Reptiles

Reptiles are a diverse group of organisms constituting the class Reptilia, including snakes,
turtles, crocodiles, lizards and rhynchocephalians. They are characterised by their
keratinised, dry scaly skin, cold-blooded (ectothermic) metabolism and their ability to lay
amniotic eggs on land. Originating around 320 mya (million years ago) in the Carboniferous
period, the first reptiles evolved from amphibians that ventured out of water and adapted to
life on land, becoming amniotes with membranous eggs. These amniotes then split into two
clades: Synapsids (forming mammals) and Sauropsids (forming reptiles and birds). Today,
there are over 11,700 extant species of reptiles, making them one of the most abundant
vertebrate groups. A look at ten key reptile species, both extant and extinct:

Hylonomus lyelli

Hylonomus (hylo-"forest" + nomos- "dweller") is an extinct genus of reptile, known to science

as the earliest unquestionable reptile. Although other reptiliomorph specimens are older than
Hylonomus, they cannot be reliably classified as reptiles because their fossils are either too
fragmented or too similar to those of amphibians. It was discovered in Nova Scotia by the
Canadian geologist John William Dawson in the mid-nineteenth century and named after his
mentor, Sir Charles Lyell.
With specimens dated up to 315 mya, Hylonomus is the oldest member of the clade
Eureptilia (true reptiles). As the earliest reptile in the fossil record, Hylonomus represents a
crucial stage of reptile evolution: it is the first example of the amniotic egg, which is sealed
by protective, antidesiccant membranes, allowing animals to reproduce on land for the first
time.
It was similar in size and appearance to modern-day lizards, reaching around 20-25 cm in
length including the tail. This species is believed to have been arboreal, meaning that it lived
in trees, as evidenced by the structure of its limbs and the shape of its claws. Furthermore,
the first fossils of Hylonomus were formed in hollowed-out fossilised tree-stumps. Judging
from its small, sharp teeth, it was also likely an insectivore, feeding on small insects and
other invertebrates. Like other primitive reptiles, Hylonomus was preyed on by larger
land-living amphibians known as labyrinthodonts.

Postosuchus kirkpatricki

Postosuchus was a rauisuchian, a member of the clade Archosauria, which includes birds,
crocodiles and dinosaurs. It lived in the Late Triassic Period around 237-201 mya. By this
time, archosaurs had diversified into several ecological niches, including ornithosuchia (the
first dinosaurs) and pseudosuchia (carnivorous rauisuchians and herbivorous aetosaurs).
Inhabiting a tropical region dominated by cycads, ferns, conifers and various gymnosperms,
Postosuchus lived in North America alongside primitive fish, labyrinthodonts, basal
dinosaurs and other archosaurs. Reaching up to 6 metres in length and weighing 450
kilograms, it was the dominant carnivore in its environment. With its excellent sight, powerful
bite, a ‘sixth sense’ known as Jacobson’s organ and dagger-shaped teeth, it was
well-adapted to preying on smaller creatures, such as the dinosaur Coelophysis, aetosaurs
and dicynodonts (ancestors of mammals).
Interestingly, despite being more closely related to crocodiles than dinosaurs, Postosuchus
had limbs placed directly under its body, hindlimbs nearly twice as long as its forelimbs, and
weight-bearing sections of its spine almost identical to theropod dinosaurs. It is likely that
Postosuchus walked upright and on two legs, a trait that would be the defining feature of
theropods.

Eoraptor lunensis

Eoraptor (“dawn thief”) is one of the earliest known dinosaurs, living around 231 to 228
million years ago, during the Late Triassic Period in Western Gondwana (modern Argentina).
As one of the most primitive dinosaur specimens, its classification is uncertain- it grouped as
both a primitive sauropod and primitive theropod. This indicates Eoraptor ’s primitive nature,
as it lacks any of the specialised traits shown in later dinosaurs.
Eoraptor had a body structure similar to Velociraptor and other dromaeosaurids, reaching
only 10 kilograms in weight and 1.7m in length. It was bipedal (two-legged), had hollow
longbones and had a tibia longer than its femur, suggesting that it was a fast runner. The
dinosaur had five digits per hand, with three of them extending into claws used to trap and
kill prey. The dinosaur’s diverse teeth, some serrated (as in theropods) and some
leaf-shaped (as in sauropods) indicate that it was omnivorous, feeding on both foliage as
well as smaller creatures. The area inhabited by Eoraptor during the Triassic was a volcanic
floodplain; it was warm, humid and heavily forested, but with seasonal variations in rainfall.
The forests comprised contemporary plants such as ferns, conifers, etc. and were inhabited
by therapsids (proto-mammals), crocodilians and other dinosaurs such as Herrerasaurus.
However, dinosaurs were far outnumbered by other tetrapods, such as therapsids and
archosaurs, until the later Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.

Deinosuchus riograndensis

After the Triassic Extinction event, all groups of pseudosuchia went extinct except the
crocodylomorphs; these diversified and filled the ecological niches previously occupied by
organisms like Postosuchus and its prey. Some hunted on land, some were herbivorous, and
others adapted to life in water, becoming the first crocodilians. These creatures reached their
apex in the Late Cretaceous Period with the massive Deinosuchus, which inhabited the
West and East Coasts of the USA around 82-73 mya, before extinction due to possible
habitat loss and competition with large theropods.

Deinosuchus was far larger than modern crocodilians but very similar otherwise: it had an
alligator-like snout and could also breathe through its nostrils while underwater, similar to its
modern relatives. Furthermore, it killed prey using the ‘death roll’ attack inflicted by modern
Nile crocodiles. The reptile also had thick bony scales (osteoderms) running along its back;
these attached to connective tissues and supported its weight, helping it walk on land
despite its bulk. With several fenestrae in its jawbones, thick teeth built for crushing and
powerful jaw muscles, Deinosuchus had a bite force of 100,000 N, six times that of modern
crocodiles. Together with its massive size (12 metres long and weighing 5 tons), this made it
the apex predator in its estuarine and brackish water habitats. As a result, Deinosuchus had
a wide range of prey, including fish, large dinosaurs and sea turtles, many of which have
been found dead bearing bite marks of the giant crocodile.

Mosasaurus hoffmannii

As reptiles diversified to fill niches left behind by amphibians, a group of squamates (the
ancestors of snakes and lizards) became increasingly adapted to aquatic life, eventually
returning to the sea bearing flippers and fluked tails. These were the first mosasaurs, and
with the extinction of ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, they became the dominant aquatic
predators in the Late Cretaceous Period from 85 mya, before going extinct in the K-T
extinction event. The largest of these reptiles was the type genus, Mosasaurus hoffmannii,
reaching upwards of 17 metres in length as per estimates based on fossil evidence. This
reptile was among the most widespread creatures of its time, with a massive range from
North America to Antarctica. Fossil evidence shows that Mosasaurus preferred offshore
habitats in the pelagic zone (neither surface nor bottom of the ocean) deeper than 50
metres.

Unlike any other squamates, mosasaurs were endothermic, maintaining a constant body
temperature that allowed them to survive in extreme latitudes beyond the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles. As a result, they had a relatively high metabolic rate, helping them maintain
stamina while pursuing prey with their giant, paddle-like limbs and rotatable flippers. With
large, laterally-located eyes, Mosasaurus had narrow but excellent two-dimensional vision,
making it adept at processing its pelagic environment. However, its other senses, especially
smell, were poor, as seen by the undeveloped Jacobson’s organ and olfactory bulb. This
indicates that the species was not a scavenger; rather, it was an active predator. With its
powerful, double-hinged jaws that could gulp down prey and large, serrated teeth built for
tearing flesh, Mosasaurus was well adapted for this role, hunting sharks, bony fish, turtles
and even smaller mosasaurs.

However, it was not the only apex predator, with its fossils frequently found alongside those
of other large mosasaurs, particularly Tylosaurus and Prognathodon, both of which
exceeded lengths of 12 metres. To coexist, these reptiles adopted the phenomenon of niche
partitioning, using their identical resources (i.e prey and environment) differently: