Finals Module Math111Engr - Febrero

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Module No. 9
THE DIFFERENTIAL
I. Topic:
• Definition
• ∆x and dx
Error propagation
• Applying approximation of formulas
II. Time Frame: 6 hours
III. Introduction:
A differential and a derivative should not be confused, same as we should not be confused
with the term differentiation and differential. Differentiation is the process of finding the
derivative. A derivative is the rate of change and is expressed as a ratio of differentials,
e.g. dy/dx. A differential is the actual change of a function or a variable, e.g. dy.
IV. Objectives:
At the end of the lessons the student should be able to:
1. Define Differential;
2. Compare ∆x and dx;
3. Explain error propagation and
4. Apply approximation of formulas.
V. Learning Activities
Definition
The differential of y, written as dy, can be used as approximation of the change in y, written as ∆y.
∆y ≈ dy or ∆y ≈ f ′(x)dx
Recall that
∆y = f(x + ∆x) − f(x)
Comparing ∆𝐲 with dy
Let’s compare ∆y and dy.
For example, let y = f(x) = 𝑥 2 . If we have x=1 and dx = 0.01, what is dy. Compare this value
with ∆y for x =1 and ∆x=0.01.
1
MATH 111 – Calculus I (ENGR. JOHN JOERTE B. FEBRERO)
Error Propagation
propagated error – the difference between f(x + ∆x) and f(x).

Error results when physicists and engineers use dy to approximate ∆y. One way this occurs
in practice is in the estimation of errors propagated by physical measuring devices. For
example, if you let x represent the measured value of a variable and let x + ∆x represent the
exact value, the ∆x is the error in measurement.
Example
The measured radius of a ball bearing is 0.7 inch, as shown in the figure. If the measurement
is correct to within 0.01 inch, estimate the propagated error in the volume V of the ball bearing.
2
Solution
4
The formula for the volume of a sphere is V = 𝜋𝑟3, where r is the radius of the sphere.
3
Calculating Differentials
Each of the differentiation rules you studied in the previous lessons can be written in
differential form. Suppose u and v are differentiable functions of x. By the definition of
differentials, you have
du = u’dx and dv = v’dx
We can write the differential form of the Product Rule as shown below.
3
4
VI. Self-Evaluation:
Define the following terms in your own words:
• derivative
• differential
• differentiation
• relative error
• percent error
• propagated error
VII. Review of Concept:

• A differential is the actual change of a function or a variable, e.g. dy.
• The change in y, written as ∆y, can be used as approximation of the change in y.
• Each differentiation rule has its equivalent differential form.
• Differentials can be used to approximate function values.
5
VIII. References
Larson,R. Calculus (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. USA.
Love, C., Rainville,E. Differential and Integral Calculus (6th ed.). The Macmillan
Company. New York.
6
Module No. 10
DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
I. Topic:
• Trigonometric Function Properties

• Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
III. Introduction:
The two basic trigonometric functions are sine and cosine. The rest are derived from these
two functions. The same goes to their derivatives. The derivatives of the four trigonometric
functions can be evaluated once we know the derivatives of these two functions.
IV. Objectives:

1. Elaborate the elementary properties of trigonometric functions;
2. Define trigonometric function derivatives;
3. Discuss graph of derivatives of trigonometric functions and
4. Apply trigonometric function derivations.
Trigonometric Function Properties
Sine Function f(x) = sin (x)
Fig.10.1Sine function graph.
• Domain: all real numbers

• Range: [-1 , 1]
• Period = 2pi
• x intercepts: x = k pi , where k is an integer.
• y intercepts: y = 0
• maximum points: (pi/2 + 2 k pi , 1) , where k is an integer.
• minimum points: (3pi/2 + 2 k pi , -1) , where k is an integer.
• symmetry: since sin(-x) = - sin (x) then sin (x) is an odd function and its graph is
symmetric with respect to the origin (0 , 0).
• intervals of increase/decrease: over one period and from 0 to 2pi, sin (x) is
increasing on the intervals (0 , pi/2) and (3pi/2 , 2pi), and decreasing on the interval
(pi/2 , 3pi/2).
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Cosine Function f(x) = cos (x)
Fig.10.2 Cosine function graph.
• Domain: all real numbers

• Range: [-1 , 1]
• Period = 2pi
• x intercepts: x = pi/2 + k pi , where k is an integer.
• maximum points: (2 k pi , 1) , where k is an integer.
• minimum points: (pi + 2 k pi , -1) , where k is an integer.
• symmetry: since cos(-x) = cos (x) then cos (x) is an even function and its graph is
symmetric with respect to the y axis.
• intervals of increase/decrease: over one period and from 0 to 2pi, cos (x) is
decreasing on (0 , pi) increasing on (pi , 2pi).
Tangent Function f(x) = tan (x)
Fig. 10.3 Tangent function graph.
• Domain: all real numbers except pi/2 + k pi, k is an integer.

• Range: all real numbers
• Period = pi
• x intercepts: x = k pi , where k is an integer.
• symmetry: since tan(-x) = - tan(x) then tan (x) is an odd function and its graph is
symmetric with respect the origin.
• intervals of increase/decrease: over one period and from -pi/2 to pi/2, tan (x) is
increasing.
8
• Vertical asymptotes: x = pi/2 + k pi, where k is an integer.
Cotangent Function f(x) = cot (x)
Fig. 10.4 Cotangent function graph.
• Domain: all real numbers except k pi, k is an integer.

• Range: all real numbers
• Period = pi
• x intercepts: x = pi /2 + k pi , where k is an integer.
• symmetry: since cot(-x) = - cot(x) then cot (x) is an odd function and its graph is
• intervals of increase/decrease: over one period and from 0 to pi, cot (x) is
decreasing.
• Vertical asymptotes: x = k pi, where k is an integer.
Secant Function f(x) = sec (x)
Fig. 10.5 Secant function graph.
• Domain: all real numbers except pi/2 + k pi, n is an integer.

• Range: (-infinity , -1] U [1 , +infinity)
• Period = 2 pi
• symmetry: since sec(-x) = sec (x) then sec (x) is an even function and its graph is
9
symmetric with respect to the y axis.

• intervals of increase/decrease: over one period and from 0 to 2 pi, sec (x) is
increasing on (0 , pi/2) U (pi/2 , pi) and decreasing on (pi , 3pi/2) U (3pi/2 , 2pi).
• Vertical asymptotes: x = pi/2 + k pi, where k is an integer.
Cosecant Function f(x) = csc (x)
Fig. 10.6 Cosecant function graph.
• Domain: all real numbers except k pi, k is an integer.

• Range: (-infinity , -1] U [1 , +infinity)
• Period = 2pi
• symmetry: since csc(-x) = - csc(x) then csc (x) is an odd function and its graph is
• intervals of increase/decrease: over one period and from 0 to 2pi, csc (x) is
decreasing on (0 , pi/2) U (3pi/2 , 2pi) and increasing on (pi/2 , pi) U (pi / , 3pi/2).
• Vertical asymptotes: x = k pi, where k is an integer.
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Knowing the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions, we can use the Quotient Rule to
find the derivatives of the four remaining trigonometric functions as we can see in the next
examples.
10
The derivative of the 6 trigonometric functions is shown below.
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VI. Self-evaluation:
• What are the characteristics of each of the trigonometric functions?
• Graph each of the trigonometric function.
• What is the derivative of each of the trigonometric functions?
• Each of the trigonometric function has a distinct graph, and its set of domain and
range.
• The derivative of the four remaining trigonometric functions can be derived from sine
and cosine functions, applying the rules in evaluating the derivatives.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
https://www.analyzemath.com/trigonometry/properties.html
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Module No. 11
DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
I. Topic:
• Inverse Trigonometric Function Properties
• Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
III. Introduction:
This section begins with a rather surprising statement: None of the six basic
trigonometric functions has an inverse function. This statement is true because all six
trigonometric functions are periodic and therefore are not one-to-one. However, we can
redefine their domains in such a way that they will have inverse functions on the restricted
domains.
IV. Objectives:

1. Elaborate the properties inverse trigonometric functions derivation;
2. Demonstrate the graph of inverse trigonometric functions; and
3. Discuss the derivative of inverse of trigonometric functions;
4. Apply the inverse trigonometric function derivatives in real world scenario.
VI. Learning Activities
Example. For the sine function in the figure, it is increasing and therefore is one to one on the
interval [-pi/2, pi/2]. In this interval, we can define the inverse of the restricted sine function as
y = arcsin x if and only if sin y = x
𝜋
where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤ arcsin 𝑥 ≤
π 2
2
Under suitable restrictions, each of the six trigonometric functions is one-to-one and so has
an inverse function, as shown in the following definition.
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14
The graph of the six trigonometric functions are shown below.

Arcsin Function Arccos Function Arctan Function
Fig. 11.1 Graphs of arcsin, arccos and arctan functions.
Arccsc Function Arcsec Function Arccot Function
Fig. 11.2 Graph of arccsc, arcsec, and arccot functions.
Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example.
15
Example. Solving an equation
Example. Using right triangles
Solution
16
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are shown below.
The derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are algebraic even though the inverse
trigonometric functions are themselves transcendental. Note that the derivatives of arcos u,
arccot u, and arccsc u are the negatives of the derivatives of arcsin u, arctan u, and arcsec u
respectively.
Example. Differentiating inverse trigonometric functions
Example. A derivative that can be simplified
Example. Analyzing an inverse trigonometric graph
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18
Example. Maximizing an angle
VI. Self-Evaluation
• Write down the domain and range of each of the inverse trigonometric function.
• Draw the graph of each of the trigonometric function.
• What are the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions?
• Inverse trigonometric functions are the inverse of trigonometric functions, only when
we apply the right domain and range.
• The derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are algebraic.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
19
Module No. 12
DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
I. Topic:
• Logarithmic and Exponential Function Properties

• Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

III. Introduction:
In this lesson we are going to tackle the properties of logarithmic and exponential
functions and their derivatives. Logarithmic and exponential functions are the inverse of each
other.
We will go directly to the formulas of the derivatives instead of deriving the formulas.
Read Larson and other sources for the derivation.
IV. Objectives:
1. Elaborate the properties of logarithmic and exponential functions
2. Explain the derivatives of logarithmic and exponential functions
3. Apply the derivatives of logarithmic and trigonometric functions in real world
scenario.
The Exponential Function
The number 𝑎𝑛 (a > 0) is defined in algebra for all rational values of n. In calculus it
becomes necessary to attach a meaning to the function
y = 𝑎𝑛, a > 0
as x varies continuously.
Let x0 be any irrational number. Then 𝑎𝑥0 is defined as the limit of ax, where x is rational,
as x approaches x0. That the limit exists is proved in more advanced texts. The function
y = 𝑎𝑥, a > 0,
called the exponential function, thus becomes defined for all values of x. It is one-valued
and continuous, and obeys the laws of exponents:
(1) 𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥+𝑡
(2) (𝑎𝑥)𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥𝑡
The exponential function is positive for all values of x.
The Logarithm
The inverse of the exponential is the logarithm, defined by the statement that
y = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 if x = 𝑎 𝑦 , a > 1.
This function is one-valued and continuous for all positive values of x. The number a is called
the base of the system of logarithms. The assumption a > 1 is introduced for simplicity; this
condition is satisfied in all cases of practical importance.
The following facts concerning the function
y = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥
follow at once from the definition:
(a) Negative numbers have no (real) logarithms.
(b) Numbers between 0 and 1 have negative logarithms
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(c) Numbers greater than 1 have positive logarithms

(d) As x → 0+, y → −∞ .
(e) The logarithm of 1 is 0.
(f) As x → ∞, y → ∞
It is easily discovered that some of these properties would not hold if a were less than 1.
Fundamental Properties of Logarithms
(1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑦
𝑥
(2) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑦
𝑦
(3) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥
(4) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥
(5) 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥
Change of Base
Given a table of logarithms to any base b, the logarithm of any number x to the base a
can be found by the formula for change of base:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑏
Also
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑏 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑏
The Number e
Using the binomial theorem (we will not show anymore), we can prove that
1n
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒
n→∞ n
e has a value equal to 2.718 281 828 5...
The function y = ex is of great importance in calculus and its applications.
Natural Logarithms
Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithms. They possess the great
advantage that the “mantissa,” or fractional part of the logarithm, is independent of the position
of the decimal point in the given number. Common logarithms are therefore used very
generally in computing. However, in the applications of calculus it is more convenient to use
the base e.
Logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithms, and e is the natural base.
Since the natural logarithm enters our work often, it is worth while to use a special symbol for
it. We write ln 𝑥 for log𝑒 𝑥; that is,
ln 𝑥 = log𝑒 𝑥.
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The graph of the exponential function of base e and the natural logarithm is shown in Fig.
12.1 and FIg.12.2.
Fig. 12.1 Exponential function y = ex.
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Fig. 12.2 Natural logarithm graph of y = ln(x).

Example. Find x, if
1
ln 𝑥 = ln 2 − 2𝑙𝑛3 + 𝑙𝑛5.
2
Solution:
By (3),
2ln3 = ln 9,
1 𝑙𝑛5 = 𝑙𝑛√5,
2
ln 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 2 − 𝑙𝑛9 + 𝑙𝑛√5.
Hence, by (1) and (2),
2√5
lnx = ln
9
2√5
x=
9
Example. Find the inverse of the function
3
y = sin 5𝑒 𝑥
Solution:
The problem means, of course, that we are to solve the equation for x. Pass to the inverse
trigonometric form:
3
arcsin 𝑦 = 5𝑒 𝑥
Take the natural logarithm:
3
ln arcsin 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛5 + 𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛5 +
𝑥3
1
x = (ln arcsin 𝑦 − 𝑙𝑛5)3
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Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Equations involving exponential functions only, or logarithms only, may in simple cases be
solved by applying the theories discussed.
Example. Solve for x in the equation
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥 = 2.
x
Multiplying by e we get
𝑒2𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 − 2𝑒𝑥 − 1 = 0
2𝑥
This is a quadratic equation in ex as the unknown quantity, whose solution is found by

elementary algebra to be
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + √2
The root 𝑒 = 1 − √2 must be rejected, since 𝑒 𝑥 is never negative.
𝑥
Hence,
x = ln(1 + √2).
Check:
1
𝑒ln(1+√2) − 𝑒 − ln(1+√2) = 1 + √2 −
1 + √2
1 − √2
= 1 + √2 −
(1 + √2)(1 −
√2)
= 1 + √2 + 1 − √2
= 2.
Example. Solve for the equation
ln(2x + 7) − ln(x − 1) = ln5.
Combining the logarithms in the left member, we get
2𝑥 + 7
ln = 𝑙𝑛5
𝑥−1
whence
(1) 2𝑥+7 =5 and

𝑥−1
x = 4.
Check: ln15 – ln 3 = ln 5.
Derivative of the Logarithm

The derivative of logarithms is shown in the following equations.
𝑑 1
log𝑎 𝑥 = log𝑎 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1
𝑙𝑛𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑙𝑛𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑀
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log10 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
where M = log10 e = 0.43429...
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Example. Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions
Example. Differentiate y = ln√1 +

3𝑥. Let us write y in the form
1
y= ln(1 + 3𝑥)
2
Then,
1 3 3
y′ = ∙ =
2 1 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
Example. Differentiate x = ln
𝑧3 (𝑧2−1)2
(𝑧2+1)2
Write
x = 3lnz + 2 ln(𝑧2 − 1) − 2 ln(𝑧2 + 1) ;
𝑑𝑥 3 4𝑧 4𝑧
= + −
𝑑𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2 − 1 𝑧2 + 1
3(z4 − 1) + 4z2(𝑧2 + 1) − 4𝑧2(𝑧2 − 1)
=
𝑧(𝑧4 − 1)
3z4 + 8𝑧2 − 3
=
𝑧(𝑧4 − 1)
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Derivative of the Exponential Function

The derivatives of the exponential functions are shown in the following equations.
Example. Differentiating exponential functions
Variable with Variable Exponent

Let
y = 𝑢𝑣, (x>0)
where both u and v are functions of x.
While it is easy to develop the general formula for the derivative of this function, it is
usually simpler not to use the formula but to take the logarithm of both members before
differentiating.
Example. Differentiate y = xx.
We have
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥y′
= 1 + ln 𝑥
y
y′ = 𝑦(1 + ln 𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥(1 + ln 𝑥)
VI. Self-Evaluation
• What is the difference between a natural logarithm and common logarithm?
• What are the characteristics of logarithmic functions?
• What are the characteristics of exponential functions?
• What are the formulas in evaluating the derivatives of exponential and logarithmic
functions?
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• Common logarithms and natural logarithms are the two systems of logarithms that are
of actual importance in practice.
• Base e logarithms are called natural logarithms while base 10 logarithms are called
common logarithms.
• Exponential functions are the inverse of logarithmic functions.
• Formulas can be used to evaluate the derivative of the exponential and logarithmic
functions. However, there are times when taking the logarithm of both sides of the
equation before differentiating, can lead to a simpler solution.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
28
Module No. 13
DERIVATIVES OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
I. Topic:
• Hyperbolic Function Properties
• Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

III. Introduction:
Hyperbolic functions are a special class of exponential functions. The name arose from
comparison of the area of a semicircular region, as shown in Fig. 13.1, with the area of a region
under a hyperbola, as shown in Fig.13.2.
Fig. 13.1 Area inside semicircular region Fig. 13.2 Area under hyperbola
To give an example of the applications of hyperbolic functions, the hyperbolic cosine

function may be used to describe the shape of the curve formed by a high-voltage line
suspended between two towers (see catenary). Hyperbolic functions may also be used to
define a measure of distance in certain kinds of non-Euclidean geometry.
IV. Objectives:

1. Explain the derivatives of hyperbolic functions;
2. Elaborate the derivatives of hyperbolic functions;
3. Illustrate the graph of the derivatives of hyperbolic functions and
4. Apply derivatives of hyperbolic functions in real world scenario.
VI. Learning Activities

Hyperbolic Functions
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The graph of each of these hyperbolic function is shown below.
Fig. 13.3 Graphs of sinh, cosh, and tanh hyperbolic functions.
Fig. 13.4 Graphs of csch, sech, and coth hyperbolic functions.
Many of the trigonometric identities have corresponding hyperbolic identities. See Larson’s
book for some of the derivation.
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Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Because the hyperbolic functions are written in terms of ex and e- x, we can easily derive
rules for their derivatives. See Larson’s book for some proof.
Example. Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions
Example. Application; Finding relative extrema
When a uniform flexible cable, such as a telephone wire, is suspended from two points, it
takes the shape of a catenary, as discussed in the next example.
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Example. Hanging Power Cable
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Unlike trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions are not periodic. Four of the six hyperbolic
functions are actually one-to-one (the hyperbolic sine, tangent, cosecant, and cotangent).
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The graphs of the inverse hyperbolic functions are shown in Fig. 13.5 and Fig.13.6.
Fig 13.5 Graph of sinh-1, cosh-1, and tanh-1 hyperbolic functions.
Fig 13.6 Graph of csch-1, sech-1, and coth-1 hyperbolic functions.
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Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
VI. Self-Evaluation
• What are the applications of hyperbolic functions?
• Draw the graph of each of the hyperbolic and corresponding inverse hyperbolic
function.
• What is the derivative of each of the hyperbolic function?

• The domain and range of the hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions should be
specified to make sure the function is valid.
• Hyperbolic functions can be written in terms of ex and e- x, so the derivatives can be
easily derived (or you can use the table).
VIII. References
Company. New York.
https://www.britannica.com/science/hyperbolic-functions
34
Module No. 14
SOLUTIONS OF EQUATIONS
I. Topic:
• Newton’s’ Method of Approximation

• Newton-Raphson Law
III. Introduction:
Newton-Raphson Method or Newton Method is a technique for approximating the
real zeros of a function. It uses tangent lines to approximate the graph of the function near its
x-intercepts.
IV. Objectives:
1. Discuss Newton’s Method of Approximation, and
2. Differentiate it with Newton-Raphson Law.
Newton’s Method
As stated in the introduction, Newton Method is a way of approximating real zeros of a

function using tangent lines.
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Example. Using Newton’s Method
Calculate three iterations of Newton’s Method to approximate a zero of f(x) = x2 − 2. Use x1

= 1 as the initial guess.
Solution: Because f(x) = x2 − 2, you have f ’(x) = 2x, and the iterative process is given by the
formula
2
𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥𝑛) = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 −2
𝑛
.𝑛
𝑛+1 2𝑥𝑛
𝑓′ (𝑥𝑛
)
The calculations for three iterations are shown in the table.
36
37
Example. Using Newton Method

Use Newton Method to approximate the zeros of
f(x) = 2x3 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1.
Continue the iterations until two successive approximations differ by less than 0.0001.
Solution:
Begin by sketching a graph of f, as shown in Fig.3.62.
From the graph, you can observe that the function has only one zero, which occurs near x =
-1.2. Next, differentiate f and form the iterative
)
formula 3 2
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 2𝑥 +𝑥 −𝑥 +1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑓′ (𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 − 6𝑥𝑛2
.
𝑛
+2𝑥𝑛−1
The calculations are shown in the table. )
Because two successive approximations differ by less than the required 0.0001, you
can estimate the zero of f to be -1.23375.
When as in the first and second examples, the approximations approach a limit, the
sequence x1, x2, x3, ..., xn, ...is said to converge. Moreover, if the limit is c, it can be shown
that c must be a zero of f.
Newton Method does not always yield a convergent sequence. One way it can fail to
do so is shown in Fig. 3.63. Because Newton’s Method involves division by f ’(x n), it is clear
that the method will fail if the derivative is zero for any xn in the sequence. When you encounter
this problem, you can usually overcome it by choosing a different value of x 1. Another way
Newton Method can fail is shown in the next example.
38
Example. An Example in which Newton Method Fails
39
Algebraic Solution of Polynomials

The zeros of some functions, such as
f(x) = x3 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 2
can be found by simple algebraic techniques, such as factoring. The zeros of other functions,
such as
f(x) = x3 − 𝑥 + 1
cannot be found by elementary algebraic methods. This particular function has only one real
zero, and by using more advanced algebraic techniques you can determine the zero to be
√23 3 √23
3
√3 − 3 √3 + 3
x= − −
6 6
Because the exact solution is written in terms of square roots and cube roots, it is called a
solution by radicals.
Note. Try approximating the real zero of f (x) = x3 – x + 1 and compare your result with the exact solution shown
above.
40
VI. Self-Evaluation
• Explain Newton Method.
• When does Newton Method fail? Give examples.

• Newton Method can be used to approximate the zeros to a function provided that the
condition for convergence is satisfied.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
41
Module No. 15
TRANSCENDENTAL CURVE TRACING
I. Topic:
• Transcendental Curve Tracing

III. Introduction:
It would be difficult to overstate the importance of using graphs in mathematics. We get
the trend of a function and know its characteristic by looking at its graph. Curve sketching or
curve tracing are techniques for producing a rough idea of overall shape of a plane curve given
its equation, without computing the large numbers of points required for a detailed plot. In this
lesson we will perform curve tracing particularly for transcendental functions such as
exponential and logarithmic functions.
IV. Objectives:
1. Discuss the transcendental curve in logarithmic and exponential functions.
Before anything else, let’s review the definition of transcendental function.
Transcendental function, in mathematics, a function not expressible as a finite
combination of the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising
to a power, and extracting a root. Examples include the functions log x, sin x, cos x, ex and
any functions containing them. Such functions are expressible in algebraic terms only as
infinite series. In general, the term transcendental means nonalgebraic.
We will tackle first the basics of curve tracing before going on to transcendental curve
tracing.
Curve Sketching/Curve Tracing
Several concepts, with some you have already encountered, are useful in analyzing
the graph of a function.
When you are sketching the graph of a function, either by hand or with a graphing utility,
remember that normally you cannot show the entire graph. The decision as to which part of
the graph you choose to show is often crucial. For instance, which of the viewing windows in
Fig. 15.1 better represents the graph of f(x) = x3 − 25𝑥2 + 74𝑥 − 20?
42
Fig.15.1 Different viewing windows for the graph of f(x)=x3-25x2+74x-20.

By seeing both views, it is clear that the second viewing window gives a more complete
representation of the graph. But would a third viewing window reveal other interesting portions
of the graph? To answer this, we need to use calculus to interpret the first and second
derivatives. Here are some guidelines for determining a good viewing window for the graph of
a function.
Curve Tracing Examples of Algebraic Functions

Example. Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function
43
Be sure you understand all of the implications of creating a table such as that shown in the
example. By using calculus, you can be sure that the graph has no relative extrema or points
of inflection other than shown in Fig.3.45.
44
Example. Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function

𝑥2−2𝑥+4
( )
Analyze and sketch the graph of f x = .
𝑥−2
Solution:
45
46
Example. Sketching the Graph of a Radical Function

Analyze and sketch the graph of f(x) = x/√𝑥2 +
2
Solution:
Example. Sketching the Graph of a Radical Function

Analyze and sketch the graph of f(x) = 2x5/3 − 5𝑥4/3
Solution:
47
Example. Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function

Analyze and sketch the graph of f(x) = x4 − 12𝑥3 + 48𝑥2 − 64𝑥.
Solution:
Begin by factoring to obtain
f(x) = x4 − 12𝑥3 + 48𝑥2 − 64𝑥
= x(x − 4)3
Then, using the factored form of f(x), you can perform the following analysis.
48
The analysis of the graph of f is shown in the table, and the graph is shown in Fig.3.51a. Using
a computer algebra system such as Maple (see Fig.3.51b) can help you verify your analysis.
The fourth degree polynomial function in the example has one relative minimum and no
relative maxima. In general, a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n – 1 relative
extrema, and at most n – 2 points of inflection. Moreover, polynomial functions of even degree
must have at least one relative extremum.
From the Leading Coefficient Test, the “end behavior” of the graph of a polynomial
function is determined by its leading coefficient and its degree. For instance, because the
polynomial in the example has a positive leading coefficient, the graph rises to the right.
Moreover, because the degree is even, the graph also rises to the left.
Curve Tracing Examples of Transcendental Functions

Example. Sketching the Graph of a Trigonometric Function
cos 𝑥
Analyze and sketch the graph of f(x) =
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
49
Solution: Because the function has a period of 2π, you can restrict the analysis of the graph
to any interval of length 2 π. For convenience, choose (-π/2, 3π/2 ).
50
Please read also Chapter 16 of Rainville’s book which is about curve tracing.
VI. Self-Evaluation
• What are the different concepts in calculus that can be used to sketch or trace the curve
of a function?
• Curve tracing or sketching can be performed by using the different concepts in calculus.
These gives the general trend of the curve, and the important points that will determine
the shape and characteristics of the curve.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
https://www.britannica.com/science/transcendental-function
51
Module No. 16
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
I. Topic:
• Definition of parametric equations

• Solving Parametric Equations
III. Introduction:
Until now, you have been representing a graph by a single equation involving two
variables. In this section, you will study situations in which three variables are used to
represent a curve in the plane.
IV. Objectives:
1. Explain parametric equations and
2. Solve parametric equations.
Plane Curves and Parametric Equations
Consider the path followed by an object that is propelled into the air at an angle of 45°.
If the initial velocity of the object is 48 feet per second, the object travels the parabolic path
given by
x2
y=− +𝑥 Rectangular Equation
72
as shown in Fig.10.19. However, this equation does not tell the whole story. Although it does
tell you where the object has been, it doesn’t tell you when the object was at a given point
(x,y). To determine this time, you can introduce a third variable t, called a parameter. By
writing both x and y as functions of t, you obtain the parametric equations
x = 24√2 𝑡 Parametric equation for x
and
y = −16t2 + 24√2 𝑡 Parametric equation for y
52
From these set of equations, you can determine that at time t = 0, the object is at the point
(0,0). Similarly, at time t=1, the object is at the point (24√2, 24√2 - 16), and so on.
For this particular motion problem, x and y are continuous functions of t, and the
resulting path is called a plane curve.
When sketching by hand a curve represented by a set of parametric equations, you can plot
points in the xy plane. Each set of coordinates (x,y) is determined from a value chosen for the
parameter t. By plotting the resulting points in order of increasing values of t, the curve is
traced out in a specific direction. This is called the orientation of the curve.
Example. Sketching a curve

Sketch the curve described by the parametric equations
x = t2 − 4 and y = , −2 ≤ t ≤ 3.
t
2
Solution. For values of t on the given interval, the parametric equations yield the points (x,y)
shown in the table.
By plotting these points in order of increasing t and using the continuity of f and g, you obtain
the curve C in Fig.10.20. Note that the arrows on the curve indicate its orientation as t
increases from -2 and 3.
53
Eliminating the Parameter

Finding a rectangular equation that represents the graph of a set of parametric
equations is called eliminating the parameter. For instance, you can eliminate the parameter
from the set of parametric equations in the example as follows.
Once you have eliminated the parameter, you can recognize that the equation x = 4y2 − 4
represents a parabola with a horizontal axis and vertex at ( -4,0), as shown in Fig.10.20.
The range of x and y implied by the parametric equations may be altered by the
change to rectangular form. In such instances the domain of the rectangular equation must
be adjusted so that its graph matches the graph of the parametric equation. Such a situation
is demonstrated in the next example.
Example. Adjusting the Domain after Eliminating the Parameter

Sketch the curve represented by the equations
1 1
x= and y = t > -1
√𝑡+1 √𝑡+1
by eliminating the parameter and adjusting the domain of the resulting rectangular equation.
Solution. Begin by solving one of the parametric equations for t. For instance, you can solve
the first equation for t as follows.
54
Now, substituting into the parametric equation for y produces
The rectangular equation, y = 1 – x2, is defined for all values of x, but from the parametric
equation for x you can see that the curve is defined only when t > -1. This implies that you
should restrict the domain of x to positive values, as shown in Fig. 10.22.
It is not necessary for the parameter in a set of parameter equations to represent time. The
next example uses an angle as the parameter.
Example. Using Trigonometry after Eliminating the Parameter

Sketch the curve represented by
x = 3cosθ and y = 4sinθ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
by eliminating the parameter and finding the corresponding rectangular equation.
Solution. Begin by solving for cosθ
x
and sinθ in the given equations.
cos θ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 y
sin θ = Solve for cos θ and sin θ.
3
4
Next, make use of the identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 to form an equation involving only x and y.
cos2 𝜃 + sin2 θ = 1 Trigonometric identity
𝑥 2 𝑦2
( ) + ( ) = 1 Substitute.
3 4
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1 Rectangular equation
9 16
From this rectangular equation you can see that the graph is an ellipse centered at (0,0), with
vertices at (0,4) and (0, -4) and minor axis of length 2b = 6, as shown in Fig. 10.23. Note that
the ellipse is traced out counterclockwise as θ varies from 0 to 2π.
55
Using the technique shown in the example, we can conclude that the graph of the parametric
equations
x = h + a cosθ and y = k + b sin 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
is the ellipse (traced counterclockwise) given by
The graph of the parametric equations
is also the ellipse (traced clockwise) given by
Use a graphing facility in parametric mode to graph several ellipses.

In the second and third example above, it is important to realize that eliminating the
parameter is primarily an aid to curve sketching. If the parametric equations represent the path
of a moving object, the graph alone is not sufficient to describe the object’s motion. You still
need the parametric equations to tell you the position, direction, and speed at a given time.
Finding Parametric Equations

The first three examples of this section illustrate techniques for sketching the graph
represented by a set of parametric equations. You will now investigate the reverse problem.
How can you determine a set of equations for a given graph or a given physical description?
From the discussion following the first example, you know that such a representation is not
unique. This is demonstrated further in the following example, which finds two different
parametric representations for a given graph.
Example. Finding Parametric Equations for a Given Graph

Find a set of parametric equations that represents the graph of y = 1 - x2, using each of the
following parameters.
𝑑𝑦
a. t = x b. The slope m = at the point (x,y)
𝑑𝑥
Solution.
a. Letting x=t produces the parametric equations
x = t and y = 1 – x2 = 1 – t2
b. To write x and y in terms of the parameter m, you can proceed as follows.
56
dy
m= = −2𝑥 Differentiate y = 1 – x2
dx
m
x=− Solve for x.
2
57
Example. Parametric Equations for a Cycloid

Determine the curve traced by a point P on the circumference of a circle of radius a rolling
along a straight line in a plane. Such a curve is called a cycloid.
Solution. Let the parameter θ be the measure of the circle’s rotation, and let the point P = (x,y)
begin at the origin. When θ=0, P is at the origin. When θ=π, P is at a maximum point (πa, 2a).
When θ=2π, P is back on the x-axis at (2πa, 0). From Fig.10.25, you can see that
< APC = 180° − θ. So,
58
Derivatives of Parametric Equations

A curve may be drawn by plotting points directly from its parametric equations,
assigning suitable values to the parameter and computing corresponding values of x and y.
The curve may be drawn by eliminating the parameter and then tracing the locus of the
rectangular equation by our usual methods. Sometimes it is desirable to combine these two
techniques. For the location of maxima, minima, and points of inflection we must develop a
technique for obtaining the derivatives of y with respect to x from the parametric equations
x = f(t), y=g(t).
Example (a). Find dy/dx and d2y/dx2 from
x = t3 + 2𝑡 − 4, 𝑦 = 𝑡3 − 𝑡 + 2. First
we obtain the derivatives of x, and of y, with respect to t:
dx = 3t2 + 2, 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑡2 − 1.
dt 𝑑𝑡
dy 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
) (
Then, by = 𝑑𝑢 ≠ 0, the ratio of these gives the desired first derivative,
dx ( 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
)
𝑑𝑢 dy 3𝑡2−1
= (2)
dx 3𝑡2+2
Equation (2) exhibits dy/dx in terms of t. We wish to differentiate both members of (2) with
respect to x, and t is a function of x. Therefore we need to use the formula for a derivative of
a function of a funcion,
dF 𝑑𝐹 dt
= ∗ (3)
𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
dy
𝑦 (
)
which is = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 except for changes in notation. Employing the idea in (3) when
dx (𝑑𝑢)
differentiating the right member of equation (2), we get

d2𝑦 (3𝑡2+2)(6𝑡)−(3𝑡2−1)(6𝑡) dt
= ∗ 𝑑𝑥 (4)
𝑑𝑥2 (3𝑡2+2)
2
𝑑𝑦
dy ( )
But is the reciprocal of dx, as shown in = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
. Hence, (4) yields
dt dt dx (𝑑𝑢 )
dx
d2𝑦 18𝑡 1
∗ =
(3𝑡2 + 2)2 3𝑡2 + 2
𝑑𝑥2
18t
=
(3𝑡 + 2)3
2
2 2
Example (b). Find dy/dx and d y/dx from
x = t3 + 1, y = 4t2 − 4𝑡 (5)
As a mild variation of the method used in Example (a), let us employ differentials. From (5)
we get
dx = 3t2𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 4(2𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡 (6)
Then
𝑑𝑦 4(2𝑡−1)
y′ = = (7)
59
𝑑𝑥 3𝑡2
The differential of y’ may be obtained from (7). It is given by

′
dy =
8(1−𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (8)
3𝑡2
Now
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦′
y′′ =
𝑑𝑥2 = 𝑑𝑥′
60
so we combine (8) and (6) to obtain

d2𝑦 8(1−𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (9)
= 8(1−𝑡)
𝑑𝑥2 3𝑡2∗3𝑡2𝑑𝑡 9𝑡5

VI. Self-Evaluation
• Define parametric equations.
• How do you eliminate a parameter in a set of parametric equations?

• How do you evaluate the derivative of parametric equations?
• Parametric equations introduce a second, third, fourth or higher number of additional
variables which are dependent to one or more independent variables. (So far we tackled
two variables dependent to one independent variable t or θ).
• There are different methods in solving for the variables and the derivatives of the
parametric equations.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
61
Module No. 17
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
I. Topic:
• Definition of Partial Derivatives

• Solving Partial Derivatives
III. Introduction:
In applications of functions of several variables, the question often arises, “How will the
value of a function be affected by a change in one of its independent variables?” You
can answer this by considering the independent variables one at a time. For example,
to determine the effect of a catalyst in an experiment, a chemist could conduct the
experiment several times using varying amounts of catalyst, while keeping constant
other variables such as temperature and pressure. You can use a similar procedure to
determine the rate of change of a function f with respect to one of its several
independent variables. This process is called partial differentiation, and the result is
referred to as the partial derivative of f with respect to the chosen independent
variable.
IV. Objectives:
1. Discuss partial differentiation and
2. Solve equations involving partial derivatives.
Partial Derivatives of a Function of Two Variables
This definition indicates that if z = f(x,y), then to find fx you consider y constant and differentiate
with respect to x. Similarly, to find fy, you consider x constant and differentiate with respect to
y.
Example. Finding Partial Derivatives
62
Example. Finding and Evaluating Partial Derivatives
63
Example. Finding the Slope of a Surface in the x- and y-Directions

Find the slopes in the x-direction and in the y-direction of the surface given by
64
Example. Finding the Slope of a Surface in the x- and y-Directions

Find the slopes of the surface given by
No matter how many variables are involved, partial derivatives can be interpreted as rates of
change.
65
Example. Using Partial Derivatives to Find Rates of Change

The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b and included angle θ is given by
A = ab sinθ, as shown in Fig. 13.33.
Solution.
a. Find the rate of change of A with respect to a for a=10, b=20, and θ = π/6.
b. Find the rate change of A with respect to θ for a=10, b=20, and θ = π/6.
Partial Derivatives of a Function of Three or More Variables

The concept of partial derivative can be extended naturally to functions of three or more
variables. For instance, if w = f(x, y, z), there are three partial derivatives, each of which is
formed by holding two of the variables constant. That is, to define the partial derivative of w
with respect to x, consider y and z to be constant and differentiate with respect to x. A similar
process is used to find the derivatives of w with respect to y and with respect to z.
66
Example. Finding Partial Derivatives
Higher-Order Partial Derivatives

As is true for ordinary derivatives, it is possible to take second, third, and higher-order partial
derivatives of a function of several variables, provided such derivatives exist. Higher-order
derivatives are denoted by the order in which the differentiation occurs. For instance, the
function z = f(x,y) has the following second partial derivatives.
67
The third and fourth cases are called mixed partial derivatives.
Example. Finding Second Order Partial Derivatives

Find the second partial derivatives of f(x,y) = 3xy2 - 2y + 5x2y2, and determine the value of fxy(
-1,2 ).
Theorem 13.3 also applies to a function f of three or more variables so long as all second
partial derivatives are continuous. For example, if w = f(x, y, z) and all the second partial
derivatives are continuous in an open interval R, then at each point in R the order of
differentiation in the mixed second partial derivatives is irrelevant. If the third partial derivatives
of f are also continuous, the order of differentiation of mixed third partial differentiation is
irrelevant.
Example. Finding Higher-Order Partial Derivatives
68
VI. Self-Evaluation
Explain the following terms:
• partial derivative
• mixed partial derivative

• If we have w = f(x,y,z), then a partial derivative of variable w with respect to x is
evaluated by considering the other variables y and z constant and differentiating with
respect to x.
VIII. References
Company. New York.
69

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

propagated error – the difference between f(x + ∆x) and f(x).

VII. Review of Concept:

• Trigonometric Function Properties

At the end of the lessons the student should be able to:

Sine Function f(x) = sin (x)

Fig.10.1Sine function graph.

• Domain: all real numbers

Cosine Function f(x) = cos (x)

Fig.10.2 Cosine function graph.

• Domain: all real numbers

Tangent Function f(x) = tan (x)

Fig. 10.3 Tangent function graph.

• Domain: all real numbers except pi/2 + k pi, k is an integer.

• Vertical asymptotes: x = pi/2 + k pi, where k is an integer.

Cotangent Function f(x) = cot (x)

Fig. 10.4 Cotangent function graph.

• Domain: all real numbers except k pi, k is an integer.

Secant Function f(x) = sec (x)

Fig. 10.5 Secant function graph.

• Domain: all real numbers except pi/2 + k pi, n is an integer.

symmetric with respect to the y axis.

Cosecant Function f(x) = csc (x)

Fig. 10.6 Cosecant function graph.

• Domain: all real numbers except k pi, k is an integer.

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

The derivative of the 6 trigonometric functions is shown below.

At the end of the lessons the student should be able to:

VI. Learning Activities

The graph of the six trigonometric functions are shown below.

Fig. 11.1 Graphs of arcsin, arccos and arctan functions.

Arccsc Function Arcsec Function Arccot Function

Fig. 11.2 Graph of arccsc, arcsec, and arccot functions.

Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example. Solving an equation

Example. Using right triangles

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example. Differentiating inverse trigonometric functions

Example. A derivative that can be simplified

Example. Analyzing an inverse trigonometric graph

Example. Maximizing an angle

• Logarithmic and Exponential Function Properties

II. Time Frame: 6 hours

(c) Numbers greater than 1 have positive logarithms

The function y = ex is of great importance in calculus and its applications.

Fig. 12.1 Exponential function y = ex.

Fig. 12.2 Natural logarithm graph of y = ln(x).

Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

This is a quadratic equation in ex as the unknown quantity, whose solution is found by

(1) 2𝑥+7 =5 and

Derivative of the Logarithm

Example. Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

Example. Differentiate y = ln√1 +

Derivative of the Exponential Function

Example. Differentiating exponential functions

Variable with Variable Exponent

VII. Review of Concept:

II. Time Frame: 5 hours

To give an example of the applications of hyperbolic functions, the hyperbolic cosine

At the end of the lessons the student should be able to:

VI. Learning Activities

The graph of each of these hyperbolic function is shown below.