What is Stats?

Science dealing with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis,

and interpretation of numerical data in order to make more effective
decisions.

Websites for additional definitions and more:

1 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp#:~:text=Investopedia%20%2F%20Dennis%20Madamba-,Wha
2 https://byjus.com/maths/statistics-definition/
3 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistics
%20Dennis%20Madamba-,What%20Is%20Statistics%3F,linear%20algebra%2C%20and%20probability%20theory.
 DESCRIPTIVE STATS INFERENTIAL STATS ~ Po
Descriptive statistics refers to the procedures used to organize and sample
summarize sets of numerical data.
Inferential statistics refers to methods used to
Examples: sample.

* Frequency distribution tables. Examples ~ Sampling:

* Charts.
* Calculation of averages. An automobile manufacturer takes a sample of
the sampling results, it is makes a decision about

Television networks constantly monitor the p

organizations to sample the audience preference
used to set prices for advertising and to cancel pr

Websites for additional definitions and more:

1 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp
2 https://www.britannica.com/science/statistics
3 https://www.cuemath.com/data/statistics/
TIAL STATS ~ Population based on a

s refers to methods used to determine something about a population, based on a

ng:
nufacturer takes a sample of five gears (used in transmission) every hour. Based on
s, it is makes a decision about the quality of all gears produced during that hour.

ks constantly monitor the popularity of their programs contracting with survey

mple the audience preferences. These appreciations of the audience of a program are
or advertising and to cancel programs.
PROSPECTIVE & RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES
Prospective
In prospective studies, individuals are followed over time and data about them is collected as 1
their characteristics or circumstances change.
Birth cohort studies are a good example of prospective studies.

A birth cohort study follows a group of people that were born at a similar date or period of 2
time – be it a day, month, year or decade, for instance. It follows these people throughout
their lives, and collects information from them at particular ages.
Retrospective
In retrospective studies, individuals are sampled and information is collected about their past.
Retrospective example: a group of 100 people with AIDS might be asked about their lifestyle
choices and medical history in order to study the origins of the disease. A Second group of
100 people without AIDS are also studied and the two groups are compared.
Websites for additional definitions and more:
Birth Cohort studies paper
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7432312/

Cohort Study (Retrospective, Prospective): Definition, Examples

https://www.statisticshowto.com/cohort-study/#:~:text=Retrospective%20example%3A%20a%20group%20of,the%20two%20
20group%20of,the%20two%20groups%20are%20compared.
 LONGITUDINAL STUDIES CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIE
Longitudinal studies employ continuous or repeated measures to follow particular individuals A cross-sectional study is 
over prolonged periods of time—often years or decades. different individuals at a
variables without influenci

Additional info:
1 Differences beyween longitudianl and cross sectional studies
https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-questions/longitudinal-study-vs-cross-sectional-study/#:~:text=Longitu

2 Cross sectional and logitudianl studies: definition and differences

https://www.questionpro.com/blog/cross-sectional-study-vs-longitudinal-study/
 CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many
different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe
variables without influencing them.

tional-study/#:~:text=Longitudinal%20studies%20and%20cross%2Dsectional,an%20extended%20period%20of%20time.
0of%20time.
 OBSERVATIONAL STUDY EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Observational studies are ones where researchers observe the effect of a risk factor, Experimental studies are on
diagnostic test, treatment or other intervention without trying to change who is or isn't effects. Experimental studie
exposed to it. chance.

Example: Example:
An opinion survey asking questions about how people liked the most recent documentary is Title: The effects of caffeine
an example of an observational study. Here, the researchers have no control over the Objective: To investigate the
participants Methodology: Participants:
study.
Procedure: Participants wer
group. The experimental gro
the control group was given
groups completed a series
time.
Additional info
1 Observational vs Experimental studies
https://www.iwh.on.ca/what-researchers-mean-by/observational-vs-experimental-studies#:~:text=Experimental%2

2 Observational vs Experimental study

https://towardsdatascience.com/observational-vs-experimental-study-543425a3b3c8
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Experimental studies are ones where researchers introduce an intervention and study the
effects. Experimental studies are usually randomized, meaning the subjects are grouped by
chance.

Example:
Title: The effects of caffeine on cognitive performance in college students
Objective: To investigate the effects of caffeine on cognitive performance in college students.
Methodology: Participants: 100 college students aged 18-24 years were recruited for the
study.
Procedure: Participants were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental
group. The experimental group was given a cup of coffee containing 200mg of caffeine while
the control group was given a cup of decaffeinated coffee. After consuming the coffee, both
groups completed a series of cognitive tests to measure attention, memory, and reaction
time.

udies#:~:text=Experimental%20studies%20are%20ones%20where,subjects%20are%20grouped%20by%20chance.
 CLINICAL TRIAL

Clinical trial. A prospective study that involves human subjects, designed to

determine the effectiveness of a treatment, a surgical procedure, or a therapeutic
regimen administered to patients with a specific disease.

Example:
* A clinical trial could involve new drugs, medical devices, biologicals, vaccines,
surgical and other medical treatments and procedures.
* Psycho-therapeutic and behavioural therapies help service changes, preventative
care strategies and educational interventions.

Additional info:
1 Types of clinical trials
https://www.australianclinicaltrials.gov.au/_files/elearn/module-1/03-types-of-clinical-trials.html#:~:text=For%20e

2 Statistics in Clinical Trials

https://www.bioclever.com/statistics-in-clinical-trials-n-47-en
al-trials.html#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20a%20clinical%20trial,also%20examples%20of%20clinical%20trials.
 COHORT STUDY

Cohort studies are types of observational studies in which a cohort, or a group of

individuals. sharing some characteristic, are followed up over time, and outcomes
are measured at one or. more time points. Cohort studies can be classified as
prospective or retrospective studies.

Example:
The term “cohort” refers to a group of people who have been included in a study
by an event that is based on the definition decided by the researcher.
For example, a cohort of people born in Mumbai in the year 1980. This will be
called a “birth cohort.” Another example of the cohort will be people who smoke.

Additional info:
1 Cohort Study: Definition, Benefits & Examples
https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/cohort-study/

2 Cohort Studies
https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/ep/ep713_cohortstudies/ep713_cohortstudies_print.html
udies_print.html
 CASE CONTROL STUDY

A case-control study is used to see if exposure is linked to a certain result (i.e., disease or condition of interest).
Case-control research is always retrospective by definition since it starts with a result and then goes back to look at
exposures.

Example:
Medical researchers study disease X and use a case-control study design to identify risk factors. They create two
groups using available medical records from hospitals. Individuals with disease X are in the case group, while those
without it are in the control group. If the case group has more exposure to a risk factor than the control group, that
exposure is a potential cause for disease X. These studies usually refer to correlations.

Additional info:
1 Case-control and cross sectional
https://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-readers/publications/epidemiology-uninitiated/8-case-control-and-cro

2 Epidemiology in Practice: Case-Control Studies

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1706071/
 ondition of interest).
n goes back to look at

ors. They create two

se group, while those
he control group, that

nitiated/8-case-control-and-cross-sectional
 RANDOMIZATION CONCEPT
Randomization as a method of experimental control has been
extensively used in human clinical trials and other biological
experiments. It prevents the selection bias and insures against the
accidental bias. It produces the comparable groups and eliminates the
source of bias in treatment assignments.

Additional info:
1 Randomization in Statistics and Experimental Design
https://www.statisticshowto.com/randomization-experimental-design/

2 What is Randomization?
https://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/20/help-and-how-to/statistical-modeling/doe/supporting-topics/basic
g/doe/supporting-topics/basics/what-is-randomization/
 SIMPLE RANDOMIZATION

Randomization based on a single sequence of random assignments is known as

simple randomization. This technique maintains complete randomness of the
assignment of a subject to a particular group. The most common and basic
method of simple randomization is flipping a coin.
Example:
If you assign subjects into two groups A and B, you assign subjects to each group
purely randomly for every assignment.

Additional info:
1 Simple randomization
https://www.scalestatistics.com/simple-randomization.html

2 RANDOMIZATION
https://www.theisn.org/in-action/research/clinical-trials-isn-act/isn-act-toolkit/study-stage-1-design-and-developm
-stage-1-design-and-development/randomization/
 BLOCK RANDOMIZATION
Sample
The block randomization method is designed to randomize subjects into groups
that result in equal sample sizes. This method is used to ensure a balance in Block 1 ~ sample 1
sample size across groups over time. Block 2 ~ sample 2
Example:

A researcher might divide participants into blocks of 10 and then randomly assign
half of the people in each to the control group and half to the experimental
group. 

Additional info:
1 Blocked Randomization with Randomly Selected Block Sizes
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3037057/

2 Block Randomization
https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Block+Randomization
Block 1 ~ sample 1
Block 2 ~ sample 2
 STRATIFIED RANDOMIZATION WHAT IS STRATA IN STATISTICS?

Stratified randomization refers to the situation in which strata are
constructed based on values of prognostic variables and a
randomization scheme is performed separately within each stratum.
Example:
Suppose that there are two prognostic variables, age and gender, such
that four strata are constructed: male < 18, male >= 18, female < 18 and
female >= 18.
In statistics, a stratum (plural strata) refers to a su
of the population (entire collection of item
consideration) which is being sampled. Stratific
consists of dividing the population into strata with
which an independent sample can be chosen.

Additional info:
1 Stratified Randomization For Clinical Trials: Everything You Need to Know
https://www.upgrad.com/blog/stratified-randomization/

2 Stratified Random Sampling: Definition, Method & Examples

https://www.simplypsychology.org/stratified-random-sampling.html
 STATISTICS?

m (plural strata) refers to a subset (part)

n (entire collection of items under
h is being sampled. Stratification thus
the population into strata within each of
ent sample can be chosen.
DYNAMIC ALLOCATION PROCEDURE

The process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of
chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce bias. It is also known as adaptive
randomization.

Example:
A trial investigating a new medication for the treatment of depression.
In this study, participants would be randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: the
experimental group receiving the new medication or the control group receiving a placebo.
However, instead of assigning participants to groups randomly, dynamic allocation would be
used to adjust the probability of a participant being assigned to one group or the other based
on their characteristics or responses during the trial.
For example, the trial might start by enrolling participants with mild to moderate depression.
As the trial progresses, the researchers might observe that the new medication is particularly
effective for participants with more severe depression symptoms. In response, the allocation
algorithm would adjust the probability of participants with severe depression being assigned to
the experimental group, while still ensuring that the overall balance of participants between
the two groups is maintained.
Additional info:
1 Dynamic allocation
https://www.efspi.org/documents/activities/3Roes.pdf

2 Dynamic randomization and a randomization model for clinical trials data

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3588596/