Corona effect

• When the voltage of the conductors exceeding a certain value, the air around the
conductors get changes
• Certain voltage value is called as critical disruptive voltage
• There’s a violet glow around the conductors
• This may accompany by a hissing noise, production of ozone and power loss
• If the voltage increases, then larger the luminous, hissing noise and power loss
• This effect around the conductors is called as corona effect
• The rough points may brighter
• If the conductor surface is smooth, glow will be uniform
Theoretical aspect

• Normally in air, there may be ionized particles(electrons, protons) due to radioactivity

• When the applied voltage between the conductors increases, the free electrons
acquire greater velocity
• This velocity acquired by the electrons may be sufficient to strike with neutrons
• This produces other ions
• Process of ionization is cumulative
• The result of ionization produces corona
Factors affecting corona
▪ Atmosphere
▪ At stormy weather there are more ions than normal conditions.
▪ Corona will occur at less voltages
▪ Conductor size
▪ Rough or irregular surfaces will rise more corona
▪ Unevenness of surface decreases the breakdown voltage
▪ Spacing between conductors
▪ If spacing increases, less corona effect
▪ Larger distance reduces the electro-static stress at conductor surface
▪ Line voltage
▪ Larger the value of voltage, more corona is formed
Critical disruptive voltage(𝑉𝑐 )
• The minimum phase- neutral voltage which corona occurs is called as critical disruptive voltage.
• Potential gradient at the conductor surface (g)
𝑉
𝑔=
𝑑
𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑟
V = phase – neutral voltage
r = radius of the conductor
d = spacing between conductors
• When corona present g = breakdown strength of air (𝑔0 )
• Breakdown strength of air is normally 30kV/cm (maximum) and 21.2kV/cm (rms)
𝑉𝑐
𝑔0 =
𝑑
𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑟
𝒅
Then , 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒈𝟎 𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 ( )
𝒓
This equation is valid only for standard conditions. (Pressure 76Hgcm and temperature 25⁰C)
• If air density changes, 𝑔0 also changes
• Therefore, air density factor should be considered.
3.92𝑏
air density factor = δ =
273+𝑡

b = pressure in Hgcm
t = temperature in ⁰C
𝑑
Therefore, critical disruptive voltage = 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔0 δ 𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑟

When considering the surface condition, irregular factor(𝑚0 ) should be taken

𝒅
𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝟎 𝒈𝟎 δ 𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 ( )
𝒓
Visual critical voltage (𝑽𝒗 )

• The minimum phase- neutral voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line
conductors
• In parallel conductors, glow doesn’t begin at critical disruptive voltage
• It will have at visual critical voltage
𝟎.𝟑 𝒅
𝑽𝒗 = 𝒎𝒗 𝒈𝟎 δ 𝒓(𝟏 + )𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 ( ) kV/phase
𝜹𝒓 𝒓

𝒎𝒗 = another irregular factor

Power loss due to corona

• Corona formation is accompanied by an energy loss

• Energy is dissipated as light, heat, sound or chemical action
• When the disruptive voltage exceeds some certain value, then the power loss can be
found by the following equation

𝑓+25 𝑟
𝑃 = 242.2 (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 ∗ 10−5 kW/km/phase
𝛿 𝑑

f = supply frequency
V = phase-neutral voltage (rms)
𝑉𝑐 = disruptive voltage per phase (rms)
Q1. A 3-phase line has conductors 2cm in diameter spaced 1m apart from each other.
Dielectric strength of air is 30kV/cm(max) and air density factor and irregularity factors are
0.952 and 0.9, respectively. Find the disruptive critical voltage for the line

Q2. A 3-phase 220kV transmission line consists of 1.5cm radius conductor spaced 2m apart
from each other. If the temperature is 40⁰C and atmospheric pressure is 76Hgcm, Calculate
the corona loss per km of the line.
Take irregular factor as 0.85 and dielectric strength of air is 21.2kV/cm(rms)
Q1.
Conductor radius, r =2/2=1cm
Conductor spacing d = 100cm
g 0 = 30kV/cm (max)= 21.2kV/cm (rms value)
Disruptive critical voltage,
𝑑
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚0 𝑔0 δ 𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑟

100
𝑉𝑐 = 0.9*21.2*0.952*1*𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( ) = 83.64kV/phase
1

Line voltage (rms) = 3(83.64) = 144.8kV

 3.92𝑏 3.92∗76
Q2. air density factor = δ = = = 0.952
273+𝑡 273+40

g 0 = 21.2kV/cm (rms value)

𝑑 200
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚0 𝑔0 δ 𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( ) = 0.85*21.2*0.952*1.5∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑟 1.5

𝑉𝑐 =125.9kV
Supply voltage per phase = 220/ 3= 127kV

𝑓 + 25 𝑟
𝑃 = 242.2 (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 ∗ 10−5
𝛿 𝑑
50 + 25 1.5
𝑃 = 242.2 (127 − 125.9)2 ∗ 10−5
0.952 200
P = 0.0199kW/km/phase
Total corona loss per km for three phases
3 x P = 3 x 0.0199 = 0.0599kW
Methods to reduce corona effect

• By increasing conductor size

• When increase the conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs is raised.

• By increasing conductor spacing

• Voltage at which corona occurs is raised.
• If increases too much, then cost of supports will be increased
Q3. A 3-phase transmission line has a corona loss of 53kW at 106kV and 98kW at
110.9kV. Find the critical disruptive voltage and the corona loss at 113kV.

𝑓 + 25 𝑟
𝑃 = 242.2 (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 ∗ 10−5
𝛿 𝑑
Power loss at 113kV
At 53kW V= 106/ 3= 61.2kV
V = 113/ 3= 65.2kV
53 = 𝑘(61.2 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 −−−−−−−− −(1)
P = 𝑘(65.2 − 54)2 −−−−−−−−− − 3
(1)/(3)
At 98kW V= 110.9/ 3= 64kV
53/P= (61.2 − 54)2 / (65.2 − 54)2
98 = 𝑘(64 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 −−−−−−−− − 2
P = 128kW

(1)/(2)
53/98= (61.2 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 / (64 − 𝑉𝑐 )2
𝑉𝑐 = 54kV
Classification of overhead transmission lines
▪Short transmission lines
▪ Length of the line up to 50km
▪ Voltage below 20kV
▪Medium transmission lines
▪ Length of the line 50-150km
▪ Voltage 20-100 kV
▪Long transmission lines
▪ Length of the line more than 150km
▪ Voltage more than 100 kV
•When current is passing through the transmission lines, there’s a voltage drop in the
transmission lines
•That is due to resistances and reactance
•Therefore, receiving end voltage is less than the sending end voltage

Voltage regulation
•The ration between this difference to the receiving end voltage
•The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line between no load
and full load to the receiving end voltage

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
Voltage regulation = ∗ 100%
𝑉𝑅
Transmission line efficiency
•There may be power losses in transmission line due to resistances.
•Therefore, the power at receiving end and sending end will be changed
•Receiving end power is less than the sending end power
•Transmission line efficiency is defined as the ratio between the receiving end power to
sending end power as a percentage.

Transmission line efficiency = Receiving end power / Sending end power *100%

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos( 𝜑𝑅 )
Transmission line efficiency = ∗ 100%
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 cos( 𝜑𝑆 )
Single phase short transmission lines

From the phasor diagram,

𝑉𝑆 2 = (𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 sin 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2 When taking the line current as the reference
𝑉𝑆 = (𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 sin 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2
Vs = Vr + IR +IX

𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
𝜑𝑆 =
𝑉𝑆
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼 cos 𝜑𝑅
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅
When considering the complex notations,

𝐼 = 𝐼∠ − 𝜑𝑅
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + (𝐼∠ − 𝜑𝑅 )(𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 )
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + (𝐼(cos 𝜑𝑅 − 𝑗 sin 𝜑𝑅 ) ∗ (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ))
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜑𝑅 + 𝑗(𝐼𝑋𝐿 cos 𝜑𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 sin 𝜑𝑅 )
𝑉𝑆 2 = (𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜑𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 cos 𝜑𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 sin 𝜑𝑅 )2

Assume the receiving end voltage

as the reference.

As the second term can be negligible,

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜑𝑅
Q1. A single-phase overhead transmission line is delivering 1100kW at 33kV at lagging
power factor of 0.8. The total resistance and inductive reactance of the line is 10Ω and
15 Ω respectively. Find,
i. Sending end voltage
ii. Sending end power factor
iii. Transmission efficiency
(Assume the receiving end voltage as the reference)

2
Q2. A single-phase transmission line having a cross sectional area of 0.775 𝑐𝑚 delivering
200kW at unity power factor at 3300V. The transmission efficiency is 90%. Take specific
resistance as 1.725μΩcm and find the maximum length of the line.
Q1. Z= 10+j15
P= VI cos(ɸ)
1100=33I *0.8
I = 41.67A
Take voltage as the reference,

𝐼 = 41.67∠ − 36.87∘
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑍
𝑉𝑠
= (33000∠0) + (41.67∠ − 36.87∘ ) ∗ (10 + 𝑗15)
𝑉𝑠 = 33708.39 + 𝑗250.02
𝑉𝑠 = 33709.32∠0.4249∘
𝛼 = 0.4249∘
𝜑𝑆 = 𝜑𝑅 + 𝛼
𝜑𝑆 = 36.87∘ + 0.4249∘ = 37.029∘
cos( 𝜑𝑆 ) = cos( 37.029∘ ) = 0.7956(𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝐼2 𝑅 = (41.67)2 ∗ 10 = 17.364𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 1100 + 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 1100 + 17.364 = 1117.364𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1100𝑘𝑊

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
1100
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100%
1117.364
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 98.44%
Q2.
P= VI cos(ɸ)
I 2 R = (60.6)2 ∗ R = 22.222 ∗ 1000W
200*1000=3300I *1
R = 6.05Ω
I = 60.60A
ρl
R=
A
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100% 1.725∗10−6 l
𝑃𝑖𝑛 6.05 =
0.775
200 ∗ 1000
90% = ∗ 100% Length = 27.18km
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Pin = 222.222kW
Line losses = 222.222-200 kW
Line losses= 22.222kW
Three phase short transmission lines

•Consider one phase and do the calculations.

•Voltages are the phase voltages and the resistance and reactance values are per phase
values
Q3. A short 3-phase transmission line delivers 360kW at lagging power factor of 0.8 to a
load. If the sending end voltage is 33kV and the resistance and inductive reactance of each
line are 5.31Ω and 5.54Ω respectively, Calculate
i. The receiving end voltage
ii. Line current
iii. Transmission efficiency

Q4. A short 3-phase transmission line has the impedance of 6+j8Ω/phase. The sending
end and receiving end voltages are 120kV and 110kV respectively. The receiving end load
at a power factor of 0.9 lagging. Find the power output and sending end power factor.
Q3.
33000
𝑉𝑆 = = 19052𝑉
3
Line losses= 3 * (81.37)*5.31
P= 3VI cos(ɸ)
Line losses = 105.447 kW
360*1000=3 𝑉𝑅 I *0.8
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
1500000
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100%
I= −−−−− −(1) 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑅
360
e𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100%
360 + 105.45
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜑𝑅
Efficiency = 77.34%
1500000 1500000
19052= 𝑉𝑅 + ∗ 5.31 ∗ 0.8 + ∗ 5.54*0.6
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅

𝑉𝑅 2 − 19052𝑉𝑅 + 11,358,000 = 0
𝑉𝑅 = 18.435kV
Line voltage = 3 ∗ 18.435 = 31.93𝑘𝑉
From (1)
1500000 1500000
I= = = 81.37 𝐴 (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑉𝑅 18435
Q4.

120000
𝑉𝑆 = = 69282𝑉
3
𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
cos(𝜑𝑆 ) =
110000 𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑅 = = 63508𝑉 63508 ∗ (0.9) + (650.22 ∗ 6)
3 cos(𝜑𝑆) =
69282
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜑𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑𝑆 ) = 0.88
69282 =63508 + I *6*0.9 + I *8* sin(25.84)
I = 650.22 A

Pout = 3 𝑉𝑅 I cos (𝜑𝑅 )

Pout = 3* 63508 * 650.22*0.9
Pout = 111, 495 kW
Q5. A 3 phase 16km long overhead line supplies 1000kW at 11kV, 0.8 p.f lagging. The line
resistance and the line inductance per phase per km are 0.03Ω and 0.7mH respectively.
Find the,
1. Sending end voltage
2. Voltage regulation
𝑅 = 0.03 ∗ 16 = 0.48Ω
3. Transmission efficiency 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 0.7 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 16
𝑋𝐿 = 3.52Ω

𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐼 cos( 𝜃)
11
1000 = 3 ∗ ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 0.8
3
𝐼 = 65.61𝐴
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜑𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜑𝑅
11000
𝑉𝑆 = + (65.61 ∗ 0.48 ∗ 0.8) + (65.61 ∗ 3.52 ∗ 0.6)
3
𝑉𝑆 = 6514.62𝑉

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 Re 𝑔 𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100%
𝑉𝑅
6514.62 − 6350.85
= ∗ 100% = 2.58%
6350.85

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 = 3 ∗ (65.61)2 ∗ 0.48 = 6.19𝑘𝑊

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 1000
𝜂= ∗ 100% = ∗ 100% = 99.38%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 1000 + 6.19
Medium transmission lines
• Length of the line is around 50-150km
• Voltage is more than 20kV
• Effect of the capacitance should be considered
• Capacitance is uniform throughout the line
• Take shunt capacitance value and concentrate that to one point or make shunt
capacitance at many points
•Three methods to do the calculations
•End condenser Method
• Nominal T Method
• Nominal π Method
End condenser Method
Capacitance value is concentrated to one point at the receiving end

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑆 𝑋𝐿 + 𝐼𝑆 𝑅
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0 + 𝐼𝑆 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 )

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 ∠ − 𝜃
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos 𝜃𝑅 − 𝑗 sin 𝜃𝑅 ) + 𝑗(2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉𝑅 )
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos 𝜃𝑅 ) + 𝑗[(−𝐼𝑅 sin 𝜃𝑅 ) + (2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉𝑅 )]
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0 + 𝐼𝑆 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 )

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅
Q. A single phase transmission line is 100km long. It has the following values
Resistance/km = 0.25Ω Reactance/km = 0.8Ω
Susceptance /km = 14*10−6 Receiving end voltage = 66000V
Line is delivering 15000kW at 0.8 power factor lagging
Using end condenser method,
1. Draw the phasor diagram
2. Find;
1. Sending end current Susceptance= Reciprocal of reactance

2. Sending end voltage

3. Voltage regulation
4. Supply power factor
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos( 𝜃)
15000 = 66 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 0.8
𝐼 = 284𝐴
𝐼𝑅 = 284∠ − 36.86∘

𝐼𝐶 = 𝑗𝑌𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑗(14 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 66000) = 𝑗92
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑗92 + 284∠ − 36.86∘
𝐼𝑆 = 227.2 − 𝑗78.4 = 240.34∠ − 19.038∘
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑆 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 66000∠0 + (227.2 − 𝑗78.4) ∗ (25 + 𝑗80)
𝑉𝑆 = 77952 + 𝑗16216
𝑉𝑆 = 79620.8∠11.75∘ 𝑉

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100%
𝑉𝑅

79620 − 66000
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100%
66000
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 20.63%

𝜑𝑆 = 11.75∘ + 19.038∘ = 30.788∘

Nominal T method
Whole line capacitance is concentrated at the mid point of the line

𝑅 𝑋𝐿
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 (cos 𝜑𝑅 − 𝑗 sin 𝜑𝑅 )( + 𝑗 )
2 2
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉1
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝐼𝑆 ( + 𝑗 )
2 2
Q. A three phase, 50Hz overhead transmission line is 100km long. It has the following details.
• Resistance/km/phase = 0.1Ω
• Inductive reactance/km/phase = 0.2Ω
• Capacitive susceptance/km/phase = 0.04*10−4 S
Draw the single-phase equivalent circuit and the phasor diagram and determine
1. Sending end current
2. Sending end voltage
3. Sending end power factor
4. Transmission efficiency using nominal T method
The output power is 10000kW at 66kV and 0.8 power factor lagging
𝑅 = 0.1 ∗ 100 = 10Ω
𝑋𝐿 = 0.2 ∗ 100 = 20Ω
Y = 4 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 100= 4 ∗ 10−4
66000
𝑉𝑅 = = 38105 𝑉
3

𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐼 cos( 𝜃)

66
10000 = 3 ∗ ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 0.8
3
𝐼 = 109𝐴 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑗𝑌𝑉1 = 𝑗 4 ∗ 10−4 ∗ 39195 + 𝑗545
cos( 𝜃) = 0.8--------- 𝜃=36.87 𝐼𝐶 = -0.218 + j15.68
Z = R +j 𝑋𝐿 = 10 + 𝑗20 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝑅 = 38105∠0 𝑉 𝐼𝑆 = 109∠ − 36.87 + -0.218 + j15.68
𝐼𝑅 = 109∠ − 36.87 𝐴 𝐼𝑆 = 87 –j 49.7 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟗∠ − 𝟐𝟗. 𝟕𝟓

𝑍
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 ( )
2
𝑉1 = 38105∠0 + 109∠ − 36.87 5 + 𝑗10 = 39195 + 𝑗545
 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝐼𝑆
2

𝑉𝑆 = 39195 + 𝑗545 + 100.19∠ − 29.75 5 + 𝑗10 = 40144 ∠1.66 V

𝑉𝑆 = 3 ∗ 40144 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟓 𝒌𝑽 (line voltage)
cos ∅𝑆 = cos 1.66 + 29.75 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟑

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 cos ∅𝑆 = 3*40144*100.19*0.853 =10291.34kW

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 10000
Transmission efficiency = ∗ 100% = ∗ 100% = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟏𝟔%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 10291.34
Nominal π method
• Capacitance is divided into two halves
• One half is attached at the sending end while the other half is attached at the receiving
end.
𝐶
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑗𝜔( )𝑉𝑅
2
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶1
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 (R +j ω𝐿 )

𝐶
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑗𝜔( )𝑉𝑆
2
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶2
 𝐶
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑗𝜔( )𝑉𝑅
2
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶1
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 (R +j ω𝐿 )

𝐶
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑗𝜔( )𝑉𝑆
2
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶2
Q. A 100km long, 3-phase 50Hz transmission line has the following constants.
▪ Resistance/phase/km = 0.1Ω
▪ Inductive reactance/phase/km = 0.5Ω
▪ Susceptance/phase/km = 10*10−6 S
The line is supplying a load of 20MW at 0.9p.f lagging at 66kV at the receiving end.
Calculate;
1. Sending end power factor
2. Voltage regulation
3. Transmission efficiency
𝑅 = 0.1 ∗ 100 = 10Ω
𝑋𝐿 = 0.5 ∗ 100 = 50Ω
Y = 10∗ 10−6 ∗ 100= 10 ∗ 10−4
66000
𝑉𝑅 = = 38105 𝑉
3

𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐼 cos( 𝜃)

66
20000 = 3 ∗ ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 0.9
3
𝐼 = 194.4𝐴 𝑗𝑌
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑉 = 𝑗 5 ∗ 10−4 ∗ 38105∠0
2 𝑅
cos( 𝜃) = 0.8--------- 𝜃=25.84
𝐼𝐶1 = j19.05
Z = R +j 𝑋𝐿 = 10 + 𝑗50
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶1
𝑉𝑅 = 38105∠0 𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = 194.4∠ − 25.84 + j19.05
𝐼𝑅 = 194.4∠ − 25.84𝐴
𝐼𝐿 = 186.88∠ − 20.58
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 (𝑍)
𝑉𝑆 = 38105∠0 + 186.88∠ − 20.58 10 + 𝑗50
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 38105 + 186.88∠ − 20.58 10 + 𝑗50 = 43890.75 ∠10.62 V
𝑗𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶2 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑉
2 𝑆

𝐼𝑆 = 186.88∠ − 20.58 +(j 43890.75 ∠10.62 ∗ 5 ∗ 10−4 = 176.55 ∠ − 14.47 A

cos ∅𝑆 = cos 10.62 + 14.47 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟓

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100%
𝑉𝑅
43890−38105
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100%= 15.18%
38105

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 cos ∅𝑆 = 3*43890.75*176.55*0.905 =20.92MW

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 20
Transmission efficiency = ∗ 100% = ∗ 100% = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 20.92
Generalized circuit constants of a transmission line
Input voltage and input current can be expressed in output voltage and output current

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 For a given transmission line
• A, B, C and D are normally complex numbers
𝑉𝑆 = Sending end voltage per phase • A=D
𝐼𝑆 = Sending end current • A*D – B*C = 1

𝑉𝑅 = Receiving end voltage

𝐼𝑅 = Receiving end current
A, B,C and D = generalized circuit constants of a transmission line
Determining A, B , C and D parameters

Short transmission lines

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 −−−−−− −(1)

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 −−−−−− −(2)

Here ;
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 Hence from (2); D = 1, C = 0
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 Z Hence from (1); A =1, B= Z

Therefore ;
A = D =1
A*D – B*C = 1- z*0 =1
Medium transmission lines (Nominal T method)

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 −−−−−− −(1)

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 −−−−−− −(2)

𝑍
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 ( )
2

𝑍
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝐼𝑆
2
𝑍 Z
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 (2)+ IS ----------------(3) From (3) and (4);
2
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍 2
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 (1 + )+ IR 𝑍+ ----------------(5)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉1 = 𝑌𝑉1 2 4

𝑍 Therefore ;
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑌𝑉1 = 𝑌 ∗ (𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 ( ) A =D = 1 +
𝑌𝑍
2 2
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑌𝑍 2
𝑍 B= 𝑍+
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑌 ∗ (𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 (2) 4
𝑌𝑍
C=Y
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑌 ∗ 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 (1 + ) ------------------(4)
2
Medium transmission lines (Nominal π method)
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 −−−−−− −(1)
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 −−−−−− −(2)

𝐶 𝑌
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑗𝜔( )𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ( )
2 2
𝑌
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼𝑅 +𝑉𝑅 ( )
2
𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑍= 𝑉𝑅 +[𝐼𝑅 +𝑉𝑅 ( )]*Z= (1+ )𝑉𝑅 + Z 𝐼𝑅 −−−− −(3)
2 2
𝐶 𝑌
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑗𝜔( )𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ( )
2 2 Therefore ;
𝑌𝑍
𝑌 𝑌 A =D = 1 + 2
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼𝑅 +𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑆 ( )
2 2 B= 𝑍
𝑍𝑌 2
𝑌 𝑌 𝑌 C= Y+
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 +𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 +([𝐼𝑅 +𝑉𝑅 ( )]∗Z)( ) 4
2 2 2

𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 1 + + 𝑉𝑅 (Y [1+ ]) −−−−−−−− −(4)
2 4
Q. A transmission line is delivering a load of 50MVA at 110kV and 0.8 power factor lagging.
It is given the following constants.
A = D = 0.98∠30 , 𝐵 = 110∠750 , 𝐶 = 0.0005∠800
Find;
i. Sending end voltage
ii. Sending end current
iii. Sending end power factor
 110000
𝑉𝑅 = = 63.5∠0𝑘𝑉
3

𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐼
50,000 = 3 ∗ 63.5 ∗ 𝐼
𝐼𝑅 = 262.4∠ − 36.87𝐴

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑆 = 0.98∠30 ∗ (63500∠0) + 110∠750 *(262.4∠ − 36.87) = 87428.56∠13.95 𝑉
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 0.0005∠800 ∗ (63500∠0) +0.98∠30 ∗ (262.4∠ − 36.87) = 246.02 ∠ − 27.09 𝐴

Sending end power factor = cos(13.95+27.09) = 0.75

Q. A balanced 3-phase load of 30MW is supplied at 132kV, 50Hz and 0.85pf lagging. The
series impedance is (20+j52) ohms/ phase and capacitive susceptance is 315*10−6 S.
Using the nominal T method, Determine,
1. A, B, C and D parameters
2. Sending end voltage
3. Sending end current
 𝑌𝑍 𝑗315∗10−6 20+𝑗52
A =D = 1 + 2
=1+ 2
= 0.992∠0.182

𝑌𝑍 2 𝑗315∗10−6 ∗(20+𝑗52)2
B= 𝑍+ = 20 + 𝑗52 + = 19.84+j51.82 = 55.48∠69.05
4 4

C = Y = 𝑗315∗10−6 = 0.000315 ∠90

132000
𝑉𝑅 = = 76210.24∠0𝑉
3

𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐼 cos( 𝜃)
30,000,000 = 3 ∗ 76210.24 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 0.85
𝐼𝑅 = 154.37∠ − 31.78𝐴

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑆 = 0.992∠0.182 ∗ (76210.24∠0) + 55.48∠69.05*(154.37∠ − 31.78) = 82594.14 ∠3.77 𝑉
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 0.000315 ∠90 ∗ (76210.24∠0) +0.992∠0.182 ∗ (154.37∠ − 31.78) = 142.036 ∠ − 23.32 𝐴
Underground Cables Properties of underground cables
Advantages: • Cables should have high conductivity
▪Less liability to damage from storm and • Mostly stranded copper or Aluminium
lightning are used
▪Less maintenance cost •Cables should carry the desired current
▪Less chances to faults without overheating
▪Low voltage drop • Proper thickness of the insulation

Disadvantages material to have high safety

▪High installation cost • Materials should have proper chemical

and physical stability
Main parts of underground cables
▪Core/ conductor :
▪ one or more conductors depend upon the application
▪Made with tinned copper or aluminium
▪Insulation
▪ Thickness of the insulation depends on the voltage that the
cable carries
▪ Paper and rubber are commonly used
▪Metallic sheath
▪ To protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging
liquids in soil
▪ Mostly aluminium or lead sheath is provided over the insulation
▪Bedding
▪ To protect the metallic sheath from corrosion
▪ Made with fibrous material like jute

▪Armouring
▪ Protect the cable from mechanical injuries while laying and handling
▪ One or two layers of galvanized steel wire

▪Serving
▪ Protect the armouring from atmospheric conditions
Properties of insulation material for conductors

• High insulation resistance

• High dielectric strength to reduce electrical breakdown
• High mechanical strength to withstand mechanical handling of cables
• Non-inflammable
• Low cost
• Unaffected by acids
Insulation Materials
•Rubber
• Has high insulation properties
• Absorbs moisture
• Maximum safe temperature is low
• As much soft, liable to damage
• Pure rubber is not much suitable
•Vulcanized rubber
• Made by mixing the pure rubber with mineral materials and sulphur
• Has greater mechanical strength, durability than pure rubber
• As sulphur reacts with copper, used with tinned copper cables
Find out the properties of the following insulation materials used in underground cables
i. Impregnated paper
ii. Polyvinyl chloride
Underground cable types
• Belted cable
• Used voltage upto 11kV
• Three core cables are used
• Each core is insulated by paper insulation
• There is a paper belt around the insulated core
• Belt is covered with lead sheath
• Cores are not much circular in shape. This shape helps to have better use of
available space
• As the voltage is much low, the electrostatic stresses developed is almost radial
Screened cables
• Upto 33kv or 66kv
• Mainly two types of screened cables
• H- type and S.L. type

H-types screened cables

• Each core is insulated by paper
• Insulation is covered with a metallic screen
• Conducting belt is wound around the core
• Three screens has the connection with conducting belt and sheath
• Therefore; electrical stresses distributed radially and reduces insulation damage
• Metallic screen increases the heat dissipation power of cable
S.L. type screened cable (Separated Lead)
• Normally a H type cable
• Core insulation is covered by its own sheath
• No overall sheath
• Separate sheath reduces core to core breakdown
• Bending of cable is easy as there’s no overall sheath
• Thinner than H type cables
Pressure cable
• Voltage more than 66kV
• If there are voids present, voids will breakdown and damage the insulation
• So by increasing the pressure of compound, voids are reduced
• Mainly two types of pressure cables

Oil filled cables

• There are channels or ducts to circulate oil
• Oil is supplied by external reservoirs placed along the cable route
• Oil compressed the insulation layer and forced the voids and eliminate them
Gas- pressure cables
• Has a triangular shape to reduce weight and gives low thermal resistance
• Sheath is protected by thin metal tape
• Cable is laid in a gas-tight steel pipe
• Pipe is filled with dry nitrogen gas
• Gas pressure will have radial compression and reduce voids
• Nitrogen helps quenching flames
• Has low maintenance cost
Methods for laying of underground cables
Direct laying
• A trench of around 1.5m depth and 45cm width is dug
• A sand bed is provided at the bottom end of the trench
• Cable is laid over the sand bed
• Sand prevents entering moisture and reduce corrosion of the cable
• After laying the cable, it is then covered with sand
• Then cover with bricks to protect from mechanical damages
• If there are more than one cable in the trench, spacing is provided to reduce mutual
heating and damages
• Mostly used in open area where excavation can be done
Direct laying
Advantages
• Simple and cheap
• Safe; free of external disturbances
• Clean; good appearance as the cable is not visible

Disadvantages
• Alterations can’t be done easily
• Maintenance cost is high
• Identification of faults is not easy
Draw in system
• Concrete, stones or cast iron is laid in the ground with manholes for cable routes
• Distance between manholes may not be too long to pull the cable
• No need of armouring
• Must have serving to protect when being pulled in ducts
• Used in short length cable routes like workshops, road crossing

Advantages
• Repairs and alterations can be done without opening the ground
• Low maintenance cost
• Have strong mechanical protection; therefore less faults

Disadvantages
• High initial cost