Tutorials and Reviews

International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos, Vol. 14, No. 11 (2004) 3689–3820
c World Scientific Publishing Company

A NONLINEAR DYNAMICS PERSPECTIVE OF

WOLFRAM’S NEW KIND OF SCIENCE.
PART III: PREDICTING THE UNPREDICTABLE

LEON O. CHUA, VALERY I. SBITNEV and SOOK YOON

Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences,
University of California at Berkeley,
Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

Received February 15, 2004; Revised June 5, 2004

We prove rigorously the four cellular automata local rules 110, 124, 137 and 193 have identical
dynamic behaviors capable of universal computations. We exploit Felix Klein’s remarkable Vier-
ergruppe to partition the 256 local rules studied empirically by Wolfram into 89 global equivalence
classes of which only 50 may exhibit complex dynamics. We define a 24-element rotation group
which induces 30 local equivalence classes of nonlinear difference equations whose parameters
can be mapped into each other among members of the same class.

Keywords: Wolfram; Cellular Automata; universal computation; Turing machine; CNN; cellu-
lar neural networks; cellular nonlinear networks; global equivalence classes; symmetry; group-
theoretic properties; the Four group; Vierergruppe; nonlinear dynamics.

1. Introduction where the superscript “t” denotes the transpose op-

To make Part III somewhat self-contained, let us
begin with a brief review of the notations, con-
cepts, and main results from Parts I [Chua et al.,
2002] and II [Chua et al., 2003]. Throughout this se-
ries, we are concerned exclusively with a two-state
one-dimensional cellular automata made of n + 1
cells i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n with a periodic boundary
condition, as shown in Fig. 1(a). Each cell “i” in-
teracts only with its nearest neighbors i − 1 and
i + 1, as depicted in Fig. 1(b), where u i−1 , ui , and
ui+1 denote the three inputs needed to compute
the output yi via a three-input Boolean function
yi = N (ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ) whose truth table is shown
in Fig. 1(c), where βk ∈ {0, 1}. There are 256 dis-
tinct Boolean functions of three inputs, each one
representing one permutation of eight binary bits
in the symbolic Boolean vector
∆
β = [β0 β1 β2 · · · β7 ]t
eration. It is natural therefore to identify each of
these 256 Boolean functions by its associated deci-
mal number
N = β 7 • 27 + β6 • 26 + β5 • 25 + β4 • 24
+ β3 • 23 + β2 • 22 + β1 • 21 + β0 • 20
7
X
= βk 2k (2)
k=0
Since the Boolean expansion of any decimal num-
ber N = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 255 uniquely identifies one of
the 256 truth tables via the symbolic Boolean vec-
tor β extracted from Eq. (2), the number N serves
the dual role of a local rule number N , and its
associated truth table.
Rather than taking a local rule as an abstract
discrete Boolean function out of the blue, Part I
shows that much insight is gained by associating
(1) each local rule N with an attractor of a CNN

3689
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3690 L. O. Chua et al.

Fig. 1. (a) A one-dimensional Cellular Automata (CA) made of (n + 1) identical cells with a periodic boundary condition.
Each cell “i” is coupled only to its left neighbor cell (i − 1) and right neighbor cell (i + 1). (b) Each cell “i” is described by a
local rule N , where N is a decimal number specified by a binary string {β0 , β1 , . . . , β7 } βi ∈ {0, 1}. (c) The symbolic truth
table specifying each local rule N , N = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 255. (d) By recoding “0” to “−1”, each row of the symbolic truth table
in (c) can be recast into a numeric truth table, where γk ∈ {−1, 1}. (e) Each row of the numeric truth table in (d) can be
represented as a vertex of a Boolean Cube whose color is red if γk = 1 , and blue if γk = −1.
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A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3691

(cellular neural network) [Chua, 1998] of the same architecture as Fig. 1(a), each of whose cells is a nonlinear
dynamical system defined by a scalar state equation

    

ẋi = − xi + xi + 1 − xi − 1
  
n   
o

+ z2 + c2  z1 + c1 (z0 + b1ui−1 + b2ui + b3ui+1) 
 (3)
xi (0) = 0
i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n .

and an output equation

n   
o

yi (Q) = sgn z2 + c2  z1 + c1 (z0 + b1ui−1 + b2 ui + b3 ui+1) 
 (4)

where yi (Q) denotes the steady state output Q the center of the cube). The vertex “k” correspond-
of each CNN cell i for each numeric input ing to row “k” of Fig. 1(c) [resp. Fig. 1(d)] is coded
(ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ) listed in the numeric truth table blue if βk = 0 (resp. γk = −1), and red if βk = 1
shown in Fig. 1(d), which is constructed from the (resp. γk = 1), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . 7.
symbolic truth table in Fig. 1(c) by substituting the Since we will be using both symbolic and nu-
symbol “0” by the real number “−1”, and the sym- meric truth tables in the following text, to avoid
bolic binary output βk ∈ {0, 1} in Fig. 1(c) by the confusion, we will sometimes use the symbolic
numeric binary output γk ∈ {−1, 1} in Fig. 1(d). It Boolean vector β defined in Eq. (1) when referring
is important to note that the minor difference be- to the symbolic truth table, and to use the numeric
tween the symbolic and the numeric truth tables is Boolean vector
more than cosmetic. Indeed, by interpreting ui−1 ,
∆
ui , and ui+1 as a real number, rather than just a γ = [γ0 γ1 γ2 · · · γ7 ]t (5)
symbol, we can exploit the powerful theory of non-
linear dynamics which is couched in terms of the when referring to the numeric truth table.
real number system. As an example, the colored vertices in Fig. 1(e)
In particular, for each local rule N = correspond to the local rule
0, 1, 2, . . . , 255, one can specify a set of eight pa-
rameters1 {z2 , c2 , z1 , c1 , z0 , b1 , b2 , b3 } in Eq. (2) N = 0 • 27 + 1 • 26 + 1 • 25 + 0 • 24 + 1 • 23
such that its trajectory from xi (0) = 0 converges + 1 • 22 + 1 • 21 + 0 • 20
precisely to an attractor Q whose output yi (Q)
in Eq. (4) generates exactly the numeric truth ta- = 110 (6)
ble in Fig. 1(d). Another important advantage of
working with the numeric rather than the symbolic A quicker way to calculate the local rule number is
truth table is the remarkable insights provided by simply to add the vertex weights of all red vertices
the equivalent Boolean cube representation shown in indicated in the Boolean cube of Fig. 1(e), namely,
Fig. 1(e) [Chua et al., 2002]. Here, the eight vertices
of the cube are located exactly at the coordinates N = sum of weights of vertices
1,
2,
3,
5,
6
(ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ) listed in the numeric truth table in
= 2 + 4 + 8 + 32 + 64
Fig. 1(d) (note the origin “0” of the three coordi-
nate axes ui−1 , ui and ui+1 in Fig. 1(e) is located at = 110 . (7)

1
There are infinitely many such parameter sets that can be found for each local rule N . Table 4 from [Chua et al., 2003] gives
only one parameter set for the reader to verify.
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3692 L. O. Chua et al.
The CNN dynamical system defined by Eqs. (3)
and (4) corresponds to only one iteration of a cel-
lular automata. Instead of applying conventional
brute-force calculations on a digital computer, and
repeating it over all n + 1 pixels, we can use a
CNN chip [Chua et al., 1998] to obtain the same re-
sult via hardware on all pixels simultaneously. This
“physical” simulation of the local rule is an example
of analog computation, and takes only a few nano
seconds (10−9 seconds) on the latest 128×128 CNN
chip. To function as a cellular automata, the CNN
chip is programmed to execute a single “do loop” in-
struction which feedbacks the output of yit of each
cell at iteration t back to its input to obtain the
output yit+1 at the next iteration t + 1. Using this
notation (the superscript “t” and “t + 1” denote the
iteration number from one to the next generation),
we can express each local rule N explicitly in the
form of a nonlinear difference equation as follows:

n  

o
ut+1 t t t

i = sgn z2 + c2  z1 + c1 z0 + b1ui−1 + b2ui + b3 ui+1  
 (8)

where the eight parameters {z2 , c2 , z1 , c1 , z0 , b1 , b2 , b3 } for each local rule are given in [Chua et al., 2003].
Another important advantage of the Boolean cube representation is that it allows us to define an index
of complexity; namely,

Complexity Index
κ = minimum number of parallel planes needed to separate (9)
the red vertices of Boolean cube N from the blue vertices.

The complexity index κ of local rule N pro-

vides a useful qualitative characterization of N . For “α = 0” absolute-value functions [Chua et al., 2002]:
example, all local rules belonging to a given equiv-
alence class to be identified in the following sec- κ = 1 local rules :
tions have the same complexity index κ. Most local 
rules belonging to the Wolfram class 1 [Wolfram, ut+1
i = sgn z0 +b 1 u t
i−1 +b 2 u t
i +b 3 u t
i+1
2002] have complexity index κ = 1. Moreover, all (10)
local rules with complexity index κ = 1 can exhibit
only Wolfram’s class 1 or class 2 behaviors and are
therefore not capable of universal computation. On There are 104 local rules with complexity index
κ = 1. They correspond to the class of all linearly-
the other hand, since local rule 110 , which has
separable Boolean functions [Chua & Roska, 2002].
a complexity index κ = 2 [Chua et al., 2002], had
Similarly, there are 126 local rules with complex-
been proved to be universal [Wolfram, 2002], it fol-
ity index κ = 2. They can be generated from the
lows that κ = 2 represents a threshold of complexity following nonlinear difference equation with only
posed in [Wolfram, 2002]. “1” absolute-value function [Chua et al., 2002],
Yet another important qualitative property of i.e. α = 1:
κ is its correlation with the minimum number α
of absolute-value functions required by the Boolean
output equation (4). In particular, the number κ = 2 local rules :
“α + 1” is exactly equal to the minimum number  
of parallel separating planes [Chua et al., 2002].
ut+1
i = sgn z 1 + c  t
1 z0 + b1 ui−1


Hence, all local rules with complexity index κ = 1 + b2 uti + b3 uti+1  (11)
can be generated from the following equation with
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A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3693

the choice of a single red center pixel as the in-

Only local rules with complexity index κ = 3 require put (initial pattern at t = 0) allows Wolfram to
two absolute-value functions, i.e. α = 2, as already uncover many interesting features among the 256
defined in Eq. (8). local rules, this choice is not sufficiently general to
The patterns generated by the 256 local rules uncover more subtle properties, and can be mis-
with the same initial pattern u0i consisting of a leading. Following Wiener, who had proved that the
single red center pixel have been published in most general testing input for identifying a nonlin-
[Wolfram, 2002], and in [Chua et al., 2002].2 Each ear system is the Brownian motion [Wiener, 1958],
pattern has 30 rows and 61 columns. Although we have chosen the following 61 random bits

60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

(12)
as our initial pattern in generating the follow-
ing three figures corresponding to local rules 232 belonging to the G16 family listed in Table 15.9 of
(Fig. 2), 110 (Fig. 3), and 184 (Fig. 4), with com- [Chua et al., 2003] have an identical evolved pattern
plexity index κ = 1, 2 and 3, respectively. In each consisting of a one-pixel wide red inclined straight
case, there are 60 rows and 61 columns in the pat- line starting from the center red pixel.
tern (upper part). The difference equation for gen- Unfortunately, the above observations are true
erating the truth table is given in the lower part, only if the initial pattern u0i consists of one red cen-
along with the associated Boolean cube and truth ter pixel. A different initial pattern will give rise
table representations. The eight-bit colored string to different evolved patterns among members of the
representing each local rule N is also given, along same family. Nonetheless, the evolved patterns seem
with the collection of all three-input patterns corre- to be related by some geometrical transformations.
sponding to red vertices of the Boolean cube. They Conversely, the Boolean cubes of many differ-
are called firing patterns in [Chua et al., 2003] be- ent pairs of local rules listed in Table 1 of [Chua
cause they can be interpreted as the patterns rec- et al., 2003] seem to be related by some transforma-
ognized by a particular neuron (with local rule N ) tions, such as complementation of the vertex colors
and thereby led to its firing of “action potentials”. (e.g. rules 145 and 110). Yet, their evolved patterns
are so different that it is impossible to relate them.
How do we make sense of all these observations?
2. Local versus Global Equivalence Let us examine the evolved patterns of the
A cursory inspection of the discrete time evolutions two local rules 145 and 110 from Table 5 of
of the 256 local rules (with a red center pixel) pre- [Chua et al., 2003] which we reproduce in the upper
sented in [Wolfram, 2002] and [Chua et al., 2002] re- part of Fig. 5. Note that their associated Boolean
veals some similarity and partial symmetry among cubes, as well as their symbolic Boolean vectors
various evolved patterns. Indeed, by partitioning β[145] and β[110] are related by a simple Boolean
the 256 local rules into 16 Boolean cube families, it complementation, namely, the “red ↔ blue vertex
is possible to predict that all local rules belonging to transformation” defined in [Chua et al., 2002]. We
a particular family have identical evolved patterns will henceforth denote this transformation by TC ,
or geometrical features. For example, all 16 local and rename it as local complementation operation
rule {4, 12, 36, 44, 68, 76, 100, 108, 132, 140, 164, in this paper, in order to distinguish it from the
172, 196, 204, 228, 236} belonging to the G4 family global complementation operation to be defined in
listed in Table 15.5 of [Chua et al., 2003] have an the next section. Using this notation, we can write
identical evolved pattern consisting of a one-pixel TC TC
wide red vertical line in the middle of the pattern. 145 −→ 110 and β[145] −→ β[110] (13)
Similarly, all 16 local rules {16, 24, 48, 56, 80, 88, Intuitively, one might expect that their respective
112, 120, 144, 152, 176, 184, 208, 216, 240, 248} evolved patterns must also be related by a simple

2
The black and white pixels in [Wolfram, 2002] are colored in red and blue in [Chua et al., 2002], respectively.
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3694 L. O. Chua et al.

Fig. 2. Evolution of the local rule 232 from a random initial pattern (row 1). Size of array: 60 rows × 61 columns.
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A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3695

Fig. 3. Evolution of the local rule 110 from a random initial pattern (row 1). Size of array: 60 rows × 61 columns.
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3696 L. O. Chua et al.

Fig. 4. Evolution of the local rule 184 from a random initial pattern (row 1). Size of array: 60 rows × 61 columns.
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A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3697

Fig. 5. A comparison of the evolution of the two local rules 110 and 145 (with a single red center-pixel initial pattern) in
the upper page with that of local rules 145 and 137 (with a complementary blue center-pixel initial pattern) in the lower page
reveals a global complementary relationship between the patterns of local rules 137 and 110.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176
3698 L. O. Chua et al.
complementation operation, an intuition that turns
out to be wrong, upon comparing the two evolved
patterns in the upper part of Fig. 5. Our intuition
may suggest that perhaps the initial input u0i for
rule 145 should have been the complement of that
used for rule 110 (i.e. a blue center pixel amidst all
red neighbors), as shown in the bottom left of Fig. 5.
But once again, a comparison shows the output pat-
tern to have no correlation with that of rule 110
in the upper right of Fig. 5. On closer examination,
however, we will find that our intuition is actually
correct but for only one iteration (row 2). Indeed,
starting from the same initial pattern (single red
center pixel) in the first row, we find the output
(first iteration) of rule 145 is in fact the comple-
ment of that of rule 110 ; namely, two blue pixels
for 145 and two red pixels for 110 at correspond-
ing locations to the left of center. All other pixels
at corresponding locations are also complements of
each other. In fact, this one-iteration complementa-
tion property is true for all 127 local complemen-
tary pairs of local rules listed in Table 12 of [Chua
et al., 2002].
However, the next iteration (row 3) under rules
145 and 110 in Fig. 5 are not complements of each
other. The reason is that unlike the initial input
u0i , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, which are the same for both
145 and 110 , the next input uti = u1i (for t = 1),
i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n (row 2) needed to find the next
iteration (row 3) are different and there is no reason
for the output uti = u2i (for t = 2) at corresponding
locations to be the complement of each other. Our
intuition fails because the input u1i for 145 and
110 , though different, are complements of each
other. An examination of the vertex numbers in the
Boolean cube in Fig. 1 will reveal that complement-
ing the input of u1i is equivalent to exchanging the
position of two diagonally-opposite (connected by an
imaginary line through the center of the cube) ver-
tices. Since an interchange of these two vertices does
not guarantee the resulting color of the correspond-
ing vertex pairs of 145 and 110 will have com-
plementary colors, the output pattern u2i (row 3) of
145 and 110 will in general not be a complement
of each other, except for the special case where the
Boolean cube exhibits certain symmetries in their
vertex colors. Hence our intuition fails because of
the coincidental appearance of two complementary
operations, one involving changing the color of all
vertices of the Boolean cube, the other involving
switching the position of three pairs of diagonally-
opposite vertices. This latter operation could not
have been uncovered without the Boolean cube
representation. Indeed, we will see that all subse-
quent results in the sequel could not have been
discovered without exploiting the group-theoretic
properties of the Boolean cubes!
It follows from the above observations that
each pair of local rules listed in Table 12 of [Chua
et al., 2002] are equivalent only in a local sense,
where “local” here means “local in iteration time”,
and not local in the usual sense of a spatial neigh-
borhood. Since Sec. 4 will present many more equiv-
alent transformations of local rules which also have
local significance only, we will formalize this notion
as follows:
Definition 1. Local Equivalence. Two local rules
N and N′ are said to be locally equivalent under a
transformation T : N → N ′ iff the output u1i of
N after one iteration of any initial input pattern
u0i can be found by applying the transformed input
T[u0i ] to rule N ′ and then followed by applying the
inverse transformation T−1 : N ′ → N to u1i .
Let us examine next the evolved patterns for
the local rule 137 in the lower-right portion of
Fig. 5, as well as the two local rules 124 and 193
in the left column of Fig. 6. Despite the fact that the
respective Boolean cubes of these three rules do not
seem to be related in an obvious way, yet their out-
put patterns are so precisely related that one could
predict the evolved pattern over all times t of each
local rule N ∈ {137, 193, 124, 110} from the other
three rules! For example, the evolved output pat-
tern of rule 124 can be obtained by a reflection of
that of 110 about the center line, namely, a bilat-
eral transformation. Next, the output of rule 193
can be obtained by applying the complement u0i of
u0i (i.e. blue center pixel amidst a red background)
to rule 110 and then taking the complement of the
evolved pattern from 110 . Finally, the output of
rule 137 can be obtained by repeating the above
algorithm for 193 , and then followed further by
a reflection about the center line. Even more sig-
nificant is the fact (to be proved in Sec. 3) that
these algorithms remain valid for all initial input
patterns, as demonstrated in Fig. 7 with the random
initial pattern given earlier in Eq. (12). This result
is most remarkable because it allows us to predict
the evolved patterns of three local rules over all
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Fig. 6. The evolutions of local rules 124 and 110 (with a red center-pixel initial pattern) in the upper page reveals a global
left–right (bilateral ) symmetrical relationship. Those in the lower page (with a complementary bilateral initial pattern) also
reveals a global complementary bilateral relationship between local rules 193 and 110.
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3700

Fig. 7. The four local rules {193, 137, 124, 110} are globally equivalent to each other in the sense that their long-term (as t → ∞) dynamics are mathematically
identical, modulo a bijection. All four patterns have 60 rows corresponding to iteration numbers t = 0, 1, 2, . . . 59, and 61 columns, corresponding to 61 cells (n = 60).
All patterns have a random initial condition (t = 0), as specified in Eq. (12), or its reflection, complementation, or both. The two patterns 124 and 110 on top are
generated by a left–right transformation T† , and are related by a bilateral reflection about an imaginary vertical line situated midway between the two patterns. The
two patterns 193 and 137 below are likewise related via T† and exhibit the same bilateral reflection symmetry. The two vertically situated local rules 137 and
110 , as well as 193 and 124 are related by a global complementation T. The two diagonally-situated local rules 124 and 137 , as well as 193 and 110 are
related by a left–right complementation T∗ .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176
A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III
iterations (not just one iteration as in the preced-
ing example) from a single local rule, a truly global
result! This unique global property is stated for-
mally as follows:
Definition 2. Global Equivalence. Two local rules
N and N ′ are said to be globally equivalent under a
transformation T : N → N ′ iff the output uti of N
can be found, for any t, by applying the transformed
input T[u0i ] to local rule N ′ and then followed by
applying the inverse transformation T−1 : N ′ → N
to u1i , for any t = 1, 2, . . . .
3. Predicting the Unpredictable
In the preceding section we have demonstrated, via
examples, that the four local rules {193, 137, 124,
110} are globally equivalent in the sense that the
evolved patterns of any three members of this class
can be trivially predicted from the fourth for all iter-
ations. In other words, these four rules have identi-
cal nonlinear dynamics for all initial input patterns
and therefore they represent only one generic rule,
henceforth called an equivalence class [Hamermesh,
1962]. We will prove this global property in Sec. 3.3
not only for these four rules, but also for all local
rules, thereby allowing us to partition the 256 local
rules into only 89 global equivalence classes, each
made up of two or four local rules. For example,
Fig. 8 shows another global equivalence class made
up of the four local rules {149, 135, 86, 30} all of
which have a complexity index κ = 2, and Fig. 9
shows an equivalence class made up of only the two
local rules {226, 184} all of which have a complex-
ity index κ = 3 in view of certain symmetry of the
Boolean cubes belonging to this class. This result is
significant because it asserts that one only needs to
study in depth the dynamics and long-term behav-
iors of 89 representative local rules. Moreover, since
39 among these 89 dynamically distinct local rules
have a complexity index κ = 1, and are therefore
trivial, we are left with only 50 local rules (41 rules
with κ = 2 and 9 rules with κ = 3) that justify
further in-depth investigations.
We will also prove in Sec. 3.3 that these are
the only possible global equivalence classes; all other
equivalence classes, including those to be presented
in Sec. 4, must therefore necessarily be local.
3
As will be shown below, not all local rules generated by these three transformations are distinct because some local rules
may be fixed points of one or more of these three transformations. For example, the two globally equivalent rules 226 and
184 displayed in Fig. 9 are both fixed points of the transformation T∗ .
3701
Since rule 110 has been proven to be capable
of universal computation [Wolfram, 2002], it follows
that it is impossible to predict the global (long term)
behaviors of rule 110 for arbitrary initial input pat-
terns. We can, however, predict rigorously that the
three local rules 193, 137, and 124 are also unpre-
dictable, hence the title of this section.
3.1. Partitioning 256 local rules into
89 global equivalence classes
It will be proved in Sec. 3.3 that every local rule
belongs to a global equivalence class containing ei-
ther two or four distinct local rules, as tabulated in
Table 1. Each rule has three globally equivalent lo-
cal rules3 determined by three corresponding global
transformations, namely, left–right transformation
T† , global complementation T, and left–right com-
plementation T∗ . These transformations will be de-
fined in Sec. 3.2 along with a proof of their global
equivalence property in Sec. 3.3. Due to certain
symmetries exhibited by some Boolean cubes, some
of these transformations may map a Boolean cube
into only one instead of three Boolean cubes, as
manifested by the repeated local rules in some rows
of Table 1. The distinct local rules in each row of
Table 1 constitutes a global equivalence class whose
dynamics and evolved patterns over all discrete
times t = 1, 2, . . . are distinct from all other lo-
cal rules. Since some rows in Table 1 contain only
two distinct rules, there are altogether 89 (and
not 64) distinct global equivalence classes. Among
them 39 have a complexity index κ = 1. They are
identified by the symbol εκm , where κ = 1 and
m = 1, 2, . . . , 39 and are listed in Table 2. There are
41 global equivalence classes with complexity index
κ = 2. They are identified by ε2m , m = 1, 2, . . . , 41,
and listed in Table 3. There are nine global equiv-
alence classes with complexity index κ = 3. They
are identified by ε3m , m = 1, 2, . . . , 9, and listed in
Table 4.
Combing through the data in Table 1 we can
identify 176 local rules each of which is globally
equivalent to two other distinct local rules. They
are listed in Table 5. We can also identify 72 local
rules each of which is globally equivalent to only one
other local rule. They are listed in Table 6. There
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Fig. 8. The same illustration and interpretation as those of Fig. 7 but applied to the four globally equivalent local rules {149, 135, 86, 30}.
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Fig. 9. The same illustration and interpretation as those of Fig. 7 but applied to the two globally equivalent local rules {226, 184}. Even though there are only two
distinct local rules, they generate four distinct patterns since their initial conditions are distinct, albeit related by T† , T, and T∗ .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3704 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 1. Table of globally equivalent local rules. All local rules in each row are globally equivalent to each
other. Rows with red, blue or green background colors denote local rules with a complexity index κ = 1, 2 or 3,
respectively.
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Table 1. (Continued )
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3706 L. O. Chua et al.

1
Table 2. List of 39 global equivalence classes εm of local rules with complexity index κ = 1, m = 1, 2, . . . , 39.
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A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3707

Table 3. List of 41 global equivalence classes ε2m of local rules with complexity index κ = 2, m = 1, 2, . . . , 41.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3708 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 4. List of nine global equivalence classes ε3m of local rules with complexity
index κ = 3, m = 1, 2, . . . , 9.

are eight local rules possessing a three fold sym-
metry such that all three transformations T† , T,
and T∗ map each member of this group onto it-
self. In other words, these eight local rules are truly
“loners” as they are not globally equivalent to any
other local rule. They are listed in Table 7.
Some local rules are fixed points of one or more
global transformations. In particular, Table 8 lists
64 local rules which are fixed points of the left-right
transformation T† , i.e. N = T† [N ]. Table 9 lists 16
local rules which are fixed points of the global com-
plementation T, i.e. N = T[N ]. Table 10 lists 16
local rules which are fixed points of the left–right
complementation T∗ , i.e. N = T∗ [N ]. Some local
rules are fixed points of two or more global trans-
formations. For example, Table 11 lists eight local
rules which are fixed points of both T and T∗ . It
is interesting to observe that the same eight local
rules above are also fixed points of T† , as listed
in Table 12.
3.2. The Vierergruppe V : Key for
defining global transformations
T†, T, and T∗
The three global transformations T† , T, and T∗
cited extensively in the preceding section and in
Table 1 are generated from elements of the classic
noncyclic four-element Abelian group V, originally
called the Vierergruppe by the great mathematician
Felix Klein.4 The four elements of V are denoted by
T0 , T†u , Tu , and T∗u in this paper and are defined in

4
There are only two finite abstract groups of four elements. One is a cyclic group and the other is the Vierergruppe V (also
known in the western literature as the Four group). Both are Abelian. The symbol V generally chosen to denote this group
comes from the first letter of Vierergruppe.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3709

Table 5. List of 176 local rules endowed with three distinct globally-equivalent local
rules.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3710 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 6. List of 72 local rules endowed with only one distinct globally-equivalent local
rule.

Table 7. List of eight local rules endowed with zero globally-equivalent local rule.

Table 8. Σ† : 64 local rules which are fixed points of T† , i.e. N = T† (N ).

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3711

Table 9. Σ: 16 local rules which are fixed points of T, i.e. N = T(N ).

Table 10. Σ∗ : 16 local rules which are fixed points of T∗ , i.e. N = T∗ (N ).

∗
Table 11. Σ : Eight local rules which are fixed points of T and T∗ ,
i.e. N = T(N ) = T∗ (N ).

∗
Table 12. Σ† : Eight local rules which are fixed points of T† , T and T∗ ,
i.e. N = T∗ (N ) = T(N ) = T∗ (N ).

Table 13 by 3 × 3 matrices. Throughout this pa-

per the symbol T0 denoted the identity, or unit
matrix, of any dimension. The three nonunit ma-
trices T†u , Tu , and T∗u are called left–right trans-
formation, global complementation, and left–right
complementation, respectively, in view of their geo-
metrical interpretations to be presented below. Ob-
serve that the three matrices T†u , Tu , and T∗u differ
from the three global transformations T† , T, and
T∗ by a subscript “u”. When referring to all three
transformations, we will use the generic symbol T′u
and T′ , respectively, where the prime “′ ” represents
either “†”, “−”, or “*”. The proof that these four
elements form an Abelian group under matrix mul-
tiplication is given in Table 14.
Each of the three matrices T†u , Tu , and T∗u
transforms the three axes (ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ), drawn
through the center of the Boolean cube in Fig. 1,
into a transformed set of axes (u′i−1 , u′i , u′i+1 );
namely,

Left–Right transformation T†u

    
0 0 1 ui−1 ui+1 u′i−1 = ui+1
    
 0 1 0   ui  =  ui  ⇒ u′i = ui (14)
1 0 0 ui+1 ui−1 u′i+1 = ui−1
| {z } | {z } | {z }
T†u u u′
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3712 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 13. Elements of the Vierergruppe V.

Table 14. Multiplication table for the unique cellular automata global equivalence group V.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3713

Global complementation Tu
    
−1 0 0 ui−1 −ui−1 u′i−1 = −ui−1
    
 0 −1 0   ui  =  −ui  ⇒ u′i = −ui (15)
0 0 −1 ui+1 −ui+1 u′i+1 = −ui+1
| {z } | {z } | {z }
Tu u u′

Left–Right complementation T∗u

    
0 0 −1 ui−1 −ui+1 u′i−1 = −ui+1
    
 0 −1 0   ui  =  −ui  ⇒ u′i = −ui (16)
−1 0 0 ui+1 −ui−1 u′i+1 = −ui−1
| {z } | {z } | {z }
T∗u u u′

3.2.1. Geometrical interpretation of T†u

An examination of Eq. (14) defining the left–right
transformation T†u shows that this operation merely
switches the two horizontal axes ui−1 and ui+1 .
This means that operating a Boolean cube N by
0,
5,
7,
2 }. This bilateral
T†u is equivalent to switching the two pairs of ver-
tices {
4,
6 } on the left and {
1,
3 } on the right
in the Boolean cube N to obtain a transformed
Boolean cube N ′ = T†u (N ). An example of this
simple transformation is shown in Fig. 10 for the
local rule N = 124, where T†u (124) = 110. Observe
that since (T†u )−1 = T†u , the transformation T†u is
its own inverse. Consequently, T†u (110) = 124. An
examination of Fig. 10 reveals that the left–right
transformation T†u is equivalent to a reflection of
the Boolean cube about the diagonal plane pass-
ing through vertices {
(mirror) symmetry is also reflected in the super-
script notation “†”.
The above geometrical interpretation pertains
only to the 3 × 3 left-right transformation ma-
trix T†u . We now define the corresponding global
left–right transformation T† (without the subscript
u) by augmenting T†u with the output variable yi ,
which represents the color of the vertices as follow:

Left–Right transformation T†
    
0 0 1 0 ui−1 ui+1 u′i−1 = ui+1
0 1 0 0  ui   ui 
   

  =  ⇒ u′i = ui (17)
1 0 0 0   ui+1   ui−1  u′i+1 = ui−1
0 0 0 1 yi yi yi′ = yi
| {z } | {z } | {z }
T† (u,yi ) (u′ ,yi′ )

Observe that T† is a 4×4 matrix, and (T† )−1 = T† .

To avoid clutter, we show only the symbol T† map- 5 }, and { 3, 4 } located along the four imag-
ping 124 to 110 , and vice-versa, in Fig. 10. inary diagonal lines through the center of the
Boolean cube. For example, suppose N = 137,
then Tu (137) = 145, which is precisely the enigma
3.2.2. Geometrical interpretation of Tu we posed in Fig. 5 of Sec. 2: why is the out-
An examination of Eq. (15) defining the global com- put pattern of 145 (shown in the upper-left hand
plementation Tu shows that this operation merely corner of Fig. 5) not the complement of that of
multiplies the coordinates of each vertex of the 110 when the colors of the corresponding ver-
Boolean cube by −1. This means that operating tices of 145 and 110 are complements of each
a Boolean cube N by Tu is equivalent to switching other? The answer is now clear: we must not
the four pairs of vertices {
0, 7 }, {
1, 6 }, {
2, only switch the diagonal vertex pairs, as above,
3714

Fig. 10. Definition of the 3 × 3 matrix T†u whose action is to switch the position of vertices {
4,
6 } on the left of the Boolean cube 124 with the corresponding
vertices { 3 } on the right to obtain the Boolean cube 110 . The lower diagram shows the corresponding global transformation T † (without the subscript u) instead
1,
of T†u , which in this case makes no difference in the transformed Boolean cube.
3715

Fig. 11. Definition of the 3 × 3 matrix Tu whose action is to exchange the four pairs of diagonally opposite vertices i.e. {
0→ 7 0,
7→ 0 0 }, {
1→ 6 0,
6→ 1 0 },
0 0 0 0
{
2 →  5 , 5→ { 2 }, { 3→ 4 , 4→ 3 }. The lower diagram shows the result after a further local complementation operation which changes the colors of all vertices
of Tu 137 = 145 to obtain 110 .
3716

Fig. 12. Definition of the 3 × 3 matrix T∗u whose action is to perform first a left–right transformation T†u and then followed by a global complementation Tu . The
lower diagram shows the result after a further local complementation operation which changes the colors of all vertices of Tu (T†u ( 193 )) = Tu ( 137 ) = 145 to
obtain 110 .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3717

Fig. 13. Applying the global complementation T to rule 137 involves two separate steps: Step 1 switches the four pairs of
vertices located along the four diagonals through the center of the cube 137 to obtain 145 . Step 2 changes the color of all
vertices of 145 to their complements to obtain 110 .

but must also follow this with the intermediate operation T†u by changing the colors of the vertices to their
complementary colors, as illustrated in Fig. 13. It follows that the global complementation T must be
defined as follows:
global complementation T
    
−1 0 0 0 ui−1 −ui−1 u′i−1 = −ui−1
 0 −1 0 0   ui   −ui 
    

  =  ⇒ u′i = −ui (18)
 0 0 −1 0   ui+1   −ui+1  u′i+1 = −ui+1
0 0 0 −1 yi −yi yi′ = −yi
| {z } | {z } | {z }
T (u,yi ) (u′ ,yi′ )

Observe that the complement operation in row 4 of T is equivalent to applying the local “red–blue”
complementation operator TC defined in Sec. 2. To avoid clutter, Fig. 11 omits this intermediate operation
and shows the global transformations T mapping 137 to 110 , and vice-versa.

3.2.3. Geometrical interpretation of T∗u

An examination of Eq. (16) defining the left–right complementation T∗u shows that this operation is equiv-
alent to the composition of two operations T†u and Tu , as illustrated in Fig. 14(a) for rule 193 , namely,
u
T∗u (193) = T (T†u (193)) = 145 . To obtain the desired global left–right complementation T∗ (without the
subscript u) requires that we follow up the above composition T∗u = Tu ◦ T†u by a local complementation
operation TC as follows:
left–right complementation T∗
    
0 0 −1 0 ui−1 −ui+1 u′i−1 = −ui+1
 0 −1 0 0  ui   −ui 
   
 u′i = −ui
  =  ⇒ (19)
 −1 0 0 0   ui+1   −ui−1  u′i+1 = −ui−1
0 0 0 −1 yi −yi yi′ = −yi
| {z } | {z } | {z }
T∗ (u,yi ) (u′ ,yi′ )
 March 7, 2005
10:10
01176
(a)
3718

(b)

Fig. 14. (a) Mapping 193 to 110 via left–right complementation is equivalent to a triple composition TC ◦ Tu ◦ T†u of T†u , Tu , and TC . (b) An equivalent route
for mapping 193 to 110 is via a composition T†u ◦ TC ◦ Tu of Tu , TC and T†u .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3719

Applying the local complementation TC to 145 in
Fig. 14(a) results in the desired rule 110 . Again,
observe that (T∗ )−1 = T∗ . To avoid clutter, Fig. 12
omits the two intermediate operations and shows
the left–right complementation T∗ mapping 193
to 110 , and vice-versa.
Figure 15 shows a diagram relating the three
global transformations T† , T and T∗ . Observe this
diagram is commutative, namely, every pair from
these three transformations are related by two dis-
tinct routes. For example, we can map 193 to
110 via the alternate “composition” route shown
in Fig. 14(b). This “commutation property” follows
of course from the definition of an Abelian group.
3.3. Proof of global equivalence
By choosing the random pattern from Eq. (12) as
our initial condition in Figs. 7–9, we have proved,
albeit with the help of a computer, that the reflec-
tion relationship between rules 124 and 110 , the
complementary relationship between rules 137 and
110 , as well as the complementary reflection re-
lationship between rules 193 and 110 , are not
flukes, but global invariant properties shared by
these three rules alone.5 Since the global dynamic
behaviors (over all time iterations) of the four lo-
cal rules {193, 137, 124, 110} can be predicted from
any member of this family, they form an equivalence
class in a strict mathematical sense. By carrying out
this brute force exercise via a computer to all 256
local rules, we have identified the other members of
the unique equivalence class represented by all 256
local rules listed in the left column of Table 1, along
with the global transformation T† , T or T∗ rele-
vant in this mapping. Since random input patterns
represent the most general probing signals, we have
proved, with the help of a computer, the following
three fundamental theorems of cellular automata6 :

Theorem 1 (Reflection Invariance Theorem). The bilateral reflection

symmetry between corresponding evolved patterns from any pair of local
∆
rules {β, β ′ }, where β ′ = T† (β), is preserved under left–right transforma-
tion T† .

Theorem 2 (Complementation Invariance Theorem). The complementa-

tion symmetry between corresponding evolved patterns from any pair of local
∆
rules {β, β ′ }, where β ′ = T(β), is preserved under global complementation
T.

Theorem 3 (Reflection Plus Complementation Invariance Theorem). The

bilateral reflection plus complementation symmetry between corresponding
∆
evolved patterns from any pair of local rules {β, β ′ }, where β ′ = T∗ (β), is
preserved under left–right complementation T∗ .

Since the preceding three theorems represent

fundamental global results,7 we will now present an entries only along the main diagonal, or along
analytical proof. Observe that the three matrices the reflected diagonal. Moreover, these nonzero en-
T†u , Tu and T∗u defined in Table 13 have nonzero tries are identical, either 1 or −1. These special

5
Brute force computer simulations using the same random initial pattern for all other rules confirmed that no other rules
share such a unique global relationship with the four rules {193, 137, 124, 110}.
6
A bilateral reflection means reflection with respect to a vertical line symmetrically located between two patterns.
7
These global results can be generalized to two-dimensional CA and CNN as well.
 March 7, 2005
10:10
01176
3720

Fig. 15. Diagram defining the three global transformations T† , T and T∗ are illustrated by the four local rules {193, 137, 124, 110} belonging to the global equivalence
class ε23 displayed in Table 3. Observe that T† , T and T∗ are 4 × 4 matrices. While T† and T†u differ only in a trivial way, T and T∗ differ from Tu and T∗u by a
further composition operation via the local complementation TC , which is equivalent to changing the colors of all vertices of Tu (N ) and T∗u (N ).
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3721

symmetry constraints allow us to define these matri- t = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 59 (since there are 60 rows in these
ces analytically as follows (n = 3 for a 3 × 3 matrix) patterns). To prove that the above transformations
are true not only for all iterates t = 0, 1, 2, . . . , but
T†ni,j = 1, if i + j = n + 1 also for all corresponding pairs of local rules listed in
Table 1, we recall that Eqs. (20)–(22) do not depend
T†n = 0, if otherwise (20) on the value of n. Hence, even though Tu and T61
i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n are different transformations (Tu is a 3 × 3 matrix
whereas T61 is a 61 × 61 matrix) involving different
input spaces R3 and R61 , respectively, the trans-
Tni,j = −1, if i = j formed pattern T†u u3 (t), Tu u3 (t), and T∗u u3 (t) is a
Tn = 0, if otherwise (21) subset of T†61 u61 (t), T61 u61 (t), and T∗61 u61 (t), re-
i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n spectively, where u3 (t) denotes any one of the eight
rows (ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ) in Fig. 1(d). It follows that
each of the three operators T†u , Tu and T∗u must
T∗ni,j = −1, if i + j = n + 1 map β = [β0 β1 β2 · · · β7 ]t of each truth table N in
T∗n = 0, if otherwise Fig. 1(c) onto β ′ = [β0′ β1′ β2′ · · · β7′ ]t of another truth
(22)
table N ′ via a unique 8 × 8 matrix; namely,8
i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n

Observe that Eqs. (20)–(22) define an n × n matrix β ′ = B̂β (29)

∆
for any n. When n = 3, we simply substitute n = u.
Observe that these three matrices are identical to where the hat “ ˆ ” denotes “†”, “−”, or “∗”, re-
their respective inverse: spectively. To derive an explicit expression for B̂,
let us define the following two matrices represent-
(T†n )−1 = T†n , (Tn )−1 = Tn , (T∗n )−1 = T∗n
ing the “pink” entries from the symbolic truth table
(23) in Fig. 1(d):
Now consider an initial pattern  
t
−1 −1 −1
uI (0) = [un (0)un−1 (0)un−2 (0) · · · u2 (0)u1 (0)u0 (0)]  −1
 −1 1
(24) 
 −1

 1 −1 

at t = 0 for a one-dimensional CA [Fig. 1(a)] with
∆  −1 1 1


I cells, where I = n + 1, and its evolved pattern U = ,
 1 −1 −1 
 
uI (t) = [un (t)un−1 (t)un−2 (t) · · · u2 (t)u1 (t)u0 (t)]t  1 −1 1
  (30)
(25) 
 1 1

−1 
at any iterate t > 0. Using the above notations, 1 1 1
observe that row “t” of the four patterns in Fig. 7  
−1 −1 −1 −1 1 1 1 1
are related by T†61 , T61 , and T∗61 , respectively, for ∆  
t
U =  −1 −1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1
t = 0, 1, 2, . . . , where I = 61 since each row in these
figures has 61 cells: −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1
124 110
u61 (t) = T†61 u61 (t) (26) Observe that
 
137 110
u61 (t) = T61 u61 (t) (27) 8 0 0
∆ t  
P = U U = 0 8 0  = 8I (31)
193 110
u61 (t) = T∗61 u61 (t) (28) 0 0 8

8
We remind the reader that for the two transformations Tu and T∗u , β ′ must be further complemented via TC as imposed
by the definitions of Tu and T∗u in Fig. 15. See Fig. 14(a) for an example. To avoid clutter, we will henceforth use the same
symbol β for both symbolic and numeric truth tables from Fig. 1. Any calculation involving real numbers must use γ instead
of β.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3722 L. O. Chua et al.

where I denotes the identity matrix. Observe that +1, or +3. Moreover
the matrix
∆ Qt = (U U t )t = (U t )t U t = U U t = Q (33)
Q = UUt
  and
3 1 1 −1 1 −1 −1 −3 1
 1 3 −1 1 −1 1 −3 −1  Q= Qn , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (34)



 8n−1
 1 −1 3 1 −1 −3 1 −1  Hence, Q is both symmetric and self-similar. Cal-
 
 −1 1 1 3 −3 −1 −1 1 culating the determinants of P and Q we obtain
 
= 
 1 −1 −1 −3 3 1 1 −1 
  det[P] = 512 , det[Q] = 0 (35)
 −1 1 −3 −1 1 3 −1 1
 
  It follows from Eq. (35) that Q does not have an
 −1 −3 1 −1 1 −1 3 1
inverse. However, the traces of both P and Q are
−3 −1 −1 1 −1 1 1 3 equal; namely,
(32)
trace[P] = trace[Q] = 3 × 8 = 24 (36)
is very different from the matrix P. In particular,
Q is not sparse; each element is equal to −3, −1, Each component of the two Boolean vectors β of N
and β ′ of N ′ can be calculated from Eq. (8), namely;

1 h   
i

βl = 1 + sgn z2 + c2  z1 + c1 (z0 + (b • ul )) 
 (37)
2
and

1 h   
i
βk′

= 1 + sgn z2 + c2  z1 + c1 z0 + (b • T̂u uk ) 
 (38)
2

for all l, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7. It follows from Eq. (29) that Eq. (38) can be expressed in following component
from
7
X
βk′ = Bk,l • βl (39)
l=0
It can be shown that each element Bk,l of the 8 × 8 matrix B can be calculated from the elements of the
3 × 3 matrix T̂k via the following rather remarkable formula:

" 2 X
2
#!
1 X
Bk,l = 1 + sgn t
Uk,i T̂tu,(i,j)Uj,l −2 (40)
2 i=0 j=0

Similarly, the elements of the 3 × 3 matrix T̂u can

be calculated from the elements of B via the inverse The denominator 8 in Eq. (41) comes from the diag-
formula onal element of the matrix P = U t U in Eq. (31). In
contrast the 8 × 8 matrix B comes from the nonlin-
7 7 ear function sgn[(U T̂tu U t )k,l − 2]. To understand the
1 XX t t origin of the nonlinearity and the mysterious con-
T̂u,(i,j) = Ui,k B̂k,l Ul,j (41)
8 stant 2 in Eq. (40), let us multiply the 3 × 3 matrix
k=0 l=0 T̂u in Eq. (41) by U from the left, and by U t from
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3723

the right: Substituting these truth table transformation

1 1
U T̂u U t = U U t Bt U U t = QBt Q (42)
8 8
Taking the transpose of both sides, we obtain
matrices for B in Eq. (29) with β 110 =
[−1 1 1 1 − 1 1 1 − 1]t for rule 110 , we
obtain the following Boolean vectors β 124
, β 137

1 and β 193 :
(U T̂u U t )t = U T̂tu U t = QBQ (43)
8
  
Since Q is symmetric, any differences between 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
Eqs. (42) and (43) must come from B. Multiplying 0
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 
 1

the matrix B by the same matrix Q on each side and 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1

then dividing the result by 8 gives rise to a distribu- 
0
 
tion of the matrix elements among the four possible 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  1
B† β 110   
=  
values −3, −1, +1, and +3, in view of Eq. (34). In 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0   −1 
  
order to eliminate the unnecessary matrix elements 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
 

in the derivation of the closed-form formula given 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
 
 
in Eq. (40), it is necessary to subtract the number
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 −1
2 from (U T̂tu U t )k,l and to make use of the nonlin-
ear sgn[•] function to eliminate all elements having
 
values less than 2. Substituting T†u , Tu and T∗u for −1
T̂u in Eq. (40) we obtain the following three 8 × 8  −1 
 
matrices which map the Boolean vector β from the 
 1

numeric truth table in Fig. 1(d) of the local rule N 
 1

onto the Boolean vector β ′ of N ′ = T̂u (N ), where 
=

=β 124
(47)
βk ∈ {−1, 1} and βk′ ∈ {−1, 1}:  1
 
   1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 



0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0  1
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
  −1
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
B† = 
 
 (44)
 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
110

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
 (−1) • Bβ
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 −1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
 1 

    
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  1 
 

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 
 
  
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = (−1) •   
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  −1 
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0   
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 
   
B=  (45) 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0   

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0  1 

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  
  1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  −1 
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  
   −1 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0  
   1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0   137
∗   = =β (48)
B =  (46)  −1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  
   −1 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0  
   
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0  −1 
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3724 L. O. Chua et al.

(−1) • B∗ β 110 The factor (−1) in Eqs. (48) and (49) is introduced
   in order to implement the local complementation in-
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 −1 dicated in Figs. 13–15. In other words, the effect of
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  1
   (−1) in Eqs. (48) and (49) is simply to change the
  
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 color of the vertices of the Boolean cube represented
  
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
  by Bβ 110 and B∗ β 110 .
= (−1) • 
0
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  −1 
  Observe that Eqs. (40) and (41) constitute a
0
 0 1 0 0 0 0  
0 1  very remarkable transform pair between the (k, l)

0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1
 coefficients of B and the (i, j) coefficients of T̂u , and
vice versa, because the former involves a nonlinear
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
  operation while the latter involves only a linear op-
1 eration. It is interesting also to note that B† , B, and
 −1 
  B∗ in Eqs. (44)–(46) have unit determinants and
 
 −1  hence are unimodular matrices. In addition, each
 
 −1  of the 8 × 8 matrices B† , B, and B∗ in Eqs. (44)–
193
= =β (49) (46) commutes with the 8 × 8 matrix Q in Eq. (32);
−1 
 
 −1  namely
 

 1
 ˆ − QB̂ = 0
BQ (50)
1 We close this section with the following unique
result.

Theorem 4 (Exclusive Global Relationships). The elements T† , T, and

T∗ of the Viererqruppe, V are the only global transformations which pre-
serve the long-term dynamics of all 256 local rules.

Proof. A careful analysis of the preceding analytical

proof shows that the 4 × 4 matrices T† , T, and T∗
defining the Vierergruppe V in Fig. 17(a) are unique
in the sense that they alone can be generalized to
n × n matrices for n > 4. Any other transformation
of a Boolean cube onto itself, including the 23 ro-
tation transformations to be presented in Sec. 4.1,
would lead to a change in sign and/or rearrange-
ments of the initial pixel positions. Consequently,
long term predictability (t > 1) is impossible. 
Corollary. The local rules listed under each of the
89 subgroups εkm in Tables 2–4 are globally equiv-
alent and hence exhibit identical dynamics for all
times t > 0.
4. Predicting the Predictable
The results from Sec. 3 are global in the sense of
asymptotic time behavior as t → ∞. It proves that
even though there are 256 distinct local rules in
a one-dimensional CA, or CNN, there are only 89
distinct global dynamic behaviors, a fundamental
result predicted by the identification of 89 global
equivalence classes εκm listed in Tables 2–4. One of
them, class ε231 , contains four dynamically equiva-
lent rules {110, 124, 137, 193} capable of univer-
sal computation and are therefore unpredictable.
The seemingly contradictory nature of the title
of this final section is due to the ambiguity in
the “subject” to be predicted. Here, we are not in-
terested in the prediction of long term dynamic
behaviors, which had been proven to be impos-
sible, in general. Rather, the subject we wish
to predict in this section is the parameter set
{z2 , c2 , z1 , c1 , z0 , b1 , b2 , b3 } defining the nonlinear
difference equations associated with each local rule.
In general, an infinitely many distinct, but re-
lated, parameter sets can be found to generate the
truth table for each of the 256 local rules. Two
such sets are given in Tables 4 and 5 in [Chua
et al., 2003]. These two sets of parameters were
generated by statistical methods, as is the option
of choice when there are infinitely many equally
acceptable parameter sets for each local rule. In
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3725

this section, we will prove that given any set of can verify by inspection that each rotated cube
parameters in Table 15 will indeed coincide with the unro-
∆ tated cube. Each rotation operation in Table 15
P0 (N ) = {z20 , c02 , z10 , c01 , z00 , b01 , b02 , b03 } , (51)
can be defined mathematically as a transformation
hence forth called a seed parameter set for local rule of the u = (ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ) axes onto the rotated
N , which generates the numeric truth table for N u′ = (u′i−1 , u′i , u′i+1 ) axes via a 3 × 3 matrix:
[Fig. 1(d)] via Eq. (8), there is a simple and sys-  ′    
tematic procedure to derive “ρ” additional sets of ui−1 ui−1
parameters, 1 ≤ ρ ≤ 7, which generates the same  ′  
 ui  =  Tk   ui 
 
(52)
local rule N .9 The number ρ depends on the local ′
ui+1 ui+1
equivalence class (to be defined in Sec. 4.2) where | {z } | {z }
N belongs. For example, we can derive eight ad- u′ u
ditional parameter sets P1 (15), P2 (15), . . . , P8 (15), where k = 1, 2, . . . , 23. The transformation matrix
given a parameter seed P0 (15) for local rule 15 , Tk is given for each rotation operation S[ek , θ] in
but only one additional parameter set P1 (110) from Table 15, where ek denotes the rotation axis, and
a parameter seed P0 (110) for local rule 110 . where x, y, z codes for ui−1 , ui and ui+1 , respec-
The above analytical result is significant for at tively, and where the bar “−” on top denotes the
least two reasons. First, it represents the only ana- ∆
complement direction, e.g. x = −x.
lytical result known so far in the mathematical the- To visualize the analytical property of a rota-
ory of nonlinear dynamics where an explicit ana- tion transformation on the difference equation, it is
lytical procedure is derived for mapping a nonlinear convenient to recast Eq. (8) into the following inner
differential equation, or a nonlinear difference equa- product form:
tion, into a family of up to eight equivalent (topo-
logically conjugate) equations. Second, when a piece n 
of hardware (e.g. a CNN chip) is used to implement

ut+1

a particular local rule in order to enhance the com- i = sgn z2 + c2  z1 + c1 (z0
putation speed (by at least three orders of magni- 
o
tude) [Chua & Roska, 2003], or to be used as a ded- + hb, ui)  (53)
icated component for various practical applications
(e.g. video games and other high-tech electronic sys- where
tems), multiple choices of design parameters can be
∆
exploited for optimization with respect to robust- b = [b1 b2 b3 ]t (54)
ness and cost.
Observe that the rotation operation Tk affects only
the inner-product (dot product) term because
4.1. The rotation group R
∆
There are 23 distinct ways to rotate the Boolean hb, u′ i = hb, Tk ui = hTtk b, ui = hb′ , ui (55)
cube in Fig. 1(e) about some axis eaxis by θ ◦ so that
the rotated cube coincides with the original cube, where
except for the color of their vertices. Each such ro- ∆
b′ = [b′1 b′2 b′3 ]t = Ttk b (56)
tation is depicted in Table 15 where the rotation
axis is identified by a red bold arrow and labeled The reciprocal relationship between Tk u and Ttk b
accordingly. The degrees of rotation θ is also given revealed by Eq. (55) is important enough to
next to a black circular arc in a clockwise sense. One reiterate it as a theorem, in spite of the trivial
mathematics.

Theorem 5. If we fix the five parameters {z2 , c2 , z1 , c1 , z0 } specifying a local rule N , then
the transformed local rule N ′ = Tk (N ) can be found by either transforming u via Tk , or
transforming b via Ttk . The transformed axes u′ is obtained by rotating u by θk◦ about an
axis ek in a clockwise direction. The transformed vector b′ is obtained by rotating b by θk◦
about ek in a counterclockwise direction.

9
This procedure is applicable to all rules, except the four degenerate rules 0 , 105 , 150 and 255 .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3726 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 15. There are 23 distinct ways of rotating a Boolean cube by θ◦ degrees through some axis such
that the rotated cube is indistinguishable (except for the color of the vertices) from the original cube. These
rotations are defined by a 3 × 3 matrix Tk , k = 1, 2, . . . , 23. All rotation axes are shown by bold red arrows
and labeled accordingly, including the rotation angle θ. All rotations are chosen, without loss of generality,
in a clockwise direction.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3727

Table 15. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3728 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 15. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3729

Table 15. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176
3730 L. O. Chua et al.
For future reference, the vectors u′ = Tk u and
b′ = Ttk b are given in Table 16 for all 24 rota-
tion matrices T0 , T1 , T2 · · · T23 , including the iden-
tity matrix T0 . Together they form a 24-element
non-Abelian group R, whose mulitiplication table
is given in Table 17. Note that the rotation group
R includes 13 subgroups.
The first three subgroups are shaded in or-
ange10 ; they correspond to the only other four-
element abstract group, namely, the Abelian group
C4 . It is a cyclic group isomorphic to the four roots
of 1, namely, {1, i, −1, −i}, under multiplication.
The first subgroup generates the three rotation ma-
trices T1 to T3 , the second subgroup generates the
three rotation matrices T4 to T6 , and the third
subgroup generates the three rotation matrices T7
to T9 .
The next six subgroup (shaded pink) are two-
element abstract groups; they correspond to the
only two-element abstract group C2 , which is both
Abelian and cyclic. The six order-two subgroups
generate the six rotation matrices T10 to T15 .
The last four subgroups (shaded yellow) are
three-element groups; they correspond to the only
three-element abstract group; namely, C3 . It is an
Abelian group where each nonidentity element is
the inverse of the other. These four order-three sub-
groups generate the eight remaining rotation matri-
ces T16 to T23 .
4.2. Local equivalence classes
Although each of the 23 rotation matrices Tk listed
in Table 17 maps a Boolean cube onto itself, the ro-
tated cube will be different in general from the unro-
tated cube because the color (red or blue) may not
match at corresponding vertices. However, a careful
analysis shows that there are 30 distinct groups (in
the sense of subsets, and not group theory) among
the 256 Boolean cubes where the cubes belonging
to each subset have matched color vertices after ro-
tating each cube by an appropriate Tk . These 30
groups of Boolean cubes are displayed in Table 18
n , where the
and identified by a suggestive symbol Sm
subscript “m” denotes the number of red vertices of
n . Just like
all Boolean cubes belonging to map Sm
a left-handed glove is different from a right-handed
10
The identity element T0 in each subgroup in Table 17 is not listed.
11
It follows also from Eq. (9) that the complexity index of each local rule (for a one-dimensional cellular automata with nearest
neighbors) is equal to the number of elementary nonlinear functions of one variable (in this case, they are the sign function
sgn(•) and the absolute-value function | • |) needed to represent N . Hence, κ = 1, 2 or 3, depending on whether Eq. (9) has 0,
1 or 2 absolute-value functions.
glove (each fits only one hand), not all Boolean
cubes with the same number “m” of red vertices
can be rotated to match each other. Each subset of
“m ” red vertices which do match would constitute
therefore a separate group. The superscript “n” of
Smn denotes therefore the subgroup number, hence-
forth called the chiral number, a generalization of
the terminology from chemistry which was intro-
duced for similar purposes in classifying molecules.
The Boolean cubes associated with each of the
30 groups Sm n whose rotated version have the same
(matched) red vertices are exhibited in Table 18.
They are arranged in two columns in a laterally
symmetric manner so that two rules located at two
laterally symmetric positions would have cubes with
complementary vertex colors, and hence their local
rule numbers would add up to zero. This implies
that the superscript “n” for Sm n at corresponding
left–right columns must be identical, and that their
subscripts must add up to 8 since there are a total
of eight red vertices.
It follows from the definition of the complexity
index11 in Eq. (9) that all local rules belonging to
the same group Sm n must have the same index κ.
This useful information is therefore written below
each group label Sm n.
The first Boolean cube (with the smallest lo-
cal rule number) belonging to each group Sm n is
highlighted along with its associated b parame-
ters (b1 , b2 , b3 ) printed on the left of the cube and
used as a “seed” to generate the other members
of the group via appropriate rotation transforma-
tions, each identified by [ek , θ]. The rotation matrix
Tk used to generate each member of the group is
translated directly into the corresponding parame-
ter vector b′ = [b′1 b′2 b′3 ]t on the right of each
rotated cube (identified by its rule number in red).
For cross referencing purposes, Table 18 is
repackaged in Table 19 where each Boolean cube
is replaced by a corresponding eight-bit Boolean
string for rule N = (β7 β6 β5 β4 β3 β2 β1 β0 ). A suc-
cinct summary showing only the local rules belong-
ing to each group Sm n is given in Table 20.
Given a local rule number N , we will often need
to know which group Sm n it belongs to. Table 21 con-
tains this information. In addition, the complexity
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3731

Table 16. Each rotation matrix Tk maps the coordinates u = (ui−1 , ui , ui+1 ) in Fig. 1(e) into new coordinates
u′ = (u′i−1 , u′i , u′i+1 ). Such a transformation u′ = Tk u of u is equivalent to applying the transformation
∆ ∆
T′k = Ttk on the parameter vector b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) to obtain b′ = T′k b. The transformed coordinates u′ and
the equivalent transformed parameter vector b′ are listed for all Tk , k = 1, 2, . . . , 23.
 March 7, 2005
Table 17. Multiplication table for the rotation group R. There are three four-element cyclic subgroups (orange), six two-element cyclic subgroups (pink),
and four three-element cyclic subgroups (yellow).

10:10
01176
3732
 March 7, 2005
n
Table 18. Partitioning of the 256 local rules into 30 local equivalence classes. Each equivalent class is identified uniquely by the symbol S m where the
subscript “m” denotes the number of red vertices of the Boolean cube belonging to this class. The superscript “n” is an identification number, called
the chiral number, used to distinguish different local equivalence classes all having the same number of red vertices. The 30 local equivalence classes
are arranged in two columns such that the vertices of each pair of Boolean cubes located in laterally symmetric positions have complementary colors,
n
and hence their rule numbers must add up to 255. The “seed” used to generate S m is highlighted.

10:10
01176
3733
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 18.

3734
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 18.

3735
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 18.

3736
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 18.

3737
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 18.

3738
 March 7, 2005
Table 19. The same information as Table 18 but with the Boolean cube replaced by its eight-bit Boolean string (β7 β6 β5 β4 β3 β2 β1 β0 ). The
rotation matrix Tk used to generate the new Boolean string (β7′ β6′ β5′ β4′ β3′ β2′ β1′ β0′ ) is shown on the left (resp., right) of each eight-bit Boolean
string.

10:10
01176
3739
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 19.

3740
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 19.

3741
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 19.

3742
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 19.

3743
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3744 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 20. Local equivalence classes of local rules. The subscript m denotes the number of red vertices of the
n
Boolean cubes belonging to the local equivalence class S m , whereas the superscript “n” denotes the chiral number
to distinguish multiple nonequivalent subgroups having the same number of red vertices. The symbol S printed
n n
below each local equivalence class S m denotes the number of local rules belong to S m .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3745

Table 20. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3746 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 21. Catalog of local equivalence class membership. For each local rule N listed consecutively on the left, its
n
associated local equivalence class S m (N ) is listed on the right. The local rule number N on the left column is printed
in red, blue or green if its complexity index κ = 1, 2 or 3, respectively.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3747

Table 21. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3748 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 22. Six distinct rotations {T2 , T4 , T9 , T14 , T20 , T23 } for transforming rule 24 to rule 129 .
 March 7, 2005
∆
Table 23. List of q = 24/S rotation matrices which transform the highlighted local rule N (called the seed) of each local equivalence class S n
m into the same
local rule N ′ ∈ S n n
m , where “S” denotes the number indicated in Table 20 below each equivalence class S m .

10:10
01176
3749
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 23.

3750
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 23.

3751
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 23.

3752
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 23.

3753
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )
Table 23.

3754
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3755

Table 24. Table of rotation matrices Tj and their inverse T−1

j , j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 23.

index κ of each local rule is colored in red for κ = 1, follows that each member is locally equivalent (in
blue for κ = 2, and green for κ = 3. the sense articulated in Sec. 2) to this germinating
Finally, since each local rule N belonging to cube. Moreover, since all rotations listed in Table 15
a set Sm n is generated by applying a rotation form a group, every member of Sm n is locally equiv-

transformation Tk on the “seed” Boolean cube, it alent to every other member belonging to the same
set Smn . We summarize this result as follow.

n are locally equivalent to each other, thereby

Theorem 6. All local rules belonging to Sm
forming a local equivalence class.

4.3. Finding all rotations which

map any N ∈ Sm n to any matrices which map the highlighted “seed” Boolean
N′ ∈ n
Sm cube in Table 18 into each member belonging to the
n and same class. The results are presented in Table 23.
It follows from Theorem 6 that if N ∈ Sm
′ n To simplify the derivation of this table, it is useful
N ∈ Sm are any two members of a local equivalence
class Smn , then there must exist at least one rotation to use Table 24 which gives the inverse of every ro-
matrix Tj which maps N to N ′ . In general, there tation matrix Tj , j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 23. Observe that
may exist several rotation matrices which would since each rotation matrix Tj is a unitary matrix,
∆
qualify. For example, Table 22 shows six different ro- we have T−1 t
j = Tj = Tj .
′

tation matrices {T2 , T4 , T9 , T14 , T20 , T23 } that Table 23 gives only partial results since only 30
transform the Boolean cube 24 to the Boolean seed Boolean cubes are used. A much more useful
cube 129 , both belonging to S23 (see Table 21). table would be a “reversible” catalog which provides
Using Tables 15–17, we can find all rotation explicitly all rotation matrices which map any local
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3756 L. O. Chua et al.

n to any other local rule in N ′ . This
rule N ∈ Sm
lengthy catalog is presented in Table 25. To avoid
confusion, all rotations Tj associated with a local
rule N in the left column (in pink) is indicated in
pink. Conversely, one can choose any N ∈ Sm n from
the top row (in green) and identify the associated
rotation matrices Tj in green. The 30 local equiva-
lence classes in Table 25 are located as follow:

Equivalence Class Equivalence Class

n
Sm Table No. Table No. n
Sm

S 11 25(a) 25(b) S 17

S 21 25(c) 25(d) S 16

S 22 25(e) 25(f) S 26

S 23 25(g) 25(h) S 36

S 31 25(i) 25(j) S 15

S 32 25(k) 25(l) S 25

S 33 25(m) 25(n) S 35

S 41 25(o) 25(o) S 14

S 42 25(p) 25(p) S 24

S 43 25(q) 25(r) S 34

S 44 25(s) 25(s) S 44

S 45 25(t) 25(u) S 54

S 46 25(v) 25(w) S 64

S 47 25(x) 25(x) S 74

For example, to find all rotation matrices which

map the local rule 24 to rule 129 , both belong-
ing to S23 , we first identify the relevant location in
Table 25(g) from the preceding index, and then go
to Table 25 to extract the six pink colored matrices
{T2 , T6 , T7 , T14 , T21 , T22 } at location 25(g).
A careful analysis of Table 25 shows that the
number of rotation matrices for mapping two local
rules in any equivalence class Sm n can be determined
rotation matrices, respectively. Hence, in general,
the number of rotation matrices mapping N to N ′
can range from 1 to 8.
Finally, observe from Table 25 that in order to
map any local rule N ∈ Sm n to any other local rule
′ n
N ∈ Sm , it is necessary to involve all 23 rotation
matrices.

by dividing the number 24 by the number of rules

S belonging to Sm n (see Table 20). For the above ex-
3
ample, S2 has four local rules {24, 36, 66, 129}, and
hence we expect to have q = 24/4 = 6 rotation ma-
trices. Similarly, we note from Table 20 that since
S41 and S53 have three and twenty-four local rules
respectively, we can expect to find eight and one
4.4. Truth-table mapping matrices
for the rotation group R
Just as in Eq. (29) where each 3 × 3 transformation
matrix T† , T and T∗ induces a unique 8 × 8 truth-
table mapping matrix B† , B and B∗ , each 3 × 3
rotation matrix Tk also induces a unique 8 × 8
 March 7, 2005
10:10
Table 25. Reversible catalog of all rotation matrices mapping any local rule N ∈ S n ′ n
m to any other local rule N ∈ S m . Pink rotation matrices are associated
with pink local rules displayed in the left column. Green rotation matrices are associated with green local rules displayed in the top row. For example, local rule
2 ∈ S 11 can be transformed into local rule 16 by applying any one of three pink rotation matrices T5 , T16 and T20 , located at the intersection of row 2 and

01176
column 16. Conversely, the same result can be obtained by applying any one of the three green rotation matrices T5 , T16 and T20 located at the intersection
n
between column 2 and row 16. All tables are arranged in alphabetical order. The local equivalence classes S m from Table 20 are ordered from left to right, and
from top to bottom.
3757

(a)
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(b)
Table 25.

3758
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3759

Table 25. (Continued )

(c)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3760 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(c)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3761

Table 25. (Continued )

(d)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3762 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(d)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3763

Table 25. (Continued )

(e)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3764 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(e)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3765

Table 25. (Continued )

(f)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3766 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(f)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(h)
(g)
Table 25.

3767
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3768 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(i)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3769

Table 25. (Continued )

(i)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3770 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(i)-3
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3771

Table 25. (Continued )

(i)-4
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3772 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(j)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3773

Table 25. (Continued )

(j)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3774 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(j)-3
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3775

Table 25. (Continued )

(j)-4
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(k)
Table 25.

3776
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(l)
Table 25.

3777
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3778 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(m)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3779

Table 25. (Continued )

(m)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3780 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(m)-3
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3781

Table 25. (Continued )

(m)-4
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3782 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(n)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3783

Table 25. (Continued )

(n)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3784 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(n)-3
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3785

Table 25. (Continued )

(n)-4
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(o)
Table 25.

3786
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(p)
Table 25.

3787
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3788 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(q)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3789

Table 25. (Continued )

(q)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3790 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(r)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3791

Table 25. (Continued )

(r)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(s)
Table 25.

3792
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3793

Table 25. (Continued )

(t)
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3794 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(u)
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3795

Table 25. (Continued )

(v)
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3796 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 25. (Continued )

(w)
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

(Continued )

(x)
Table 25.

3797
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3798 L. O. Chua et al.

matrix Bk which maps the numeric Boolean vec- equivalence classes with different chiral numbers to
tor β into the numeric Boolean vector β ′ = Bk β, each other. For example, Table 27(a) shows the
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 23. These matrices can be gener- two local equivalence classes S45 and S46 on the left
ated from the same formula given in Eq. (40) and (resp. right) column of Table 18 maps to each other
are displayed in Table 26. via the left–right transformation T† . Similarly,
As an example, to find Boolean vector β ′ re- Table 27(b) shows the local equivalence classes S45
sulting from applying the 3 × 3 rotation matrix on the left column of Table 18 maps to a subset
  of S46 on Table 18 via the global complementation
0 −1 0
  T. Similarly, the local equivalence class S45 on the
T18 =  0 0 1 right column of Table 18 maps to a subset of S46 on
−1 0 0 Table 18 via the global complementation T.

from Table 15 to rule 110 , we simply multiply the

matrix B18 with β 110 as follows: 4.6. Laterally symmetric
  interaction group for local
  −1 equivalence classes
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 It is possible to depict the relationship between lo-
  1

   cal rules belonging to each local equivalence class
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0  n represented in a laterally symmetric graph us-
  1

 Sm
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
B18 β 110 =  
 −1

 ing only one or two rotations matrices, as displayed
 
 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0   in Table 28. The rotation matrix Tj in blue per-
  1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
 tains to mappings between the b-parameter vectors,
 1 whereas the rotation matrix Tj in red pertains to
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
−1 mappings between the u vectors. Note that not all
  rotation matrices are needed here because any pairs
1 of local rules can be mapped via a composition of
 −1  several rotation transformations. In fact, Table 29
 

 1
 shows that all 24 members of the rotation group

 1
 can be generated by repeated compositions involv-
=
 
 = β 173 ing only T1 and T4 .
 −1 
 
 1



 4.7. Mapping parameter vectors
 −1  between rule 110 and its
1 locally-equivalent rules
The resulting Boolean vector corresponds to the lo- To illustrate the immense value and significance
cal rule number of Table 25, let us first use it to construct the
“star transition graph” shown in Fig. 16(a), and
N = 1 • 20 + 0 • 21 + 1 • 22 + 1 • 23 + 0 • 24
its “inverse transition graph” in Fig. 16(b). The
+ 1 • 25 + 0 • 26 + 1 • 27 star transition graph gives the rotation matrix Tj
= 173 , which maps the local rule 110 into one of the
23 local rules belonging to the local equivalence
where the corresponding symbolic code βk ∈ {0, 1} class S53 where 110 is a member. The inverse star
is used for the βk defined in Eq. (2). ∆
transition graph gives the rotation matrix T−1 k =
′
Tk (Table 24) which maps each local rule N from
4.5. Combining transformations Fig. 16(a) into the local rule 110 .
from the Vierergruppe V and To construct the star transition graph, we first
the rotaion group R identify the relevant Tables 25(n)-2 and 25(n)-4,
By combining transformations from the Vier- which contain the local rule 110 . We then be-
ergruppe V from Sec. 3.2 and the rotation group gin from the top of column 7 (corresponding to
R from Sec. 4.1, it is possible to map two local 110 ) of Table 25(n)-2 and go down vertically in the
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3799

N
Table 26. Table of all 23 truth table transformation matrices Bk which maps any Boolean vector β into
N′ ′
β where N = Tk (N ), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 23.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3800 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 26. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3801

Table 26. (Continued )

March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3802 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 27. Four subsets of local equivalence classes which are related via global transformations T† and T.

(a)

(b)
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3803

n
Table 28. Laterally symmetric groupings of local rules belonging to the same local equivalence class S m , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
n
on the left, and m = 8, 7, 6, 5, 4 on the right. All local rules belonging to each local equivalence class S m are generated by
one or two rotation matrices. The coordinates u′ = Tk u between any pair of adjacent rules is generated by matrix Tk (in
red). The parameter vector b′ = T′k b is generated by matrix T′k (in blue).
Table (28)-1

0 0 Tj -1 Tj Tj Tj -1 255 255

1 1
S 0 S8

1 127
2 191
T1 2 T1 T1 64 T1 T1 191 T1 T1 253 T1
4 223
T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3
8 T6 T6 239
8 1 16 128 239 127 247 254
16 T3 T3
T4 T3 T3 T3 T3
T4 T3 T3 247
32 4 251
T1 T1 T1 32 T1 T1 223 T1 T1 251 T1
64 % 253
128 S11 S 1
7 254

3 252
T1

T1
5 T1 48 12 T1 207 243 250
T1

T1
T3

T3
T1 T1
3 3
T4 T4
T3

T3

10 T
T3
T
T3 245
160 T 10 95 T 245
12 80 T3 6 T1 T3 5 175 T3 6 T1 T3 250 243
T3

T3
T3

T3
17 T1 T1 238
T1

T1

192 3 63 252
T1

T1
34 221
T6 T6
68 T6 T6 187
T4 T4 T4 T4
T1

T1

136 119
68 17 187 238
T3

T3

192 T1 T1 63
T3 T3
160 T3 T3 95
T1 T1
80 175
136 34 119 221
T3

T3

48 S21 S61 207

T1

T1
T16

T16

6 249
18 65 237 190
T17

T17

18 T16 T16 237

16

16
T

T
7

T17 T17
T1

T1

20 T3 T3 235
6 9 T17 249 246 T17
9 T1 T16 T1 T16 246
T

T
17

17
T

T
16

16
T17

T17

33 20 33 235 222 222

T16

T16

65 190
T1 T3 T3 T1 T1 T3 T3 T1
T16

T16

130 125
72 130 183 125
T17

T17

132 123
T16 T16
16

16
T

T
7

T17 T17
T1

T1

144 T3 T3 111
40
96 T 144 T17 159 T 111 T17 215
1 T16 1 T16
T

T
17

17
T

T
16

16
T17

T17

72 40 132 215 123 183

2 2
S S
T16

T16

96 159
2 6

24 66 189 231
T4 T4 T4 T4
36 T6 T6 T6 T6 219
129 36 126 219
66 T6 T6 T6 T6 189

129 T4 24 T4
S23 S63 T4 231 T4 126
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3804 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 28. (Continued )

T1

T1
7 248

T3

T3
11 13 14 242 241 244
T1 T1
T3 T3
13 T3 T3 242
T1 T1
14 241
7 11 248 244

T3

T3
19 236

T1

T1
42 T6 T6 T6 T6 213
T4 T4 T4 T4
T1

T1

T1

T1
69 186
T3

T3

T3

T3
140 19 42 21 35 236 213 234 220 115
T1 T1 T1 T1
21 T3 T3 T3 T3 234
T3 T3 T3 T3
35 T1 T1 T1 T1 220
69 140 76 138 186 115 179 117
T3

T3

T3

T3
76 179
T1

T1

T1

T1
138 T6 T6 117
T4 T4 T T4 T4 T
49 6 6 206
T1

T1

T1

T1
162 93
T3

T3

T3

T3
84 200 196 168 171 55 59 87
84 T1 T1 T1 T1 171
T3 T3 T3 T3
T3 T3 T3 T3
200 T1 T1 T1 T1 55
81 49 162 81 50 206 93 174 205 174
T3

T3

T3

T3
T1

T1

T1

T1
50 T4 T4 205
T6
T4 T6 T6
T4 T6
196 59
T1

T1
168 87
T3

T3
112
112 176 143 79 143
T1 T3
T1 T3
176 T3 T3 79
T1 T1
224 31
208 224 47 31
S31 S51
T3

T3
208 47
T1

T1

22 233
41 214
T1 41 T1 T1 148 T1 T1 214 T1 T1 107 T1
73 182
T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3
134 T6 T6 121
134 22 97 104 121 233 158 151
97 T3
T4 T3 T3
T4 T3 158
T3 T3 T3 T3
146 109
T1 73 T1 T1 146 T1 T1 182 T1 T1 109 T1
148 107
104 S32 S 2
5 151
T1

T1

25 230
T3

T3

38 70 137 185 118 217

T1 T1
T3 T3
70 T3 T3 185
T1 T1
137 118
25 38 230 217
T3

T3

28 227
T1

T1

37 T6 T6 T6 T6 218
T4 T4 T4 T4
T1

T1

T1

T1

74 181
T3

T3

T3

T3

131 37 131 67 26 218 124 188 229 124

T1 T1 T1 T1
26 T3 T3 T3 T3 229
T3 T3 T3 T3
44 T1 T1 T1 T1 211
28 74 133 44 227 181 122 211
T3

T3

T3

T3

67 188
T1

T1

T1

T1

133 T6 T6 122
T4 T4 T T4 T4 T
56 6 6 199
T1

T1

T1

T1

164 91
T3

T3

T3

T3

193 164 88 194 62 91 167 61

82 T1 T3
T1 T3
T1 T3
T1 T3 173
T3 T3 T3 T3
193 T1 T1 T1 T1 62
88 82 56 52 161 173 199 203 94 167
T3

T3

T3

T3
T1

T1

T1

T1

52 T4 T4 203
T6
T4 T6 T6
T4 T6
194 61
T1

T1

161 94
T3

T3

152
145 98 110 157 103
T1 T1
T3 T3
100 T3 T3 155
T1 T1
98 157
100 152 155 103
S33 S53
T3

T3

145 110
T1

T1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3805

Table 28. (Continued )

T1
T16
15 30

T3
51 85 204 45 135 45
T16

T17
T1

16
T
17
T3

T
85 17 T3 75 T3
T1
T
51 170 T1
7
170 T1 T16
135
75 30

T3
T
17
T17

T
16
15 240 57

T1
204
S41
T16

240 86 T6 T6
T4 T4

T1

T1
166

T3

T3
201 57 166 101 147
T1 T1
23 101 T3 T3
T3 T3
43 T1 43 T1 T1 212 T1 147 T1 T1
86 201 156 106

T3

T3
T3 T3 T3 T3 156
77 T6

T1

T1
142 142 23 113 232 106
T3
T4 T3
T6 T4 T
113
T3 T3 54 T4 6

T1

T1
178 T1 77 T1 T1 178 T1 89

T3

T3
89 198 108 154
212 169 T1 T3
T1 T3
2 T3 T3
232 S 4
198 T1 T1
99 54 169 149 99

T3

T3
T1

T1
108 T4
T4
T16

60 149 T6 T6

T1
90 T16 102 153 154
T17
16
T

T3
210 120
17
T

102 17 T3 120 T1
T
60 T 165 T1 T3
7
153 1 T16 180 T3
T1
T
17
T17

T
16

165 90 195 210

225 180
4
S43

T3
S
T16

195 225

T1
4

216 27
T1

T1
116 T1 78 177 46 T1 114 141
T1

T1
T3

T3
T1 T1
3 3
T4 T4
T3

T3
177 T
T3 141 T
T3
29 T 116 184 T 46
226 139 T3 6 T1 T3 226 71 209 T3 6 T1 T3 71
T3

3
T
T3

T3
172 T1 53 T1
T1

T1

39 216 228 27
T1

T1
197 163
T6 T6
83 T6 202 T6
T4 T4 T4 T4
T1

T1

58 92
58 172 92 53
T3

T3

29 T1 184 T1
T3 T3
39 T3 228 T3
T1 T1
139 209
83 202 163
T3

197
T3

6
78 S 114 S45
T1

T1

T1 T3
105
105 150
150
S47
T3
T1

order 230 , 229 , 227 , 218 , 217 , 211 , 203 , in Fig. 16(a) emanating from 110 to N as indi-
199 , 188 , 185 , 181 , 173 , and continuing cated by the outgoing arrow head.
(using Table 25(n)-4) to 167 , 157 , 155 , 124 , To construct the inverse star transition graph,
122 , 118 , 110 , 103 , 94 , 91 , 62 , and 61 . we repeat the above process but this time we ex-
We then extract the matrix Tj inside the green tract instead the rotation matrix Tk inside the pink
downward-pointing triangle corresponding to each upward-pointing triangle corresponding to each lo-
local rule N and display it next to the red ray cal rule N in Tables 25(n)-2 and 25(n)-4 and
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3806 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 29. Every rotation matrix Tk , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 23, can be generated by repeated compositions of only T1
and T4 .

display it next to the blue ray in Fig. 16(b) converg-
ing from N to 110 , as indicated by the incoming
arrow head. As a check, one can verify that Tk in
Fig. 16(b) is equal to the inverse, or the transpose,
of the corresponding rotation matrix in Fig. 16(a),
as specified in Table 24.
Let us now illustrate how to predict the vector
b N
of each local rule N ∈ S53 once we are given
a parameter vector (out of infinitely many equally
valid parameter values) b 110 which specifies the lo-
cal rule 110 via its nonlinear difference equation.12
For the following illustration, let us reproduce below
the difference equation given in Table 5 (p. 2417)
from [Chua et al., 2003] for the local rule 110
ut+1
i = sgn[−2 + |uti−1 + 2uti − 3uti+1 − 1|] (57)

12
Two such parameter vectors were given in [Chua et al., 2003] for each of the 256 local rules. One set of the parameters
is given in Table 4 (pp. 2386–2389) for the general case involving eight parameters. Another set is given implicitly via the
difference equation for each local rule listed in Table 5 (pp. 2390–2453), where only six parameters [see Eq. (11)] were needed
for all local rules with the complexity index κ = 2, and only four parameters [see Eq. (10)] are needed for all local rules with
the complexity index κ = 1.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3807

(a)

(b)

Fig. 16. (a) A star transition graph mapping the local rule 110 into 23 local rules N belonging to the local equivalence
class S 35 via the indicated rotation matrix Tj . (b) An inverse star transition graph mapping each of the 23 local rules N
belonging to S 35 into the same local rule 110 via the indicated rotation matrix Tk .
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3808 L. O. Chua et al.

Note that Eq. (57) has only one absolute value Finally, to find the parameter vector b 229
we
function since the complexity index for rule 110 simply look up Table 16 and find the item
is equal to 2. Hence it suffices for us to examine
     
Eq. (11) involving only the following six parame- b1 b3 −3
ters for specifying the truth table of rule 110 : ′      
T21  b2  =  −b1  =  −1  (61)
b3 −b2 −2
z1 = −2 , c1 = 1 , z0 = −1 ,
(58)
b1 = 1 , b2 = 2 , b3 = −3 In other words, we have successfully derived N ∈
S53 . These nontrivial results could only be obtained
via the one-dimensional cellular automata devel-
Without loss of generality we can fix the values
oped in Part I [Chua et al., 2002]. They are sum-
of z1 , c1 and z0 and then derive the values of
marized in Tables 30(a)-1 and 30(a)-3.
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) for generating the truth table of each
local rule N ∈ S53 . Let us introduce the notation Conversely, given the parameter vector b N for
any local rule N ∈ S53 , we can derive the cor-

110

 
 N
 responding parameter vector b 110 = T′k b N by
b 1 b identifying the appropriate rotation matrix Tk from
 1   1 
b 110  110
=b
  
= 2  , b N  N
=b

 (59) the inverse star transition graph in Fig. 16(b) and
 2   2  use Table 16 to identify the transformed vector
110 −3 N
b3 b3 b 110 corresponding to T′k .
To illustrate the above procedure, we repro-
Using the rotation matrix Tj corresponding to each duce the nonlinear difference equation of the 23 lo-
local rule N ∈ S53 from the star transition graph cal rules belonging to S53 from Table 5 (pp. 2390–
in Fig. 16(a), and with the help of Table 16, we 2453) of [Chua et al., 2003] and display them in
N Tables 30(b)-1 to 30(b)-3. From these differential
can derive the corresponding parameter vector b
110 110 equations, we extracted the parameter vector b N
by simply permuting the elements b1 , b2 and for each local rule N . We then use the inverse
110
b3 , and multiplying each parameter element by star transition graph in Fig. 16(b) and Table 16 to
+1 or −1. The resulting vector is then used to con- derive b 110 , and its corresponding difference equa-
struct the nonlinear difference equation which will tion. Observe that there are 23 distinct vectors, and
correctly generate the truth table for each local rule 23 corresponding nonlinear difference equations, all
N ∈ S53 . of them will generate the same truth table for N =
For example, let us derive the parameter vector 110 . Observe that except for b 110 = [1 2 3]t ,
229
b from which was not extracted from Table 5 of [Chua
  et al., 2003] to avoid redundancy with Table 30(a),
1 all other rules extracted from Table 5 map to
110  
b =  2 (60) only two distinct b 110 . This highly unlikely
−3 event was due to the fact that Table 5 from
[Chua et al., 2003] was in fact constructed by
various rotation transformations of the Boolean
given in Eq. (59). To find the appropriate rotation
cube before we have formally identified the ro-
matrix Tk required to transform b 110 into b 229 , tation group R in Sec. 4.1. The above observa-
we use the star transition graph in Fig. 16(a) and tion is therefore an artifact of the algorithm we
found 110 maps into 229 via the rotation matrix
used to generate Table 5. If the vector b N in
T21 , i.e. u 229 = T21 u 110 . But our goal here is Table 30(b) are chosen to be another indepen-
to find the parameter vector b 229 , hence the ma- dent set, then the transformed vector b 110 would
trix we need to multiply with b 110 is T′21 , which differ from each other as well. To illustrate this
is equal to T20 in view of Table 24, since all rota- generic property, we have constructed a randomly-
tion matrices in Table 15 are unitary matrices, and generated set of difference equations for the 24
hence T′k = T−1k . members of the local equivalence class S53 , and have
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3809

Table 30. (a) An example illustrating the systematic derivation of 23 new nonlinear difference equations
representing 23 local rules belonging to S 35 from a single given difference equation representing the local rule
110 via its parameter vector b 110
= [1 2 −3]t . (b) An example illustrating the mapping of the parameter
vector b N of two sets of 23 nonlinear difference equations representing 23 local rules belonging to S 53 into two
corresponding sets of 23 new nonlinear difference equations all of which represent the single local rule 110 .

110 N
Mapping b to b Difference Equation Rule No.

   
1 T′ −1   
110 230
ut+1 t t t
 14  
b =  2  −→ b =  −3  =⇒ = sgn −2 + −ui−1 − 3ui + 2ui+1 − 1 230
   
i
−3 2

   
1 T′ −3   
110 229
=⇒ ut+1 t
− uit − 2ui+1
t
 21  
b =  2  −→ b =  −1  = sgn −2 + −3ui−1 − 1 229
  
i
−3 −2

   
1 T′ 2   
110 227
ut+1
22
 t t t 
b =  2

 −→ b =  3

 =⇒ i = sgn −2 + 2ui−1 + 3ui − ui+1 − 1
 227
−3 −1

   
1 T′ 2   
110 218
ut+1
 9  t t t

b =  2  −→ b =  −1  =⇒ = sgn −2 + 2ui−1 − ui − 3ui+1 − 1 218
   
i
−3 −3

   
1 T′ −1   
110 217
=⇒ ut+1 t
+ 2uit + 3ui+1
t
 5  
b =  2  −→ b =  2 = sgn −2 + −ui−1 − 1 217
  
i
−3 3

   
1 T′ −3   
110 211
12
ut+1 t t t
 
b =  2

 −→ b =  −2 

 =⇒ i = sgn −2 + −3ui−1 − 2ui + ui+1 − 1
 211
−3 1

   
1 T′ −2   
110 203
ut+1 t t t
 18  
b =  2  −→ b =  −3  =⇒ = sgn −2 + −2ui−1 − 3ui − ui+1 − 1 203
   
i
−3 −1

   
1 T′ 3   
110 199
=⇒ ut+1 t
+ 2uit + ui+1
t
 6  
b =  2  −→ b =  2 = sgn −2 + 3ui−1 − 1 199
  
i
−3 1

(a)-1
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3810 L. O. Chua et al.

Table 30. (Continued )

(a)-2
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III 3811

Table 30. (Continued )

110 N
Mapping b to b Difference Equation Rule No.

   
1 T′ −3   
110 122
=⇒ ut+1 t
+ uit + 2ui+1
t
 16  
b =  2  −→ b =  1 = sgn −2 + −3ui−1 − 1 122
  
i
−3 2

   
1 T′ −1   
110 118
=⇒ ut+1 t
+ 3uit − 2ui+1
t
 15  
b =  2  −→ b =  3 = sgn −2 + −ui−1 − 1 118
  
i
−3 −2

   
1 T′ 1   
110 110
ut+1
 0  t t t 
b  2  −→ b
= =
 2

=⇒ i = sgn −2 + ui−1 + 2ui − 3ui+1 − 1
 110
−3 −3

   
1 T′ 1   
110 103
=⇒ ut+1 t
− 2uit + 3ui+1
t
 2  
b =  2  −→ b =  −2  = sgn −2 + ui−1 − 1 103
  
i
−3 3

   
1 T′ −2   
110 94
ut+1 t
− uit + 3ui+1
t
 11  
b =  2  −→ b =  −1  =⇒ = sgn −2 + −2ui−1 − 1 94
  
i
−3 3

   
1 T′ 3   
110 91
ut+1
 t
 23
uit t 
b  2  −→ b
= =
 1

=⇒ i = sgn −2 + 3ui−1 + − 2ui+1 − 1 91
−3 −2

   
1 T′ 3   
110 62
ut+1 t
− 2uit − ui+1
t
 13  
b =  2  −→ b =  −2  =⇒ = sgn −2 + 3ui−1 − 1 62
  
i
−3 −1

   
1 T′ −2   
110 61
ut+1 t
+ 3uit + ui+1
t
 20  
b =  2  −→ b =  3 =⇒ = sgn −2 + −2ui−1 − 1 61
  
i
−3 1

(a)-3
 March 7, 2005
Table 30. (Continued )

T ′
k
N Difference Equation N −→ 110 Difference Equation for 110

10:10
−1
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
 t  T14  t 
230  t t
ui = sgn 3 − −ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 230
= 2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1


01176
2 2

−2 −1
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T21  t 
229  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 + 1ui + 2ui+1 + 1 ⇒ b 229
= 1 −→ b 110
= −2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1

2 −2
" # " #
  2 ′ 1   
t+1
 t  T22  t 
227  t t
ui = sgn 3 − 2ui−1 − 2ui − ui+1 − 1 ⇒b 227
= −2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−1 2
" # " #
  2 1   
t+1
 t  T9′  t
218  t t
ui = sgn 3 − 2ui−1 − ui + 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒b 218
= −1 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 −1|

2 2
3812

−1
" # " #
   1   
t+1
 t  T5′  t 
217  t t
ui = sgn 3 − −ui−1 + 2ui − 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 217
= 2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−2 2

−2 −1
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T12  t 
211  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 + 2ui − ui+1 + 1 ⇒ b 211
= 2 −→ b 110
= −2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1

−1 −2

−2
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
  T18  t 
203  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 + 2ui − 1ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 203
= 2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

1 2

−1
" # " #
  2   
t+1
 t  T6′  t 
199  t t
ui = sgn 3 − 2ui−1 − 2ui − ui+1 + 1 ⇒b 199
= −2 −→ b 110
= −2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1

−1 −2

(b)-1
 March 7, 2005
Table 30. (Continued )

T′
k
N Difference Equation N −→ 110 Difference Equation for 110

10:10
" # " #
   2 1   
t+1
 t  T4′  t 
t t 188 110
ut+1 t t

01176
188 ui = sgn 3 − 2ui−1 + 2ui − ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b
 = 2 −→ b = 2 ⇒ i = sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−1 2

−1
" # " #
   1   
t+1
 t  T8′  t 
185  t t
ui = sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 185
= −2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

2 2
" # " #
   2 ′ 1   
t+1
 t  T10  t 
181  t t
ui = sgn 3 − 2ui−1 + ui − 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 181
= 1 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−2 2

−2
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
  T19  t 
173  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 − ui + 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 173
= −1 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

2 2
3813

−2
" # " #
   1   
t+1
  T7′  t 
167  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 + ui + 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 167
= 1 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

2 2
" # " #
   1 1   
t+1
 t  T3′  t 
157  t t
ui = sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui − 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 157
= 2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−2 2

−1 −1
   " # " #   
t+1
 t  T1′  t 
155  t t
ui = sgn 3 − −ui−1 + 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1 ⇒ b 155
= 2 −→ b 110
= −2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1

−2 −2
" # " #
   2 ′ 1   
t+1
 t  T17  t 
124  t t
ui = sgn 3 − 2ui−1 + 2ui + ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 124
= 2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

1 2

(b)-2
 March 7, 2005
Table 30. (Continued )

T ′
k
N Difference Equation N −→ 110 Difference Equation for 110

10:10
−2 −1
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T16  t 
122  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 − ui − 2ui+1 + 1 ⇒ b 122
= −1 −→ b 110
= −2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1


01176
−2 −2

−1
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
 t  T15  t 
118  t t
ui = sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 118
= −2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−2 2
" # " #
   1 1   
 t  T0′  t 
110 ut+1
i
 t t
= sgn 4 − ui−1 + 2ui + 3ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 110
= 2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 4 − 1ui−1 + 2ui + 3ui+1 − 1

3 3

−1 −1
   " # " #   
t+1
 t  T2′  t 
103  t t
ui = sgn 3 − −ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 + 1 ⇒ b 103
= 2 −→ b 110
= −2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − −ui−1 − 2ui − 2ui+1 + 1

2 −2
3814

−2
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
  T11  t 
94  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 − ui − 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 94
= −1 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−2 2

−2
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
  T23  t 
91  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 + ui − 2ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 91
= 1 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−2 2

−2
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
  T13  t 
62  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 − 2ui − ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 62
= −2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

−1 2

−2
" # " #
   ′ 1   
t+1
  T20  t 
61  t t t
ui = sgn 3 − −2ui−1 − 2ui + ui+1 − 1 ⇒ b 61
= −2 −→ b 110
= 2 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t
= sgn 3 − ui−1 + 2ui + 2ui+1 − 1

1 2

(b)-3
 March 7, 2005
Table 30. (Continued )

T ′
k
N Difference Equation N −→ 110 Difference Equation for 110

10:10
−1
" # " #
   1 ′
  
t+1
  T14  
t t t  230 110
ut+1 t t t 

01176
230 ui = sgn 8 − 2 + ui−1 − 4ui − 6ui+1  ⇒ b
 = −4 −→ b = −6 ⇒ i = sgn 8 − 2 − ui−1 − 6ui − 4ui+1 

−6 −4

−3 −2
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T21  
229  t t t 
ui = sgn 4 − 1 − 3ui−1 + 2ui + 3ui+1  ⇒ b 229
= 2 −→ b 110
= −3 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 4 − 1 − 2ui−1 − 3ui − 3ui+1 

3 −3

−7 −2
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T22  
227  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 − 7ui−1 + 4ui + 2ui+1  ⇒ b 227
= 4 −→ b 110
= −7 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − 2ui−1 − 7ui − 4ui+1 

2 −4

−4 −3
   " # " #   
t+1
  T9′  
218  t t t 
ui = sgn 5 − 1 − 4ui−1 + 3ui − 4ui+1  ⇒ b 218
= 3 −→ b 110
= −4 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 5 − 1 − 3ui−1 − 4ui − 4ui+1 

−4 −4
3815

−1
" # " #
   1   
t+1
  T5′  
217  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 + ui−1 − 6ui + 4ui+1  ⇒ b 217
= −6 −→ b 110
= −6 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − ui−1 − 6ui − 4ui+1 

4 −4

−7 −1
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T12  
211  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 − 7ui−1 + 3ui − ui+1  ⇒ b 211
= 3 −→ b 110
= −3 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − ui−1 − 3ui − 7ui+1 

−1 −7

−1
" # " #
   4 ′
  
t+1
  T18  
203  t t t 
ui = sgn 5 − 3 + 4ui−1 − 4ui + ui+1  ⇒ b 203
= −4 −→ b 110
= −4 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 5 − 3 − ui−1 − 4ui − 4ui+1 

1 −4

−2
" # " #
   4   
t+1
  T6′  
199  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 + 4ui−1 − 7ui − 2ui+1  ⇒ b 199
= −7 −→ b 110
= −7 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − 2ui−1 − 7ui − 4ui+1 

−2 −4

(b)-4
 March 7, 2005
Table 30. (Continued )

T ′
k
N Difference Equation N −→ 110 Difference Equation for 110

10:10
−5 −1
   " # " #   
  T4′  
188 ut+1
i
 t t t 
= sgn 6 − 4 − 5ui−1 − 5ui + ui+1  ⇒b 188
= −5 −→b 110
= −5 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 6 − 4 − ui−1 − 5ui − 5ui+1 


01176
1 −5

−1
" # " #
   1   
  T8′  
185 ut+1
i
 t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 + ui−1 + 3ui − 7ui+1  ⇒b 185
= 3 −→b 110
= −3 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − ui−1 − 3ui − 7ui+1 

−7 −7

−7 −5

  " # " #   
′
t+1
  T10  
181  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 − 7ui−1 − 5ui + 7ui+1  ⇒b 181
= −5 −→b 110
= −7 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − 5ui−1 − 7ui − 7ui+1 

7 −7

−1
" # " #
   5 ′
  
t+1
  T19  
173  t t t 
ui = sgn 12 − 4 + 5ui−1 + ui − 11ui+1  ⇒ b 173
= 1 −→b 110
= −11 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 12 − 4 − ui−1 − 11ui − 5ui+1 

−11 −5
3816

−3
" # " #

  5   
t+1
  T7′  
167  t t t 
ui = sgn 9 − 3 + 5ui−1 − 3ui − 5ui+1  ⇒b 167
= −3 −→b 110
= −5 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 9 − 3 − 3ui−1 − 5ui − 5ui+1 

−5 −5

−5 −5

  " # " #   
t+1
  T3′  
157  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 − 5ui−1 − 6ui + 6ui+1  ⇒b 157
= −6 −→b 110
= −6 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − 5ui−1 − 6ui − 6ui+1 

6 −6

−5 −5

  " # " #   
t+1
  T1′  
155  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 2 − 5ui−1 + 7ui − 7ui+1  ⇒b 155
= 7 −→b 110
= −7 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 2 − 5ui−1 − 7ui − 7ui+1 

−7 −7

−8 −6

  " # " #   
′
t+1
  T17  
124  t t t 
ui = sgn 9 − 1 − 8ui−1 − 7ui − 6ui+1  ⇒b 124
= −7 −→b 110
= −8 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 9 − 1 − 6ui−1 − 8ui − 7ui+1 

−6 −7

(b)-5
 March 7, 2005
Table 30. (Continued )

T ′
k
N Difference Equation N −→ 110 Difference Equation for 110

10:10
−4 −2
   " # " #   
′
t+1
  T16  
t t t  122 110
ut+1 t t t 

01176
122 ui = sgn 6 − 2 − 4ui−1 − 2ui − 4ui+1  ⇒ b
 = −2 −→ b = −4 ⇒ i = sgn 6 − 2 − 2ui−1 − 4ui − 4ui+1 

−4 −4

−1
" # " #
   1 ′
  
t+1
  T15  
118  t t t 
ui = sgn 9 − 2 + ui−1 + 7ui + 4ui+1  ⇒ b 118
= 7 −→ b 110
= −4 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 9 − 2 − ui−1 − 4ui − 7ui+1 

4 −7

−6 −6
   " # " #   
t+1
  T0′  
110  t t t 
ui = sgn 9 − 2 − 6ui−1 − 7ui − 7ui+1  ⇒ b 110
= −7 −→ b 110
= −7 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 9 − 2 − 6ui−1 − 7ui − 7ui+1 

−7 −7

−4 −4
   " # " #   
t+1
  T2′  
103  t t t 
ui = sgn 7 − 2 − 4ui−1 + 6ui + 6ui+1  ⇒ b 103
= 6 −→ b 110
= −6 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 7 − 2 − 4ui−1 − 6ui − 6ui+1 

6 −6
3817

−2
" # " #
   4 ′
  
t+1
  T11  
94  t t t 
ui = sgn 7 − 2 + 4ui−1 + 2ui + 4ui+1  ⇒ b 94
= 2 −→ b 110
= −4 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 7 − 2 − 2ui−1 − 4ui − 4ui+1 

4 −4

−3
" # " #
   5 ′
  
t+1
  T23  
91  t t t 
ui = sgn 6 − 2 + 5ui−1 − 3ui + 5ui+1  ⇒ b 91
= −3 −→ b 110
= −5 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 6 − 2 − 3ui−1 − 5ui − 5ui+1 

5 −5

−2
" # " #
   4 ′
  
t+1
  T13  
62  t t t 
ui = sgn 6 − 1 + 4ui−1 + 4ui + 2ui+1  ⇒ b 62
= 4 −→ b 110
= −4 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 6 − 1 − 2ui−1 − 4ui − 4ui+1 

2 −4

−2
" # " #
   3 ′
  
t+1
  T20  
61  t t t 
ui = sgn 8 − 1 + 3ui−1 + 7ui − 2ui+1  ⇒ b 61
= 7 −→ b 110
= −3 ⇒ ut+1
i
t t t 
= sgn 8 − 1 − 2ui−1 − 3ui − 7ui+1 

−2 −7

(b)-6
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176

3818 L. O. Chua et al.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 17. (a) Definitions of the three global equivalence-class transformations T† , T, and T∗ , and the multiplication table
associated with the abstract Vierergruppe V. Observe that each element of V is equal to its inverse, as depicted by the two
similarly-directed arcs connecting each pair of nodes in the digraph. Hence, unlike the three cyclic 4-element subgroups C4
from Table 17, no element of V is a generating element. Observe, however, that T∗ = −T† . The symbol T0 denotes the 4 × 4
identity matrix. (b) Commutation diagram of V.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176
A Nonlinear Dynamics Perspective of Wolfram’s New Kind of Science. Part III
obtained indeed a set of 23 distinct vectors for b 110 ,
as displayed in Tables 30(b)-4, 30(b)-5 and 30(b)-6.
Hence, together we can find 24 distinct parameter
vectors b N , which map into 24 distinct parameter
vectors b 110 .
5. Concluding Remarks
It is important to recall that the elements of the
Vierergruppe V defined in Table 14 are 3 × 3 ma-
trices {T0 , T†u , Tu , T∗u } defined in the upper part
of Figs. 10, 11 and 12. The actual transformations,
however, that allow us to establish the long-term
correlations among members of each of the 89 global
equivalence classes εκm listed in Table 3 are 4×4 ma-
trices {T† , T, T∗ }, without the subscript u, which
were derived from {T†u , Tu , T∗u }. Since the mem-
bers of each pair {T†u , T† }, {Tu , T}, {T∗u , T∗ }
can be identified uniquely with each other, it suf-
fices to use the same name left-right transforma-
tion, global complementation, and left-right comple-
mentation for T† , T, and T∗ , respectively. More-
over, Fig. 17(a) shows that since they are related
by exactly the same group multiplication table as
Table 14, they too are isomorphic to the Vier-
ergruppe V. This is the only abstract group which
makes it possible to predict the long-term correla-
tions among all members of the four remarkable lo-
cal rules {193, 137, 124, 110}. Since the local rule
110 has been proved in [Wolfram, 2002] to be capa-
ble of universal computation, it follows that all four
local rules are universal Turing machines. The uni-
versality of the four local rules 110 , 124 , 137 ,
and 193 and their identical long-term dynamic be-
haviors, modulo a transformation from the Vier-
ergruppe V, are encapsulated in the commutative
diagram shown in Fig. 17(b).
We remark that while Wolfram had suggested,
without proof, in [Wolfram, 2002] that the three
other local rules 124 , 137 , and 193 are also
universal, this paper not only proves that his sug-
gestion is correct, but also that the four local rules
110 , 124 , 137 , and 193 are identical from a
nonlinear dynamics perspective.
Notwithstanding the fundamental importance
of the above universality result, we remark that our
13
The representation of the local rules via 256 Boolean cubes was first presented in page 169 of [Chua, 1998]. Exploitation of
the geometry of these Boolean cubes had led to the discovery of most of the results presented in all three parts of this series.
14
In contrast, the classification scheme by Wolfram into four classes is based not on mathematical rigor, but empirical taxon-
omy, the classification method widely used in botany and zoology, before the advent of DNA identification.
3819
original goal was not in fact to prove Wolfram’s
conjecture, but rather to exploit the symmetry of
the Boolean cubes13 in order to identify equivalence
classes among the 256 rules. Our discovery of the
Vierergruppe V and the rotation group R had led
to the two major logical classifications14 of the 256
local rules into 89 global equivalence classes εκm ,
and 30 local equivalence classes Sm κ . Our proof of
Wolfram’s conjecture should be viewed therefore
merely as a bonus from this broader perspective. In
particular, the singular significance of the 89 global
equivalence classes εκm is similar in spirit to the
classification of computational algorithms into var-
ious complexity classes, e.g. the NP-complete class,
in the sense that any property that applies to one
member of εκm automatically applies to the other
members in the same global equivalence class.
To illustrate another application of the global-
equivalence property, observe that since the global-
equivalence class ε139 from Table 2 includes only the
local rule 232 (Fig. 2), which implements a “local”
(among 3 neighboring cells) majority rule, it fol-
lows that there are no other local rules among the
256 rules that are globally equivalent to 232 via
the Vierergruppe V. Conversely, since the global-
equivalence class ε39 from Table 4 includes two lo-
cal rules 184 (Fig. 4) and 226 , it follows that
both local rules implement a perfect density classi-
fication task (including the density equal to 21 case)
[Capcarrere et al., 1996]. In particular, both repre-
sent a “global” (among all n + 1 neighboring cells)
majority rule.
While the impact of the 30 local equivalence
classes Smκ from the conventional cellular automata
perspective is not as impressive as the global equiv-
alence classes, we believe its importance will come
from the information technology arena where imple-
mentation cost of one local rule in hardware, e.g. a
silicon chip, can differ dramatically from one choice
of design parameters, to another equally valid but
much less costly and more robust choice.
Finally, we remark that our theory of global
and local equivalence classes can be general-
ized to higher-dimensional cellular nonlinear net-
works (CNN) [Chua & Roska, 2002] where two-
dimensional cellular automata represents a rather
trivial subclass.
March 7, 2005 10:10 01176
3820 L. O. Chua et al.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Istvan Szatmari for constructive sug-
gestions. This paper is supported in part by the
DURINT contract no. N00014-01-0741, the MURI
contract no. N00014-03-1-0698, and the MARCO
Microelectronics Advances Research Corporation
FENA Award no. 442521/WK57015.
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