1902ME401 – ENGINEERING

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS

UNIT IV
LASER AND ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Lecture by
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D.
Associate Professor/ Mechanical
E.G.S. Pillay Engineering College,
Nagapattinam
 SYLLUBUS

 Interferometer: NPL Flatness, Laser, Michelson

 Computer Aided Inspection - Digital Devices -

Machine Vision System

 Coordinate Measuring Machine: Basic concept,

Types, Constructional features, Probes, Accessories

 Machine Tool Metrology - Surface Roughness

Measurement - Straightness Measurement - Squareness
Measurement

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 PRECISION INSTRUMENTS BASED ON LASER

• Laser stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation". Laser instruments are devices to produce powerful,
monochromatic collimated beam of light in which the waves are
coherent.

• The development of laser gives production of clear coherent light.

The biggest advantage of this coherent light is that whole energy
appears to be coming from a very small point.

• The laser beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or
into a very small point by the use of lens.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 LASER METROLOGY
• A laser beam projected directly onto a position detector is a
method of alignment used in a number of commercially available
systems. The laser with its highly controlled frequency modes and
coherent output are used extensively for interferometery

• Laser is suitable for more general applications where a convenient,

collimated and high intensity source is required Precision, accuracy,
no contact and hot moving parts.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 INTERFEROMETRY

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 USE OF LASER IN INTERFEROMETRY
• The laser in interferometery is to find accurate measurement
length.

• It reduces the most time taken arid skill required like at methods
used for finding the length.

• The accuracy of measurement is the order of 0.1m in 100m.

• In modified laser designs, a single frequency is selected from the

coherent beam and used for interferometric measurement.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

1. NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
1. NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
 1. NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

•The light from a mercury vapour lamp is condensed and passed

through a green filter, resulting in a green monochromatic light source.
•The light will now pass through a pinhole, giving an intense point
source of monochromatic light.
•Therefore, the collimating lens projects a parallel beam of light onto
the face of the gauge to be tested via an optical flat.
•This results in the formation of interference fringes.
•The light beam, which carries an image of the fringes, is reflected back
and directed by 90° using a glass plate reflector.
•In Fig. (a), the fringes are parallel and equal in number on the two
surfaces. Obviously, the two surfaces are parallel, which means that the
gauge surface is perfectly flat.
•On the other hand, in Fig. (b), the number of fringes is unequal and,
since the base plate surface is ensured to be perfectly flat, the work
piece surface has a flatness error.
2. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

2. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 2. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
•Michelson interferometer consists of a monochromatic light source a
beam splitter and two mirrors. The schematic arrangement of Michelson
interferometer is shown in fig.

•The monochromatic light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light
into two rays of equal intensity at right angles. One ray is transmitted to
mirror M1 and other is reflected through beam splitter to mirror M2,.
From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at
the semi-reflecting surface from where they are transmitted to the eye.
Mirror M2 is fixed and mirror M1 is movable.

•If both the mirrors are at same distance from beam splitter, then light
will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due to constructive
interference. If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam
will return to observer 1800 out of phase and darkness will be observed
due to destructive interference
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 2. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
• The monochromatic light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light
into two rays of equal intensity at right angles. One ray is transmitted to
mirror M1 and other is reflected through beam splitter to mirror M2,.
From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at
the semi-reflecting surface from where they are transmitted to the eye.

• Mirror M2 is fixed and mirror M1 is movable. If both the mirrors are at

same distance from beam splitter, then light will arrive in phase and
observer will see bright spot due to constructive interference.

• If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam will return

to observer 1800 out of phase and darkness will be observed due to
destructive interference.

• Michelson interferometer consists of a monochromatic light source a

beam splitter and two mirrors. The schematic arrangement of Michelson
interferometer is shownDr.inJ.Jeevamalar,
fig. M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 2. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

•Each half-wave length of mirror travel produces a change in the

measured optical path of one wavelength and the reflected beam
from the moving mirror shifts through 360° phase change.

•When the reference beam reflected from the fixed mirror and the
beam reflected from the moving mirror rejoin at the beam splitter,
they alternately reinforce and cancel each other as the mirror moves.

•Each cycle of intensity at the eye represents l/2 of mirror travel.

When white light source is used then a compensator plate is
introduced in each of the path of mirror M1 So that exactly the same
amount of glass is introduced in each of the path.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

the conditions for improving michelson interferometer are ,

1. Use of laser light source for measuring longer distances

2. Instead of using mirror the cube corner reflector is best suitable

for reflecting the light.

3. Photocells can be employed to convert light intensity variation in

voltage pulses to given direction of pc change.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 3. LASER INTERFEROMETER

• The laser interferometery involves the following components,

1. Two frequency laser source.

2. Optical elements.

3. Laser heads measurement receiver.

4. Measurement display.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 i. Two frequency Laser source

 It is generally He-Ne type that generates stable coherent light beam of

two frequencies, one polarized vertically and another horizontally
relative to the plane of the mounting feet. Laser oscillates at two
slightly different frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet
around the cavity.
 The two components of frequencies are distinguishable by their
opposite circular polarization. Beam containing both frequencies
passes through a quarter wave and half wave plates which change the
circular polarizations to linear perpendicular polarizations, one vertical
and other horizontal.
 Thus the laser can be rotated by 90°about the beam axis without
affecting transducer performance. If the laser source is deviated from
one of the four optimum positions, the photo receiver will decrease. At
45° deviation the signal will decrease to zero.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 ii. OPTICAL ELEMENTS

 The various optical elements are,

a. Beam splitters.

b. Beam benders.

c. Retro reflectors.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

a. Beam splitters

 It is used to divide the laser beam into separate beams along

different axes.
 It is possible to adjust the spitted laser's output intensity by having
a choice of beam splitter reflectivities.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

b. Beam benders

• It is used to deflect the light

beam around comers on it path
from the laser to each axis.

• The beam benders are just flat

mirrors, but having absolutely flat
and very high reflectivity.

• Normally, the beam deflection is

avoided for not to disturb the
polarizing vectors.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

c. Retro Reflectors

• They are plane mirrors, roof prisms

or cube comers.

• The cube comers are three mutually

perpendicular plane mirrors, and the
reflected beam is always parallel to
the incident beam in these devices.

• In case of AC laser interferometer measurements, two retro reflectors are

used.

• When plane mirror is used as retro reflectors in plane mirror

interferometer, it must be flat with in 0.06 micron per cm.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

iii. LASER HEAD'S MEASUREMENT RECEIVER:

• During a measurement the laser beam is directed through optics in

the measurement path and then returned to the laser head is
measurement receiver which will detect part of the returning beam and
a doppler shifted frequency component. It is used to detect the part of
the returning beam as f1 – f2 and a Doppler shifted frequency
component ∂f .

iv. DISPLAY:

• It contains a microcomputer to compute and display results. The

signals from receiver and measurement receiver located in the laser
head are counted in two separate pulse converter and subtracted.
Calculations are made and the computed value is displayed. Other
input signals for correction are temperature, co-efficient of expansion,
air velocity etc., which can be displayed.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

AC LASER INTERFEROMETER

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION
DIGITAL DEVICES

• Digital indication is better by far when an exact initiative value

is desired.

• The important elements of any electronic signal readout

system are the scale unit or transducer and the Counter of
digital readout unit

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 COMPUTER BASED INSPECTION
MACHINE VISION

• Machine vision is the ability of a computer to see the

object.
• Also called as computer vision or artificial vision.
•It is technique which allow a sensor to view the object and
derive a mathematical or logical decision without human
intervention.

•Functions of machine vision,

1. image sensing
2. image analysis
3. image interpretation

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

Stages of Machine Vision

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

• Stages of Machine Vision

1. Image generation and digitization

• The primary task in a vision system is to capture a 2D or 3D image
of the work part. A 2D image captures either the top view or a side
elevation of the work part, which would be adequate to carry out
simple inspection tasks. While the 2D image is captured using a
single camera, the 3D image requires at least two cameras
positioned at different locations. The work part is placed on a flat
surface and illuminated by suitable lighting, which provides good
contrast between the object and the background. The camera is
focused on the work part and a sharp image is obtained. The image
comprises a matrix of discrete picture elements popularly referred
to as pixels. Each pixel has a value that is proportional to the light
intensity of that portion of the scene. The intensity value for each
pixel is converted to its equivalent digital value by an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC).
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
2. Image processing and analysis
• The frame buffer stores the status of each and every pixel. A number
of techniques are available to analyse the image data. However, the
information available in the frame buffer needs to be refined and
processed to facilitate further analysis. The most popular technique
for image processing is called segmentation. Segmentation involves
two stages: thresholding and edge detection. Thresholding converts
each pixel value into either of the two values, white or black,
depending on whether the intensity of light exceeds a given threshold
value. This type of vision system is called a binary vision system. If
necessary, it is possible to store different shades of grey in an image,
popularly called the grey-scale system. If the computer has a higher
main memory and a faster processor, an individual pixel can also
store colour information. Edge detection is performed to distinguish
the image of the object from its surroundings. Computer programs
are used, which identify the contrast in light intensity between pixels
bordering the image of the object and resolve the boundary of the
object.
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
3. Image interpretation
• Once the features have been extracted, the task of identifying the
object becomes simpler, since the computer program has to match the
extracted features with the features of templates already stored in the
memory. This matching task is popularly referred to as template
matching. Whenever a match occurs, an object can be identified and
further analysis can be carried out. This interpretation function that is
used to recognize the object is known as pattern recognition. It is
needless to say that in order to facilitate pattern recognition, we need
to create templates or a database containing features of the known
objects. Many computer algorithms have been developed for template
matching and pattern recognition. In order to eliminate the possibility
of wrong identification when two objects have closely resembling
features, feature weighting is resorted to. In this technique, several
features are combined into a single measure by assigning a weight to
each feature according to its relative importance in identifying the
object. This adds an additional dimension in the process of assigning
scores to features and eliminates wrong identification of an object.
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
4. Generation of actuation signals
• Once the object is identified, the vision system should direct the
inspection station to carry out the necessary action. In a flexible
inspection environment, the work-cell controller should
generate the actuation signals to the transfer machine to transfer
the work part from machining stations to the inspection station
and vice versa. Clamping, declamping, gripping, etc., of the
work parts are done through actuation signals generated by the
work-cell controller.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 THE ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS

1. Measuring element is free from errors.

2. Learning time is short.

3. More accurate measurement.

4. Excessive reading errors can be eliminated.

5. Clear readability of digital readout is advantageous for

persons with impaired vision.

6. The display can be zero wherever it is desired.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES
• The term measuring machine generally refers to a single-axis
measuring instrument.
• Such an instrument is capable of measuring one linear dimension
at a time. The term coordinate measuring machine refers to the
instrument/machine that is capable of measuring in all three
orthogonal axes.
• Such a machine is popularly abbreviated as CMM. A CMM
enables the location of point coordinates in a three-dimensional
(3D) space.
• It simultaneously captures both dimensions and orthogonal
relationships. Another remarkable feature of a CMM is its
integration with a computer.
• The computer provides additional power to generate 3D objects as
well as to carry out complex mathematical calculations. Complex
objects can be dimensionally evaluated with precision and speed.
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE

Construction of CMM:
• The co-ordinate measuring machine has movements in X-Y-Z which
can be easily controlled and measured.

• Each slide in three in three directions has transducer which gives

digital display and senses +ve or –ve direction.

• The measuring head has a probe tip, which can be different kinds like
taper tip, ball tip etc.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

• Four elements,

1. Three axis motion structure

2. Probing system

3. m/c controller & computer hardware

4. Application software
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
1. Three axis motion structure

i. The Axis Coordination

- each axis fitted with transducer for positional feedback
- Axis movement through precision guide ways ( air bearing)
- frame material – aluminium alloys, ceramic, SiC

ii. Length Measurement M/C

- measuring scales & scale readers
- stainless steel & glass scale
- having electro optical reader heads for exact position

iii. Base With Table

- attached with base
- Granite material
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
2. Probing System
-for gathering data
- end of probe : hard ball (steel or ruby)

3. M/C Controller & Computer Hardware

- axis controller, probing, programming, control of
measuring m/c, data acquisition and evaluation
-computers can also used to control

4. Application Software
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 TYPES OF CMM

1. a/c to control system,

a. Manual CM
b. Computer Numerical Control

2. a/c to design of main structure,

a. Cantilever type. b. Bridge type.
c. Articulated arm d. Gantry Type

3. a/c to mounting style

a. Bench top
b. Free standing
c. Portable & hand held

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

1. Cantilever type
• The cantilever construction combines easy access and
relatively small floor space requirements. It is typically limited to
small and medium sized machines. Parts larger than the
machine table can be inserted into the open side without
inhibiting full machine travel.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

2. Bridge type
The bridge arrangement over the table carries the quill (z-axis)
along the x-axis and is sometimes referred to as a travelling
bridge. It is claimed that the bridge construction provides better
accuracy, although it may be offset by difficulty in making two
members track in perfect alignment. This is by far the most popular
CMM construction.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

3. Column Type
•The column type machine is commonly referred to as a universal
measuring machine rather than a CMM. These machines are usually
considered gage room instruments rather than production floor
machine. The direction of movements of the arms are as shown in
Figure 8.3. The constructional difference in column type with the
cantilever type is with x and y-axes movements.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

4. Gantry Type
•In a gantry type arrangement, arms are held by two fixed supports..
Other two arms are capable of sliding over the supports. Movements of
the x, y and z-axes are also as shown in Figure. The gantry type
construction is particularly suited for very large components and allows
the operator to remain close to the area of inspection.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

5. Horizontal arm CMM
Figure shows the construction of a horizontal structure. The open
structure of this arrangement provides optimum accessibility for large
objects such as dies, models, and car bodies. Some horizontal arm
machines are referred to as layout machines. There are some horizontal
machines where the probe arm can rotate like a spindle to perform
tramming operations. Tramming refers to accurate mechanical adjustment
of instrument or machine with the help of tram.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 TYPES OF PROBES

1. Contact Type,
a) Hard or Fixed Type
b) Touch Trigger
c) Displacement Probe

2. Non- Contact Type,

a) Optical Probe
b) Acoustical Probe
c) Laser Probe
d) Vision Probe
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 FEATURES OF CMM

1. In faster machines with higher accuracies, the stiffness to

weight ratio has to be high in order to reduce dynamic forces.

2. All the moving members, the bridge structure Z- axis carriage

and Z-column are made of hollow box construction.

3. Errors in machine are built up and fed into the computer

system so that error compensation is built up into the
software.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

4. All machines are provided with their own computers and the
CMM can able to measure three-dimensional object from
variable datums.

5. For compensation of temperature gradient, thermocouples are

connected with the machine and interfaced with the .
computer. This will provide the CMM in high accuracy and
repeatability.

6. Rapid growth in software for three and four axes movements

enable CMM to measure hole center distances and form
measurements such as turbine blades, cam profiles

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 APPLICATIONS OF CMM
1. CMM finds applications In automatic, machine tool, electronics,
space and many other large companies.

2. For development of new products and construction of prototype.

3. It is very much useful in checking NC produced work piece in various

steps of production.

4. For aircraft and space vehicle, hundred percent inspections are

carried out by using CMM.

5. Used for determining the dimensional accuracy of the components.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

6. Its ideal for determination of shape and position, maximum metal
condition, linkage of results etc.

7. Best suited for the test and inspection of test equipment - gauges &
tools.

8. Sorting tasks to achieve optimum pairing of components with

tolerance limits.

9. Used for low degree of utilization like gear tester, gauge tester, length
measuring machine-measuring microscope etc.

10. For ensuring economic viability of NC machines by reducing their

downtime for inspection results.

11. Helps in reading cost, rework cost at the appropriate time with a
suitable CMM.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 ADVANTAGES OF CMM
1. The inspection rate is increased.

2. Improved accuracy of machined parts.

3. Minimisation of operator error.

4. Skill requirements of the operator is reduced.

5. Reduced inspection fixturing and maintenance cost.

6. Uniform inspection quality.

7. Reduction in calculating and recoding time and errors.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
8. Reduction in setup time.

9.Compensation for misalignment.

10. No need of separate go/no go gauges for each feature.

11. Reduction of scrap and good part rejection.

12. Provision of a permanent record for process Control.

13. Reduction in offline analysis time.

14. Simplification of inspection procedures.

15. Possibility of reduction of total inspection time.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 DISADVANTAGES OF CMM

1. The lable and probe may not be in perfect alignment.

2. The probe may have run out.

3. The probe moving in Z-axis may have some perpendicular errors

4. Probe will move in X and Y direction but not be square to each

other.

5. There may be errors in digital system.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 FEATURES OF CMM SOFTWARE

1. Measurement of diameter, centre distance, length.

2. Measurement of plane and spatial curves.

3. Minimum CNC programme.

4. Data communications.

5. Digital input and output command.

6. Programme for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel and hypoid

gears.

7. Interface to CAD software.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

 Surface Roughness Measurement
Factors affecting surface roughness are,
1. Work piece
2. material Vibrations
3. Machining type Tool
4. Fixtures

The geometrical irregularities can be classified as

1. First order
2. Second order
3. Third order
4. Fourth order
Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
1. First order irregularities
They are caused by lack of straightness of guide ways on which
tool must move.

2. Second order irregularities

They are caused by vibrations.

3. Third order irregularities

They are caused by machining.

4. Fourth order irregularities

They are caused by materials.

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
ELEMENTS OF SURFACE TEXTURE

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 ELEMENTS OF SURFACE TEXTURE
1. Roughness
It is finely spaced irregularities. It is also called primary
texture.
2. Profile
It is the contour of any section through a surface.

3. Lay
It is the direction of the 'predominate surface grooves that
are produced by machining.

4. Flaws
It is the surface irregularities or imperfection due to cracks,
blow holes, scratches etc.
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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
5. Actual surface
It is the surface of a part which is actually obtained.

6. Sampling lengths
It is the Length of profile necessary for the evaluation of
irregularities.

7. Waviness
It is the surface irregularities which are of greater spacing than
roughness.

8. Roughness height
It is rated as the arithmetical average deviation.

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE FINISH

The methods used for measuring the surface finish are

classified into,

1. Inspection by comparison

2. Direct Instrument Measurements

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE FINISH
1. Inspection by comparison
a. Touch Inspection.
b. Visual Inspection.
c. Microscopic Inspection.
d. Scratch Inspection.
e. Micro Interferometer.
f. Surface photographs.
g. Reflected Light Intensity

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 2. Direct Instrument Measurements

1. Stylus probe instruments

2. Tomlinson surface meter

3. Profilometer

4. Talyor- Bobson - Talysurf

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
1. STYLUS PROBE INSTRUMENTS

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2. TOMLINSON SURFACE METER

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
2. TOMLINSON SURFACE METER

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 3. PROFILOMETER

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
4. TALYOR- BOBSON -TALYSURF

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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 MACHINE TOOL METROLOGY

• The accurate production of the component parts depends

upon the accuracy of the machine tools.

• The quality of piece depends on,

1. Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its components.
2. Alignment of various components in relation to one
another.
3. Quality and accuracy of the control devices and the driving
mechanism.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

VARIOUS GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOL

• Straightness. • Periodical axial slip.

• Flatness. • Camming.
• Parallelism, equidistance • Movement of all the
and coincidence. working components.
• Squareness of straight line • Spindle test for
& plane. • Concentricity.
• Rotations • Axial slip.
• Out of round. • Accuracy of axis and
• Eccentricity. position.
• Run out.

Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC

STRAIGHTNESS MEASUREMENTS

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• Types of Straightness Measurements,

1. Straight edge or Spirit level

2. Auto collimator

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1. STRAIGHT EDGE OR SPIRIT LEVEL

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2. AUTO COLLIMATOR

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 SQUARENESS MEASUREMENT
• Very often, two related parts of a machine need to meet perfect
squareness with each other.
• In fact, the angle 90° between two lines or surfaces or their
combinations, is one of the most important requirements in engineering
specifications.
• For instance, the cross-slide of a lathe must move at exactly 90° to the
spindle axis in order to produce a flat surface during facing operation.
• Similarly, the spindle axis of a drilling machine and a vertical milling
machine should be perfectly square with the machine table.
• From a measurement perspective, two planes, two straight lines, or a
straight line and a plane are said to be square with each other when
error of parallelism in relation to a standard square does not exceed a
limiting value.
• The standard square is an important accessory for conducting the
squareness test. It has two highly finished surfaces that are
perpendicular to each other to a high degree of accuracy.
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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC
 SQUARENESS MEASUREMENT

• Two surfaces need to have a high

degree of squareness. The base of a
dial gauge is mounted on one of
the surfaces, and the plunger is
held against the surface of the
standard square and set to zero.
• Now, the dial gauge base is given a
traversing motion in the direction
shown in the figure, and deviation
of the dial gauge is noted down.
• The maximum deviation
permissible for a specific
traversing distance is the error in
squareness.
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Dr. J.Jeevamalar, M.E., Ph.D. / EGSPEC