Light Sources

Lamps classification:ESL :Electron stimulated

luminance, SSL: Solid State lighting
 Discharge Lamps

• Luminescence – chemical / electrical action on

gas / vapour producing radiation
• Fluorescence – radiation is absorbed at one
wavelength & radiated at another wavelength
• Combination of luminescence & fluorescence
increase efficiency far beyond incandescence.
 Discharge Lamps

• Discharge lamps consist of discharge of electricity

through a tube containing a conducting medium

• Types of electron emission

• Electric Field Emission
• Thermionic Emission
• Photoelectric Emission
 Electric Field Emission
• Field emission, also called Cold Emission, discharge of electrons
from the surface of a material subjected to a strong electric field.
• In the absence of a strong electric field, an electron must acquire a
certain minimum energy, called the work function, to escape
through the surface of a given material, which acts as a barrier to
electron passage.
• If the material is placed in an electric circuit that renders it strongly
negative with respect to a nearby positive electrode (i.e., when it is
subjected to a strong electric field), the work function is so lowered
that some electrons will have sufficient energy to leak through the
surface barrier.
• The resulting current of electrons through the surface of a material
under the influence of a strong electric field is called field emission
 Thermionic Emission
• Thermionic emission is the liberation of electrons from
an electrode by virtue of its temperature (releasing of energy
supplied by heat). This occurs because the thermal
energy given to the charge carrier overcomes the work
function of the material.
• The charge carriers can be electrons or ions, and in older
literature are sometimes referred to as thermions. After
emission, a charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign to the total charge emitted is initially left behind in the
emitting region.
• But if the emitter is connected to a battery, the charge left
behind is neutralized by charge supplied by the battery as the
emitted charge carriers move away from the emitter, and
finally the emitter will be in the same state as it was before
emission.
 Photoelectric Emission
• The photoelectric emission is the process through which the
free electrons are liberated from the surface of metals when
it absorbs light. The photoelectric emission depends on the
frequency of light and not on the intensity of light.
• Some metals like alkaline, sodium, etc. require very less
energy for moving the electrons from their surfaces. Or we
can say their work function is very less.
• When the light energy incident on the surface of that metals,
the electrons gets energized and starts emitting. The
electrons which emitted through this way is known as the
photoelectrons.
• And the current which induces because of the photoelectrons
is known as the photoelectric current.
 Gas Discharge types
The gas discharge may occur at low pressure and high pressure and
therefore is of two types:
1) Low-Pressure Gas Discharge:
The low-pressure gas discharge takes place at a pressure of about 0.4
Pa which is very less than atmospheric pressure. The low-pressure
discharge is utilized in a low-pressure sodium vapor lamp and
fluorescent lamp.
2) High-Pressure Gas Discharge:
The high-pressure gas discharge takes place at pressures more than
104 Pa, which is about 20 % of atmospheric pressure. The
high-pressure discharge is utilized in a high-pressure sodium vapor
lamp, the high-pressure mercury vapor lamp, and the metal halide
 Discharge Lamps
• In a discharge lamp :
• gas / vapour made luminous by an electric
discharge
• color / intensity are dependent on gas /
vapour used
• intensity to some extent proportional to
current.
• Commonly used gases are Neon, Mercury and
Sodium.
 Principle of a Gaseous Discharge Lamp:

● Gases are normally poor conductors, especially at

atmospheric and higher pressures, but application of
suitable voltage, called the ignition voltage, across the
two electrodes can result in a discharge through the gas,
which is accompanied by electromagnetic radiation.
● The wavelength of this radiation depends upon the gas, its
pressure, and the metal vapour used in lamp.
● Argon gas and sodium and mercury vapours are commonly
employed in the manufacture of gaseous discharge lamps.
● Once the ionisation has commenced in the gas, it has a
tendency to increase continuously accompanied by a fall
in the circuit resistance, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp
possesses a negative resistance characteristic (increase in
voltage results in decrease in current).
 Gaseous Discharge Lamp

• In order to limit the current to a safe value use of a choke

or a ballast is made. The choke performs the dual
functions of providing the ignition voltage initially, and
limiting the current subsequently.
• Since due to use of choke the power factor becomes poor
(0.3—0.4), therefore, in order to improve the power
factor of the gaseous discharge lamp use of a condenser
is made.
• The light spectrum obtained is, however, discontinuous
(i.e., it consists of one or more coloured lines).
• The colour of the light obtained depends upon the nature
of the gas or vapour used.
Discharge lamps are of two types:

(i) Those which give the light of the same colour as produced by
the discharge through the gas or vapour such as sodium vapour,
mercury vapour and neon gas lamps.
(ii) Those which use the phenomenon of fluorescence and are
known as fluorescent lamps. In these lamps, the discharge
through the vapour produces ultraviolet waves which cause
fluorescence in certain materials called as phosphors. The inside
of a fluorescent lamp is coated with a phosphor which absorbs
invisible ultraviolet rays and radiates visible rays. Example is
fluorescent mercury vapour tube.
 Neon lamp

neon gas-brown circles,positively charged

ions-big green dots,small blue dots- negatively
charged ions
A neon lamp is a sealed glass tube filled with neon gas, which is
one of the so-called "noble" (inert or unreactive) gases .
There are electrical terminals at either end of a neon tube. At
one end, there's a negative terminal ("-ve", shown blue); at the
other end there's a positive terminal ("+ve", shown green).
When the tube is switched off, it contains ordinary atoms of
neon gas (brown circles).
Rig the terminals up to a high-voltage power supply (about
15,000 volts—because you need a lot of "electrical force" to
make things happen) and switch on, and you'll literally start
pulling the neon atoms apart.
Some of the atoms will lose electrons to become positively
charged ions (big green dots). Being positively charged, these
neon ions will tend to move toward the negative electrical
terminal.
The electrons the neon atoms lose (small blue dots) are
negatively charged, so they hurtle the opposite way toward
the positive terminal at the other end of the tube.
In all this rushing about, atoms, ions, and electrons are
constantly colliding with one another. Those collisions
generate a sudden smash of energy that excites the atoms
and ions and makes them give off photons of red light.
So many collisions happen with such rapidity that we get a
constant buzzing of red light from the tube. We get quite a
lot of energy given off as heat.
If we stood near a neon light, we will get very hot. That's
because the atoms are giving off quite a bit of
invisible infrared radiation (ie. heat) as well as visible
radiation (known as red light).
Fluorescent Lamp (Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp )

Fluorescent Tubes:
Fluorescent lighting:
➔ The tubes can be obtained in a variety of lengths, with
illumination in a variety of colours.
➔ It is possible to achieve quite high lighting intensities
without excessive temperature rise and, owing to the
nature of light sources, the danger of glare is minimized.
➔ Fluorescent lamps can be used indiscriminately without
giving careful consideration to the type of reflector to be
employed or to the correct positioning of the light source.
Fluorescent lamp

A fluorescent lamp is a low weight mercury vapour

lamp that uses fluorescence to deliver visible light.
An electric current in the gas energizes mercury vapor
which delivers ultraviolet radiation through discharge
process and the ultraviolet radiation causes the phosphor
coating of the lamp inner wall to radiate visible light.
Fluorescent Tubes:

❖ The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40

lumens per watt, about three times the
efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament
lamp.
❖ The fluorescent tube consists of a glass tube
25 mm in diameter and 0.38 m-1.52 m in
length.
❖ The inside surface of the tube is coated with a
thin layer of fluorescent material in the form of
a powder.
❖ The coating materials used depend upon the colour effect
desired and may consist of zinc silicate, cadmium,
silicate or calcium tungstate.
❖ These organic chemicals are known as phosphors which
transforms short-wave invisible radiations into visible light.
❖ By mixing the various powders light of any desired colour
including daylight can be obtained.
❖ The tube contains small quantity of argon gas at a
pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury and one or two drops of
mercury.
❖ It is provided with two electrodes coated with electron
emissive material.
➢ A starting switch is provided in the circuit, which puts the
electrodes directly across the supply mains at the time of
starting, so that electrodes may get heated and emit
sufficient electrons.
➢ A stabilizing choke is connected in series with it, which acts
as ballast in running condition and provides a voltage
impulse for starting.
➢ A capacitor is connected across the circuit to improve the
power factor.
➢ Here we connect one ballast, and one switch and the supply
is series as shown. Then we connect the fluorescent tube
and a starter across it.
● When we switch ON the supply, full voltage comes across the
lamp and as well as across the starter through the ballast. But
at that instant, no discharge happens, i.e., no lumen output
from the lamp.
● At that full voltage first the glow discharge is established in
the starter. This is because the electrodes gap in the neon
bulb of starter is much lesser than that of the fluorescent
lamp.
● Then gas inside the starter gets ionized due to this full voltage
and heats the bimetallic strip. That causes to bend the
bimetallic strip to connect to the fixed contact. Now, current
starts flowing through the starter.
● Although the ionization potential of the neon is more than that
of the argon but still due to small electrode gap, a high voltage
gradient appears in the neon bulb and hence glow discharge
gets started first in the starter.
● As soon as the current starts flowing through the touched
contacts of the neon bulb of the starter, the voltage across
the neon bulb gets reduced since the current, causes a
voltage drop across the inductor (ballast).
● At reduced or no voltage across the neon bulb of the
starter, there will be no more gas discharge taking place
and hence the bimetallic strip gets cool and breaks away
from the fixed contact.
● At the time of breaking of the contacts in the neon bulb of
the starter, the current gets interrupted, and hence at that
moment, a large voltage surge comes across the inductor
(ballast).
 This high surge voltage comes across the fluorescent lamp
(tube light) electrodes and strikes penning mixture (mixture
argon gas and mercury vapor).
❖ Gas discharge process gets started and continues and
hence current again gets a path to flow through the
fluorescent lamp tube (tube light) itself. During discharging
of penning gas mixture, the resistance offered by the gas is
lower than the resistance of starter.
❖ The discharge of mercury atoms produces ultraviolet
radiation which in turn excites the phosphor powder coating
to radiate visible light.
❖ Starter gets inactive during glowing of fluorescent lamp
(tube light) because no current passes through the starter in
that condition.
Physics of behind Fluorescent Lamp:
★ When a sufficiently high voltage is applied across the
electrodes, a strong electric field is set up.
★ A small amount of current through the electrodes
filaments heats up the filament coil.
★ As the filament is oxide coated, a sufficient amount of
electrons is produced, and they rush from the
negative electrode or cathode to the positive
electrode or anode due to this strong electric field.
★ During the movement of free electrons, the discharge
process gets established.
The basic discharge process always follows three steps:
1. Free electrons are derived from the electrodes, and they
get accelerated by the electric field applied.
2. Kinetic energy of the free electrons is converted into the
excitation energy of the gas atoms.
3. The excitation energy of the gas atoms gets converted
into the radiation.
In the discharge process, a single ultra violates spectral
line of 253.7 nm is produced at a low pressure of mercury
vapor. To generate 253.7 nm ultra-violate ray the bulb
temperature is kept between 105 to 115oF.
Again the cathodes should be oxide coated. Hot cathode provides
an abundance of free electrons. Hot cathodes, mean those
electrodes which are heated by circulating current and this
circulating current is provided by choke or control gear.
HP Mercury Vapour Lamps
➔ A discharge lamp is a type of lamp in which illuminance is
produced by the excitation and ionization of the gas.
➔ A mercury-vapor lamp is a discharge lamp in which
mercury is used for the production of visible light.
➔ This gas when ionized by application of sufficient voltage
with help of electrodes, it produces electromagnetic
radiations.
Definition: Mercury Vapor Lamp
A lamp that consists of vaporized mercury to generate light by
using an electric arc is known as a mercury vapor lamp.
This lamp discharges gas when heated or cooled. The
mercury -present inside the tube is in liquid form (at room
temperature) which is ionized before generating light. Its
wavelength at low pressure is between 184 nm and 253 nm.
Lamp Construction
● It consists of 2 electrodes made up of an alloy of tungsten
which is placed together in a medium containing mercury
vapor and 25-50 torr of pure argon gas.
● These electrodes are enclosed in an elliptically shaped glass
tube made up of silica.
● A Ballast component is similar to a transformer with high
leakage reactance. It consists of 4 connecting ports like
“Com, 240 V, 200 V, IGN”
● An Igniter which consists of three ports like red, yellow and
black.It consists of 2 polarity pins for connection.
● The main purpose of the ballast and igniter is to control
voltage and current.
 The ballast port connection is made as follows:

➔ Com port is connected to one terminal of the lamp, 240V

port is connected to the 200V phase directly, 200V of ballast
is connected to the yellow port of igniter, and the IGN port is
connected to the red port of igniter.
➔ The black terminal of an igniter is connected to the neutral
phase and also to the other terminal of the lamp.
Igniter:
● The basic 2 wire igniter shorts the ballast momentarily at or near
the peak of the mains voltage, and then interrupts the short near
the end of the cycle. This creates a high voltage pulse to strike
the lamp.
● The 3 wire igniter has a coil inside that is in series with the
supply. They superimpose a high frequency switching action on
the output to provide the high voltage using this coil.
● Certain igniters that use a tap on the ballast to turn the ballast
into an autotransformer to provide the high voltage, without
generating RF noise, and being able to start a lamp a distance
away from the ballast.
● Sometimes the igniter uses the ballast coil as the HV pulse
transformer: The ballast has a tap few turns from the lamp end.
The igniter then discharges the capacitor into the few turn
section of the ballast coil.
Working of Mercury Vapor Lamp:
❖ The mercury vapor and neon gas (pink in color) present in the
bulb requires high voltage at the starting to illuminate light.
❖ When high voltage is applied, we can observe that the neon
gas which was originally in pink color will change into orange
color by heating. It is similar to a 100-watt glowing bulb and it
takes 5 to 7 minutes to turn on completely.
❖ The igniter -present internally consists of a bimetallic strip and
capacitor, which provides high starting voltage.
❖ When the bimetallic strip expands on heating, it will
short-circuit then the lamp will be turned ON.
❖ When this bimetallic strip cools, it disconnects the connection
and turns off the lamp. Hence by connecting the ballast and
igniter to this lamp, the mercury vapor and neon gas get
heated up and expands the bulb inside to illuminate the light.
There are two types of mercury vapor lamps depending on the vapor
pressure inside the lamp. They are:
1. High-pressure mercury vapor lamps, and
2. Low-pressure mercury vapor lamps (fluorescent lamps).

High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp :

The high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamps are divided into 3
types, they are:
1. MA (mercury vapor lamp with auxiliary starting electrode) Type:
These are manufactured from 250 to 400W ratings and operate at
200 to 250V AC supply.
2. MAT (mercury vapor lamp with tungsten filament) Type: These
are manufactured from 300 to 500W ratings and operate at 200 to
250V AC or DC supply.
3. MB (mercury vapor lamp with auxiliary starting electrode and
bayonet cap) Type: These are manufactured from 80 and 125W
MA Type Mercury Vapour Lamp :
➢ The construction of an MA type (lamp with auxiliary starting
electrode) mercury vapor discharge lamp is similar to a
sodium vapor lamp.
➢ It consists of two main electrodes made up of tungsten
coated with barium oxide (material for an easy emission of
electrons) enclosed in a hard glass tube or bulb made of
borosilicate or quartz.
➢ There is an auxiliary starting electrode near one of the main
electrodes and the tube contains argon gas of low pressure
and some mercury.
➢ The inner tube or bulb is enclosed in another glass bulb and
the space between the two tubes or bulbs is either partially
or completely evacuated to prevent heat loss.
➢ The lamp has a screwed cap and is connected to a choke
coil having different tapings in series with the lamp to give a
high starting voltage for discharge and for controlling the
current and voltage across the lamp after discharge.
➢ The power factor of the circuit is low due to the choke coil,
hence can be improved by installing a capacitor in parallel
to the supply line.
➢ Initially, when supply is given to the lamp, the current does
not flow through the main electrodes due to the high
resistance of the gas.
➢ However the current starts to flow between the main
electrode and auxiliary starting electrode through argon
gas.
➢ Thus the argon gas between the main and auxiliary starting
electrode gets ionized producing an arc and a discharge
takes place. This discharge can be controlled by varying the
resistance connected in series with starting electrode.
➢ The heat thus produced vaporizes mercury which reduces
the resistance between the main electrodes.
➢ Due to the low resistance of the ionized path between two
main electrodes, the discharge shifts from starting electrode
to the main electrodes.
➢ The heat produced by this discharge causes mercury to
vaporize, increasing the pressure inside the inner tube. Thus
the free electrons start emitting greenish-blue light with the
help of vapor.
 The MAT type (mercury vapor lamp with tungsten
filament) lamp is similar to the MA type, but the outer tube
consists of a tungsten filament similar to that of an ordinary
lamp in series with the discharge or inner tube, so that it acts as
a choke or blast to limit high currents to safer value. Since the
lamp does not require a blast of choke it can be used for ac as
well as dc power supply.
When the lamp is switched ON, it works as a filament lamp
and its full output is given by the outer tube. At the same time,
the discharge tube starts warming up and when a particular
temperature is reached, a thermal switch operates, and the
coils of a part of the filament are cut off so that the voltage
across the discharge tube increases. Now the discharge takes
place in the discharge tube through mercury vapor producing
visible light.
MB Type Mercury Vapour Lamp:
➢ MB type mercury vapor lamp operates at an extra high
pressure (about 5 to 10 times greater than atmospheric
pressure).
➢ The discharge tube in this type of lamp is of quartz about 5
cms long which can withstand high temperatures due to arc.
➢ It has three electrodes, two main and one auxiliary starting
electrode.
➢ The discharge tube is in a plain glass bulb similar to that of
MA type lamp.
➢ A high starting resistance is connected in series with the
starting electrode.
➢ The operation of the lamp is similar to that of MA type mercury-vapor
lamp and it consists of a choke coil and capacitor in order to operate.
The lamp has 3-pin bayonet caps so it may not be in the ordinary
 Mercury Vapour Lamp
• Advantages:
- Good efficiency (lamps after 1980s have a high lumen
per watt rating)
- Color rendering is better than that of high pressure
sodium street lights
- Some lamps last far longer than the 24000 hour mark,
sometimes 40 years
• Disadvantages:
- Like many lamps it contains traces of mercury which
must be disposed of properly
- HPS streetlights have a better lumen per watt rating
- Human skin looks green under the light, it is poor for
color film/photography
-Warm up time required to start the lamp
Differences between Sodium Vapour Lamp and
Mercury Vapour Lamp
Sodium Vapour Lamp
1. Sodium Vapour Lamp was
invented in the year 1920, by
by Arthur H. Compton at
Westinghouse
2. Sodium vapour lamp
efficiency is about 100
lumens/watt.
3. Sodium vapour is a gas
discharge lamp.
4. This lamp uses sodium in an
energized condition to emit
light.
Mercury Vapour Lamp
1. Mercury vapour lamp was
invented by American
engineer namely Peter Cooper
Hewitt in the year 1901 &
improved in 1903.
2. Its efficiency is about 35 to 65
lumens/watt.
3. Mercury vapour is also a gas
discharge lamp.
4. This lamp uses an electric arc
with vaporized mercury to
emit light
Differences between Sodium Vapour Lamp and Mercury
Vapour Lamp
Sodium Vapour Lamp
1. The light in this lamp is from
the process of an atomic
emission.
2. It is used in street lighting &
other illumination.
3. Its life span is about 18,000
hours.
4. Sodium vapour lamp
wavelength is 589 nm
Mercury Vapour Lamp
1. The light in this lamp is from
the process of fluorescence
emission.
2. It is used to provide lighting
for large areas like streets,
sports arenas, gyms, stores, or
banks.
3. Its life span is about 24,000
hours.
4. Mercury vapour lamp
wavelength is 254 nm
 Mercury Vapour Lamp
• Common uses:
• large areas like parks,
• street lighting,
• high ceiling buildings,
• gyms.
• Low pressure lamps with a quartz envelope
are used for germicidal purposes since they
allow UV light to pass.
 Mercury Vapour Lamp
• Statistics
*CRI 20 (clear bulb) 60 (phosphor coated)
*Color Temperature - 6800 K (clear bulb)
*Lumens per watt: 30-60
*Lamp life: 24,000 - 175,000 hours
*Available in 40-1000 W
Sodium Vapour Lamp Types
Sodium Vapour Lamp
Sodium Vapour Lamp
Construction of Sodium Vapour Lamp
➢ The sodium vapour lamp has a U-shape tube (or Lamp
tube) made of hard glass which contains two oxide coated
electrodes at both the ends.
➢ There is neon gas at low pressure in the tube. There are
few drops of sodium in the tube.
➢ The U tube is enclosed in a double walled vacuum tube to
keep the temperature within working range.
➢ The inner tube can be taken out for testing etc.
➢ The two ends of the electrodes are brought to bayonet
cap. It is connected across the secondary of a high leakage
reactance transformer.
➢ The transformer offers high voltage at the time of starting
and low voltage in running condition.
➢ A condenser is also connected to improve the power factor.
Working of Sodium Vapour Lamp:

➢ The lamp requires high voltage at the time of starting which is

obtained from the high leakage transformer.
➢ The discharge takes place through the neon gas and is of pink
color.
➢ The gas is heated up and sodium is vaporized. A yellowish light
is produced when sodium vapours also takes part.
➢ Now the resistance of the lamp decreases and the current
increases but the voltage is dropped and controlled by the high
leakage transformer.
➢ The lamp works at low voltage and the working temperature is
about 300°C.
➢ The sodium vapour lamp consists of the bulb containing a small
amount of metallic sodium, neon gas, and two sets of electrodes
connected in a pin type base. The presence of neon gas serves
to start the discharge envelope is usually bent into U shape.
➢ The lamp operates at a temperature of 3000 C.
➢ To conserve the heat generated and assure the lamp
operating at normal air temperatures, the discharge envelop
be operated horizontally, so nearly so, to keep the
sodium well spread out along the tube. Some small lamp
may be operated vertically, lamp cap up.
➢ Care should be taken in handling these lamps, particularly
when replacing inner U- tube if it is broken and sodium
comes in contact with moisture fire will result.
Some features:
❖ The lamp has yellowish light.
❖ It takes about 10 minutes to give full light.
❖ It must be used in horizontal position otherwise the sodium
drops may come to the bottom of the tube.
❖ The transformer must be high leakage transformer and its
power should be according to the lamp.
❖ In its light the colour cannot be judged properly.
❖ It can work on A.C. only.

Uses of Sodium Vapour Lamp

❖ The lamps are available in different wattage 40 W, 60 W
❖ They are used for decoration purpose and street lighting
purpose etc.
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp
LPSV Lamp
➢ This lamp is identified through its signature color that is
monochromatic yellow. It is frequently used in Europe
because it did not demand in other markets because of its
poor color rendering index (CRI).
➢ The current obtained by this lamp make a light at the most
responsive color to the human eye.
➢ The low-pressure sodium lamp is also known as a SOX
lamp.
➢ When the light starts, it first creates a red glow because of
the neon gas, but neon gas lights only at less temperature.
➢ Once the temperature is increased, the sodium starts
vaporizing & turns into a pure monochromatic yellow color
light.
High-Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamp
➢ The HPSV lamp is the most frequently used in street
lighting. The HPS lamp includes a narrow arc tube that is
supported through a frame within a bulb.
➢ The arc tube is designed with aluminum oxide ceramic
because it opposes the acidic effects of alkalis like Na
(sodium).
➢ The arc tube includes high pressure for higher efficiency.
In this tube, xenon, sodium, and mercury are usually
used.
➢ The lamp is activated through a pulse start. There is an
igniter within the ballast which transmits a high voltage
signal throughout the arc tube.
➢ This signal will activate an arc with the xenon gas. So the
lamp will turn sky blue like xenon lights.
➢ After that, the arc heats the mercury (Hg) then its vapor
provides a bluish color to the lamp.
➢ The lamp gets heat & the sodium is the final material to
evaporate. The vapor of sodium hits an arc above 240 C.
➢ The sodium (Na) is mixed with different impurities to form
white light.
➢ The mercury helps in adding blue light to the clean yellow
color of the sodium
 Advantages of sodium vapor lamps include the following:
1. Its efficiency is high.
2. Longer life.
3. It can be easily disposed of.
4. The operating temperature is low.
5. Energy-efficient.
6. Effective in foggy & rainy reasons.
7. Cool source.
8. Heat is fairly low.
9. It ranges from fewer grades to high grades.
10. Its color temperature is warm always.
 Disadvantages of sodium vapor lamps :
a. 1.Color temperature
2. It needs ballast
3. It needs controlling elements for controlling glare.
4. It is not applicable in color identification areas.
5. Sodium element is dangerous because it can catch fire in
contact with air.
6. It needs an extra transformer
7. The power factor is poor.
8. For indoor lighting, the yellow color is not suitable.
9. For sufficient light output, it needs long tubes.
10. To provide a complete output, it needs 5 to 10 minutes.
Applications of sodium vapor lamps include the following:
1. These lamps are broadly used for airports, goods yards,
lighting of roads, etc
2. Sometimes, these lamps are used for advertisement
purposes.
3. The most commonly used ratings of lamps are 250 watts
and above.
4. HPS lamps are extensively used to provide lighting in
industries
5. These lamps are used for outdoor area lighting like
roadways, security areas, parking lots, etc
Induction Lamp
Induction lamps

➢ The induction lamp has good efficiency and long life.

➢ Induction Lamps create light by using an
electromagnetic field to excite mercury particles
mixed in an inert gas like argon or krypton.
➢ The mercury creates a UV light and a phosphor on
the inside of the bulb or tube filters the energy into
visible light.
➢ This is a type of fluorescent light. Unlike a standard
fluorescent light this does not use electrodes in the
tube
➢ The lamp has 3 parts:
➢ frequency generator (ballast), discharge tube and
electromagnet (inductor, energy coupling coils or
energizing coils).
1. First the ballast creates high frequency current (between
2.51-3 MHz or 250 kHz for closed ferrite toroid(external lamps).
2. The current is sent through the electromagnet and an electric
field is produced. The number of turns (times the wire is
wrapped around the iron core) is determined by how each
product is designed (so it is not consistent among different
lamps).
3. Energy is transferred from the magnet to the mercury in the
tube in the same way that a transformer works... induction.
4. The mercury vapor emits UV light which strikes the phosphor
and makes light. GE Genura and Philips QL lamps have a
conductive coating to contain electromagnetic interference.
➢ Induction lamps use a mercury amalgam, amalgams consist
of mercury chemically combined with other metals. The
mercury amalgam is in a chemically stable state and is not
harmful like pure mercury vapor. Mercury amalgams have
been used in dental fillings.
The ballast is made of four parts:
➢ First is an EMI filter to reduce harmonics from the supply of
alternating current.
➢ The next part is a bridge rectifier, this converts AC to DC
power.
➢ After that is the PFC circuit which boosts the DC voltage to a
constant 400 V value and increases the power factor to
0.95+.
➢ The final part of the ballast is an inverter which converts the
DC power to high frequency AC.
Statistics:
➢ Lumens per watt: 65 - 87 (external) 50 - 70 (internal)
➢ Lamp life*: 60,000 - 75,000 hrs internal induction lamp
➢ 85,000 - 100,000 external induction lamp
➢ CRI 80
➢ Color Temperature: 3000 K and up
➢ Warm up time: instant on
➢ Longest Life:
External Induction Lamp: 85,000-100,000 hours,
Internal Induction Lamp: 60,000-75,000 hours
NOTE: induction lamps only have a long life if the ballast is of a
quality construction, the ballast is the weak point in the system.
Common uses: outdoor lighting, indoor lighting, streetlamps,
replacement for common indoor lighting.
Advantages:
1. Longer life: no electrodes, electrodes fail in normal
fluorescent lamps shortening life, the tungsten thins and
brakes.
2. Longer life: sealed tube, by not having electrodes the tube
can be perfectly sealed, when seals go bad in regular
fluorescent lamps gas escapes through the weakness and the
lamp fails.
3. Energy efficient, often 80+ lumens per watt
4. No flickering
5. Dimmable 30 -100%
Disadvantages:
1. Bulky design for large area lighting, the discharge tube
is large compared with HID lamps.
2. New and Old technology: it is new: it is still expensive to
buy the lamps. It is old: most companies that make the
lamps are using 20 year old ballast technology copied from
OSRAM and Philips. The ballasts have a high failure rate.
3. The technology is under commercialized.
4. Radio interference is a major problem to be worked out.
The lamps are limited in use due to this issue.
Metal Halide Lamp
Metal Halide lamp
This type of lamp is also known as an 'MH' lamp.
● It is an HID lamp (High Intensity Discharge), which means it
provides most of its light from the electric arc within a small
discharge tube.
● It is becoming popular due to its good quality white light and
good efficiency.
● The most prominent use of the MH lamp is in stadiums and
sports fields,for parking lots and street lighting in urban
areas.
● Its competitors include the HPS lamp, mercury vapor lamp,
LPS lamp, halogen lamps, and LEDs.
Working:
➢ The lamp uses mercury vapor to create the powerful light (like
the high pressure mercury vapor) but includes other metals
(halide salts) to improve the color.
➢ A Halide is a chemical compound of a halogen combined with
an electropositive element, or in the case of lamps: a metal.
➢ A halogen is a monovalent element which readily forms
negative ions. There are 5 halogens: fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and astatine. Halide 'salts' used in the MH
lamp include:
1. Hg (Mercury) - bluish
2. AgCl - white
3. AgF - no color
4. AgBr - pale yellow
5. Agl - green yellow
Metal halide lamp consists of
1. Glass bulb
2. Arc tube
3. Electrodes
4. Auxiliary electrode with high resistance
5. Glass stem
6. Molybdenum wire
7. Argon gas
8. Mercury vapor
9. Indium, thallium and sodium iodides
Working of lamp:
➢ When full voltage is applied across the main electrodes, no arc is
produced at the time of switching.
➢ The auxiliary electrode near the main electrodes attached to the
glass stem creates initial discharge between them.
➢ A bimetal switch is there to short the starter electrode to the main
electrode just at the time of starting.
➢ Starter electrode is used to create initial arc between main and
auxiliary electrode that heats up the metal halide salts.
➢ Starter electrode or auxiliary electrode is of high resistance to limit
the current at initial arc.
➢ Again discharge is first in argon and then in mercury.
➢ Small amount of mercury vapor helps to establish main arc
formation between main electrodes through metal halides vapor
one by one.
➢ To reach up to full light output this lamp takes 5 minutes.
1.Normal MH Detail Lamp Operation (not pulse start)
➢ When the lamp is cold the halides and mercury are
condensed on the fused quartz tube.
➢ When the lamp is turned on current passed through the
starting electrode and jumps the short distance to the main
electrode which is aided by argon gas.
➢ The argon gas strikes an arc at low temperatures.

2.After the initial small arc the tube heats up and the mercury is
vaporized.
➢ Electric arcs fight to work through the resistance of a gas,
but over time more molecules of the gas become ionized.
➢ This makes it even easier for more electric current to pass
through, so the arc gets wider and hotter.
➢ In the lamp as the first arc heats up, it begins to turn the
solid mercury into a vapor, soon the arc is able to travel
through the mercury vapor to reach the other main
electrode.
➢ There is less resistance on this path now and current stops
flowing through the starting electrode

3.) After a mercury vapor arc strikes and heats, the halides
vaporize and dissociate.
➢ The metal atoms diffuse away from the arc to cooler areas
and recombine with the halogen before they damage any
part of the silica or electrodes.
➢ The lamp is now fully warmed up and produces its white
light through the resistance of a gas, but over time more
molecules of the gas become ionized.
➢ This makes it even easier for more electric current to pass
through, so the arc gets wider .
➢ The high pressure and temperature of this light would
normally react and destroy the silica in normal glass.
➢ So Fused quartz is used due to a high melting temperature,
and by using halogens the destructive process is stopped.
How arc Inside the Metal Halide Arc Tube is established?
● In the OFF condition of the lamp, metal iodides i.e. indium,
thallium and sodium iodides used inside the lamp are
present on the bulb wall.
● Due to rising of arc temperature, the metal iodides vaporize
and diffuse from wall into the arc stream. Then they
dissociate and yield free metal and iodine atoms.
● Almost like this ,the mercury atoms inside the bulb are
excited and ionized.
● Generally all iodide salts do not get vaporized at same time
in metal halide lamp.
 So step wise, the process of vaporization is:
● First argon gas and then mercury get vaporized to form
arc.
● Only indium gets vaporized first to form a blue sheath
around the mercury arc.
● Then thallium gets vaporized and it forms yellow sheath
around the thallium.
● Finally sodium iodides get vaporized and it makes the
lamp very sensitive to changes in the lamp wattage
● Lamp will be deficient in yellow and red if the lamp watts are
lower than rated value. It is because of very small amount of
sodium gets vaporized.
● Again in case of sodium-scandium metal halide lamps,
scandium vaporizes first and then sodium.
Construction Materials
1.Tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal and
therefore it makes the best electrode material. The tungsten is
treated with radioactive thorium (Thl4)(ThO2). This helps
increase the life of the tungsten and lamp itself.
2.Borosilicate glass is used in the outer envelope (bulb) due
to its ability to insulate as well as block UV-B radiation coming
from the arc.
The bulb also prevents users from touching and fouling the
fused quartz discharge tube with oil from the skin.
The mercury vapor arc in the metal halide lamp produces UV
light.
Borosilicate glass, also known as Pyrex insulates the lamp, which
is extremely important to keep the color constant.
Some halides have a lower vaporization point and will begin to
drop out of the discharge if the lamp gets colder.
The halides are designed in a balance to create the desired white
light, loss of the the Agl halide for example will make the lamp
turn more blue.
3.Molybdenum is used in the seal of the discharge tube because
it does not expand or soften easy, even under extremely high
temperatures.
Expansion of electrode coming out of discharge tube would crack
or break the sealed tube which forms a flat seam on each end.
Molybdenum is also highly resistant to corrosion and is also used
in high strength steel, armor and electrical contacts.