets on-line.
Personally, I stopped taking physical newspapers about three years
ago, although I spend more time reading newspapers that I did for
many years because I can read more of them and get through them by
looking at screens than by looking at them in the atomic form.

2. The demand side of cyberspace. This would not be happening if

people were not there using it and demanding it in some sense. So, we
are creating something that people find interesting.

3. Technology infrastructure of cyberspace. The platforms that hold

cyberspace. Things that interface with various other systems, the
network that connects those things together, and then the
cyberization technologies that allows communication with other
information processing systems.

4. Gateways. One is the gateway between TV networks that are likely to

occur downstream and we can see occurring now. Another gateway
that will happen is between the Internet and the panel telephone
system or the public telephone network systems with hand-held
devices and phones. We are starting to see those gateways coming
into existence.
5. Two dimensional map of cyberspace. This map is based on a model of
hierarchies of services and infrastructure.
6. Simple applications. Applications for dealing with administration and
with the finances. Particularly, cyberspace will have the greatest
impact on the financial industry because, after all, the financial
industry – as far as I understand – is only about bits. We happen to
have money in physical bits that we carry around, but fundamentally
it is just bits. The movement of all of that can be represented
electronically.

30
 Everything cyberizable will be in
Cyberspace! Goal? Quest? or Fate?

In Body
On Body
Continent Region/ Car
Intranet Home
Campus,
including SANs
World Fractal Cyberspace: a
network of … networks
of … platforms 5

This figure is, at least, my representation of cyberspace which is

really a hierarchy of interconnected networks starting in the world (I
have not connected the extra-terrestrial world in here because we have
not yet connected with outer space), the continent, regions, intranets,
campuses, homes, cars, on-body networks and then, in-body networks
that are inevitable and, in fact, are starting to exist in some form or
another.

Really, cyberization is the interface to all bits and information

processors. It is really the coupling of the information and information
processors such as the people, as a source of information. Things that
are only pure bits are physical papers that hold bits, video, etc.
These are pure content form of bits that will assume electronic,
magnetic, and photonic forms. The bit tokens – for instance in the
financial industry, money –are just bits. Stock, insurance – which is
again a form of gambling representing risk – the state of various places,

31
the state of physical networks such as highways and traffic, and the flow
of traffic that you can absorb by looking at the network?

Already, we see impacts of all forms from the Internet. In

October, a Los Angeles Times article on the net said, “The Internet boom
is hurting the overnight delivery market.” Now, every day I get a packet of
paper on my doorstep about some kind of financial transaction that is
taking place. Paper that I need to read. It turns out that some of that
paper is now coming electronically. I would prefer all of it coming
electronically but it is coming in this form of paper. This is starting to
take place as that happens.

I think that one of the questions that comes up is: Is

cyberspace just a data network? Is it one with the world wide telephony
network that it is connected to? Or, does it include the TV network? Now,
TV does not go down to inside our bodies, although I guess that there are
some probes that will let you go in various parts of your body. But, the
question is will we have one, two, or three networks as we go forward?

32
 Let us look at the demand side. As I said, after almost 30 years
people have discovered the Internet, and the reason is that finally the
exponential based on annual doubling has gotten to be of a point of
interest. That is, we speak of tens of millions rather than a few hundred
thousand or less than a million people as the network started in the
beginning. Going forward, the projections are 50% increases every year
that would mean a doubling every couple of years.

Projections differ on how many homes or when homes will be

covered. One projection of experts that was compiled by a University in
the United Kingdom says that in one decade from now there will be 70%
of USA homes, 50% in the UK and slightly less than 50% in Europe,
purchasing on the net.

There was a survey that had all of the purchasing trends. It

says that only 5% of the aggregate purchases are occurring today on the
net. One in 6 pieces of software is purchased over the net. Retail banking
is 1 in 8 transactions. Travel arrangements are also 1 in 8. It did not
even list things like the fact that now we can buy insurance on-line. It
fails to realize that drug stores have started up on-line. Everybody
predicted that no one would want a drug store on line but yet, the sales
of drug items are growing.
Also, the projection of music delivered on-line was only a few percent,
but we see with the MP3 a tremendous amount of music that is being
delivered on-line.
Internetters growth

12000

10000

8000 World Population

extrapolated at 1.6% per year
6000

4000 Internet Growth

2000 extrapolated at 98% per year

0
‘95 ‘96 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04
15

33
 The above is a growth curve that I did in 1995. One can see
there that the amount of population, at some point, is smaller than the
number of Internet connections. This is what happens when you have
one only data point and one exponent you can draw a straight line
through anything.

For instance, that says that there are more people connected to
the Internet in 2003 than there are people in the world. That is explained
by the fact that every dog and cat and light bulb has started to be
connected. So, you need to have even more connections than that.

G
rowt
h i
n h
ypevsrea
li
t y
W
WWbo
oks
, I
n f
o way
n
ews
pap
ersregul
a t
ion
I
n f
o way
I
n f
o w ay
spe c
ulat
ion
add i
c t
ion
“ho wgreatit’l
l c
onf
e r
e n
ces
be”( pol
iti
c i
a ns

l
a w
sui
ts

1
6

D
at
a f
romG
ordo
n’sWA
G

The WWW happened here as a kind of a big bang, and then we found
that books and newspapers picked that up and started the hyping
followed by conferences, and then we had info-way addiction. A problem
that is just being discussed now. Then info-way regulation is a big deal.
And followed, quite behind that are lawsuits.

34
 The following are my two favorite inventions for that year,
decade, or the millennium. That is the computer itself and the transistor
followed by the integrated circuit without which computers would not be
very interesting and would not be where they are today.

The computer in 1946 (realized in 1948). Computers supplement and

substitute for all other info processors, including humans:
 Memories come in a hierarchy of sizes, speeds, and prices. The
challenge is to exploit them.
 Computers are built from other computers in an iterative,
layered, and recursive fashion.

The Transistor (1946) and subsequent Integrated Circuit (1957):

 Processors, memories, switching, and transduction are the
primitives in well-defined hardware-software levels.
 A little help from magnetic, photonic, and other transducer
technologies.

Growth of microprocessor
performance
10000
Performance in Mflop/s

Cray T90
Cray Y-MP Cray C90
Supers
1000 Cray 2
Alpha
Cray X-MP RS6000/590
Alpha Micros
100 RS6000/540
Cray 1S
i860
10 R2000

1
80387
0.1 6881
8087 80287
0.01

80 82 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 21

35
The above graph shows that the growth of performance has been
exponential. We also see that the lower curve has come over the last 20
years up to today’s or modern supercomputers.

Bell’s Law of
Computer Class Formation

Technology enables two evolutionary paths:

1. constant performance, decreasing cost
2. constant price, increasing performance

Log price Mainframes (central)

Mini
WSs
PCs (personals)
Handheld ??
Time
1.26 = 2x/3 yrs -- 10x/decade; 1/1.26 = .8
1.6 = 4x/3 yrs --100x/decade;
--100x/decade; 1/1.6 = .62 22

Bell’s Nine Computer Price Tiers

1$: embeddables e.g. greeting card

10$: wrist watch & wallet computers
100$: pocket/ palm/telephone
1,000$: portable computers
•
10,000$: personal computers (desktop)
100,000$: departmental computers (closet)
1,000,000$: site computers (glass house)
10,000,000$: regional computers (glass castle)
100,000,000$: national centers

Super server: costs more than $100,000,000

“Mainframe”: costs more than $1 million
an array of processors, disks, tapes, comm ports 23

So we have gone from mainframes, to minis, to personal

computers, to hand-held devices to? We can safely predict that it will all
be in our watches in another decade. So, that in fact if you look at this as
a tearing effect, we have one dollar greeting card computers that speak to
you or wish you whatever, wrist-watches and wallet and pocket
computers and so on up to national centers. In fact, in national centers
today, we have three in the USA and each of those are roughly 500
million dollars each. So, we have broken the billion dollar barrier for
what amounts to a single computer platform or platform that is used for
computing at our three energy centers.

36
Another way of looking at that is the history of a portable computer of 20
years ago – it was the portable computer that you carried in a suitcase,
than we got the laptop that we have today, and now we are already
seeing the finger top computers. Then we have this contact lens
computer, and in 20 years we will inhale our computers.

Considering the speed of networks – and this is a projection for

the USA – we will be connected by something in the order of 1 Megabit
per second connections. Something in the order of ten percent of our
connections will be taking place at these higher speeds. I personally
believe that this may occur later.
By the way, the web really came about when I was in the
National Science Foundation back in 1986-88, and I basically made a
plan. This is the only plan I have ever made with things that actually
followed. I claim that this is really what allowed the whole thing to start.
We went into this first stage where we had 1.5 Mega bit per second
networks and then in the second phase in the mid 90s we came out with
the DS3 or the OSI-1 fiber trunks. Having that impulse of bandwidth
would reduce the response time and would enable computers to talk to
computers on an interactive basis and then allow the whole idea of the
web and the browser to form. Now, we are entering in this other era
where we have 2.5 Giga bit per second links that are forming.
Internet Traffic and Voice Traffic
Plus Maximum Trunk Speed and Max/Min Switch Speed Required in the Internet
In te rn e t g ro w th s vs tim e
co u rte sy o f D r. L arry R o b e rts
100 Pbps
1 0 P b ps
V o ice C ro sso ve r
1 P b ps

1 0 0 Tb p s
$1 0 0 M
1 0 T bp s

1 Tb ps $ 10 M

1 0 0 G bp s
V o ice T ra ffic $1 M

1 0 G b ps M a x. S w itch S pe e d $ 1 00 K O C -7 68
OC -19 2
1 Gbps
O C -48
10 0 M bps O C-1 2
O C -3
10 M b ps T3
1 M bps
T1 1 9 97 B re ak p oin t
1 0 0 K b ps $ 1 00 K 5 6 KB
M a x. P o rt S p e ed In te rn e t T ra ffic
1 0 K b ps

1 K bps

1 00 bp s

1 0 bps
33
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

37
 This graph is a projection by Larry Roberts. The top line is voice
traffic. Note there is a crossover of the Internet traffic versus the voice
traffic that is occurring. The red line is really the evolution of link speed
and then the lower line is the internet traffic which is now projected to
grow at a rate of a factor of a 1000 every 5 years. So, that is double the
speed I talked about earlier. This is a mere doubling every year that gives
a factor of 10 every five years. So, this is getting a factor of a 1000 in 10
years which is actually growing at about 3 times that rate. This is
something that is likely to occur with the higher speed connections that
are put in place.

Virtuous cycle of bandwidth

Inc re as e d Inc re as e Cap ac ity

De m and (c irc uits & b /w )
S tandards

Cre ate ne w Lo w e r
s e rv ic e re s p o ns e tim e

Mail/ FTP/ Te lne t WWW Audio Vide o

Vo ic e !
36

In a decade we can/will have more powerful personal computers that are

capable of:

 Processing 10-100x
 4x resolution (2K x 2K)
 Very large, room sized displays
 Very small watch-sized displays
 Low cost, storage of one terabyte for personal use adequate
networking
 Ubiquitous access = today’s fast LANs

We will also have one chip networked platforms including light

bulbs, cameras everywhere, etc., as well as some well-defined
platforms that compete with the PC for mind (time) share such as a
watch, pocket, body implant, home. We will also have more

38
 cyberization, and the challenge will be interfacing platforms and
people.

Storing all we’ve

read (written), heard (said), &
seen (participated in or presented)
Human data-types /hr /day (/4yr) /lifetime
read text, few pictures 200 K 2 -10 M/G 60-300 G

speech text @120wpm 43 K 0.5 M/G 15 G

speech @1KBps 3.6 M 40 M/G 1.2 T

video-like 50Kb/s POTS 22 M .25 G/T 25 T

video 200Kb/s VHS-lite 90 M 1 G/T 100 T

video 4.3Mb/s HDTV/DVD 1.8 G 20 G/T 1P

39

So, in fact, if you live in cyberspace, the important thing is really having
ubiquitous fast connection. Maybe wireless is the key to all of that.

There is a lot of atoms-based art for sale on the web. However, I

recently used their “display” bits and they did not seem to mind nor did
they want to charge me for the bits. I said, “I will pay you for the bits.”
And they said, “No, no, we are selling atoms that are stuck to canvas.”
There are also some old masters images on the web and one can have all
you want for just $29.95 a year. The other use is to display all the digital
photos that we are all beginning to take.

T h e N e x t C o n v e rg e n c e
P O T S c o n n e c ts to th e W e b
a .k .a . P h o n e -W e b G a te w a y s
W e b S e rv er

PSTN The
W eb

V o ic e to W E B
D a ta B a se
se
B rid g e
51

39
 Two dimensional map of cyberspace

Internet (circa 1999)

Courtesy of Zindigo Ventures

Content Content Syndicators

Syndication

Communication
Infobases/Portals

Supply Chain
Procurement

Professional

Government
$2B+ **

Operations
Marketing
Financial
ERP
Internet Services
$170B*
Personal/Employee Data
Access
Web Hosting
Applications & Middleware
Computers & Operating Layer Software
Infrastructure Network Hardware/Protocols 55
$171B*
Transport
* University of Texas Center for Research in Electronic Commerce ** This market is not yest sized, estimated at $2B+,growing to $100B in 2002

This is a mapping of cyberspace, and that is, if we are look at

the cyberspace today and how I would tend to map that. There are lower
infrastructure layers. There is roughly a 170 billion dollars investment
per year in that, starting with the transport, going to various network
hardware and protocols such as Cisco, computers, applications, and
then web hosting and ISPs.

40
 While cyberspace should not be confused with the internet, the
term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely
within the communication network it, so that a website, for example,
might be metaphorically said to "exist in cyberspace." According to this
interpretation, events taking place on the internet are not happening in
the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but "in
cyberspace".

Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the

network of interconnected computers: it is at once not "real", since one
could not spatially locate it as a tangible object, and clearly "real" in its
effects. Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated
communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative
forms of online identity were enacted, raising important questions about
the social psychology of internet use, the relationship between "online"
and "offline" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between
the "real" and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of
culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication
tool but a social destination, and is culturally significant in its own right.
Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to
reshape society and culture through "hidden" identities, or it can be seen
as borderless communication and culture.

41
 Computer crime or cyber crime refers to any crime that involves
a computer and a network, where the computers may or may not have
played an instrumental part in the commission of the crime. Issues
surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly
those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement, child pornography,
and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential
information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.

On the global level, both governments and non-state actors

continue to grow in importance, with the ability to engage in such
activities as espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes
sometimes referred to as cyber warfare.

The international legal system is attempting to hold actors

accountable for their actions, with the International Criminal Court
among the few addressing this threat.

Computer crime encompasses a broad range of potentially illegal

activities. Generally, however, it may be divided into one of two types of
categories:

(1) Crimes that target computer networks or devices directly;

(2) Crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary

target of which is independent of the computer network or device.
Examples of crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices
would include:

 Malware (malicious code)

 Denial-of-service attacks

42
  Computer viruses

Examples of crimes that merely use computer networks or devices would

include:

 Cyber stalking
 Fraud and identity theft
 Phasing scams
 Information warfare

A computer can be a source of evidence. Even though the

computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it is an excellent
device for record keeping, particularly given the power to encrypt the
data. If this evidence can be obtained and decrypted, it can be of great
value to criminal investigators.

Spam

Spam, or the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes,

is unlawful to varying degrees.

As applied to email, specific anti-spam laws are relatively new,

however limits on unsolicited electronic communications have existed in
some forms for some time.

Fraud

Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to

let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss. In
this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:

 Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires

little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by
employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or

43
 by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized
processes;
 Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to
conceal unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect;
 Altering or deleting stored data;
 Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or
altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes. This requires real
programming skills and is not common.

Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems,

including bank fraud, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified
information.

A variety of Internet scams target consumers direct.

Obscene or offensive content

The content of websites and other electronic communications may be

distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some
instances these communications may be illegal.

Many jurisdictions place limits on certain speech and ban racist,

blasphemous, politically subversive, libelous or slanderous, seditious, or
inflammatory material that tends to incite hate crimes.

The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies

greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area
in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups
with entrenched beliefs.

One area of Internet pornography that has been the target of

the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography.

44
Harassment

Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way,

harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific
individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality,
sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through
newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see cyber
bullying, cyber stalking, harassment by computer, hate crime, Online
predator, and stalking). Any comment that may be found derogatory or
offensive is considered harassment.

Drug trafficking

Drug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the

Internet to sell their illegal substances through encrypted e-mail and
other Internet Technology. Some drug traffickers arrange deals at
internet cafes, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and
swap recipes for amphetamines in restricted-access chat rooms.

The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the

lack of face-to-face communication. These virtual exchanges allow more
intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal drugs. The
sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely
minimized and the filtering process that comes with physical interaction
fades away.

Furthermore, traditional drug recipes were carefully kept secrets. But

with modern computer technology, this information is now being made
available to anyone with computer access.

45
Cyber terrorism

Government officials and Information Technology security

specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems
and server scans since early 2001. But there is a growing concern among
federal officials that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by
cyber terrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map
potential security holes in critical systems. A cyber terrorist is someone
who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to advance his
or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based attack
against computers, network, and the information stored on them.

Cyber terrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism

committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker
1983).

As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be

bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyber terrorism. At
worst, cyber terrorists may use the Internet or computer resources to
carry out an actual attack. As well there are also hacking activities
directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within
networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power,
collecting information relevant for ruining peoples' lives, robberies,
blackmailing etc.

Computer security

Computer security is a branch of computer technology known

as information security as applied to computers and networks. The
objective of computer security includes protection of information and
property from theft, corruption, or natural disaster, while allowing the
information and property to remain accessible and productive to its
intended users. The term computer system security means the collective

46
processes and mechanisms by which sensitive and valuable information
and services are protected from publication, tampering or collapse by
unauthorized activities or untrustworthy individuals and unplanned
events respectively.

The strategies and methodologies of computer security often

differ from most other computer technologies because of its somewhat
eluding objective of preventing unwanted computer behavior instead of
enabling wanted computer behavior.

Security by design

The technologies of computer security are based on logic. As

security is not necessarily the primary goal of most computer
applications, designing a program with security in mind often imposes
restrictions on that program's behavior.

There are 4 approaches to security in computing, sometimes a

combination of approaches is valid:

1. Trust all the software to abide by a security policy but the software
is not trustworthy (this is computer insecurity).
2. Trust all the software to abide by a security policy and the software
is validated as trustworthy (by tedious branch and path analysis
for example).
3. Trust no software but enforce a security policy with mechanisms
that are not trustworthy (again this is computer insecurity).
4. Trust no software but enforce a security policy with trustworthy
mechanisms.

Many systems have unintentionally resulted in the first

possibility. Since approach two is expensive and non-deterministic, its
use is very limited. Approaches one and three lead to failure. Because

47
approach number four is often based on hardware mechanisms and
avoids abstractions and a multiplicity of degrees of freedom, it is more
practical. Combinations of approaches two and four are often used in a
layered architecture with thin layers of two and thick layers of four.

Security architecture

Security Architecture can be defined as the design artifacts that describe

how the security controls (security countermeasures) are positioned, and
how they relate to the overall information technology architecture. These
controls serve the purpose to maintain the system's quality attributes,
among them confidentiality, integrity, availability, accountability and
assurance." Security architecture is the plan that shows where security
measures need to be placed. If the plan describes a specific solution
then, prior to building such a plan, one would make a risk analysis. If
the plan describes a generic high level design (reference architecture)
then the plan should be based on a threat analysis.

Secure operating systems

One use of the term computer security refers to technology to

implement a secure operating system. Much of this technology is based
on science developed in the 1980s and used to produce what may be
some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever. Though still
valid, the technology is in limited use today, primarily because it imposes
some changes to system management and also because it is not widely
understood. Such ultra-strong secure operating systems are based on
operating system kernel technology that can guarantee that certain
security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating environment. An
example of such a Computer security policy is the Bell-La Padula model.

48
 The strategy is based on a coupling of special microprocessor
hardware features, often involving the memory management unit, to a
special correctly implemented operating system kernel. This forms the
foundation for a secure operating system which, if certain critical parts
are designed and implemented correctly, can ensure the absolute
impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is
enabled because the configuration not only imposes a security policy,
but in theory completely protects itself from corruption.

Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the

features that assure this maximal level of security. The design
methodology to produce such secure systems is precise, deterministic
and logical.

Secure coding

If the operating environment is not based on a secure operating

system capable of maintaining a domain for its own execution, and
capable of protecting application code from malicious subversion, and
capable of protecting the system from subverted code, then high degrees
of security are understandably not possible. While such secure operating
systems are possible and have been implemented, most commercial
systems fall in a 'low security' category because they rely on features not
supported by secure operating systems (like portability, et al.). In low
security operating environments, applications must be relied on to
participate in their own protection. There are 'best effort' secure coding
practices that can be followed to make an application more resistant to
malicious subversion.

Capabilities vs. ACL’s

49
 Within computer systems, two security models capable of
enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACL’s) and
capabilities.

The semantics of ACL’s have been proven to be insecure in

many situations (e.g., confused deputy problem). It has also been shown
that ACL's promise of giving access to an object to only one person can
never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by
capabilities. This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based
systems, but only that the designers of certain utilities must take
responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws.

Capabilities have been mostly restricted to research operating

systems and commercial OSs still uses ACL’s. Capabilities can, however,
also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of
programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented
design. An open source project in the area is the E language.

50
 Cyberspace is a global community of people using computers in
networks. In order to function well, the virtual communities supported
by the Internet depend upon rules of conduct, the same as any society.
Librarians and information technologists must be knowledgeable about
ethical issues for the welfare of their organizations and to protect and
advise users.
What is ethics? Ethics is the art of determining what is right or
good. It can also be defined as a general pattern or way of life, a set of
rules of conduct or moral code. Ethical guidelines are based on values.
The Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) is one national
organization which has developed a statement of its values. Every
member of ACM is expected to uphold the Code of Ethics and
Professional Conduct which includes these general moral imperatives:
1) Contribute to society and human well-being
2) Avoid harm to others
3) Be honest and trustworthy
4) Be fair and take action not to discriminate
5) Honor property rights including copyrights and patents
6) Give proper credit for intellectual property
7) Respect the privacy of others
8) Honor confidentiality.
The very nature of electronic communication raises new moral
issues. Individuals and organizations should be proactive in examining
these concerns and developing policies which protect liabilities. Issues
which need to be addressed include: privacy of mail, personal identities,

51
access and control of the network, pornographic or unwanted messages,
copyright, and commercial uses of the network. An Acceptable Use Policy
(AUP) is recommended as the way an organization should inform users of
expectations and responsibilities. Sample AUPs are available on the
Internet at gopher sites and can be retrieved by using Veronica to search
keywords "acceptable use policies" or "ethics."
The Computer Ethics, "Ten Commandments of Computing":

1 Not use a computer to harm other people.

2 Not interfere with other people's computer work.

3 Not snoop around in other people's computer files.

4 Not use a computer to steal.

5 Not use a computer to bear false witness.

6 Not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not
paid.

7 Not use other people's computer resources without

authorization or proper compensation.

8 Not appropriate other people's intellectual output.

9 Think about the social consequences of the program you are

writing or the system you are designing.

10 Always use a computer in ways that show consideration

and respect for your fellow humans
What should an organization do when an ethical crisis occurs? One
strategy has been proposed by Ouellette and Associates Consulting.
1. Specify the FACTS of the situation.
2. Define the moral DILEMMA.
3. Identify the CONSTITUENCIES and their interests.
4. Clarify and prioritize the VALUES and PRINCIPLES at stake.
5. Formulate your OPTIONS.

52
6. Identify the potential CONSEQUENCES.

Other ethical concerns include issues such as

1) Influence: Who determines organizational policy? Who is liable in

the event of lawsuit? What is the role of the computer center or
the library in relation to the parent organization in setting policy?
2) Integrity: Who is responsible for data integrity? How much effort
is made to ensure that integrity?
3) Privacy: How is personal information collected, used and
protected? How is corporate information transmitted and
protected? Who should have access to what?
4) Impact: What are the consequences on staff in the up- or down-
skilling of jobs? What are the effects on staff and organizational
climate when computers are used for surveillance, monitoring and
measuring?
As the schools incorporate Internet resources and services into the
curriculum and the number of children using the Internet increases,
other ethical issues must be addressed. Should children be allowed to
roam cyberspace without restriction or supervision? How should schools
handle student Internet accounts? What guidelines are reasonable for
children? Organizations need to be proactive in identifying and
discussing the ethical ramifications of Internet access. By having
acceptable use policies and expecting responsible behavior, organizations
can contribute to keeping cyberspace safe.

53
New Media Advertising Models
 Site as the ad
 Ads within sites
 Banners
 Buttons
 Text Links
 Product Placement
 Social networking
 VR Placements
 Sponsorships
 Advertorials
 Interstitials
 Pop-ups / Pop-under
 Search engine optimization

Site as the ad - Brochure ware

 Among very first corporate sites on web
 Recreate existing printed ads and collateral
 Little interactivity

Site as the ad
online games and Micro sites
 Online games
 Interactive online games specially designed to deliver

54
 brand messages to players
 Micro sites
 Interactive miniature websites created specifically to be
part of a marketers integrated message campaign

Ads within sites:

Banners
 Primary form of online advertising
 3 Primary types of banners
 Static
 Animated
 Interactive

Static Banners
 Easy to produce
 Universally accepted
 Stale and boring
 Click-through rate is not terribly high

Animated Banners
 Rudimentary flip-book style movement (2 to 20 frames -- GIF
technology)
 Higher click-through than static
 Deliver more information
 Eye-catching
 Universal acceptance
Rich Media Banners
 2 types
• HTML
• Proprietary code
 Make a choice or insert data

55
 HTML - universally accepted
 Proprietary code - often require plug-ins to be downloaded; not always
accepted
 Highest click-through rates

Ads within sites:

Buttons
 Mini-banners
 Usually little more than a logo or brand name

Ads within sites:

Text Links
 Hyperlinks to other sites
 Included within copy or editorial
 Also seen on sites’ side-bars
 Easy to do, much less expensive

Product Placements in Websites

 Social Networking and File Sharing sites
 MySpace and FaceBook
 YouTube and Flicker
 Virtual Reality sites
 Second Life Island
 Virtual Laguna Beach

Sponsorships
 Sponsor popular editorial features on sites
 Maintain integration, it MUST make sense to the subject
matter being sponsored

Advertorials

56
  A sponsorship or placement that looks more like an
article than an advertisement
 Often have a higher response rate
 Again, MUST deliver relevant content
 Big in the healthcare and OTC drug world

Interstitials
 ISP start-up screens are static interstitials
 Usually little competition for attention

Pop-up & Pop-under ads

 Pop-ups: ‘Appear’ above requested page window
 Pop-under: Lurk beneath the requesting page and are
often not seen until you close browser

Search Engine Optimization

 Primary tools of SEO are keywords
 Words or phrases that describe subject matter of a site or
web page
 Search engines base success on;
 Key word matching
 Payment for keyword placement

Meta-tags
 Special HTML insertions which provide information about
a Web page
 Often a list of keywords
 Example of meta-tags for www.Disney.com
Click-through versus Impressions
 Banners and buttons are getting fewer click-through

57
  So should advertisers lose them? NO
 Do not underestimate the value of banners as Brand
Builders
 Cumulative impressions
 Billboards of the Information Superhighway
Buying an online ad
 Determine your goal(s)
 Select your site
 Determine payment method
 Negotiate price
 Run the ad

Goals
Similar to those of the site itself
 Traffic building (Channel Churner)
 E-commerce (eBazaar)
 Lead generation (Matchmaker)
 Brand building (Digital Destination)

What to look for

 Audience coverage
 Target Selectivity
 Reporting
 Flexibility
 Size and placement
 Inventory available
 Performance guarantees
 Technology

Payment schedules
 CPM

58
 CPC - Cost per click / click-through
 PPS - Pay per sale
 PPV - Pay per viewer
 PPP - Pay per purchase
 Flat fee
 Hybrid
 Affiliate agreements/networks

Affiliate arrangements
 Commission
 Pay per Click
 Qualified lead
 Flat rate per sale
 % of Sale
 Affiliate networks
 Clicks Link - source of multiple affiliate networks

Benefits for sites

 Substitute / augment in-house sales force
 No need to invest in ad management s/w
 Sell remnant / leftover inventory

Benefits for Advertisers

 Consistency in ad delivery
 One rep / multiple sites
 Competitive pricing
 Multiple targeting options

59
Abstract:
The Internet is probably the most effective marketing tool that
has ever existed. Internet marketing has made business capable to serve
potential customers as well as provide after sale services. Customer
relationship marketing has got new meaning through e - marketing.

There are three basic components in Internet marketing.

1. Websites & Portal
2. Search Engine
3. Email & Newsletter
what is Email Marketing?
It is cost effective, immediate, self – evaluator, responsible,
environmental friendly and easy available direct marketing tool. Email
marketing is marketing through E – mail.
1. Email marketing is cheap and secure.
2. Sender immediately able to know whether recipient has received or not
3. Sender easily can evaluate his business. I got ten positive replies out
of fifteen requests I did.
4. Surveys have found that email-marketing campaigns can be as much
as 10 times more likely to generate a response as their direct mail. You
are half way sure to receive response with this tool.
5. Email facility is easily available.

60
There are three basic forms of email marketing.

A. Direct email

what do you send your customers or prospective customers in

your traditional marketing? Promotional message? Offer announcement?
What do you need for that? You need a list of customer or prospect
postal addresses to send your promotions. In same way you need list of
email addresses of your customers so that they can read your
promotional message and offers on their computers or laptops. It doesn’t
matter where they are! You can also rent lists of email addresses from
service companies. They'll let you send your message to their own
address lists. These services can usually let you target your message
according to, for example, the interests or geographical location of the
owners of the email address. So start creating email address database or
hire such firms.
B. Be in Touch Mail
what would you do to be in touch with your prospective or well-
established customers? You send retention kind of mails or your official
newsletter. A newsletter carries promotional messages or advertisements.
But it aims at developing a long-term impact on the readers (Your
customers).

It contains information, which informs, entertains or otherwise benefits

the readers. You don’t do extra now. You have official newsletter ready
with you. You just create attractive automation through web-based
technologies. And send it through your mailbox. This is what we call e-
Newsletter. To learn more on how to go for e-Newsletter log on www.e-
zinez.com

61
C. Advertise through other e-newsletter

Instead of producing your own e-newsletter, you can find

newsletters published by others and pay them to put your advertisement
in the emails they send their subscribers. Indeed, there are many email
newsletters that are created for just this purpose - to sell advertising
space to others. Here you are advertising and promoting your company
and not sharing your valuable knowledge. However that also can be
done.

Challenges for Email Marketer

1. Spam. (Uninvited Guest)

I daily clean up advertising material thrown in my house

veranda. Same way I get some emails that I have never invited. Such
unauthorized mails and unsolicited commercial (bulk) email are called
“SPAM". Spam however results only in angry recipients. Even ISPs
(Internet Service Providers) may block your domain also.

Spamming is called "Untargeted Email Marketing”. So please

don’t Spam. Take permission of receivers while you send your mail. This
is called "Responsible email marketing". How to get permission? An
example of permission is when your customer buys something from your
online store and also ticks a box marked "please send me news about
product updates via email". You now have "permission" to send that
person product updates by email, provided you also give them the
opportunity to rescind that permission at any time.

62
2. Privacy issues

" Company needs to get permission from the individuals concerned

before sending bulk emails to customers." - Data Protection Act. Spam is
the issue of privacy. So, maintain God’s privacy.

3. Attachments
Try to avoid large attachments while mailing. If you want to promote
information try to convert into Newsletter. E-newsletter is a
tool where you link important web pages under good heading. While
reading, if your customers find important to read, they will open those
pages.

Another funny reason not to send attachments during your direct e-

marketing campaigns is that often recipients are unable to open them for
one reason or another. So don’t send anything, which becomes dirt for
someone else when reached.
1. Don’t send mail to them who don’t know anything about you.
2. Include your name and correspondence address to prove your validity
in mail.
3. If any one complains or find objection on your sending mail, please
follow up and try to avoid such mailing.
4. Stop collecting email addresses from Internet so that you can promote
yourself to that address. Get your email address in permitted manner.
Mail to interested only and for that collect addresses of interested only.
5. Hire such advertisers only who are really not Spammer and send valid
emails on behalf of you.
6. Don’t send mails one after other even if you do not get response from
recipient.

63
7. Don’t mail any illegal or fake information.
8. Go for "Opt-in" email marketing. However it is not the free but it
works. Bullet mail, Hotmail and Targ – It are well known opt in email
marketer.

What do need to ponder?

1. Who is your customer? Who is your targeted audience? To whom do
you want to send? Definitely you will send to your customers. How? You
need either your won email list or you need to get on rental. Collect
addresses. If you take on rent, select trusted medium.
2. Why do you want to send email? What do your customer read in your
e newsletter? What actions do they need to take? Registering,
Downloading or Buying?
3. If your campaign gets big success, what will be your outcome from this
exercise? Be very specific here. Quantify it.
4. How your newsletter will benefit your customer? Are you offering gift,
knowledge or discounts inside?
5. What Is Your Budget?
6. Hire copywriter and designer who can do creative job for your
campaign.
7. You need to send your email recipients to a website that describes
your offer or prompts them to take action. This site is also called a
landing page. Get it developed or get on rent. And give that address in
your newsletter.
8. Will You Use HTML or TEXT in your mail? HTML may give your mail
more attraction.
Thus how e-mail and newsletters provide you with the means of taking
your business message to your target audience, rather than having to
wait for your target audience to come to you.

64
 BUYING AND SELLING ADVERTISING ON WEB

Buying advertising space on sites that receive a large number of

hits and that target a market similar to yours can increase the number of
hits on your site and lead to higher revenues. Selling advertising space
on your own site can also provide you with additional income.

For buying and selling advertising purpose, it can be important to

distinguish a site’s unique visitors from the total number of hits it
receives.

With some advertising payment schemes, you will be charged only if the
customer performs an action predetermined by you and the Web site
managers. Pay-per-performance fees include pay-per-click, pay per load
and pay-per sale. When using the pay per click method, you pay the host
according to the number of click-troughs to your site. Pay per lead
means that you pay the host for every lead generated from the
advertisement, and pay per sale means that you pay the host for every
sale resulting from a click through.

E-BUSINESS PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public relations (PR) keep your customers and your company’s employees
current on the latest information about products, services and internal
and external issues such as company promotion and consumer
reactions. It includes communicating with your consumers and
employees through press releases, speeches, special events,
presentations and e-mails.

65
Chat sessions are one method of learning what people think about your
company or products. A bulletin board on your Web site will enable
people to post comments, and you can also involve consumers by
organizing a special event or function on your Web site. Brand awareness
and increased exposure can result from attending and participating in
trade shows and exhibitions at which you can speak with prospective
customers.

Crisis management, another responsibility of PR, is conducted in

response to problems the company is having. For example, many
investors and consumers follow the financial news about internet
companies closely. When your company is doing well financially, this
should be made public. However, if the company is doing poorly, you
public relations department must be ready to issue information about
what is causing the problem and what will be done to correct it.

CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT (CRM)

The sum of company’s customer service solutions makes up its

customer Relationship Management (CRM) system. The complexity and
depth of an e-business’ CRM system will depend on its levels of traffic
and available resources. CRM systems can include call handling (the
maintenance of out-bound and in-bound calls from customers and
service representatives), sales tracking (the tracing and recording of all
sales made) and transaction support (the technology and personnel used
for conducting transactions), as well as many other functions. The
internet has created new ways to understand customers, which in turn
can improve customer service. Tools used to improve these solutions
include log-file analysis, data mining and cookies.

66
 A CRM system keeps records of customers behavior to provide
fast and effective service and, when necessary, to implement corrective
measures. Customers should feel confident that their transactions are
secure and that products are reliable and will be received on time.
Customers should also be able to conduct transactions and get answers
to their questions through a call center. Call centers house customer-
service representatives who can be reached by an 800 number or
through e-mail, online text chatting or real-time voice communications.

Online marketing and electronic commerce. Online marketing is

conducted through interactive online computer systems, which link
consumers with sellers electronically. A modem connects the consumer’s
computer or television ser-top “web machine” with various services
through telephone lines. There are to types of online marketing channels;
commercial online services and the internet.

These online services provide subscribers with information

(news, libraries, education, travel, sports, reference), entertainment
(game and games), shopping services, dialogue opportunities (bulletin
boards, forums, chat boxes), and e-mail. With a few clicks of the mouse
button at their home PCs, subscribers can order thousands of products
and services electronically from dozens of major stores and catalogs.
They can also do their banking with local banks; buy and sell
investments through discount brokerage services; book air line, hotel,
and car- rental reservations; play games, quizzes and contests; check
consumer purports rating of various products; receive the lasted sports
scores and statistics; nation weather forecasts; and exchange e-mail
messages with other subscribers around the country.

67
 In fact, all of he online service firms now offer internet access as
a primary service. The internet is a vast and burgeoning global web of
computer networks.

Internet usage has surged with the recent development of the user-
friendly work wide web and web browser software such as Netscape
Navigator, Microsoft internet Explorer, and Mosaic. Now even novices can
surf the Net and experience fully integrated text, graphics, images, and
sound. Users can send e-mail, exchange views, stop for products and
access news, food recipes, art, and business information. The internet
itself is free, although individual users usually must pay a commercial
access provider to be holed up to it.

Rapid growth of online marketing Electronic commerce is

the general term for a buying and selling process that is supported
by electronic means. Electronic markets are “market-spaces” in
which sellers offer their products and services electronically, and
buyers search for information, identity what they want, and place
orders using a credit card or other means of electronic payment.

68
 PROMOTIONS

E-business promotions can attract visitors to your site and can

influence purchasing. These can be conducted both online and offline
and may include frequent-flyer miles, point-based rewards, discounts,
sweepstakes, free trails, free shipping and coupons.

Offering frequent-flyer miles, to be used for flights on

participating airlines, provide an incentive for consumers to shop at your
site. This method of promotion can also serve as a means to attract
repeat visitors by allowing them to access their accumulated miles.

A points-based promotion is similar to a frequent-flyer miles-

based promotion. Every time a customer performs a pre-specified action,
they can receive points redeemable for products, services, rebates,
discounts, etc.

E-BUSINESS ADVERTISING

Today, a great deal of e-business advertising is conducted through

traditional channels such as television, movies, newspapers and
magazines. Many e-businesses advertise in prime time television slots,
which are the most expensive times to air commercials. E-business
should establish and continually strengthen branding. You brand should
be unique, recognizable and easy to remember. Publicizing your URL on
all direct mailings, business cards and print advertisements are other
ways to increase brand awareness and bring more visitors to your site.

69
 This work attempts to outline the requirements for
architectures which can fully visualize WWW, and proposes solutions to
the issues raised by these requirements. While much further study needs
to be done, this work is meant to serve as a starting point for an
understanding of the subtleties of wide-area, distributed, visualized data
sets.

Labyrinth and Cyberspace Protocol are logical extensions to the

World Wide Web and Internet. Indeed, without the existence of WWW,
neither would be very useful immediately; they would operate, but lack
content, and individuals would hardly be compelled either to use them or
adapt their existing data sets to realize their new potentials. Used
together, they work to make both WWW and Internet inherently more
navigable, because they help to make Internet more human-centered,
adapting data sets to human capabilities rather than vice versa. This,
thus far, is the single largest contribution that “virtual reality” research
has offered to the field of computing; a human-centered design
approach that lowers or erases the barriers to usage by creating
user-interface paradigms which serve humans to the full of their
potential.

Finally, network visualization marks the end of the “first age” of

networking, where protocols, services, and infrastructure dominated the
discourse within the field. In the “second age” of networking, questions
like data architecture and the inherent navigability of a well- designed
data set become infinitely more important than “first age” questions;
where “how do I find what I’m looking for?” becomes more relevant than
“where did it come from?”

70
• William Gibson. Neuromancer: 20th
Anniversary Edition. New York: Ace Books,
2004.
• Ippolito, Jon (December 1998 – January
1999). "Cross Talk: Is Cyberspace Really a Space?” Art byte: 12 – 24.
• Irvine, Martin. "Postmodern Science
Fiction and Cyberpunk", retrieved 2006-07-19.
• Oliver Grau: Virtual Art. From Illusion to Immersion, MIT-Press,
Cambridge 2003. (4 Auflagen).
• Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder On the
Electronic Frontier. Spectra Books, 1992.
• Zhai, Philip. Get Real: A Philosophical
Adventure in Virtual Reality. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,
1998.
• David Koepsell, the Ontology of
Cyberspace, Chicago: Open Court, 2000.

WEB LINKS
www.google.com

71