Dr.

Walid Mahmud

Chapter 2

Origin, migra0on and accumula0on
of petroleum

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 Origin of petroleum

The great composi0onal complexity of petroleums reflects the
combined effects of all processes involved in the origin of
petroleum accumula0ons and their fate during long periods of
geological 0me. Since relevant geological and geochemical
condi0ons under which these processes proceed can vary from
place to place, the composi0on of petroleums are subject to
great varia0ons. The composi0on of petroleum contains
molecular signals which allow to unravel their origin and
geological history. As a general rule, the origin of petroleum is
never in the reservoir accumula0on from which it is produced.
Instead, petroleums have experienced a long series of processes
prior to accumula0on in the reservoir. Petroleum accumula0on
forms in sedimentary basins and can be discovered by
explora0on, if the following geological condi0ons are met as
shown in Figure 1.

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•  Occurrence of source rocks which generate petroleums under
proper subsurface temperature condi0ons.
•  Sediment compac0on leading to expulsion of petroleum from the
source and into the reservoir rocks (primary migra0on).
•  Occurrence of reservoir rocks of sufficient porosity and
permeability allowing flow of petroleum through the pore system
(secondary migra0on).
•  Structural configura0ons of sedimentary strata whereby the
reservoir rocks form traps, i.e. closed containers in the subsurface
for the accumula0on of petroleum.
•  Traps are sealed above by impermeable sediment layers (cap rocks)
in order to keep petroleum accumula0ons in place.
•  Correct 0ming with respect to the sequence by which the processes
of petroleum genera0on/migra0on and trap forma0on have
occurred during the history of a sedimentary basin.
•  Favorable condi0ons for the preserva0on of petroleum
accumula0on during extended periods of geologic 0me, i.e.
absence of destruc0ve, such as the fracturing of cap rocks leading
to dissipa0on of petroleum accumula0ons, or severe hea0ng
resul0ng in the cracking of oil into gas.

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 seepage 5
0

1 4
depth (km)

accumulation
2
generation
3
3
1 2

migration
4

Fig. 1. Diagram to illustrate the main geological

Figure 1: Diagram to illustrate the main geological condi0ons and geochemical processes
required for the forma0on of petroleum accumula0ons in sedimentary basins:
conditions and geochemical processes required
1) petroleum genera0on in source rocks; 2) primary migra0on of petroleum;
for the formation of petroleum accumulations
3) secondary migra0on of petroleum; 4) accumula0on of petroleum in a reservoir trap;
in sedimentary basins: 1) petroleum generation in source 4
5) seepage of petroleum at the Earth’s surface as a consequence of a fractured cap rock.

 Petroleum source rocks
Petroleum source beds are fine grained, clay-rich siliclas0c rocks
(mudstones, shales) or dark coloured carbonate rocks (limestones,
marlstones), which have generated and effec0vely expelled
hydrocarbons. A petroleum source is characterized by three
essen0al condi0ons: it must have a sufficient content of finely
dispersed organic ma[er of biological origin; this organic ma[er
must be of a specific composi0on, i.e. hydrogen-rich; and the
source rock must be buried at certain depths and subjected to
proper subsurface temperatures in order to ini0ate the process of
petroleum genera0on by the thermal degrada0on of kerogen.
Kerogen is the por0on of naturally occurring organic ma[er that is
nonextractable using organic solvents.
The organic carbon concentra0on is an approximate measure of
the organic ma[er content of a rock. Organic ma[er is
predominantly composed of organic carbon, but also contains
minor amounts of hetero-elements (N, S, and O).
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This minimum concentra0on of organic carbon in source rocks is
controlled by the rela0onship between the quan0ty of petroleum
generated and the internal storage capacity of the rocks in terms of
their porosity. If too li[le organic ma[er is present, the small
quan00es of petroleum generated will not exceed the storage capacity
of the rock, i.e. no petroleum expulsion will take place. Most source
rocks which have effec0vely generated and expelled commercial
quan00es of petroleum have TOC (total organic carbon)
concentra0ons in the order of 2-10%.
Examples:
1) Siliclas0c lithology of the Upper Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay Forma0on
in the North Sea Basin has TOC contents ranging mostly between 5
and 12%.
2) A good-quality petroleum source rock of carbonate lithology is
exemplified by the Triassic-age Meride Limestone, which is the source
of the oil present in several fields in the Po valley area of northern
Italy. Its TOC content varies mostly between 0.5 and 1.5%.

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The reason why petroleum source rocks of carbonate lithologies
tend to have significantly lower TOC concentra0ons has to do
with the quality and composi0on of the organic ma[er present.
In carbonate source rocks, the organic ma[er tends to be richer
in hydrogen.
Most petroleum source rocks display dark brown to black colors.
This is due to the presence of finely disseminated organic ma[er
as well as finely dispersed pyrite crystals (FeS2). In most
petroleum source rocks of carbonate lithologies organic ma[er
tends to be distributed in a heterogeneous way. It is ogen
concentrated in narrow bands floa0ng in an organic ma[er-lean
groundmass. These were formed in the subsurface by a process
called pressure solu0on which involves the re-distribu0on of
carbonate minerals and their re-crystalliza0on away from the
organic ma[er par0cles.

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 Deposi0on of source rock-type sediments
The forma0on of sediments rich in organic ma[er is restricted to
certain condi0ons of the deposi0onal environment. These
sediments are deposited in aqueous environments which receive a
certain contribu0on of organic ma[er, i.e. residues of dead
organisms, along with the sediment par0cles. In subaerial
environments organic ma[er is readily destroyed by chemical and
microbial oxida0on shortly ager deposi0on. Good quality
petroleum source rocks can be deposited in marine or lake
environments as organic-ma[er-rich muds providing that bo[om
waters are oxygen-deficient, i.e. that reducing condi0ons prevail. If
the concentra0on of oxygen dissolved in these waters is less than
0.1 ml/l the environment is referred to as anaerobic, if it is in the
range of 0.1-1.0 ml/l the environment is referred to as dysaerobic
and if higher oxygen concentra0ons prevail, the environment is
known as oxic. Anaerobic or dysaerobic environments require
stagnant water condi0ons, because turbulent water circula0on
results in the replenishment of oxygen contents. 8
Inorganic hypothesis for the origin of oil and gas
That oil and gas may be derived en0rely from inorganic sources was first suggested by
the French chemist Berthelot. On the assump0on that the interior of the earth might
contain free alkaline metals, he stated that mineral oil was produced by purely
chemical ac0on, similar to that employed in the manufacture of acetylene. Mendeléef
ascribes the forma0on of petroleum to the ac0on of surface waters, which,
percola0ng downward through the rocks to the heated interior of the earth, become
converted into steam and a[ack iron carbides to form the hydrocarbons which make
up oil and gas. From a chemical standpoint this sa0sfactorily meets the requirements,
but the circula0on postulated is ques0onable and the actual existence of the carbides
in nature remains to be proven. For example, if oil and gas were thus formed we
should expect to find them most widely distributed and abundant in the oldest rocks
of the earth's crust, an expecta0on which is dis0nctly contrary to fact. The produc0on
of hydrocarbons from cast iron, the forma0on of various metallic carbides in the
electric furnace, and various reported occurrences of gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons
in associa0on with volcanic emana0ons and igneous rocks, seem to accord with
inorganic hypotheses. The associa0on of oil and gas with igneous rocks is not
common, but even in the occurrences known there is no proof that the oil and gas
originated in the igneous rock. Admilng that small quan00es of different
hydrocarbons may be formed by various inorganic agencies, the evidence seems to
indicate clearly that this is not the origin of the large commercially important
accumula0ons of the natural hydrocarbons. 9
 Organic hypothesis for the origin of oil and gas
An overwhelming and increasing majority of those who have studied the
accumulated geologic evidence, and who are familiar with the natural condi0ons
under which petroleum occurs, are of the opinion that oil and gas are of organic
origin. The organic hypotheses suggest that the natural hydrocarbons have been
formed by the decomposi0on of organic ma[er buried in the rocks, though the
precise character of the organisms and the exact nature of changes involved are
not en0rely certain. Petroleum has been prepared by the dis0lla0on of certain
animal oils and is produced by the natural decomposi0on of some seaweeds. It is
found chiefly in sedimentary rocks containing more or less abundant fossilized
remains of various organisms. Gaseous hydrocarbons, especially methane, are
certainly derived from decaying vegeta0on. Methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
and nitrogen are produced in the decay of seaweeds. That hydrocarbons
analogous to natural gas, petroleum and asphalt may be derived from either plant
or animal ma[er or both has been demonstrated. The fact that natural petroleum
shows an op0cal ac0vity similar to that of sugar, lac0c acid, and other organic
compounds, which inorganically synthesized oil does not possess, is claimed to
indicate undoubtedly the organic origin of petroleum. While the evidence seems
to indicate the organic origin of oil and gas, there is a difference of opinion as to
whether they have been derived from accumula0ons of plants, the remains of
animals, or both.
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