(Special Publication No. 8 of The Society For Geology Applied To Mineral Deposits 8) J. Frutos (Auth.), Prof. Dr. Lluís Fontboté, Prof. Dr. G. Christian Amstutz, Prof. Dr. Miguel Cardozo, Prof. Dr. Es

Published with financial help of
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.....• ••~.. lnstituto Tecnol6gico
i ~ GeoMinero de Espana
Special Publication No. 8 ~
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epos1 s .
Stratabound
Ore Deposits
in the Andes
Edited by
L. Font bote, G. C. Amstutz, M. Cardozo,
E. Cedillo and J. Frutos
With 310 Figures and 1 Map
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

Prof. Dr. G. CHRISTIAN AMSTUTZ
Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut, Universitat Heidelberg
Im Neuenheimer Feld 236
D-6900 Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany
Prof. Dr. MIGUEL CARDOZO

Universidad Nacional de lngenieria, and Newmont Peru Limited
Gerente de Exploraciones
Av. Jose Galvez Barrenechea 218, Urb. Corpac
Lima-San Isidro, Peru
Prof. Dr. ESTEBAN CEDILW

Facultad de Minas, Metalurgia y Geologia, Universidad de Guanajuato
Ex-Hacienda de San Matias s/n
Apartado Postal 347
Guanajuato, Gto. 36020, Mexico
Prof. Dr. Lwfs FONTBOTE

Departement de Mineralogie, Universite de Geneve
12, rue des Maraichers
CH-1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland
Prof. Dr. JOSE FRUTOS

Programa de Geologia Econ6mica Aplicada, Universidad de Concepci6n
Casilla 4107
Concepci6n, Chile
ISBN 978-3-642-88284-5 ISBN 978-3-642-88282-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-88282-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Stratabound ore deposits in the Andes I
edited by L. Fontbote ... [et a!.]. p. em. - (Special publication no. 8 of the Society for Geology
Applied to Mineral Deposits) Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-3-642-88284-5
1. Ore deposits - Andes. 2. Mineralogy, Determinative. 3. Geology, Stratigraphic - Paleozoic.
4. Geology, Stratigraphic - Mesozoic. I. Fontbote, (Lluis), 1952- . II. Series: Special publica-
tion of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits; no. 8. QE390.S766 1990 553'.098
- dc20 90-9751 CIP
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Preface
The present volume Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes has its
roots in an international seminar on stratabound ore deposits which
took place in September 1986 in Cusco, Peru, sponsored by Multi-
ciencias (Peru) and UNESCO. During this seminar it became clear
that the amount and quality of research done on stratabound ore
deposits in the Andes required a synthesis.
Researchers in industry and government as well as in academia,
including many which had participated at the Cusco Seminar, were
invited to contribute. The answer was extremely positive, confirming
the idea that a book expressing the state of the art of the study of
stratabound ore deposits in the Andes was long overdue.
As editors we sought to give maximum coverage to the present
knowledge, yet keeping the length, and thereby the price, within rea-
sonable limits. The book contains three types of contributions. In
the first part the reader will find review papers focusing on (1) the
geologic framework (Frutos), (2) the metallogenesis in Andean
countries including also types of deposits differing from those of
stratabound nature (Cardozo and Cedillo, Oyarzun), and (3) an in-
troductory overview of the stratabound ore deposits in the Andes,
emphasizing their geotectonic position as a classification tool (Font-
bote).
In the second part 53 invited contributions describe individual
ore deposits and districts. They were selected on the basis that sig-
nificant investigations had been carried out already, and, although
not exhaustive, they give a fairly good coverage of the present
knowledge on stratabound ore deposits in the Andes. Due to spatial
limitations the authors were asked to treat their topics as syn-
thetically as possible and to refer to previous work for complemen-
tary information. Fact description prevails over genetic discussions.
The contributions are organized according to the geotectonic posi-
tion of the host rock, and, within each group, from north to south.
In the third part three papers deal with comparative geochemical
and isotopic aspects of the possible metal sources of stratabound
ore deposits in the Andes (Soler and Lara, Puig, and Fontbote et
al.).
1\vo appendixes contain information on main characteristics of
several hundred ore deposits and occurrences. This information is
VI Preface
included in printed lists of a data base as well as in a fold-out with

three color maps (1: 10000000) in which the most representative
stratabound ore deposits have been plotted in their geological an
paleogeographical framework. Comprehensive mines and subject
indices allow the retrieval of a large amount of detailed information
which is of interest not only in metallogeny but also in regional
geology.
We are indeed grateful to the many individuals and institutions
who helped to make both this book and the Multiciencias-Unesco
Course in Cusco possible. Whereas all cannot be mentioned here in-
dividually, we do wish to point out a few. Victor Latorre, Director
of the Multiciencias courses in Peru strongly supported the whole
organization of the seminar. The Instituto Tecnol6gico GeoMinero
de Espana provided generous financial support to the printing of
the present book, making possible at the same time its free distribu-
tion to the libraries of the main universities and research institutions
of the Andean countries. The major aim of the Multiciencias
Course in Cusco was a "science transfer" to developing countries in
contrast to a mere "technology transfer". To this, the lectures of the
following invited "non-Andean" colleagues were major contribu-
tions: G. 0. Allard, Univ. of Georgia; G. M. Anderson, Univ. of
Toronto; I. Lambert, Baas Becking Laboratory, Canberra; and D.
Large, Braunschweig. We are especially grateful to all authors who
have contributed to this book, both with their papers and with
numerous suggestions regarding content and form. We thank also
the German Science Foundation (DFG), the German Academic Ex-
change Service (DAAD), the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
and the Volkswagen Foundation for their generous financial sup-
port during the numerous research projects which led to this book
and for making possible the coordination between the five editors,
presently working in four different countries. Appreciation is due to
Dr. W. Engel, Mrs. G. Hess, and Mrs. M. Boning, Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg, and also many members of the staff of the Mineralo-
gisch-Petrographisches Institut of the University of Heidelberg,
specifically Dr. Cornelia Kluth, Mrs. Marion DeMille, Mrs. Silvia
Rosas, Mr. Cesar Munoz, and Mr. Michael Doppler for their con-
tinuous help during all stages of the preparation of this work.
As editors, we are confident that this volume will constitute a
valuable contribution to Andean metallogeny. Three main aims
should have been accomplished. First, it is primarily a report of
facts, or a new interpretation of known facts. The coverage of the
subject is, quite naturally, not complete; but we believe that the ex-
amples given represent most if not all of the major types of strata-
bound ore deposits in the Andes and that they will make investiga-
tions available to the international community which in many cases
were hardly accessible or even unpublished. It is understood that
this book deals only with stratabound deposits. In several contribu-
Preface VII
tions, however, the deposits described lie at the edge of the defini-
tion and transitions to other ore deposit types also referred to.
The second aim is to provide type examples for reference in a
more general, international context. The past 40 years of explora-
tion for, and research on stratabound ore deposits have resulted in
an upsurge of more exploration. It has also become clear that strata-
bound ores are, in many cases, more extended and extensive than
other types of ore deposits. And since stratabound deposits require
knowledge of the stratified sedimentary and/or volcanic host rock,
the previous gap between stratigraphy and/or sedimentology on the
one hand, and economic geology, on the other, had to be closed as
much as possible.
But this last statement touches on the third aim already. This is
the clarification of the heavily battered and often misunderstood
terms and concepts, syngenetic versus epigenetic, with respect to
stratabound ores. The reader will s.ee in all instances that the term
stratabound does not have any genetic implication. Stratabound ore
deposits form both contemporaneously, and also much later than
their host rock through a variety of genetic processes.
Numerous contributions include results of advanced geochemi-
cal techniques. Trace element and/or isotope signatures, fluid inclu-
sion data, etc. provide useful tools for better interpretations and,
logically, more reliable indications in exploration. However, we
should never rely on only one approach. The geo-metric and the
geo-chemical approach must go hand in hand. And, if there is
disagreement, it is certainly not a bad recommendation to stay "sit-
ting on the fence", until a better solution is found. A genetic model
based on one approach only too often has led to one-sided inter-
pretations which hold back the advancement of our science and lead
exploration astray.
Of course, "tempora mutantur et nos mutamus in illis" - and
not only we, but also our approaches to the truth vary with the
course of history. Consequently, there will be improvements and ad-
justments of the models presented in this book. Nevertheless, we
hope that it will serve the three aims mentioned above and, at the
same time, it will help to define new research and exploration objec-
tives.
January 1990 G. C. AMSTUTZ, Heidelberg

M. CARDOZO, Lima
E. CEDILLO, Guanajuato
L. FONTBOTE, Heidelberg/Geneve
J. FRUTOS, Concepci6n
Contents
Part I Introduction
The Andes Cordillera:

A Synthesis of the Geologic Evolution
J. Frutos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Geologic-Metallogenetic Evolution of the Peruvian Andes
M. Cardozo and E. Cedillo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The Metalliferous Ore Deposits of Chile and Argentina,
and Their Geologic Framework
J. Oyarzun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes: A Review and a
Classification According to Their Geotectonic Setting
L. Fontbote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Part II Description of Ore Deposits
Pre-Andean Period
Stratabound Sulfide Occurrences in the Paleozoic
of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru
H. W. Kobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Stratabound Cu-(Ag) Deposits
in the Permian Mitu Red-Bed Formations, Central Peru
H. W. Kobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Geology of the Cu-(Ag, Bi) Stratabound Deposit Cobriza,
Central Peru
M.A. Huaman, E. Antunez de Mayolo and A.M. Rivera 129
Gold Deposits in Lower Paleozoic Sediments
of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia
H.-J. Schneider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Stratabound Kellhuani Tin Deposits, Bolivia
B. Lehmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
X Contents
El Aguilar Mine: An Ordovician Sediment-Hosted

Stratiform Lead-Zinc Deposit in the Central Andes
R. J. Sureda and J. L. Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Oolitic Stratabound Iron Ores in the Silurian of Argentina
and Bolivia
M.-A. Boso and C. R. Monaldi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
The "La Helvecia" Pb, Zn, and Barite Deposit, Argentina
A. Brodtkorb and M. K. de Brodtkorb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
The Barite Deposits of Canota, Argentina
M. K. de Brodtkorb, I. B. A. Schalamuk, S. Ametrano,
R. Fernandez and R. Etcheverry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Massive Sulfides in the Greenstone Belt
of South-Central Chile - An Overview
G. Alfaro and S. Callao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Banded Iron Formation and Massive Sulfide Orebodies,
South-Central Chile: Geologic and Isotopic Aspects
S. Callao, G. Alfaro and K. Hayashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd Data from Some Massive Sulfide
Occurrences in the Metamorphic Basement
of South-Central Chile
F. Herve, R. J. Pankhurst, M. Brook, G. Alfaro, J. Frutos,
H. Miller, W. Schira and G. C. Amstutz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
The Piren Alto Cu-(Zn) Massive Sulfide Occurrence
in South-Central Chile - A Kieslager-Type Mineralization
in a Paleozoic Ensialic Mature Marginal Basin Setting
W. Schira, G. C. Amstutz and L. Font bote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Andean-Cycle
Triassic-Liassic (Carbonate Platform)
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Pucara Basin
An Overview
L. Fontbote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Metallogenic Evolution of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru
A Summary
H. W. Kobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
The Zn-Pb-(Ag) Deposits Huaripampa and Carahuacra in
the Mining District of San Cristobal, Central Peru
M. Dalheimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Machcan Mine: A Pb-Zn Ore Deposit in Pucara Sediments
of the Atacocha District, Central Peru
W. Hirdes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Contents XI
Sulfur Isotope Studies in the Zinc-Lead Mine San Vicente,

Central Peru
H. Gorzawski, L. Fontbote, C. W. Field and R. Tejada 305
Liassic-Lower Cretaceous
a) Volcanic Sequences at the Magmatic Arc

Geology of the Buena Esperanza Copper-Silver Deposit,
Northern Chile
C. M. Palacios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
The Susana Copper(-Silver) Deposit in Northern Chile.
Hydrothermal Mineralization Associated
with a Jurassic Volcanic Arc
F. Wolf, L. Fontbote and G. C. Amstutz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
b) Volcaniclastic Sequences in Intra-Arc Basins

The Conglomerate-Hosted Copper Deposits
at Caleta Coloso, Chile
S. Flint and P. Turner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
The Atacama-Coquimbo Ferriferous Belt, Northern Chile
S. Espinoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
La Negra-Coquimbana Manganiferous District,
Southern Atacama Desert, Chile
M. Pincheira and L. Fontbote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
c) Volcano-Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Basins

(in Part Marginal Basins)
Massive Sulfides in Colombia
F. Ortiz B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
The Cu-Zn-Au-Ag Deposit of La Plata (Toachi), Ecuador
R. W. Lehne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
The Copara Metallotect in Central Peru:
Geologic Evolution and Ore Formation
M. Cardozo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Palma: A Nonmetamorphic Stratabound Massive Zn-Ba
Occurrence in the Eastern Casma Group of Central Peru
K. Steinmtiller and A. Wauschkuhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
The Agustina Mine, a Volcanic-Hosted Copper Deposit
in Northern Chile
S. Hopf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
XII Contents
El Soldado, a Stratabound Copper Deposit Associated with

Alkaline Volcanism in the Central Chilean Coastal Range
E. Klohn, C. Holmgren and H. Ruge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Geological Characteristics of Stratabound Deposits
Associated with Lacustrine Sediments, Central Chile
F. Camus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
The Cerro Negro Mine, Chile: Manto-Type Copper
Mineralization in a Volcaniclastic Environment
S. Elgueta, A. Hodgkin, E. Rodriguez and A. Schneider 463
The Toqui Zinc-Lead-Copper-Silver Deposits,
Aysen Province, Chile
F. W. Wellmer and E. J. Reeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
The Mining District of the General Carrera Lake and the
Rosillo Manto Deposit, Aysen Province, Southern Chile
A. Schneider and R. Toloza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
d) Marine Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Basins

Geologic Evolution of the Atacama Basin During
the Lower Cretaceous
M. E. Cisternas and L.. L. Diaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
The Bandurrias Iron Ore Deposit, Atacama Region,
Northern Chile
M. E. Cisternas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
The Bellavista Zn-Ag Mine, Copiap6 Region, Chile
L. L. Diaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
The Mamifia Barite Mine, Atacama Region, Chile
L. L. Diaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
e) Platform Sediments Attached to the Foreland

Stratabound Lead-Zinc Deposits in the Jurassic Chaucha
Formation, Central Peru
E. Cedillo .... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Stratabound Polymetallic Ore Deposits
of the Santa Metallotect in the Huanzala
and Pachapaqui Mining Areas in Central Peru
R. Carrascal and J. Saez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Stratabound Ore Deposits of Hualgayoc, Cajamarca, Peru
S. Canchaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Geology of Iscaycruz Ore Deposits in the Santa Formation,
Central Peru
G. Flores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Contents XIII
Vanadiferous Occurrences in the Pariatambo Formation

and at Sincos, Central Peru
c. Canepa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
The Barite and Celestite Metallotects
of the Neuquen Retroarc Basin, Central Argentina
V. A. Ramos and M. K. de Brodtkorb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Upper Cretaceous-Recent
The Polymetallic Ore Deposit of Colquijirca, Central Peru
R. W. Lehne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
The Sediment-Hosted, Stratabound Copper Deposits
of San Bartolo, Northern Chile
S. Flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
The Stratiform Ag-Cu Deposit El Jardin, Northern Chile
C. K. Mayer and L. Fontbote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
The Stratabound Tuff-Hosted Elisa de Bordos
Silver-Mercury Deposit, Northern Chile
M. Jurgeit and L. Fontbote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Origin of the Copper Ores at Corocoro, Bolivia
W. Avila-Salinas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Stratabound Uranium Deposits in the Argentinian Andes
R. E. Ferreyra and L. E. Lardone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
The El Laco Magnetite Lava Flow Deposits,
Northern Chile: An Up-To-Date Review and New Data
J. Frutos, J. Oyarzun, Y. Shiga and G. Alfaro . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Volcanic Sulfur Deposits in the Andes of Northern Chile
F. Ferraris and T. Vila . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Salar Deposits in Northern Chile
T. Vila . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Borate Deposits in the Andes
R.N. Alonso and J. G. Viramonte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Part III General Geochemical Topics
Minor and Thace Elements in the Polymetallic Stratabound

Ore Deposits of the Central Peruvian Andes
P. Soler and M.A. Lara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Lead Isotopes in the Chilean Ores
A. Puig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
XIV Contents
Metal Sources in Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes

(Andean Cycle) - Lead Isotopic Constraints
L. Font bote, K. A. Gunnesch and A. Baumann . . . . . . . . . . 759
Appendix
Main Characteristics of Representative Andean Stratabound

Ore Deposits and General Index of Districts. Mines, and
Occurrences (Printed Lists of a Data Base)
L. Fontbote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
Map of Stratabound Ore Deposits of the Andes

J. Frutos, L. Font bote and G. C. Amstutz
(Inside Back Cover)
Contributors
You will find the addresses at beginning of the respective contribution
Alfaro, G. 199, 209, 221, 681 Hopf, S. 421

Alonso, R.N. 721 Huaman, M.A. 129
Ametrano, S. 193 Jurgeit, M. 647
Amstutz, G.C. 221, 229, 319 Klohn, E. 435
Antunez de Mayolo, E. 129 Kobe, H. W. 113, 123, 267
Avila-Salinas, W. 659 Lara, M.A. 735
Baumann, A. 759 Lardone, L. E. 671
Boso, M.A. 175 Lehmann, B. 147
Brodtkorb, A. 187 Lehne, R. W. 389, 615
de Brodtkorb, M.K. 187, 193, Martin, J. L. 161
599 Mayer, C. K. 637
Brook, M. 221 Miller, H. 221
Camus, F. 449 Monaldi, C. R. 175
Canchaya, S. 569 Ortiz, F. 379
Canepa, C. 595 Oyarzun, J. 61, 681
Cardozo, M. 37, 395 Palacios, C. M. 313
Carrascal, R. 555 Pankhurst, R. J. 221
Cedillo, E. 37, 537 Pincheira, M. 365
Cisternas, M. E. 495, 505 Puig, A. 749
Collao, S. 199, 209 Ramos, V. A. 599
Dalheimer, M. 279 Reeve, E. J. 463
Diaz, L. L. 495, 513, 253 Rivera, A.M. 129
Elgueta, S. 463 Rodriguez, E. 463
Espinoza, S. 353 Ruge, H. 435
Etcheverry, R. 193 Saez, J. 555
Fernandez, R. 193 Schalamuk, I. B. A. 193
Ferraris, F. 691 Schira, W. 221, 229
Ferreyra, R. E. 671 Schneider, A. 473, 485
Field, C. W. 305 Schneider, H.-J. 137
Flint, S. 339, 621 Shiga, Y. 681
Flores, G. 583 Soler, P. 735
Fontbote, L. 79, 229, 523, 305, Steinmtiller, K. 413
319, 365, 637, 647, 759, 777 Sureda, R. J. 161
Frutos, J. 3, 221, 681 Tejada, R. 305
Gorzawski, H. 305 Toloza, R. 485
Gunnesch, K.A. 759 Turner, P. 339
Hayashi, K. 209 Vila, T. 691, 703
Herve, F. 221 Viramonte, J. G. 721
Hirdes, W. 293 Wauschkuhn, A. 413
Hodgkin, A. 463 Wellmer, F. W. 473
Holmgren, C. 435 Wolf, F. B. 319
Part I Introduction
The Andes Cordillera:
A Synthesis of the Geologic Evolution
J. FRUTOS 1
1 Introduction
It has been said that the Andes Cordillera represents one of the most privileged
observatories for the geologic sciences, providing both, a natural laboratory for
the study of the physical and geochemical processes that change and deform a
continent, and the most complete geologic records of the events that took place
in the past.
Notwithstanding the important level reached by the geologic knowledge on the
Andes in all branches of the earth sciences, all geologists are aware of the many
gaps and problems that still remain in any line and in many places in order to
elucidate the complete structure. The older the rocks are, the greater are the prob-
lems to correctly understand their genesis, emplacement, and superimposition of
the processes that affected them (Fig. 1).
The rapid accumulation of geologic data in the recent past, especially the last
decade, makes it difficult for one person to fully understand or master them.
To prepare this chapter many important works have been consulted. The
following papers have been especially considered: Megard (1978, 1987), Goossens
NA
Fig. 1. The Andes Cordillera Orogenic System,
considered as part of an evolving Gondwana
peri-cratonic mobile belt. 1 Gondwanic foreland
(sialic crust older than 1000 m.y.). 2 Mesozoic
oceanic accretion terranes; 3 approximate limit
of the Paleozoic Andean system. 4 approximate
limit of the Mesozoic Andean system; 5 approx-
imate axis of the Paleozoic "autochthonous"
magmatic arc; 6 axis of the Upper Paleozoic
magmatic arc; 7 axis of the Mesozoic "autoch-
thonous" magmatic arc; 8 Proterozoic oceanic
accretion terranes; 9 Paleozoic oceanic accretion
1 D 2 • J j ~. / s : 6 : 7/ a ., g ,
terranes. NA Northern Andes; CA Central
Andes; SA Southern Andes
1 Department of Geology, University of Concepcion, Chile
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes

L. Fontbote, G. C. Amstutz, M. Cardozo,
E. Cedillo, J. Frutos (Eds.)
4 J. Frutos
and Rose (1973), Aguirre et al. (1974), Aubouin et al. (1973), Herve et al. (1987),
Godoy et al. (1984), Dalziel (1981), Caminos et al. (1982), Frutos and Tobar
(1975), Frutos (1981), Miller (1973), Mpodozis and Forsythe (1983), Omarini et
al. (1979), Ramos et al. (1984), Vicente et al. (1973), Cobbing et al. (1977),
Stauder (1973, 1975), Farrar et al. (1970), Gansser (1973), Julivert (1973).
It is the purpose of this Chapter to present in the form of a geologic introduc-
tion, a general synthesis of the present geophysical and geodynamic characteris-
tics, the geotectonic organization and the succession of events that produced the
almost 8000-km-long and 1000-km-wide orogenic belt. This synthesis obviously
cannot be as sufficient, accurate, and complete as we would wish.
In the organization of this Chapter, based on tectonic considerations, we have
divided the Andean Chain into three large sectors:
1. Septentrional Andes (northwestern Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador);
2. Central Andes (Peru, Bolivia, northern and central Chile, northwestern
Argentina north of 42°S lat.);
3. Meridional Andes (central and southern Chile and Argentina).
1.1 General Geophysical Characteristics of the Andean Continental Margin
At present the complete Andean margin corresponds to an oceanic plate-con-

tinental plate convergence zone (Figs. 2, 3, and 4), with a subduction zone dipping
to the east, under a South American plate that shows rather homogeneous, ab-
solute motion vectors of about 3 em/year towards the west (with 3.1 to
3.2 em/year at the northern part; 3 em/year at the central part; and 2.2 em/year
at the southern part).
By contrast, the two main oceanic plates involved (Cocos and Nazca plates;
Fig. 3) move to the east with a much higher velocity, showing absolute motion
values of 5 em/year at the latitude of Ecuador, 6 em/year in front of Arica and
6.5 em/year at Valdivia. The Antarctic plate presents an absolute motion vector
of 0.4 em/year towards the SE south of the triple point of Thitao, where the Chile
Rise collides with the southern extreme of the South American plate.
The Benioff zone structure along the Andes shows the existence of relatively
large differences in form, slope and depth, corresponding to different segments
of the chain. In the northern and southern extremes of the Andes, the Benioff
zones clearly show lower dipangles and lesser depths than in the central part. The
only Andean segment with deep seismicity (more than 500 km) corresponds to the
thickest crust zone of the Central Andes, which also presents a deep and well-
developed trench (between the Carnegie and Juan Fernandez ridges; 5°-33 °S).
In this way we can also note that, corresponding to the wnes where oceanic
ridges (Nazca ridge, for instance) or large oceanic fracture zones or hot-spot type
volcanic alignments such as those at 10°, 26°-27°, 36°, 40°-42 os lat.) reach the
Andean border, there is a clear decrease in the seismic activity (Fig. 5). This fact
was pointed out by Bonatti et al. (1977) for the relatively aseismic zone of Chana-
ral, northern Chile (26°- 27 °S) ("Easter hot line" fracture zone) and by Hanus and
Vanek (1978), indicating the nonuniform rate of subduction along the Peru-Chile
trench and the hampering effect caused by the presence of these structures.
The Andes Cordillera: A Synthesis of the Geologic Evolution 5
ANDEAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN TYPES EVOLUTION SCHEME
Septentrional Andes Central Andes Meridional Andes
v2 '
/
- ~~ -~--~~--
',
.J f t wlo t , I 988
v, ./""
-·'r'- T
.IV ,./
r-<.> 2- ([) 3- . 4 - ,,
7- /I'- a - 9-
10- -.::::::::::;:r II-

12 - - - 13 - + 14---..
Fig. 2. Evolution scheme of the South American plate ("Andean") continental margin. 1 Active island
arc (theoleiitic suite); 2 inactive oceanic type rock masses; 3 suture complex (abducted ophiolites);
4 accretion prism melange (paired-metamorphic belt); 5 sialic crust; 6 oceanic crust; 7 active volcanism;
8 declining volcanism; 9 back-arc rifting ophiolites; 10 epicontinental back-arc marine basin; 11 "weak"
or lacking Benioff zone; 12 flysch sequences (arrow indicates provenance when known); 13 arc (mainly
plutonic) magmatism; 14 cessation and westward migration of the magmatic arc due to accretion
phenomena. V1 Tholeiitic volcanism, ophiolites; V2 calc-alkaline basic to intermediate volcanism,
andesites. V3 calc-alkaline intermediate to acidic volcanism; V4 alkaline volcanism
6 J. Frutos
PACIFIC
ANTARCTICA
Fig. 3. Present plates and oceanic ridges involved in the American continent dynamics (seismicity is
indicated by points) (after !sacks and Molnar 1979, and Bankwitz and Bankwitz 1978)
Another remarkable characteristic of the Benioff zone below the Andes of

Peru and Chile is the existence of an aseismic gap zone at variable depths between
100 and 200 km (depending on the different Benioff dip angles) which exactly cor-
responds, in its normal projection towards the surface, to recent volcanic activity
(Fig. 4). Hanus and Vanek (1978) suggested that this gap could be a partially
melted zone, which is supposed to be the source of primary magma for active
andesite volcanoes. No active volcanism appears in those zones of the Andes op-
posite to oceanic structures (aseismic ridges, fracture zones). In these segments
the 100-200 km seismic gap does not appear (Hanus and Vanek 1978).
The large continental structures, such as the Pampean and Patagonian massifs
(Paleozoic and Precambrian orogenic belts) correspond to neat, welldefined and
deep Benioff zones. These ancient NNW-trending ranges, now eroded and incor-
Fig. 4. Andean seismic profiles and their relations to recent andesitic volcanism. 1 seismic zones con-
sidered; 2 thickest crust area (altiplanic zone); 3 Precambrian range massifs; 4 oceanic, aseismic ridges;
5 Andean (Mesozoic-Cenozoic) magmatism; 6 active volcanic area; 7 shoshonitic volcanic belt; 8
alkaline volcanism; 9 oceanic fracture zones; 10 maximum extension of the Andean Mesozoic-
Cenozoic geosynclinal system; 11 approximate limit of the Paleozoic geosynclinal area; 12 Bouguer
gravity anomaly contour lines; 13 trench; 14 aseismic gap (ag); 15 trench location in the seismic pro-
files; 16 filled trench in southern Chile; 17 location of active volcanism in the seismic profiles; 18
southern Chile, filled trench (after Frutos 1986a, b)
.. A
200 •
••
· ~~ ....
:· .:- ;·· B
. ··.
"'•
20()-
,·'
~}
..
,
.-.
.
..,.~
' "'1""!1'
c
..
zoo· , ~ ~
,..
0
.. ..
,..
..
E
,..
-~
.
60 W
-~.:.·
.. . · "'. f
200·
,.. az.•w
G
..
~--
200'
oo• , ...
H
200·
1., 9 I, V II A I7 . · '1e
• {;:ill.
8 J. Frutos
.. ...
.. 0
.."
!< !"'c .,
..
J>
"
Km
.
c:
0
....
N
....
t> c:
c: 0
c:
..z...
L. ..
~~
u
..
c:\;
:lL.
"">IL
Fig. 5. Projection of the seismic hypocentres on a N-S vertical plane, and its relationship with oceanic
and continental structures (after Frutos 1986a)
so· 70°
0 500 km 10•
..
'·
Deroth to
M distantonuity in km ·~~ 1
1OOOm above s .l.
Fig. 6. Contour map of the M discon-
tinuity for the Central Andes. Con-
SOOOm below s . I.
tours show depth of the Moho in km.
(After James 1971)
porated into the Mesozoic-Cenozoic N-S Andean chain, seem to have roots that
control a neat and well-developed Benioff zone (Figs. 4 and 5). It is interesting
to note that the only Andean zone with a shoshonitic magmatic belt corresponds
exactly to the zones of thickest crust in the Central Andes (Fig. 6), in which the
deepest Benioff zones have developed (Frutos 1981).
According to Frutos (1981) the sinuosities, which the different sectors of the
Benioff zone present (Fig. 4), probably correspond to changes in the convergence
rates, which would also control the episodicity of the tectonic movements, the
main morphologic-structural features and the cessation in the volcanic activity
(see later).
2 Septentrional Andes
The Septentrional Andes as considered in this chapter are the Andean regions of
northwestern Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador, based not only on geographic
considerations but also on the different geologic features that characterize this
sector, especially during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution of the orogenic chain.
As pointed out by Bourgois et al. (1982) and Megard (1987), who divided this
sector into the northern Andes from the Caribbean to 3 os, and the Huancabam-
ba Andes from 3° to 8°S, the Septentrional Andes, in contrast to the Central
Andes, characteristically includes in the western ranges and coastal lowlands of
Colombia and Ecuador, accreted terranes of oceanic origin which collided with
the South American plate margin during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic. Thus, the
Septentrional Andes comprises an "allochthonous" orogenic chain to the west
and an "autochthonous" (epicontinental) orogenic chain to the east (Figs. 7 and
8).
2.1 The Pre-Mesozoic Basement
A Pre-Mesozoic basement (not yet completely elucidated), composed of a

Precambrian metamorphic complex and Paleozoic series of a geosynclinal-type
development, forms the sialic basal complex of the already mentioned Mesozoic-
Cenozoic "autochthonous orogenic chain" at the Central and Oriental Cordilleras
of Colombia and Ecuador.
The Paleozoic rocks, having a Precambrian basement, partly of 1200 to
1300 Ma granulite type (Kronenberg 1982), appear in relatively isolated, north-
northeast-trending, narrow belt outcrops (Cord. Central, Massif de Garzon-
Quetame, Massif de Santa Marta-La Guajira, Massif de Santander, Sierra de
Merida). These rocks seem to have been formed in a Paleozoic, active,
geosynclinal system (probably in connection with a southeast dipping, paleosub-
duction zone) which, from older to younger and from WNW to ESE, is repre-
sented by the following rock series:
1. Isolated outcrops of granitoids, which include also Precambrian intrusive
rocks, appear to the west of the Central Cordillera approximately at the longitude
of the Cauca-Patia Graben, partly affected and covered by an Early Cretaceous
obduction of tholeiite-type oceanic rocks (Megard 1987; Meissner et al.
1976).
2. Lower Paleozoic, terrigenous, sedimentary rocks including basic pyroclastics
which, together with marine rocks of an Early Devonian N-NE-trending, elongate
10 J. Frutos
!::
.,
.::
.l;l
.l;l
!
••'
-
!)
.:,.
'
..... 00
(I)
I-
/
~
.·;/
1/)
::l
0
(I) 'N
()
t1l
l
(I)
f
.....
~
~ 0
'
()
1/)
1/)
D
..
t1l
.....
.....::l M
..
()
0
N
D
..
0
~
(I)
t1l D
...
0.
()
B ..,
0
0
N
0
-
.....
(I)
0 ......
.....
~
.r
•'9 ·~ 0~ ok ~ •'~ •'5: D

so·
CARIBBEAN.
Fig. 8. Principal physiographic and structural

provinces of north western South America
(after Megard 1987). Colombia, Panama and
Venezuela. 1 Serrania de Baud6; 2 Atrato-San
Juan basin/coastal lowlands; 3 Western Cor-
dillera; 4 Cauca-Patio graben; 5 Central Cor-
dillera; 6 Magdalena Valley; 7 Eastern Cor-
dillera; 8 Cordillera de Merida; 9 Llanos.
Ecuador and northern Peru: 10 coastal
o· lowlands; 11 Gulf of Guayaquil pull-apart
basin; 12 Western Cordillera; 13 inter-Andean
graben; 14 Eastern Cordillera; 15 Subandean
hills; 16 Amazonian lowlands; 17 Amotape-
Tahuin, probably accreted terranes. Striped
pattern denotes accreted terranes. Line with
open triangles indicates the oceanic trench.
Lines with black triangles indicates the
oceanic overthrusts. DGM Dolores-Guayaquil
megashear zone
basin located in the Eastern Cordillera (Megard 1987), seem to form a first
Paleozoic sedimentary cycle that ended with the Late Devonian uplift.
Late Devonian-Early Carboniferous metamorphic rocks crop out in the Cen-
tral Cordillera, which according to McCourt et al. (1984) partly belong to a paired
metamorphic belt.
4. Marine silicic-carbonatic sedimentary rocks, of Carboniferous-Early Per-
mian age and of a miogeosynclinal-type basin located within the Eastern Cor-
dillera, appear affected by an Upper Permian folding episode.
5. Red continental sedimentary series of Late Permian-Lower Triassic, which
perfectly correlate with similar series of the Central and Meridional Andes, ap-
pear covering the former sequences, probably with the same tectonic meaning: a
peneplanization episode that separates the Paleozoic from the Mesozoic tectonic
cycles.
Fig. 7. Paleogeographic-tectonic evolution scheme of the Andes Cordillera. 1 Upper Proterozoic

magmatic rocks; 2 emerged continental crust; 3 marine basins; 4 continental basins; 5 marine-con-
tinental basins; 6 tholeiitic magmatism; 7 basic-intermediate calc-alkaline magmatism; 8 Early Pro-
terozoic rocks; 9 oceanic accretion complexes and ophiolites; 10 sialic basement; 11 intracratonic
basins; 12 miogeanticlinal ridge; 13 shoshonitic volcanic belt; 14 paleo-trench; 15 volcanic-magmatic
arc (eugeanticlinal ridge); 16 Early Proterozoic "Pampean" arc (eugeanticlinal ridge) and Upper Pro-
terozoic "authochthonous" epicontinental magmatic arc; 17 Upper Proterozoic eugeanticline
12 J. Frutos
2.2 The Mesozoic-Cenozoic Orogenic Chain
The "Autochthonous, Terranes. The present limit that separates the "autoch-
thonous" system from the "allochthonous" terranes to the west corresponds to
the so-called Dolores-Guayaquil megashear, which, partly as a suture line (south-
ern extreme), and partly as a dextral strike-slip fault, extends for almost 2000 km,
with a N-NE direction from the Pacific coast of Guayaquil to the Caribbean Sea
(Fig. 8).
As mentioned previously, a mobile, mainly epicontinental system evolved at
the margin of the South American plate during the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic.
In general terms, this system was tectonically organized as an epicontinental
volcanic arc-back-arc basin which developed since the Lower Mesozoic and was
approximately emplaced at the geographic position of the present Central and
Eastern Cordilleras. Previously, in the same area, in the Upper Permian to
Jurassic interval, a continental sequence with red beds and rhyolites grading to
andesites and local Jurassic marine transgressions was documented (Julivert 1973;
Megard 1987; McCourt et al. 1984). The volcanic intercalations seem to be coeval
with the suite of plutons located in the Central Cordillera with K-Ar ages ranging
from 248±10 to 214±10m.y. (Fig. 9).
The Jurassic-Cretaceous epicontinental magmatic-volcanic arc, located on the
eastern flank to the Central Cordillera of Colombia, extended towards the south-
southwest, trending through Ecuador and Peru (Colan-Misahualli-Celica Forma-
tions), producing a suite of large calc-alkaline batholiths with K-Ar ages between
174±10 and 142±6m.y. (McCourt et al. 1984) and also important volcanic se-
quences that interfinger to the east; first, with the red bed series of the Jurassic
back-arc basin, and later, with the thick miogeosynclinal-type marine sequences
of the important Cretaceous marine basin of the Eastern Cordillera. This basin,
which was located with a north-northeast axis between the magmatic arc of the
Central Cordillera to the west and the Guyana shield to the east and which extend-
ed to the south through Ecuador and Peru, accumulated about 10 km of sand-
stones and dark shales. As pointed out by Megard (1987), this great sedimentary
thickness suggests that the sialic basin floor was thinned contemporaneously with
an important extensional episode of normal faulting.
The belt of calc-alkaline plutons (K-Ar ages from 119 to 68 m.y., McCourt et
al. 1984), which is located at the Central Cordillera of Colombia, provides
evidence for the Cretaceous position of the arc which formed a barrier between
the already mentioned epicontinental basin and the open sea to the west (Megard
1987).
Fig. 9. Above: Composite cross-section of the Colombian Andes near 5°30'N lat. (after Megard 1987);
adapted from the following references: Julivert (1973), Meissner et al. (1976). Thrusts related to: 1/Jl,
Early Cretaceous obduction; ¢J2, Late Cretaceous obduction; ¢J3, Thrtiary subduction/accretion.
Below: Generalized cross-section through the Andes of Ecuador (after Megard 1987). All areas: 1 Late
Cenozoic volcanoes; 2 Thrtiary clastic rocks. Pacific Ocean, coastal lowlands and Western Cordillera;
3 Late Tertiary plutons; 4 volcaniclastic Late Cretaceous rocks of the Cayo Fm.; 5 volcanic rocks of
the Macuchi island arc and associated sedimentary rocks; 6 oceanic crust. Eastern Cordillera, suban-
dean hills and Amazonian lowlands; 7 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, locally cleaved; V denotes Celica
volcanic rocks; 8 Paleozoic rocks, in part metamorphosed; 9 Precambrian basement
o-j
SERRANIA ::r
DE "'
PACIFIC OCEAN WESTERN EASTERN LlANOS
' !BAUDO( ATRATO BAS IN I >
0
CORDILLERA CORDILlERA p.
~
(')
~ 0
a.
:::
•• • ~~~~~ I() ~
>
.. "'
1 ;~;;~~~==~~~~~-:-:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~::~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 !f
20
SO~m km
~:;.
--- "'~-
Western Cordillera Central and Eastern Cordillera Llanos All areas
"'0
....,
Mesozo1c sed. rocks floored late Cenozo,c
~ TerHary granato•ds ~ bv con1m111n1a1 crul! ~ Paleorooc •eO. rocks [£) vole en•~ rock :;.
MesozOic sed. rock a noored Terhary terrtQenous
~ !!:!] l111 Crettceous orannoad.t lillJ ~~~~~.~~~~..::~;:~c!:s c::::J rock a "'
by oeeantc cru" an ~
Central Cor<hllerl )
mafic and uluam•tic rocka Juras.sic grarutOldS
g.
~ CTI Precambraan a.nd Paleoro•c
IT::!] granuoads ~
;:;·
~
![
w E g·
PACIFIC WESTERN i NTER • EASTERN
I sue I AMAZONIAN
COASTAL LOWLANDS l ANDEAN CORD. 1ANDEAN LOWLANDS
OCEAN
I CORDILLERA VALLEY HILLS
l
~ r,:
[ 20km
3 5
SDkm
,_....._ , 8
Cl 2 ~4 OI!!l 6 ~ 7 o:::::il 9 -
""
14 J. Frutos
This "autochthonous" arc-back-arc basin system changed drastically with the

accretion episode of exotic oceanic-type terranes during the Upper Cretaceous,
which produced the end of the magmatic activity of the arc and the subsequent
westward migration of this magmatism during the Cenozoic. The same
phenomena occurred to the south, in Ecuador, where the accretion of the
Macuchi "allochthonous" arc to the South American plate produced the cessa-
tion of the epicontinental-Celica arc volcanism in the Upper Cretaceous (Lebrat
et al. 1986) (Figs. 2 and 9).
During the Cenozoic, this entire back-arc area continued as a continental
sedimentary environment in which the conglomerates and clastic materials, in-
terbedded with other Cenozoic formations, mark the tectonic phases of the An-
dean uplift.
The "Allochthonous" Terranes. The accreted terranes are located in Colombia

over the coastal hills and lowlands (Serrania de Baud6), the Western Cordillera
and the westernmost parts of the Central Cordillera. To the south, in Ecuador,
these "allochthonous" materials are located along much of the Western Cor-
dillera.
The accretion process in Colombia took place in at least two major and
separate episodes. One episode during the Cretaceous in the form of two sets of
eastward-obducted thrust sheets consists mostly of dismembered ophiolitic com-
plexes and their sedimentary cover, accreted over the edge of the South American
plate in the Lower and Upper Cretaceous, and now forms the Western Cordillera
and some klippen in the Central Cordillera (Megard 1987).
A second accretion episode, forming the Serrania de Baud6, took place in the
Lower Tertiary due to the collision, possibly by convergence and subduction of
a large slab of oceanic and/or island-arc rocks of Upper Cretaceous-Lower Ter-
tiary age, which comprises a sequence of basalts covered by massive volcano-
clastic horizons and more basalts at the top.
These two accretion episodes, successively moving the trench to the west, caus-
ed the cessation and subsequent westward migration of the magmatic-volcanic arc
(Fig. 2), respectively represented by the Late Cretaceous granitoid belt of the Cen-
tral Cordillera and the Tertiary granitoid belt (K-Ar, 47 Ma) of the Western Cor-
dillera (Gobel and Stibane 1979).
The accretion process in Ecuador corresponded to the collision during the
Eocene of a Cretaceous-Early Tertiary typical island-arc assemblage (Macuchi
Formation), including tholeiites to quartz-andesites, volcaniclastics and fine-
grained sedimentary rocks, which in many places are covered by Late Cretaceous-
Early Tertiary flysch sequences derived from the South American plate edge. This
fact indicates that the Macuchi arc was close to the former continental margin
(Megard 1987).
Oceanic crust-type rocks (dismembered ophiolite complex, located eaost of the
arc terranes, but probably not part of the Macuchi arc), correspond according to
Lebrat et al. (1986) to the suture materials.
Due to the collision, the Celica Cretaceous volcanic-magmatic arc located at
the Eastern Cordillera ceased its activity, and a new arc located to the west, in the
Western Cordillera, was active during the Middle-Upper Cenozoic (Fig. 9).
According to Megard (1987), the Huancabamba Andes (3° to 8°S) show a

distinct Pre-Oligocene evolution. One of its major features is the drastic westward
jump of the continental volcanic arc in Early Cretaceous time caused by the accre-
tion of the mainly continental crust of the Amotape-Thhuin terranes.
3 The Central Andes

The Central Andes, as considered in this chapter, are the Andean areas of Peru,
Bolivia, northern and central Chile, and Argentina, north of 42 os lat., based
more on the similarities of the geologic-tectonic features than on geographic con-
siderations (Figs. 1, 2 and 7).
As pointed out by Megard (1987), in contrast to the Septentrional Andes, the
Central Andes seems to be, from the Lower Jurassic to the Present, an orogen,
mainly related to the subduction of the oceanic lithosphere. The magmatic-
volcanic arc appears to gradually migrate in space and time from west to east, in-
dicating destructive plate-margin conditions. No accretion or collisional phenom-
ena during this interval have been registered. Mountain building (Megard 1987)
appears to be caused by both, compression occurring in discrete short episodes,
and by the transport of magmatic material (volcanic and plutonic) from the man-
tle into the crust.
However, the Pre-Mesozoic Central Andes geology (especially the Pre-Devo-
nian) shows important former episodes of accretion, in certain forms similar to
those described from the Septentrional Andes during the Mesozoic (see Fig. 2).
The Precambrian Rocks. There are important outcrops of Precambrian rocks in-
side the Paleozoic and Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenic domains.
The oldest, most important outcrops are located in the 1800-2000 m.y.
gneissic-granulitic complex of the Arequipa massif in southwestern Peru
(Dalmayrac et al. 1977), the 1000 m.y. Belen and 1260 ± 30 m.y. U/Pb (Breitkreuz
and Zeil 1984) Sierra de Moreno schist-gneiss-amphibolite complex in northern
Chile, the 970 m.y. Rb/Sr gneiss-schist-amphibolite complex of the Sierra de Cor-
doba and the 1390 m.y. Rb/Sr pyroxene gneisses of the Sierras Pampeanas in
northwestern Argentina (Cingolani and Varela 1975).
Out of the Phanerozoic tectonic domain to the east, the micaschist-am-
phibolite-gneiss complex of the Rondonia appears in eastern Bolivia, bordering
the Brazilian shield to the west.
During Late Proterozoic, many dyke-like granitic bodies and metamorphic
mineral assemblages indicated an important tectomagmatic event (Baikalian
Orogeny, Stewart et al. 1974).
In spite of the scarce representation of the Precambrian units and the high
grade of tectonism-metamorphism that affects them thus making any paleogeo-
graphic interpretation difficult, it has been proposed that the Arequipa massif
corresponds to a continental microplate that collided with the South American
16 J. Frutos
plate in Upper Ordovician times (Coira et al. 1982; Ramos 1982; Allmendinger
et al. 1983), coinciding with the "Ocloyic" tectonic phase (Thconian orogeny) and
a first Puna uplift and Eastern Cordillera configuration. Whether these
allochthonous terranes corresponded to an active island arc in the vicinity of the
continental border, a continental microplate with a former (Lower Proterozoic)
magmatic activity, or hot-spot type volcanic accreted terranes, remains an open
question.
The Paleozoic "Andean" System. The Paleozoic geological organization is better

known and its areal representation more important, especially east of the Andean
Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenic domain, where the Paleozoic and Precambrian units
form its foreland.
The Paleozoic units in Chile and in the occidental belts of Peru always appear
with a higher degree of metamorphism and tectonism than in the eastern belts.
Besides, especially in the Central Andes, these areas coincide with the "eugeosyn-
clinal" part of the Paleozoic system.
The most important feature in the Paleozoic paleogeography of the Central
Andes is the existence of a very large, northwesternly trending marine basin occu-
pying a large part of Peru, Bolivia and northwestern Argentina (Megard et al.
1971). This strongly subsident, mainly tensional-type basin, approximately
located between the present subandean hills and the Cordillera Occidental,
presents two main episodes of sedimentation:
1. A first Upper Cambrian to Late Devonian, mainly siliciclastic sedimentary
cycle that reaches a maximal sedimentation thickness of 15 km in Bolivia. A Late
Ordovician-Early Silurian hiatus has been recognized along the sedimentary se-
quence (Thconian orogeny?).
2. A second Carboniferous-Lower Permian sedimentary cycle with a better de-
velopment in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru (3 km thickness), but in general less
important than the former in both vertical and horizontal development.
The beginning and end of these sedimentary cycles are controlled by important
diastrophisms. After the Upper Proterozoic Assintian or Baikalian orogeny
(Aubouin et al. 1973), a Lower-Middle Cambrian peneplanization period took
place, which was characterized by volcaniclastics and red bed clastic materials and
evaporitic horizons (especially in Bolivia and northwestern Argentina) followed
by a tensional period at the Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician that correlates
with the basin subsidence.
The Acadian Orogenesis (365- 340 m.y.), produced the emersion and folding
of the Lower Paleozoic sedimentary series, separating them from the Car-
boniferous-Lower Permian second sedimentary episode which ended with the Ap-
palachian tectonic phase (240-270 m.y.) during the Permian.
The presence of a southern extension of this basin under the Central Argentina
Mesozoic - Cenozoic clastic sediments of the Llanura Chaco - Pampeana
peneplain has not yet been completely established (Russo et al. 1979).
Marine volcanic rocks are scarce. However, they appear to be represented by
pillow basalts and basic tuff horizons along the "oceanic" side of this basin at the
Cordillera Occidental - High Plateau boundary, near 12 os lat. (Harrison 1943),
near Cuzco, in southern Peru and in northwestern Argentina (Schwab 1973).
To the south, a possible correlation of this basic volcanic belt with the ophiolitic
complex belt, described by Borrello (1969) in the western margin of the north-
western Argentina Precordillera, still remains an open question. This last sequence
comprises basaltic pillow lavas, turbiditic and pelagic sediments, gabbros, hypabys-
sal mafic to ultramafic bodies and foliated ultramafic tectonites (Haller and Ramos
1984) in the lowermost parts. Petrographic (Quartino et al. 1971) and geochemical
studies (Kay et al. 1984) show the oceanic (back-arc basins or transitional mid-
ocean ridge type) affinities of these rocks, appearing also at 24 °S lat. in Chile near
the Argentinian border (Niemayer 1988, in press), during the Lower Paleozoic.
To the east, in the western flank of the Pampean Ranges Massif, forming a
subparallel north-northwest trending belt, calc-alkaline effusive rocks and coeval
!-type granitoids ("Faja Eruptiva de la Puna") appear, which could be related to
an east-dipping Upper Proterozoic-Lower Paleozoic subduction zone, as was sug-
gested by Frutos and Thbar (1975). This structure would define an epicontinental
"autochthonous" magmatic arc, the "Pampean Arc".
To the west of all these assemblages, the "Chilean" Upper Proterozoic-Lower
Paleozoic system is found, the main outcrops of which include gneisses, schists, and
amphibolites, with a basaltic-alkaline protolith (Baeza 1984; Godoy 1986) and form
the N-S belt of Belen-Sierra de Moreno-Limon Verde-Rio Tninsito. This·system
could correspond to remnants or roots of an evolved island-arc assemblage.
These rocks are flanked to the east and west by Lower-Upper Paleozoic flysch-
type and platform series (Aguada de la Perdiz, Cerro Pizarra, Zorritas, Sierra de
Almeida, Sierra Aspera, etc.; Breitkreuz 1986) and are bordered more to the west,
at the coastal ranges, by oceanic-type accretion melange rocks (Godoy 1986).
This arc, with an east-dipping subduction zone, that possibly was not far from
the South American plate edge, could be considered, until the Ordovician, as an
"allochthonous" element ("Limon Verde-Arc"). After the collision of this arc in
the Upper Ordovician, the former "allochthonous" subduction zone ended. To
the west remained a sole, east-dipping subduction zone under the accreted ter-
ranes, with the subsequent reorganization and westward migration of the
magmatic belt. A corresponding change of the petrologic-geochemical character-
istics from the !-type Ordovician Pampean granitoids that grade into the Upper
Paleozoic S-type encratonic granites (87 Sr/86Sr>0.710, Omarini et al. 1979,
1984) and the new belt of Middle-Upper Paleozoic magmatic rocks along the
northern Chilean Andes (Fig. 2) has been observed.
This organization, which implies a double east-dipping subduction zone-arc
assemblage functioning during the Lower Paleozoic, was first suggested by Frutos
and Tobar (1975). Later, Coira et al. (1982), Ramos (1982), Allmendinger et al.
(1983) and Herve et al. (1987) proposed the collision of the Arequipa
"microplate" with the South American plate, closing in this way the eastern sub-
duction zone- epicontinental arc during the Late Ordovician. A new tectonic in-
terpretation of the Early Paleozoic events has been recently suggested by Ramos
et al. (1984), who proposed the collision of a continental mass, "Chilenia", with
the Gondwanic Craton. Herve et al. (1987) point out that the relationships be-
tween the Arequipa microplate and the hypothetical Chilenia are unknown, a
possibility being that they could be parts of the same continental plate accreted
in different periods, or two completely independent elements.
18 J. Frutos
The Paleozoic tectonic cycle ended during the Upper Permian-lower Triassic
with a great emersion and subsequent peneplanization episode characterized by
widely exposed continental-clastic, red bed sequences including an important
rhyolitic-keratophyric plateau-type volcanism.
The Central Andes Mesozoic-Cenozoic System. The Central and Meridional

Andes (with the exception of the Magallanes Andean Chain) provide a typical ex-
ample of a permanent epicontinental, volcanic-magmatic arc evolution and the
corresponding epicontinental, first marine, later continental, back-arc basin. This
system was related to an eastward-dipping subduction process of an oceanic plate
beneath the South American plate and was mainly connected to the spreading
center of the East Pacific Rise (Frutos and Tobar 1975; Megard 1978).
This system lacks ophiolites, tectonic nappes, typical flysch sequences and re-
gional metamorphism higher than the green schist facies (Aubouin et al. 1973;
Aguirre et al. 1974).
The marine transgression began in central-northern Peru with Norian shelf
carbonate sedimentation persisting up to the Lower Jurassic (Pucara basin, Font-
bote, this Vol.) occupying most 'of the area of the recent Coastal and Western Cor-
dillera. The existence of an Upper Triassic-Liassic volcanic arc, located to the west
of the recent coast line (now eroded and perhaps subducted), has been suggested
(Fig. 10). A different situation appears in northern Chile, where a well-defined
volcanic arc has developed since the Lower Jurassic. This magmatism, which in
Peru is less important and which remained approximately located along the
coastal ranges during the entire Mesozoic and which then migrated inland to its
actual position, was in Chile always gradually migrating towards the position of
the recent volcanic chain, 200 km inland. The petrologic-geochemical characteris-
tics of this magmatism (which are more specifically considered in several chapters
of this Vol.) graded from basic to intermediate calc-alkaline at the Lower-Jurassic
to intermediate-acidic calc-alkaline in the Upper Cenozoic main volcanic chain,
and alkaline (shoshonitic) in the eastern volcanic belt (Fig. 11).
Marine Middle to Late Jurassic series, which are well developed in southern
Peru and occupy the coastal area, the Western Cordillera and the Altiplano, are
unknown in Bolivia (Megard 1987). In northern Chile during the same period,
the same facies that covers only the coastal area at 18 os lat. progressively extend-
ed to the south, with a former S-SE-trending shore-line, covering territories now
corresponding to the west flank of the Western Cordillera (at 25 os lat., e.g.).
During the Late Dogger-Early Maim, an important emersion episode affected
the complete system in Chile, whereas the marine facies persisted in the coastal
area north of Lima. The notable Araucanian (Nevadian) orogeny of the Kim-
meridgian that produced folding and reverse faulting all along the Andes is not
well recognized in Peru (Audebaud et al. 1973).
In both central-northern Chile and in Peru, the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous
paleogeographic organization of the complete system, from west to east, cor-
responded to, (1) the volcanic arc; (2) the marine back-arc basin (with thinning
episodes of the sialic crust during the Lower Cretaceous, both in Peru and Chile),
well connected with the open sea; (3) a miogeanticlinal, partially emerged struc-
ture ("Maraii6n" geanticline in Peru, Audebaud et al. 1973; and the "Domeyko
zone rotiere Cordillera Occidentale Cordollere Orientale zona subandine
A
SGOW d~~~s
2SOO
':!::.•
, tsoo NGOE
' tC I.JeD)'.a• sooom
0 l vcean .-ac.noqu.o . ~ ..
. ·.· 'l ·""""·' ,, j
5000 _ _____-----:~-:-·.•. ·.:. \ ,__ .~-···
. ·. ~:_~~\;.:;;:::::,;:~·~soc:
\
' -- ---
1 -
-- --
zone cOtiOre Cordillera Occidentale \ Cordillera- - Orientale tzone subandine
zone intercordillaraine--- --
-- -- ---- --
_,
SW Altiplaoo Synclinorium de Putina NE
8
5000
~~~~_....~l~m /
./
__ ...... ..--....- /
011 --- -- /
"""'T:- ~ ----~- /
~5 010 a~ .......... /
12
c Altiplano _.. _.. Cordillera Orientale 1....- / zone subandine
~4 E:::?J 9 Tc E
w I
~3
08 0 10 20 30 '-0 50Km
E 2 ~7
sooofm
0
~~~~
- ' " - . ' .• · - .. - · l . 4i.••~•u~
J 'Ji4:: -Ar:_ - .- "_ •
~6 5000
l~m
Fig. 10. Schematic geological sections of the Central Andes (after Audebaud 6 red beds of the Upper Cretaceous-Eocene; 7 Oligocene-Miocene volcanic-
et al. 1973). Section A, northern Peru. Section B, southern Peru. Section C, detrital series; 8 Miocene-Pliocene detrital series; 9 Precambrian and Paleozoic
south of Bolivia. 1 Precambrian basement (partly includes Lower Paleozoic plutonic rocks; 10 Early "Andean" plutonic rocks (Cretaceous to Oligocene);
units (Sections A and B); 2 Lower Paleozoic units a with Hercynian schistosity 11 late "Andean" plutonic rocks (Miocene to Pliocene); 12 Plio-Pleistocene to
and b without schistosity; 3 Upper Paleozoic series; 4 occidental Mesozoic Recent volcanics, a large strato-volcanoes, b small strato-volcanoes, c ignim-
series with magmatic-volcanic intercalations; 5 eastern Mesozoic series, brites
a without schistosity and b with "Andean" schistosity, c subandean zone diapirs;
20 J. Frutos
Lower Cretaceous PERU
WSW
Jurassic CHILE
w
------
Fig. 11. Diagrammatic representation of the Mesozoic Central Andes system. Upper block after
Megard (1987): Neocomian and Albian facies relations in northern and central Peru. Lower block:
adapted from Megard (1987) for the northern Chilean Jurassic system. 1 Emerged land; 2 volcanoes;
3 sandstones; 4 shales; 5 limestones; 6 volcanic flows and sills; 7 pillow lavas; 8 gabbros; older rocks:
9 Liassic-Triassic ages; 10 Paleozoic-Precambrian
Cordillera" miogeanticline in Chile, Frutos 1975; Frutos and Tobar 1975; (4) a
miogeosynclinal basin whose paralic series interfinger to the east with a continen-
tal sedimentation of red detrital materials on the foreland edge; (5) the cratonic
area (see Fig. 11 ).
After the Upper Jurassic orogenic episode, a new marine ingression developed
during the Lower Cretaceous. In Peru it developed with a pelitic character since
the Upper Valanginian and occupies approximately the same areas of the Upper
Jurassic basin. In northern Chile it occupies since the Upper Titonian only a
restricted area of a new, long, and narrow back-arc basin that extends, from the
Fig. 12. Generalized tectonic-stratigraphic evolution profile across the southern Central Andes
geosynclinal system (after Frutos 1975). 1 Quaternary volcanic rocks; 2 Tertiary volcanic rocks; 3
Cretaceous volcanic rocks; 4 Jurassic volcanic rocks; 5 Permian and Triassic continental rocks; 6
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks; 7 Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks; 8 marine sedimentary rocks;
9 continental sedimentary rocks; 10 marine Jurassic rocks; 11 marine Cretaceous rocks; 12 marine Ter-
tiary rocks; 13 Quaternary sediments; 14 interfingering; 15 extension structures; 16 compression struc-
tures; 17 calc-alkaline volcanism (b basic; i intermediate; a acid); 18 Paleozoic granitic rocks;
19 Lower Jurassic granitic rocks; 20 Upper Jurassic granitic rocks; 21 Cretaceous granitic rocks;
22 Tertiary granitic rocks; 23 Quaternary magmatism; 24 active magmatism (s =shoshonitic);
25 limestone facies; 26 magmatism migration towards the foreland
BOL IVIA
CHILE I ARGENTINA
Coast Ranges
UPPER PLIOCENE-QUATERNARY Sub Andean Rangos
w. Tl Km Oroclinal ~'
Cruz olbow _ ~ )
\
~ Sta. -l,t
<:;::= I
R·T2
0 50 100Km ~
...... ...... '==== =-
........
OLIGOCENE - MIOCENE l·a ~c-._
~
::0
...... ........
....... ~J'V"... -e
.......
UPPER CRETACEOUS- L OWt:R TERTIARY'
Extra andean marine sediments
Marginal basin
11 ~ 0
~
.,
~ -~
"""1 . ?...,- ~
~·~ - .... 2 f
......... '
~ .......~ .,..
....... u
....... ....0
....... .......
b I Andean Geos1ncllnol
........
UPPER TRIASSIC-NEOCOMIAN Mesodo<saJ
Eu Tdonian·Neocx>mian basin
..
I :"
I 0
I :::1:
I
I
.............. L . Unco<formity duo to tho Upper Jurassic diastrofism (Nevadian or Araucan)•
....... I L - - Uncorformity due to the Upper Triassic extension.
.......
........ L- - - - "1Jncorformity due to the Upper Camon~erous dlastrolism (Tordi-Herdnian)•
Ov _ , -8 • c •-9 c.... -u
/
llv=> lKv= · ~ Jv= •P-T2-:I- ~Pzs:::·6Pzs .lr!· 7 ~r. -10 ''""-J2 C)gt- 13 ~-14 /\)-l!!o /~- 16 ..-r-v-J7 rh,.:- 18 :r J•- 19 t .t• - 20 r •-2 1 ' r- zz '0-23 - 24 ~- 2~/ - 26
22 J. Frutos
Fig. 13. Schematic geological structural representation of the recent northern Chile Andes (after
Frutos 1975). 1 Paleozoic (partly Precambrian) stratiform units; 2 Paleozoic plutonic rocks; 3 Jurassic
plutonic rocks; 4 Cretaceous plutonic rocks; 5 Tertiary plutonic rocks; 6 Jurassic marine sedimentary
rocks; 7 Upper Tertiary plutonic rocks; 8 Jurassic volcanics; 9 Cretaceous volcaniclastic units; 10 Ter-
tiary continental sedimentary rocks and volcanics; 11 Upper Tertiary-Recent continental sedimentary
units; 12 Quaternary volcanic units; 13 strike-slip fauls and shear conjugate joint system related to
E-W compressional events; 14 N-S normal faults related to the Upper Pliocene-Quaternary exten-
sional diastrophism (Andean uplift)
coastal area at the latitude of Antofagasta to the Patagonian Andes, where it ex-
tends approximately along the Chilean-Argentinian border (Figs. 7 and 12).
Since the Late-Lower Cretaceous, the Peruvian basin followed a completely
different evolution than the Chilean one, in which, after the Aptian Oregonian
orogeny, the marine environment definitely receded and the arc continued its
evolution under continental conditions (Figs. 11 and 12).
In constrast, in Peru and Bolivia, a strong marine ingression occurred, during
the Upper Cretaceous, invading wide areas where a continental sedimentation has
been prevailing before. This is the case along the basin, the axis of which follows
approximately the line Cuzco - La Paz - Potosi, in which two short ingression
episodes are recognized (Cenomanian and Campanian - Maestrichtian), the last
even reaching northern Argentina (Yacoraite Fm.) (Salfity 1982).
Moreover, in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile, the basin had the same
general tectonic-paleogeographic organization (from west to east):
1. A magmatic arc, with episodically dominant volcanic activity (Noble et al.

1974).
2. A back-arc basin with typical eugeosynclinal characteristics at the "arc side"
of the basin, and miogeosynclinal ones towards the east.
During the Cenozoic in the complete territory (the arc gradually migrated away
from the trench) a continental climate prevailed, with the exception of some
restricted marine ingressions over the coastal area, in both, Peru and Chile (Fig. 13).
The sedimentation, controlled by the succession of compressive and extensive
tectonic events, was of clastic intermontane basin character, including more or less
important volcanic (mainly andesitic, Thorpe et al. 1978) intercalations, depen-
ding on the relative distance from the arc, whose axis appears to generally trend
subparallel to the continental border.
4 The Meridional Andes

The Meridional Andes discussed in this chapter comprise the sector of Chile and
Argentina that extends to approximately 42 °S lat.
This sector corresponds to the part of the present South American continent
where the development of the sialic crust, mainly through accretion processes, has
been extremely important (see Figs. 1, 7).
From the view point of a possible extension of the Lower Paleozoic paleogeo-
graphic organization proposed for the Central Andes, in a Meridional Andes
cross-section from west to east at approximately the latitude of central-southern
Chile, the following Paleozoic suites appear:
1. A belt of metamorphic rocks located on the western flank of the Coastal Cor-
dillera (Valdivia-Puerto Montt) that includes tholeiitic basalts with pillow struc-
tures, micaschists, metacherts, quartzites and ultramafic rocks (wehrlites, harz-
burgites and dunites) partly serpentinized, forming a complex that Herve et al.
(1976) and Godoy et al. (1984) interpreted as an oceanic crust accretion melange
at a paleosubduction zone and Frutos and Alfaro (1987) proposed to be remnants
of a tholeiitic, Lower Paleozoic island-arc complex, including back-arc type
ophiolites, developing near the continental border (compare also Schreiber, this
publ.).
2. A Lower-Middle Paleozoic belt of flyschoid sedimentary series, approximately
located along both sides of the Chilean-Argentinian border, which to the west in-
terfinger with the quartzites, micaschist, and metagraywackes of the former unit,
and which to the east grades into:
3. A carbonate platform facies, mainly located in Argentina along the eastern
flank of the Cordillera Principal. In some places to the west of this belt (and still
not completely recognized) isolated outcrops of oceanic tholeiitic rocks (dis-
membered ophiolites) appear.
24 J. Frutos
4. An epicontinental volcanic-magmatic arc developed over Precambrian sialic

crust (Patagonian Massif), which could correlate to the north with the Pampean
arc (Faja Eruptiva de la Puna).
5. Back-arc basin and foreland sedimentary cover, whose exact extension below
the Mesozoic-Cenozoic thick clastic sedimentary cover of the southeastern
Argentina platform, is still uncertain.
During the Upper Paleozoic, a calc-alkaline magmatic arc (mainly a
granodioritic batholithic belt) appears as a distinct and well-localized structure
along the central-southern Chile Coastal Cordillera, which seems to continue with
a southwestern-trending extension, south of 38°S lat., in the Patagonian
magmatic belt (87Sr/86Sr = 0.705 to 0.708, Herve et al. 1987).
The tectonic organization of the Meridional Andes Paleozoic system presents
two possibilities. The first one could be in some form similar to that proposed
for the Central Andes, if we consider two east-dipping subduction zones, one
"allochthonous" associated to an incipient volcanic arc approaching the conti-
nent. The second "autochthonous" associated to the epicontinental arc, at the
Lower Paleozoic continental border which would end by the collision at the Upper
Paleozoic (Godoy 1986) of the theoleiitic terranes of the Valdivia-Puerto Mont
belt, and would then migrate to the west at the Upper Paleozoic due to the
reorganization of the subduction zone after the collision (Fig. 2). The emplace-
ment of the Chilean coastal batholithic belt would correspond to the activity of
this new subduction zone.
A second possibility in the Paleozoic Meridional Andes tectonic organization
would consider only one subduction zone-arc complex, successively reorganized
(moving to the west) after the accretion of the allochthonous terranes (in this case,
if we consider them to be of an inactive character).
South of Golfo de Penas, including important areas of the southwestern part
of the Magallanes Archipielago, a long and semi-continuous fore-arc belt of ac-
creted terranes of a Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic age has been described
(Dalziel et al. 1975; Forsythe 1978; Dalziel 1982; Mpodozis and Forsythe 1983).
The accretion complex, including ophiolitic sequences with tholeiitic major ele-
ment patterns similar to those of "MORB" and "within plate" basalts, and
ocean-type sedimentary rocks, is interpreted (Mpodozis and Forsythe 1983) as a
sequence of the Late Paleozoic ancestral Pacific floor, which collided before the
Late Jurassic. The northern part of the collided terranes include a low-grade
metamorphism, thick-reef shale series of Carboniferous-Permian age (Cecioni
1955). The central part, by contrast, is composed of green schists partly
glaucophanized, including amphibolites.
4.2 The Meridional Andes Mesozoic-Cenozoic System
The development of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Meridional Andes is characterized in

the same form as the Central Andes by a volcanic arc-back-arc basin evolving
system that appears as a consequence of a permanent east-northeasterly dipping
oceanic plate subduction beneath a sialic crust (Frutos and Tobar 1975).
However, in comparison with the Central Andes, important differences

characterize the southern Andes evolution. Contrasting with the relatively simple
Central Andes Mesozoic-Cenozoic development, the Meridional Andes (notably
the Magallanes Cordillera) presents a more complex evolution:
1. A first Lower-Middle Mesozoic stage with an important pyroclastic belt
(Tobifera Formation) developed on an ensialic volcanic arc, with a fore-arc,
discontinuous belt of oceanic-type, early accreted terranes (Archipielago Madre
de Dios).
2. A Late Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcanic arc - marginal basin which
presents the following features from SW to NE:
a) Island-arc assemblages which include gently folded, calc-alkaline lavas (Hardy
Formation: andesites, dacites and basaltic pyroclastic rocks) and a granitic root
belt of batholitic type (Herve et al. 1984);
b) Strongly folded volcaniclastic flysch sequences (Yahgan Formation) deposited
in a back-arc marginal basin (Suarez and Pettigrew 1976) which was floored by
a back-arc extensional-type ophiolite complex (Tortuga complex);
c) Slate sequences (Cerro Toro and Springhill Formations) developed on a con-
tinental shelf, which exhibit a decreasing intensity of deformation towards the
foreland.
3. An Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic stage of uplifting and episodic-type tectonic
deformation along the eugeosynclinal zone, which produced the end of the
marginal basin and the outcropping of the batholitic belt due to the intense ero-
sion of the volcanic arc. Subsequent molassic-type sedimentary sequences (Tres
Pasos and Dorotea Formations) were deposited over the former back-arc and con-
tinental shelf zone (Scott 1966).
These tectonic processes, including uplift, horizontal shortening, and shearing
(Bruhn 1979) produced not only the uplift of the frontal arc and back-arc basin
relative to the downwarped continental shelf, but also penetrative fabrics, folds,
and cleavages concentrated in the terrane along the rear margine of the back-arc
basin. The structure trend is, in general, parallel to the basin axis. The strongly
asymmetric folds and the south-southwesterly dipping slate cleavage and
penetrative schistosity indicate a foreland-directed vergence of the uplifting-
shortening process of the arc and back-arc basin moving towards the continental
shelf during the main orogenic events of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary
(Cecioni 1960; Scott 1966; Suarez et al. 1972).
From a tectonic view point the more remarkable feature characterizing the
Meridional Andes Mesozoic evolution is the back-arc basin formation during the
Late Jurassic, as part of a vast subsiding tectonic rift zone (Figs. 2, 7). The basin
was formed by a mixed crust (Bruhn 1979) consisting of newly formed ophiolitic
rocks and rifted blocks of continental basement and Jurassic silicic volcanics.
During the Lower Cretaceous, the calc-alkaline volcanic arc was based on rifted
slivers of continental basement. The mafic complex consisted of mafic plutons
and dikes, locally buried by mafic pillow lavas, intruding the rifted continental
basement blocks. In some areas, extension led to the emplacement of zones of
tholeiitic-type ophiolitic crust formed by layered gabbro, sheeted dykes and pillow
26 J. Frutos
lavas (Tortuga complex at the southern part of the Navarino island in southern
Chile).
According to the structural analysis and its comparison with the central
Chilean structural history (Frutos et al. 1973; Frutos 1988), the oroclinal bending
of the Magallanes Andean Chain took place gradually during Upper Cretaceous
to Lower-Middle Tertiary together with a possibly higher westward rotational
movement of the Patagonian subplate and higher ocean rifting-spreading activity
at the ancestral Drake Passage (Frutos 1988) and Scotia Sea.
5 General Remarks on the Tectonic and Petrologic Evolution

of the Andes Cordillera
5.1 The Orogenic Events
Notwithstanding the differences in the regional correlation that in many cases

show the diverse tectonic events along the entire Andean Chain, we can consider
that the Phanerozoic Andean tectonics essentially developed through two tectonic
cycles: a Paleozoic or "Paleoidic" cycle (Borrello 1969; Megard et al. 1971; Frutos
and Tobar 1975) and a Mesozoic-Cenozoic or "Andean" cycle (Aubouin et al.
1973; Megard et al. 1971; Aguirre et al. 1974), which were limited by the impor-
tant uplifting and peneplanization periods of the Late Upper Proterozoic -
Lower Cambrian and the Late Permian - Early Triassic. The "Andean" tectonic
cycle has been subsequently developing up to the Recent.
Furthermore, the Phanerozoic Andean tectonics clearly appear as a conse-
quence of seafloor spreading and plate convergence characteristics (James 1971;
Geological m.y. Spreading rate Pulses of intrusive Tectonic phases Orogeny

cm/yr(•) magmatism extension compression
period
Quaternary
1 8 ---------- o- 5 2 Peru
7 ~li~~!l]!--- 5- 7 8
7-10 3
Miocene 10-16 5
16-20 3
22.5 ---------- 20-33 6
Oligocene
35-35 8
38 ----------
Eocene
35-45 5
45 49 7
55 ---------- 49 60 2
Paleocene
60 63 5
65 ---------- 2
Upper 63 70
Cretaceous 70-76 4
76 85 2
100 ----------
Lower
85 110 18
Cretaceous 110-125 5
(•)-Calculated for the Southeas.t Pacific
Fig. 14. Relationship between seafloor spreading rates and Andean tectonics (After Frutos 1981)
Charrier 1973; Frutos and Tobar 1975; Farrar et al. 1970; Hanus and Vanek 1978;
Megard 1978; Frutos 1981; Coira et al. 1982; Ramos et al. 1984).
The tectonic evolution of the Andes shows a succession of relatively short com-
pressive stages (Upper Ordovician, Middle Devonian, Upper Carboniferous, Mid-
dle-Upper Permian, Upper Liassic, Upper Jurassic, Late-Lower Cretaceous, Up-
per Cretaceous, Upper Paleocene, Upper Eocene-Middle Oligocene, Middle-Up-
per Miocene) which coincide with well-recognized episodicity of plutonism (Pit-
cher 1979; Megard 1978; Frutos 1981). These events alternate with relatively lon-
ger periods of extension (or at least no compression) generally typified by a higher
volcanic activity which normally shows an early predominance of the acidic types
(Frutos and Tobar 1975) (Fig. 14).
The evolution of seafloor spreading (directions and rates), including the cor-
responding development and migration of oceanic structures (active or inactive
"MOR", island-arc or hot-spot type volcanic masses), shows a close causative
relationship with Andean development (structural directions, alternating com-
pressive and extensional phases, episodicity of plutonism and volcanism, and ac-
cretion phenomena) (Fig. 14).
The orogenic phases coincided with the beginning of periods of relatively
higher rates of plate convergence (Frutos 1981) immediately after periods of
relative "quiescence" (see Fig. 15). This phenomenon could have been of local or
CONVERGENCE REPRESENTATIVE
SCHEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS AT THE CONTINENTAL BORDER
CHARACTER EXAMPLES (RECENT)
O.P. c.P.
"Sinking" plate phase A---=:---.-~..,._----=- quiescence Sandwich, Burma,
Rumania,
N. New Hebrides
"Pushing" plate phase s--=----ll'lj\Jir'·

\
----..,--- beginning of
the activity
Ryukyus ?
S. New Hebrides ?
" Pushing" plate phase c~~~-- activity Calabrian,

Ryukyus,
Middle Amerika
"Pushing" plate phase c~--r~activity Honshu, Tonga
Beginning of the 0·---=~-~~...._,.__.,....-.,~~~ diminishing of Peru, Chile,

"sinking" plate phase ·~ theactivity Kurile, Solomons
lzu-Bonin
·-,,
"Sinking" plate phas,. E---=,----,\-.~~---=- quies.cence Rumania, A~ean,
Hindukush
'•.
--1 -•-2 '1-,-3 '-<• -'\j\1'--o .,~. -++-·7 O.P.-8 c.P.-9
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram showing the relationship between the plate convergence rates, the Benioff
zone behaviour and the tectonic phases at the continental border. I High rate of convergence; 2 rela-
tively low rate of convergence; 3 down-dip extensional stresses; 4 down-dip compressional stresses;
5 compressive tectonic phase (folding); 6 extensional tectonic phase (block faulting); 7 substability
phase; 8 oceanic plate; 9 continental plate (Frutos 1981)
28 J. Frutos
regional relevance according to the major or minor global importance of the

spreading pulses. Normally, the most important orogenic events, Oregonian
(Late-Lower Cretaceous), Sub-Hercynian (Upper Cretaceous), Laramian (Upper
Paleocene), Incaic II (Oligocene) and Quechua (Upper Miocene), have a
worldwide correlation of their causative spreading (major rate) pulses (Frutos
1981).
The Benioff zone structure along the different segments of the Andes (Fig. 4)
presents relatively large differences in its slope form and depth which correlates
with both the spreading and plate convergence rates (according to the Luyendyck
1970, principle) and also with the eventual presence of oceanic structures as
aseismic ridges or hot-spot volcanic alignments (producing a hampering effect,
Hanus and Vanek 1978) which correlate with locally "weak" (shallow and poorly
defined) Benioff zones, normally without active volcanism. On the other hand,
thick sialic masses or continental structures such as the Precambrian and
Paleozoic orogenic belts (e.g., at the Central Andes subduction zone) present neat,
deep, and well-developed Benioff zones. It is interesting to point out, as a cor-
ollary of the relationship between convergence rates and the Benioff zone sinuosi-
ty mechanism, the notable absence of recent volcanism and longitudinal graben
valleys coinciding with a curved-flat ("trowel" form: first steeply dipping and
then horizontal) Benioff zone at 29°-35°S lat. of the Norte Chico segment of the
Chilean Andes (Fig. 4).
Frutos and Tobar (1975) and Frutos (1988) described the rotation of the
orogenic tectonic-structural axes in the evolution of the southwestern continental
margin of South America, from the WNW directions of the Upper Proterozoic-
Lower Paleozoic, through the NW directions of the Middle-Upper Paleozoic, the
NW-NNW directions of the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous, the NS directions of the
Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary, to the NE direction in the Miocene events.
They proposed that these different structural directions correlated with the main
stress trajectories (Fig. 16) corresponding to the evolving spreading centers, sug-
gesting also that the Jurassic and Pre-Jurassic tectonics were mainly a result of
the activity of the Ancestral Chile Rise (Fig. 16). The NE Miocene structural axes
correlate with a NW main stress trajectory probably produced by a higher open-
ing-spreading activity at the Drake Passage (magnetic anomaly 5-6, Figs. 16 and
17, Frutos 1988).
5.2 Magmatism and Its Geochemical Characteristics
Calc-alkaline volcanic and plutonic rocks in the different Andean orogenic set-
tings exhibit such a diversity of composition and character (Harmon and Hoefs
1984) that the subducted oceanic lithosphere, the overlying "enriched"
lithospheric mantle and the lower continental crust have all been advocated as the
primary source region for island-arc and continental-margin basaltic to andesitic
magmas.
The growth of the continental margin by the successive accretion of alloch-
thonous rock masses, e.g., island arcs at the northern Andes, hot-spot assem-
blages, or active or inactive "MOR" at the central and southern Andes producing
UPPER .JURASSIC onom. M 22 152 m .o . UPPER CRETACEOUS ot'IOm. 34 84m .o .

><>"
35 m .o . UPPER (I0·20m.o.)
o•
CJ I c:::::J 2 [;]] 3 ~ <I ·-.... 5 ...... 6 ' 7 "'- 8 \.._.._ 9 t:l 10 • II
Fig. 16. Stress trajectories, structural axis and paleogeographic distribution of plate and oceanic
spreading ridges for different geologic periods. 1 Continental areas; 2 back-arc epicontinental marine
basins; 3 back-arc continental basins; 4 seafloor spreading centres; 5 volcanic-magmatic arc; 6 approx·
imate limit of the continental border; 7 strike-slip faults and/or possible shearing zones; 8 structural
direction of folding axes; 9 possible paleo-trench position; 10, 11 stress (o- 1) trajectories (compres-
sional type) (Paleogeographic continental plates distribution after Lawver et al. 1985, and Barker et
al. 1984)
a retrocession or "rejuvenation" in the evolving geochemical trends and normally

a reorganization and an oceanward migration of the magmatic belts, which
together with the episodic increase in the plate convergence rates thus lower the
angle of subduction and consequently broaden the zone of magmatism (Pilger
1984), seems to have played an important role in the variations of Andean
magmatogenesis. However, at the Andean sectors without recent rifting or accre-
tion phenomena (Mesozoic-Cenozoic Central Andes) a gradual general evolution
in the calc-alkaline trend from a Lower Mesozoic, relatively basic (dioritic)
magmatism, to a Quaternary, relatively more acidic extreme, has been document-
ed (Helle 1986; Montecinos 1979; Schwab 1973; Deruelle 1978; Oyarzun and
Frutos 1980; Lefevre 1973; Frutos 1977). Nevertheless, large differences appear in
30 J. Frutos
main geologic
U)
features
E
U)
(.) .J::.
c.
-"'
U)
Ol "0 0
0 0 ~
0 U)
E Q) Q)
"'
0..
D
--
Quaternary
f~ E~~ ~ :
1,5 Andean Uplift
Pliocene
6 > ;:; -- ~
Quechua II
-
Miocene >:
Quechua I + • +I
26 >
> >
Oligocene Incaic II > ~
-
+
37 Incaic I +
Eocene
54
Paleocene Laramie
65
)t>
Upper Cretaceous
Sub-Hercynian f -.-
100
Oregonian
lower Cretaceous
141
Upper Jurassic Araucana
160
Middle Jurassic
184 Mo11ean
Lower Jurassic
210 Pre-Andean
Triassic Extension
251
Apalachian
Permian
290 Hercynian
Carboniferous
360
Acadian
Devonian
410
Silurian
Ocloyica or
440
Taconian f--*- 0..
Ordovician
500
Cambrian
590
Precambrian
Assyntian
+--
i
~
I
Fig. 17. Succession of diastrophic events during the Andean tectonic evolution and comparison of the
main geological features between the Northern, Central, and Southern Andes (After Frutos 1981,
1986b, 1988; Megard 1978, 1987; Pitcher 1979; Ramos 1982; Godoy 1986; Mpodozis and Forsythe
1983; Suarez et a!. 1972).
1 Extensional tectonic event; 2 Compressional tectonic event; 3 Peneplanation stage; 4 lgnimbritic
acidic plateau type volcanism; 5 Back-arc submarine volcanism; 6 Back-arc ophiolites; 7 Accretion
prism melanges; 8 Obducted slabs and/or suture complex; 9 Accretion of an active island arc; 10 Ac-
cretion of inactive oceanic type structures; 11 Back-arc basin subsidence; 12 Uplifting epeirogenic
movements; 13 Periods of predominance of plutonic events; 14 Periods of volcanism; 15 Thick marine
sedimentary sequences in the basin; 16 Block type uplifting tectonics; 17 Important continental type
sedimentary episodes; 18 Back-arc marine basin in periods
6 ,a0 1'/ oo SHOW I

a7Sr/uSr
-
c
....__,
__,
...X
"'z
0
... ;
...J
:...
•'
N
..."'z '
-
c::>
...
c::>
u'" -
...
...J
..."'z
...
...
N
~
'"u
........
-
c::>
c
...
X
:::l • '
"' ...
0"'
::,
"'
Fig. 18. Isotope geochemical comparison between Andean north, central and south volcanic zones
(After R. H . Harmon et al. 1984) Histograms of whole-rock 18o; 160, 87Sr/ 86Sr, 206 Pb! 204Pb
207 Pb/ 204 Pb ratios for Late Cenozoic Andean calc-alkaline lavas shown as a function of bulk com-
position for each volcanic province. Solid areas denote basalts and basaltic andesites, dashed areas
denote andesites and open areas denote dacites and rhyolites. (After Harmon and Hoefs 1984)
a geochemical comparison along the northern, central and southern Andes, with
a striking correlation between isotopic compositions and crustal thickness condi-
tions. Harmon and Hoefs (1984) concluded that the rise of mantle-derived
magmas through the exceptionally thick Central Andes provided and extended the
opportunity for large-scale interaction of mafic magmas with the continental
crust (Fig. 18).
The low 18 0 / 160 ratio ( +5.2 to +6.7°/00) for the Cenozoic lavas of the
southern Andes volcanic zone suggests a derivation from a mantle source with the
parent magmas rising largely unmodified through the thin ( < 35 km) continental
crust (and differentiation occurring by fractional crystallization, which did not
significantly modify their 0-isotope composition; Harmon and Hoefs 1984).
The high 180/ 160 ( +6.9 to + 14.0°/00) documented for the lavas of the Cen-
tral Andes volcanic zone requires a large crustal component in all lavas. This was
probably introduced by the extensive interaction of mantle-derived melts with
lower and/or upper crust during transit through the abnormally thick ( > 60 km)
continental crust of the region (Harmon and Hoefs 1984).
The intermediate 0-isotope character for the lavas of the northern Andes
volcanic zone ( +6.3 to + 7.7°/00), suggesting that both mantle and crustal
sources were important in its petrogenesis, correlates well with the intermediate
crustal thickness (Harmon and Hoefs 1984).
The Austral volcanic zone (49°- 55°S: Antarctic plate subducting beneath
southernmost South America) shows high MgO, CaO, Sr, K/Rb, LREE/HREE;
low FeO/MgO, K, R, Ba and HREE; and Sr, Nd, 0 and Pb isotope compositions
similar to mid-ocean ridge basalts, interpreted as being formed by small ( < 5 OJo)
32 J. Frutos
degrees of partial melting of subducted oceanic lithosphere (MORB), with no or

minimal crustal contamination (Stern et al. 1984). In turn, the Ph-isotope ratios,
which are strongly diagnostic of crustal contamination in the southern Peruvian
volcanics, exhibit minimal variations in the southwestern Columbia lavas (James
and Murcia 1984).
Acknowledgments. The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions and critical revision
of the manuscript by L. Fontbote, and the typewriting and revision so kindly made by Mrs. M.
DeMille. Work in Chile was supported by FONDECYT (National Science Foundation of Chile Project
89-697) and the University of Concepci6n. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation made the edi-
tion of this paper possible through the research fellowship granted to the author at the Mineralogisch-
Petrographisches Institute of the University of Heidelberg.
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Congr Geol Arg, Aetas III:146-158
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Geologic-Metallogenetic Evolution
of the Peruvian Andes
M. CARDOZO 1 and E. CEDILLD 2
1 Introduction
The Peruvian Andes are not only one of the major producers of Pb, Zn and Ag,
but they include also one of the most important concentrations of different types
of ore deposits on the Earth, which are related to a variety of ore-forming pro-
cesses. This sector of the Central Andes is often taken as an example for regional
metallogenetic evolution at a convergent plate margin.
The main purpose of this contribution is to give an overview of the Peruvian
ore deposits in the frame of their geologic-metallogenetic evolution. It comprises
a summary of the more important events and reference to typical ore deposits
including the petrologic units in which they occur (Fig. 1). The economic signif-
icance of the different ore types is also discussed. Detailed characteristics of in-
dividual deposits are omitted here, but the most important contributions concern-
ing their geology and mineralogy are quoted. The most recent and/or the most
significant contributions have been chosen. For more details on the regional
geology the reader is referred to the contribution by Frutos (this Vol.). Metallo-
genetic aspects of the Peruvian stratabound ore deposits are discussed by Font-
bote (this Vol.) and Fontbote et al. (this Vol.). Recent discussions on the metallo-
genesis in the Peruvian Andes can be found by Amstutz (1978), Ponzoni (1980),
Cardozo and Vidal (1981), Petersen and Vidal (1983) and Soler et al. (1986).
2 Pre-Andean Evolution
2.1 Precambrian
Precambrian crystalline basement outcrops occur along the Coastal and Eastern
Cordillera. The oldest metamorphic rocks of the Peruvian Andes (2000 m.y., Cob-
bing et al. 1977; Dalmayrac et al. 1977; Schackleton et al. 1979) are orthogneisses
and granulites of the Arequipa Massif. To date, the open question concerning the
origin of this complex is still being discussed as to whether it represents an exotic
terrain or a portion of the American plate (Cobbing 1985; Megard 1987).
Dalmayrac et al. (1980) report also ages ranging from 1140 to 600 m.y. for high-
1 Universidad Nacional de lngenieria, Geologia, and Newmont Peru limited, Av. Jose Galvez
Barrenechea 218, Urb. Corpac, Lima, Peru
2 Fac. de Minas, Univ. Guanajuato, Mexico

38 M. Cardozo and E. Cedillo
TERTIARY
JURASSIC
Late H.,.cyrvan
Phase
I
.,
CARBONI- )J
m
FEROUS I
Early Horcyrvan
Phase
am
>
>
z
::1".? ~ Q
(")
'
~~-
m
(/)
1~ 3 ---:....-
I
I
?
1
0 300 km
COSTA : SUSA N DEAN
REG I ON
Fig. 1. Main lithological units and ore deposit types in the Peruvian Andes. Intrusive rocks are plotted
according to their age of emplacement and not the intruded country rock. Stratabound and irregular
(including intrakarstic) ore deposits are ascribed to their host rock without genetic considerations.
Nonstratabound deposits such as vein, disseminated, irregular and stockwork ores of magmatic origin
are plotted together with their cogenetic igneous rocks
Morphology
o Stratabound ore deposits; 0 Ore veins; 0 Disseminated ore deposits; 0 Irregular orebodies;
<> Stockwork ore deposits
Economic metals (main product)
~ Cu; ~Zn; ~Pb; ~Ag; ~Ba; ~Au; ~Fe;@ U; (i) V ®P
Geologic-Metallogenetic Evolution of the Peruvian Andes 39
grade gneisses in the Eastern Cordillera, suggesting that it is also floored by a

crystalline basement (Cobbing 1985).
2.2 Ore Deposits
(Numbers are the same as used in Fig. 1, locations of ore deposits are given in
Fig. 2).
1. Occurrences of banded iron ore in Precambrian metamorphic rocks of the

Coastal Cordillera. The Precambrian metamorphic rocks do not include
economically important ore deposits. Only small occurrences occurring in the
Arequipa Massif (Tarpuy, Matarani; Fernandez-Concha and Amstutz 1956) are
known.
2. Cr and Ni-Cu occurrences in the Eastern Cordillera. Noneconomic Ni-Cu

mineralizations in ultrabasic rocks of Chinchao (San Luis, NE of Hminuco; Gran-
din et al. 1980; earlier 1983) and Cr ores of the alpine type in Tapo (south of Tar-
rna), included in peridotites and serpentinites, have been reported.
2.3 Paleozoic
The Lower Paleozoic evolution is poorly documented in the Peruvian Andes. In

the southern sector of the Eastern Cordillera pelitic and arenaceous sediments
with marine volcanic intercalations of lower Ordovician to Late Devonian age are
exposed. This sequence was deposited in a tensional basin of regional extension
from central Peru to the Pampean ranges of Argentina. A widespread hiatus of
Late Ordovician to Silurian age in Peru and a regional disconformity in Bolivia
followed by a deposition of glacial sediments suggest interruptions of the se-
quence related to diastrophism linked to the "Taconic" event recorded in Colom-
bia (Megard 1987).
This sequence was folded by the Early Hercynian phase during the latest Devo-
nian to early Mississippian time followed by the deposition of a shelf sequence
up to the lower Permian. Acid volcanics were extensively deposited accompanying
the Permo-Carboniferous sedimentation. The sedimentary sequence was subse-
quently folded by the Late Hercynian Deformation Phase in the Middle Permian.
By-product metals
0Ag
Volumetrically important metals without present economic value
0 (Fe, Mn)
Size
0 Economic ore deposits; o Non-economic ore deposits or prospects
Lithology
g;:j Carbonatic rocks; ~ Diatomites and phosphorites; g Shales and siltstones; D Sandstones;
~ Conglomerates; [ill] Red beds; 51! Intermontane sediments; ~Tillites; ~ Submarine volcanics;
00 Continental volcanics; tm Metamorphic basement; 1m! Ultramaphic complexes; I:;:] Basic
plutons; ~Granitoids; ISS Subvolcanic acid intrusions; 8 Orogenic phases
eo·
C uADOR COLOMBIA
s• 5"
BRAZIL
10" ~-- - - - 10"
CD
.a. C&
FE:
cc
1s•l--
PO
80" 75"
Fig. 2. Location of the main ore deposits in the Peruvian Andes. Symbols as in Fig. 1 with exception
of the gold placer deposits along rivers, which because of their areal extension are represented by obli-
que ruling. Abbreviations and group numbers (as defined in text and Fig. 1) with summarized in-
formation about their geometry and metal content are listed. Geometry: sb stratabound; ve veins;
di disseminated; ir irregular; sw stockwork
Abbreviations
Abbr. Deposit Group Geometry Metal Content
AC Acari 19 ve Co Fe
AG Aguila, El 25d di Cu Mo
AL Algamarca 25c ve Cu Ag Au
AM Almacen 20d di Cu Au
AN Antamina 25d ir Cu Zn Ag Mo
AP Antonio de Poto, San 32 di Au
AR Arcata 29 ve Ag Au Pb Zn
AT Atacocha 25b ve Zn Ag Pb Cu
AU Aida Unica 13b sb Zn Pb Ag
BD Benditani 3 ve Au
BY Bay6var 18 sb p u
CA Cailloma 29 ve Ag Au Cu Pb
CB Chalcobamba 22 ir Cu Fe
cc Carhuarazo 31 ve Au Ag Cu
CD Caudalosa 25c ve Zn Pb Ag
CE Cecilia 24 ve Zn Cu
CF California 25d di Mo w
CH Chin chao 2 sb Ni Cu
CJ Cuajone 21 di Cu Mo Ag
CL Colquijirca 17 sb Zn Ag Pb Cu
CM Compaccha 25d di Mo w
CN Condestable 14a sb Cu
CN Caiiariaco 23 di Cu Mo
co Colqui 25c ve Ag Pb Zn An Cu
CP Cerro des Pasco 25a ir Ag Zn Pb Cu
CQ Cercapuquio 11 sb Zn Pb Cd
CR Carahuacra 10a sb Zn Ag Pb
cs Casapalca 25c ve Ag Zn Pb Cu
CT Cristobal, San 7 ve Zn Ag Pb Cu w
cv Cerro Verde 21 di Cu Mo
CY Coroccohuayco 22 ir Cu
cz Cobriza 6 sb Cu Ag
ES Estrella, La 4 ve Au
EX Extraiio, El 13a sb Pb Zn
FE Ferrobamba 22 ir Cu Fe
GJ Granja, La 23 di Cu Ag
GN Genaro, San 25c ve Ag Au Zn Pb
HA Huaca, La 23 di Cu
HC Huachocolpa 25a ve Zn Ag Pb Cu
HE Hercules 25c ve Pb Zn Ag
HG Hualgayoc district 15 sb Pb Ag Zn Au Cu
HP Huaripampa 10a sb Zn Ag Pb
HR Huar6n 25a sb Ag Zn Pb Cu
HU Huanzahi 13b sb Zn Ag Pb Cu
IC leas, Los 14a sb Zn Cu Ba
IS Ishcay Cruz 13a sb Zn Pb Ag Cu
JB Jacabamba 25d di Mo w
JC Julcani 25a ve Ag Cu Pb
JL Juan de Lucanas, San 29 ve Ag
LG Leonila-Graciela 14b sb Zn Ba
LM Lima, La 4 ve Au
MA Macusani 30 di u
MC Manco Capac 3 ve Au
MG Magistral 25d ir Ag Pb Zn
Abbr. Deposit Group Geometry Metal Content

MH Machcan 10a sb Pb Zn Ag
Ml Milpo 25b ir Zn Ag Pb
ML Ma. Luisa a. assoc. dep. 27 sw Cu Ag
MN Mundo Nuevo 25d ve w
MO Morococha 25a ir Ag Zn Cu Pb w
MP Marcapomacocha 16 sb v
MQ Michiquillay 23 di Cu Mo
MR Marcona 12 ir Fe Cu
MS Monterrosas 19 ve Cu Au Ag Co
MT Martin, San 14a sb Cu
NH Negra Huanusha 8 sb Cu v
oc Ocofia 20b ve Au
OL Olachea 3 ve Au
OR Orcopampa 29 ve Ag Au Cu
PA Palma 14b sb Zn Pb Ba
PB Pasto Bueno 25d ve w Cu Pb
PC Parcoy 4 ve Au
PL Palca 11 26 ve w Zn Cu
PO Posco 20b ve Au
QC Quechua 22 ir Cu Fe
QM Quince Mil 3 ve Au
QR Quiruvilca 25a ve Ag Zn Cu Pb Au
QV Quellaveco 21 di Cu Mo
RA Raul 14a sb Cu
RC Rinconada, La 3 sb Au
RF Rafael, San 24 ve Sn Cu
RG Ragras, Minas 16 sb v
RR Raura 25b ir Zn Ag Pb Cu
SA Sayapullo 25c ve Ag Cu Zn Pb
SD Santo Domingo 3 ve Au
SH Shalipayco to a sb Pb Zn Ag
SI Sincos toe sb v
SK Sukuytambo 29 ve Ag Au
SL Shila 29 ve Ag Au Cu
SN Santander 25b ir Zn Ag Cu
so Sol de Oro 20b ve Au
SP Salpo 25c ve Au Ag Cu
ST Santo Toribio 25c ve Pb Zn Ag
sv San Vicente 10b ve Zn Pb
SY Suyubamba 4 ve Au
TA Tambillos 25d ve Sn Cu
TB Tamboras 25d ve w
TO Tambo Grande 14c ve Cu Zn Ag
TM Turrnalina 23 di Cu Mo w
TP Tapo 2 sb Cr Ni Cu
TQ Toquepala 21 di Cu Mo Ag
TR Tarpuy 1 sb Fe
TY Tintaya 22 ir Cu Fe Au Ag
uc Uchucchacua 25b ve Ag Pb Zn
YN Yanacocha 28 di Au Ag
YR Yauricocha 25a ve Zn Ag Cu Pb
It follows the deposition of the posttectonic red beds and volcanics of the Mitu
Group. These rocks were deposited in multiple, elongated troughs formed within
a system of horsts and grabens reflecting a tensional regime, which was dominant
until the Early Triassic, as pointed out by Dalheimer (1985) for the Domo de Yauli
region. Subsequent to both Early and Late Hercynian Deformation Phases
plutonic rocks were emplaced along the Eastern Cordillera.
2.4 Ore Deposits
3. Stratabound and vein Ordovician gold deposits. The most important Paleozoic
ore deposits are mined for gold. They occur in association with both marine
volcanics of Ordovician age and Early Hercynian granitoids. The Ananea
volcanics and the Ordovician schists in the southeastern region (area Marcapata-
Sandia) contain stratabound and vein deposits, which show deformation effects
by Early Hercynian tectonics (Fornari 1978 in Ponzoni 1980). The more important
stratabound deposits of this group are Gavilan de Oro, Untuca, Ana Maria,
Carabarenna (Ananea volcanics), and La Rinconada (Ordovician schists). Veins
cutting Ordovician schists comprise Quince Mil, Manco Capac, Olachea, Ben-
ditani, and Santo Domingo.
4. Early Hercynian and Pre-Andean auriferous veins. Important auriferous quartz
veins occur in, and around, granodioritic intrusions of the Early Hercynian (?)
Pataz Batholith in the Pataz-Buldibuyo area. Veins of minor significance related
to intrusives of unknown Pre-Andean age occur also in the Huach6n area near
Cerro de Pasco. These veins supply primary gold for placer accumulations in the
rivers of the Maraiion Basin. The main deposits of this area are Buldibuyo, Pataz
and Parcoy (Schreiber 1989, Schreiber et al. 1990).
5. Small stratabound occurrences in Devonian sequences. Kobe (this Vol.) reports
small stratabound Ni-Co and Cu-Zn-Pb-Fe occurrences in the area of the
Ultimatum anticline, which are enclosed by the Devonian Excelsior Formation in-
cluding phyllites, marbles and basic volcanics.
6. Stratabound (?) Cu-(Ag) ores in Pennsylvanian carbonate rocks. Only one
deposit of this type is recorded in the Pennsylvanian Tarma Group at the western
flank of the Eastern Cordillera. Traditionally, the Cobriza deposit was considered
as a distal skarn type (Valdez 1983), but other investigations (Huaman et al., this
Vol.) suggest a pretectonic origin of the ore overprinted by later tectonic and
metamorphic events.
7. Late Hercynian (?) polymetallic veins. The polymetallic vein San Cristobal is
3 km long and produces Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag, but contains also important reserves
of Wand Sn (Campbell1987). It cuts the Paleozoic sequences and is related to the
quartz-monzonitic Chumpe intrusive, the age of which is not geochronologically
determined, but which many authors consider to be Tertiary. However, due to the
fact that the veins do not cross the Mesozoic sequence, their peculiar mineralogy
could also suggest a Late Hercynian age. The vein Andaychagua (2 km long),
located 4 km east of San Cristobal, is mined for Zn, Pb and Ag (Landeo 1986).
8. Stratabound Cu-(V) ores in Permian red beds. Red beds of the Permian Mitu
Group in the Tarma area contain small stratabound Cu ores with some V and
perhaps U. This is the case of Negra Huanusha (Kobe, this Vol.).
9. Stratabound Cu-Fe-Pb-Zn occurrences in Permian volcaniclastics. They occur

in the Domo de Yauli region in volcanoclastic layers of the Mitu Group. Two oc-
currences are known: Abra de Chumpe and Tingo de Andaychagua (Kobe, this
Vol.).
3 The Andean Cycle

3.1 Sedimentation Sequences
The Andean cycle is characterized by a long period of sedimentation followed by

tectonic activity and magmatism (Megard 1979). The marine sedimentation
begins with the Norian transgression which deposited the sediments of the Pucara
Group (Norian to Toarcian) in a basin parallel to the present coast line. Contem-
poraneously with the development of this basin a minor transgression affected the
western region of southern Peru. The sedimentation scenario was limited
eastwards by the Brazilian Shield and westwards by a positive element known as
the Paracas Block (Myers 1975 a).
This paleogeographic situation probably changed between the time span Mid-
dle Jurassic-Tithonian (Megard 1987) with the uplifting of a NW-SE trending
block, the Maraii.on Geanticline (Benavides 1956; Wilson 1963). Consequently,
the basin was divided into two parts: the West Peruvian Trough and the East Peru-
vian Trough (Wilson 1963). As stated by Myers (1975b) this basin individualiza-
tion is a response to a dominant, block-tectonic process which accompanied
sedimentation until Early Cretaceous times. Two transversal shear zones
originating in the Paleozoic (Marocco 1971) also influenced the sedimentation
during Mesozoic times. These zones, represented by the Huancabamba (north)
and Pisco-Abancay (south) deflections, constitute important elements in the geo-
logical development of the Peruvian Andes.
The occidental part of the West Peruvian Trough consists of volcaniclastic
sediments and lava flows, in part also of pillow lavas; whereas the oriental
counterpart is mainly made up of clastic and carbonate sediments. Based on
geochemical and geophysical evidence, the occidental part has been interpreted as
an ensialic marginal basin (Atherton et al. 1983) of the "aborted" type due to the
absence of ophiolitic rocks (Aguirre and Offler 1985). The eastern domain has
been renamed by Jaillard (1987) the West Peruvian Platform. The filling of the
Marginal Basin consists of approximately 9000 m of volcaniclastic turbidites and
lavas. The geochemistry of the Puente Piedra and Casma volcanics has been
studied by Atherton et al. (1983) showing their within-plate and back-arc charac-
ter, respectively. A striking feature of the marginal basin sequence is its burial
metamorphism produced under high geothermal gradients (Aguirre and Offler
1985; Aguirre et al. 1978). The Lancones basin (northwest Peruvian Basin of Cob-
bing et al. 1981) of Mesozoic age (Albian-Cenomanian) must be included in the
geological picture outlined above. The most important sequence deposited in this
basin is the volcanosedimentary Copa Sombrero Formation (Upper Albian-San-
tonian}, which was studied in detail by Morris and Aleman (1975).
A new geological regime was recorded with the cessation of the sedimentation
in the West Peruvian Trough. It is characterized by compressional and extensional
deformation, intensive plutonic and volcanic activity, uplift, erosion, and con-
tinental sedimentation. Marine sedimentation was restricted to small basins
located in the area of the present coastal region.
3.2 Tectonic Evolution
The sediments deposited in the West Peruvian Trough were deformed in episodic
events or phases. After the pioneer study of Steinmann (1929}, three deformation
phases are known, namely, the Peruvian Phase (Santonian}, lncaic Phase (Middle
to Late Eocene) and Quechua Phase (Miocene; Fig. 1). Later investigations have
shown that additional deformation events have occurred. In the coastal region the
Mochica Phase of Late Albian age (Megard 1984) was recognized. On the other
hand, the Miocene Quechua Phase was subdivided into Quechua 1, Quechua 2
and Quechua 3 (McKee and Noble 1982; Megard 1984; Megard et al. 1984). The
deformation pulses show a west to east migration with increasing age (Fig. 1). The
Late Albian Mochica Phase affected sediments of the Marginal Basin.
The Peruvian Phase is well documented in the Western Cordillera of southern
Peru, where Precambrian rocks have been overthrust onto Mesozoic sediments
(Vicente et al. 1979}, and also in part of the central Altiplano and in the im-
mediate adjacent Eastern Cordillera (Megard 1968, 1984). The Incaic Phase is
thought to be the most important deformation event, at least as far as crustal
shortening is concerned. It has affected sediments of the eastern part of the West
Peruvian Platform. During this phase, a NW-SE belt of folds and overthrusts, the
"Marafion Thrust and Fold Belt" (MTFB) of Megard (1984}, was formed.
The Quechua 1 Phase has affected the central Altiplano, probably also part
of the Eastern Cordillera and produced the reactivation of Incaic structures in the
MTFB (Megard 1984, 1987). The Quechua 2 and 3 Phases affected the MTFB,
producing wrench faulting. The first also produced folding in the intermontane
Ayacucho Basin, where this phase is determined to occur between 9.5 and 8.5 m.y.
(Megard et al. 1984). East of the Eastern Cordillera, the Quechua 3 Phase led to
the formation of the "Sub-Andean Thrust and Fold Belt" (STFB according to the
nomenclature of Megard 1984). From the point of view of the shortening, the
Quechua 1 Phase is the most important of the Miocene deformation events
(Soulas 1977).
3.3 Magmatic Evolution
Magmatism has been active since Jurassic times in the Andean region and pro-
vides the dominant filling of the Marginal Basin. The following discussion deals
with the magmatism which took place after the closing of the West Peruvian
Trough. Magmatic activity coeval with the orogenetic interval had a plutonic and
a volcanic expression. The first one is represented by the Coastal Batholith, the
Cordillera Blanca Batholith, the Andahuaylas-Yauri Batholith and multiple sub-
volcanic stocks postdating batholithic intrusions. Volcanic activity took place
under subaerial conditions and in some cases its products were deposited together
with lacustrine sediments.
The Coastal Batholith is a belt of plutonic rocks cropping out parallel to the
present coastline. It extends 1600 km with an average width of 65 km (Pitcher
1979, 1985). The plutons of the Coastal Batholith intruded sediments of the Lan-
cones Basin, the volcanic sequences of the marginal basin and the Precambrian
metamorphic complex known as the Arequipa Massif. The emplacements took
place episodically during the time span between 101 and 37 m.y. (Pitcher and
Cobbing 1985) and were controlled by resurgent fracture systems (Bussell and Pit-
cher 1985). Roof lifting, cauldron subsidence, fluidization, and piecemeal stoping
have been invoked as mechanisms for the emplacement of the intrusions (Myers
1975a; Bussell et al. 1976; Bussell and Pitcher 1985). The Coastal Batholith has
been subdivided into segments (Cobbing 1982; Pitcher 1985); they are from north
to south; Piura, Trujillo, Lima, Arequipa and Toquepala. Each segment is com-
posed of "units" according to similarities in age, structure, texture, xenolithic con-
tent, and associated dykes. A set of spatially and temporally related units con-
stitutes a superunit (Cobbing et al. 1977). The magmas feeding the plutons were
of calc-alkaline nature leading to the formation of rocks with predominantly
tonalitic and granodioritic composition (Pitcher 1979). Recent geochemical in-
vestigations support an origin from mantle material (Atherton and Sanderson
1985; Mukasa and Tilton 1985). However, the Arequipa segment shows a light
crustal contamination due to its ascent through a thick Precambrian basement
(Beckinsale et al. 1985).
The Cordillera Blanca Batholith is a 150 km long and 50 km wide massif
elongated in a NW-SE direction. Two superunits, Carhuish and Cohup, have been
recognized. They intruded shales of the Chicama Formation. The first one is made
up of granodiorites and tonalites and the latter basically of leucogranodiorites
(Cobbing et al. 1981; Beckinsale et al. 1985). The range of K-Ar ages for the
Carhuish superunit lies between 9 and 11 m.y. and for the Cohup superunit, be-
tween 3 and 6 m.y. (Cobbing et al. 1981). Nevertheless, Mukasa and Tilton (1985)
report an U-Pb age of 9 to 12m. y. (zircon) for the Cohup superunit. This fact has
been interpreted by Beckinsale et al. (1985) as a resetting of the K-Ar determination
to younger ages. Geochemical and isotope data of the Cordillera Blanca Batholith
support a mantel source for the magmas (Atherton and Sanderson 1985).
The Andahuaylas-Yauri Batholith is a belt of plutonic rocks with dominantly
granodioritic composition cropping out in southeastern Peru. The age of this
batholith is unknown, but determinations in dykes closely associated with it gave
an estimation of 33-34 m.y. (Noble et al. 1984).
Small porphyritic stocks are associated with the batholiths described above.
They represent later intrusions emplaced in a hypabyssal environment which are
very commonly affected by hydrothermal alteration and mineralization.
Cenozoic volcanism is represented by a belt located east of the Coastal
Batholith. The most widespread volcanic rocks correspond to the Paleocene to
Upper Miocene times. The rocks are of calc-alkaline composition ranging from
basalts to rhyolites with a predominance of andesites and dacites (Audebaud et
al. 1973). The main stratigraphic units are the Toquepala Group in southern Peru,
the Sacsaquero Formation and Castrovirreyna volcanics in central Peru, the
Calipuy Group in northern Peru and the Thcaza Formation in southern Peru.
Plio-Quaternary volcanism is restricted to a belt located south of the Pisco-
Abancay deflection. The volcanism shows a variation from calc-alkaline nature
in the west to shoshonitic in the east. This change is explained by Lefevre (1973)
as a consequence of the depth of the magma generation in connection with the
subducting plate.
3.4 Ore Deposits
The main ore types developed during the Andean Cycle can be grouped as
follows:
I) Stratabound deposits related to: (a) basin evolution (mainly Mississippi Valley
type); (b) input of exhalative metals into sedimentary basins; (c) magmatism asso-
ciated with marginal basins; (d) selective replacements of particular sedimentary
horizons; and (e) sedimentary phosphate accumulations.
II) Deposits related to magmatic arcs. They comprise deposits in: (a) different
superunits of the Coastal Batholith; (b) subvolcanic stocks of Cenozoic age; and
(c) Cenozoic volcanic rocks.
Ill) Exogenous deposits related to the recent evolution of the Andes: (a) fluvial
and glacial placers; (b) intrakarstic deposits; and (c) supergene enrichment of pri-
mary ores.
I) Stratabound Deposits
10. Stratabound deposits associated with sediments of the 'Iriassic-Liassic plat-

form (Pucara basin). These deposits are, in part, of Mississippi Valley type and
are summarized by Fontbote (this Vol.). According to their paleogeographic loca-
tion, they can be grouped as follows:
a) Western facies: Polymetallic stratabound deposits located at the basis of the
transgressive sequence: (i) with volcanic influence (Carahuacra, Huaripampa;
Dalheimer, this Vol.); and (ii) of Mississippi Valley type (Shalipayco).
b) Eastern facies: Zn-(Pb) Mississippi Valley type deposits (San Vicente; Fontbote
and Gorzawski 1990; Gorzawski et al., this Vol.).
c) Central facies: Bituminous limestone with vanadium in the upper stratigraphic
levels of the Pucara Group (Sincos Member; Canepa, this Vol.).
11. Stratabound lead-zinc deposits associated with Upper Jurassic lagoonal
sediments. To this group corresponds the mine Cercapuquio (Cedillo, this Vol.)
in central Peru. The ores are in part hosted by paleosol facies of the Chaucha For-
mation and show strong similarities to Mississippi Valley type deposits. In-
terstratal karst processes have produced modifications of former ores (supergene
enrichment). A small occurrence of Zn, Pb and Cu ores at the basis of the
Chaucha Formation by Azulcocha has also been recognized without apparent
continuity (C. Munoz, pers. comm.).
12. Iron replacement deposits related to Middle Jurassic subvolcanic intrusives.

This deposit type is represented by the Marcona mine, which results from the re-
placement (in part concordant with the layers) of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks.
Their origin is related to subvolcanic rocks originating from the same. magma as
the volcanics of the Rio Grande Formation (Atkin et al. 1985; lnjoque et al. 1988).
13. Pb-Zn and polymetallic stratabound deposits in the Neocomian Santa Forma-
tion. The Santa Formation was deposited in an ephemeral basin (Valanginian to
Aptian) of the West Peruvian Platform. More than 80 deposits and small occur-
rences have been recognized in this formation (Samaniego 1980). Two paleogeo-
graphic locations can be distinguished:
a) Western facies: Without clear volcanic influence (El Extrafio, Thco-Chira,
Malaquita, Venturosa, etc.; Samaniego 1980), Ishcay Cruz (Flores, this Vol.).
b) Eastern facies with contemporaneous volcanism (Huanzala, Aida Unica; Car-
rascal and Saez, this Vol.).
14. Massive sulfide deposits in volcanosedimentary sequences of Lower

Cretaceous marginal basins. According to the host formations and mineralogical
characteristics, three main groups can be distinguished:
a) Ores hosted by the Copara Formation (south of Lima) with dominant Cu and
subordinate Zn and Ba (Raul, Condestable, Los leas, Manto San Martin). These
deposits are interpreted as volcanic-exhalative ores formed in connection with
subsiding volcanic centers (Cardozo and Wauschkuhn 1984; Cardozo, this Vol.).
b) Barite+massive sulfide (Zn, (Pb, Ag) deposits of the Casma Group in central
Peru (Vidal1987). They are mainly, volcanic-hosted ores (Juanita, Maria Teresa,
Aurora Augusta), but in the eastern Casma facies sediment-hosted ores (Leonila-
Graciela, Vidal1980; Palma, Steinmiiller and Wauschkuhn, this Vol.) also occur,
where intercalations of volcanics with platform limestones and shales are de-
scribed. In many cases (Vidal 1987), mineralization is spatially related to dacitic
domes and tuff breccias. Stratabound barite, pyrite, sphalerite and pyrrhotite ores
overlie quartz-sericitic stockwork zones.
c) Cu-Zn-Agpyritic ores of the Lomas Formation in northern Peru (Thmbogrande,
lnjoque et al. 1979; Pouit 1987).
15. Pb-Zn-(Ag) stratabound deposits in Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks. They

are recognized in Hualgayoc, Western Cordillera of northern Peru (Canchaya, this
Vol.). Numerous deposits occur in the Chulec Formation (Carolina, Porica, Bella
Union, Manto Lourdes, Morocha, Mansita, Los Negros, Santa Marta, Pilan-
coles); in the Pariatambo Formation (Pozos Ricos), and in the Pulluicana Forma-
tion (Yanacancha, Quijote, Las Coloradas).
16. Vanadiferous lenses in Albian carbonate rocks. Small occurrences of this type
are enclosed in asphaltiferous limestones of the Pariatambo Formation (Minas
Ragras, Marcapomacocha, Lacsacocha; Amstutz 1959; Canepa, this Vol.).
17. Stratabound deposits in a Tertiary continental sequence. The Colquijirca mine

is hosted by the Calera Member of the Pocobamba Formation of Thrtiary age.
These deposits have been interpreted as exhalative-sedimentary by Lehne (this
Vol.) and as epigenetic in association with the Miocene vulcanism by other
authors (Vidal et al. 1984).
18. Phosphate deposits in Miocene sediments. They occur in sediments of the

Zapayal Formation in northern Peru (Bayovar) and the Pisco Formation in south-
ern Peru (Ocucaje).
II) Nonstratabound Deposits Related to Magmatic Arcs
Deposits Associated with the Upper Cretaceous Coastal Batholith
19. Fe and Cu veins. Associated with gabbrodiorites preceding the main emplace-
ment of the Coastal Batholith (Patap Superunit): the following deposits are
known: Acari, Monterrosas and Manto Mojador (Dunin-Borkowski 1969; Pon-
zoni and Vidal 1982; Cardozo and Wauschkuhn 1984; Atkin et al. 1985).
20. Veins, disseminations and skarn deposits associated with granitoids postdat-
ing the Patap Superunit.
a) Copper veins related to the Linga Superunit (Agar 1981; Vidal 1985). The
mineralogy is simple with predominant chalcopyrite in quartz-specularite gangue.
Examples: Cinco Cruz, Muerequeque, Mangomarca, Sayan.
b) Gold veins related basically to the Tiabaya Superunit. The deposits are located
in a zone between Palca and Ocoiia in southern Peru. Examples: Ocoiia, Sol de
Oro, San Juan de Chorunga, Quimbalete, Clavelinas, etc.
c) Small Cu-W-Mo skarn deposits related to the Incahuasi and Tiabaya superunit.
The more important deposits of this group are Lunche and Quitas6n.
d) Cu-(Au, Mo) porphyries located NE of Pisco (Almacen, Los Pinos).
Deposits Associated with Intrusives of Cenozoic Age
21. Porphyry coppers (Mo, Ag) in Paleocene intrusives. The major deposits are
related to stocks intruding Precambrian rocks and granitoids of the Arequipa and
Toquepala segments of the Coastal Batholith. Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa (Le Bel
1979; Cedillo 1982), Toquepala, Cuajone (Manrique and Plazoles 1975) and
Quellaveco (Kihien 1979) are included in this group.
22. Skarn deposits related to the Oligocene Andahuaylas-Yauri Batholith. These

deposits are copper-rich (chalcopyrite) with a very high magnetite content. The
main deposit of this group is Tintaya which in turn displays transitions to por-
phyry copper mineralization. Other examples: Katanga, Atalaya, Charcas, Sulfo-
bamba, Ferrobamba, Livitaca, Coroccohuayco, Quechua (Santa Cruz et al. 1979).
23. Breccias and porphyry coppers associated with Oligocene-Miocene sub-

volcanic stocks of northern Peru. Numerous porphyry coppers are located along
a chain of subvolcanic stocks between Piura and Cajamarca. The most important
deposits are: La Huaca, La Vega, Artesones, Caiiariaco (Flores et al. 1975), La
Granja, Sinchao, El Molino, Michiquillay. The Turmalina (Cu-Mo) breccia pipe
can be included in this group.
24. Veins associated with stocks of Oligocene age in the southern region of the
Eastern Cordillera. Two types of deposits have been recognized (Clark et al. 1983):
Sn-Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-veins (San Rafael, Nazareth and Quenamari), and Zn-Pb-Cu-
Ag-veins (Cecilia).
25. Irregular bodies (in part, skarn deposits) and polymetallic veins associated
with subvolcanic intrusives of Miocene age in northern and central Peru. Most
of the hydrothermal polymetallic ore deposits in central Peru are considered to
be associated with magmatic pulses that yield ages between 15 and 7 m.y. These
deposits represent, together with the silver and gold veins (groups 28 and 29), the
most impressive metallogenetic epoch in the Peruvian Andes. Recent geochrono-
logic data (Soler and Bonhomme 1988) suggest that some deposits of this group
(Milpo-Atacocha, Uchucchacua) belong to Late Eocene - Early Oligocene times,
but this possibility does not diminish the metallogenic importance of the Mid- to
Late Miocene. The subvolcanic Miocene polymetallic ores occur in:
a) Complex deposits including replacement and vein. They are normally zoned
with a nucleous rich in copper-arsenic sulfosalts (enargite, luzonite, tennantite),
covellite and pyrite; an intermediate zone with Pb and Zn minerals, and an outer
zone with complex sulfosalts. The main deposits of this category are: Cerro de
Pasco (Einaudi 1977), Huar6n (Thouvenin 1983), Morococha (Eyzaguirre et al.
1975), Yauricocha (Petersen 1975), Quiruvilca (Bartos 1987; Burkart-Baumann
1988), Julcani (Benavides 1983), Huachocolpa (Birnie and Petersen 1977). The
stratabound deposit Colquijirca and part of the ores of the Hualgayoc district
show similarities to the deposits of this category (Vidal and Cabos 1983). The
Morococha deposit displays transitions to porphyry copper mineralization
(Toromocho prospect). Recently the sediment-hosted gold deposit Purisima Con-
cepci6n has been reported in the Yauricocha district (Alvarez and Noble 1988).
b) Skarn bodies (in places associated with veins). These deposits contain Pb and
Zn with high Ag values. The main deposits of this category are: Santander (Zim-
mernink 1985), Milpo-Atacocha (Gunnesch et al. 1984), Uchucchacua (Alpers

1980) and Raura.
c) Veins hosted by sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic age and volcanic or
volcanosedimentary series of Oligocene-Miocene age: e.g., Salpo, Santo Toribio,
Hercules (related to a Neogene caldera, Trurnit et al. 1982) Colqui (Kamilli and
Ohmoto 1977), Rio Pallanga, San Genaro, Caudalosa, Casapalca (Rye and
Sawkins 1974).
d) Irregular bodies, veins and disseminations associated with different pulses of
the Cordillera Blanca Batholith. The deposits comprise: polymetallic skarns
(Magistral, Antamina and Contonga); tin veins (Tambillos), tungsten veins (Pasto
Bueno; Landis and Rye 1974); Mundo Nuevo and Tamboras; polymetallic veins
with silver and minor tungsten (Pusajirca); Cu-porphyries Aguila, Melchora), and
Mo-(W)-porphyries (Compaccha, California and Jacabamba).
26. Tungsten veins ( < Zn, Cu ~ Sn, Pb, Ag) associated with Upper Miocene sub-
volcanic intrusions of the Eastern Cordillera. The main example is the deposit
Palca 11 with tungsten mineralization composed basically of wolframite and
scheelite.
Mineralization Associated with Cenozoic Volcanism
27. Cupriferous stockworks (minor Ag) related to Oligocene (?) volcanics:

Deposits in the Carlos Francisco volcanics of central Peru, e.g., Caprichosa, An-
tachajra, and Maria Luisa (Amstutz 1960; Thurn 1982).
28. Veins and gold disseminations ( ~Ag, Cu) in Miocene volcanics. Low-grade
ore occurrences related to extensive silicification and argillitization are being ex-
plored in northern Peru (Yanacocha).
29. Silver veins (Au< Cu, Pb, Zn) in Miocene volcanics. This ore type is known
in southern Peru, mainly between Puquio and Cailloma. Examples include Utec-
San Juan de Lucanas, Sukuytambo, Arcata, Orcopampa, Cailloma, Shila and
Santo Domingo. The veins are all volcanic-hosted (Tacaza and Barroso Formation
mainly) and contain mostly silver sulfosalts as economic minerals accompanied
by pyrite, quartz and rhodochrosite. Silicification and propylitization characterize
the related hydothermal alteration (Fornari and Vilca 1978). With the exception
of Orcopampa, the Au content of the producing mines is relatively low.
30. Veins and disseminations of uranium minerals in peraluminous ignimbrites of

Late Miocene-Pliocene age in southern Peru. The more important and studied oc-
currence is Macusani, Puno (Arribas and Figueroa 1985).
31. Veins and gold disseminations ( < Ag, Cu) in Plio-Pleistocene volcanics: e.g.,
Carhuarazo (Petersen and Vidal 1983). They are associated with extensive
silicification and advanced argillic alteration. Exploration of this deposit type is

poorly developed.
III) Ore Deposits Related to Exogenous Processes
32. Placer deposits. Of great importance are the placer gold deposits of the
following rivers: Madre de Dios, Inambari, Santiago, Cenepa, Chinchipe, and
Maranon. Another important placer deposit is San Antonio de Poto (Puna) of
glacial origin (Kihien 1985).
Intrakarstic deposits (associated with the groups 10, 11 and 15). Some deposits
have suffered important additional concentration processes during the recent
geomorphological modelling of the Andes. Karst processes have affected ores
hosted by carbonate rocks of different ages. The most important cases are: The
stratabound deposits of the Domo de Yauli region (10), Cercapuquio (11) and
Hualgayoc (15). The karst deposit Azulcocha (Munoz 1988) in limestones of the
Pucara Group represents a unique case in the spectrum of the Peruvian ore
deposits. It is made up of a massive sphalerite body without any association with
pre-existent ores. At the present stage of knowledge it is not clear whether the ore
solutions were meteoric or hydrothermal in origin. According to Canchaya (1986),
the intrakarstic deposits are morphologically of the following types: (a) tabular
orebodies resulting in the filling of fractures and faults (part of Pozos Ricos, Par-
cia, Canon in Hualgayoc); (b) sigmoidal-fusiform orebodies (parts of Huaripam-
pa and Carahuacra in the Domo de Yauli area); (c) rosary form, in echelon
orebodies (Ombla in Morococha); (d) ore mantas (Canon, Mario in Hualgayoc,
Cercapuquio; see Cedillo, this Vol.); (e) intergranular and/or interstitial ore filling
(parts of Pozos Ricos in Hualgayoc); and (f) irregular orebodies (Ponciano in
Hualgayoc). Their main economic minerals are sphalerite, galena and silver
sulfides.
Supergene enrichment of sulfide ores. Numerous Peruvian deposits have been

enriched by supergene processes. Important mineral concentrations produced in
this way are known in Cerro de Pasco, Cerro Verde, Cercapuquio and many other
deposits.
4 Metal Mining Production and Metallogenetic Units
Peru is one of the major producers of Zn, Pb and Ag in the world. In addition,
Cu and Au production is very significant for the economy of the country. For
comparison, we have to mention that the average annual production of Peru in
1987 and 1988 was about 405000 million tons Cu, 610000 million tons Zn,
205 000 million tons Pb and 2 million kg Ag (after statistics of Carta Minera and
Anuario Minero ). The Au production is estimated to be 7000 to 8000 kg/year.
Table 1 and Fig. 3 a, b summarize and compare the most striking metal producers
in their geologic-metallogenetic context.
Table 1. Contribution of the main deposit groups to the metal production in Peru (for source of data,
see Fig. 3)
Deposit groups in text and Fig. 1 Production (OJo) *
Cu Au Zn Pb Ag
3 Ordovician gold deposits 5

4 Early Hercynian Au veins 10
6 Stratabound (?) ores in Pennsylvanian carbonate rocks 9
7 Late Hercynian polymetalic veins 3 1 2
to a Stratabound ores in Pucara Fm. Western facies 8 3 2
10b Stratabound ores in Pucara Fm. Eastern facies 14 3
13b Stratabound ores in Santa Fm. Eastern facies 6 7 3
14a Massive sulfides in Copara Fm. 2
14b Massive sulfides in Casma Fm. 2
15 Stratabound ores in Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks 1 3 2
17 Stratabound ores in Tertiary continental sequence 3 6 2
20b Au veins in Coastal Batholith 15
21 Paleocene porphyry coppers 70 2 4
22 Skarn deposits in Andahuaylas-Yauri Batholith 14
25 Miocene polymetallic ores 2 56 67 68
29 Miocene Ag (-Au) veins 18 17
32 Placer deposits 35
*The missing percentages belong to parts of production which cannot be entered into this Table.
4.1 Copper (Fig. 3 a)
Most of the copper production (700Jo) is related to the Lower Tertiary porphyry
copper deposits of Toquepala, Cuajone and Cerro Verde at the western flank of
the Western Cordillera in southern Peru (Group 21). The skarn deposit of Tintaya
(and the smaller Katanga mine, Group 22) contributes 14% of the Cu production.
An important contribution (9%) is from the stratabound (?) Cobriza ore deposit
(Group 6). The volcanogenic Cu-Fe deposits Raul and Condestable (Group 14a)
and five Miocene polymetallic ore deposits in central Peru (Group 25) produce
4% of the Peruvian copper.
4.2 Gold (Fig. 3 a)
Gold is produced by deposits of very different age and geological context as

shown in Fig. 3 a, which contain a very rough percent estimation because of the
lack of reliable production data. Mesothermal (plutonic) Au-quartz veins asso-
ciated with granitoids of the Pataz Batholith (Group 4) and the Coastal Batholith
(Group 20b) produce approximately 10 and 15% of the Peruvian gold, respective-
ly. Vein and stratabound ore deposits associated with volcanic and subvolcanic
rocks of Ordovician age in the southeastern region of the country (Group 3) con-
tribute 5% of the gold production. The list of main primary gold deposits is com-
pleted with the epithermal Ag-Au deposit Orcopampa in southern 'Peru (Group
TERTIARY
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Moch•co Pnase z
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r
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I
.
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Fig. 3. Main ore deposit groups contributing more than 1Olo to the Peruvian mining production for
a Cu and Au; and b Zn, Pb and Ag during the years 1986- 1988 using production data of the Anuario
Minero ( 1986 -1988) and Carta Min era ( 1986- 1988) published by Andean Air Mail & Peruvian
Times. Au production is very roughly estimated because of the lack of reliable information. In paren-
theses are the number of mines of each group considered in the production estimation. Geological
and metallogenetic symbols as in Fig. 1
29), representing about 180Jo of the gold production. Furthermore, recent fluvial
placers (Group 32) are the most important gold producers of Peru (approx. 35% ).
In addition to the gold deposits mentioned above, it should be pointed out that
about 22% (1500 to 2000 kg/year) of the Peruvian gold is contained as a by-pro-
duct in other ore deposit types and refined in La Oroya or exported in ore concen-
trates. It is estimated that porphyry copper deposits such as Toquepala (Group
21) produce about 200 kg Au/year, volcanogenic Cu-Fe deposits such as Raul and
(
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Fig. 3b
Condestable (Group 14a) between 100 to 150 kg Au/year, and polymetallic ore
deposits mainly of Miocene age (Group 25) about 50 to 100 kg Au/year.
4.3 Zinc, Lead and Silver (Fig. 3 b)
Most of these metals are produced by a large number of polymetallic ore deposits
in central Peru belonging to the very important Miocene metallogenetic epoch
(Group 25). About 56, 67 and 68 (to 69) OJo of the Zn, Pb and Ag production,
respectively, belong to this group. A single Mississippi Valley-type deposit (San
Vicente, Group lOb) produces 140Jo of the Peruvian zinc. It contributes also 3%
of the lead. At the western limit of the Pucara basin volcanosedimentary and as-
sociated recent karst-filling ore deposits (Group 10a) contribute 80Jo of the Zn,
3% of the Pb and 2% of the Ag production. 1\vo polymetallic ore deposits,
Huanzala (Group 13b) and Colquijirca (Group 17), produce high amounts of Zn
(6 and 3%, respectively), Pb (7 and 60Jo, respectively) and Ag (3, and 2%, respec-
tively). The volcanosedimentary Ba-Zn ore deposit Leonila-Graciela (Group 14c)
also produces 2% of the Zn. Stratabound and irregular ore bodies in the complex
Hualgayoc province (Group 15) produce 1, 3 and 2% of the Peruvian Zn, Pb and
Ag, respectively. The San Cristobal polymetallic vein in the Domo de Yauli region
(Group 7) contributes 3, 1 and 2% of the Zn, Pb and Ag production respectively.
Finally, the important Miocene epithermal ore deposits in southern Peru (Group
29: mainly Arcata, Cailloma and Orcopampa) produce 17% of the Peruvian Ag,
and the porphyry copper deposits in southern Peru (Cuajone and Toquepala,
Group 21) contribute 4% of the silver production.
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank, Dr. C. Canepa (Lima) and Dr. L. Fontbote
(Heidelberg) for suggestions to the early versions of the manuscript, which has also benefited from
critical reading by J. Saez (UNI, Lima) and S. Rosas and C. Muiioz (Heidelberg). We acknowledge
also the help of S. Hopf and E. Canta in drawing of some figures.
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The Metalliferous Ore Deposits of Chile and Argentina,
and Their Geologic Framework
J. M. 0YARZUN 1
1 Introduction
Metalliferous ore deposits of Chile and Argentina are distributed in the Andean
domain of both countries, as well as in the Pampean ranges of Argentina, that
have also participated in the structural evolution of this domain. Except for some
minor deposits, situated in the Pampean ranges, which have a possible Precam-
brian age, all the mineralization belongs to the Phanerozoic.
This chapter presents a synopsis of the metallogenetical episodes of these
countries, intended to serve as a general framework for the stratabound ore
deposits or districts described in other chapters of this volume. Due to space
limitation, references are reduced to a minimum and a condensed style of exposi-
tion has been adopted in order to encompass this wide subject. The information
here presented is developed in more detail in the monographies of Frutos et al.
(1986), Oyarzun (1985), and Sureda et al. (1986). Groups of stratabound deposits
decribed in other parts of the Volume will be only mentioned, indicating the perti-
nent references.
2 Paleozoic
2.1 Geologic Framework
An elongated cratonic shield, which had its axis close to 65 ow long, dominated
the Lower Paleozoic tectonic evolution (Fig. 1; Cuerda 1974). West of the shield,
an oceanic basin is defined, with clear eu- and miogeosynclinal domains. To the
east, a huge intercratonic marine basin, open to the south, extended between this
shield and the Brazilian one. The western oceanic based received abundant clastic
sedimentation from the Cambrian to the Silurian. During the Ordovician, the
eugeosynclinal domain developed intensive volcanism, that evolved from
tholeiitic to calc-alkaline composition. Outcrops of these series are distributed
along a 1200-km N-S-elongated belt, between 17° and 29 os lat. Close to the axis
of this domain, several groups of NNW-striking ultramafic dykes occur (Villar
1975), probably as a consequence of an early stage of crustal extension, leading
to an aborted marginal basin.
1 Departamento de Minas, Universidad de La Serena, Casilla 554, La Serena, Chile

62 J. M. Oyarzun
70° ss•
DEPOSITS '
Pb-Zn
cu l Porphyric I
Fe (Oolithicl
Fe (B.I.F.I
METALLIC ZONES '
@ll)w
M~.S;~~---::-r~-----t-JI TEcToNICS '
e Sn
I!!:XJJI Brosilion Shield

IIHIU2 lntracrotonic
IE:!J 13 Centrtll cro1tric
ttJ£L----1f4tJ---'j'---"''~-jl--j]I~J4 f+:iao!Onic border
..,.,,__... 'l•lf?~""""~~IUIIIIDI5 ~
'· ~ J!ZaJs Eugeasyndina
J[I![J]7 Utranofic q.t~es
!!il.:~;>-<""4.;;:::;..---.....l..-_j
IBis !high
MefllrrQ"phjc
PI accretioo
' complex.
Fig. 1. Paleozoic metallic provinces in Argentina and Chile. (Geologic frame after Cuerda 1974, and
Herve et al. 1981)
The Metalliferous Ore Deposits of Chile and Argentina, and Their Geologic Framework 63
An epeirogenic uplift of the continental shelf in the Devonian is indicated by

the scantiness of marine sediments. Molassic sediments predominate during the
Carboniferous, while continental volcanism becomes gradually important and at-
tains its peak in the Permian.
The accretion to the continental margin of oceanic terrains composed of
tholeiitic volcanics and sediments is registered by extensive, though discontinuous,
outcrops along the Chilean coast. This accretion probably occurred during the
Devonian between 29° and 34°S lat, and at the Carboniferous between 34° and
40°S lat (Godoy 1984), but younger ages (even Jurassic) have been recorded to
the south.
Two main orogenic episodes, of Cambrian and Devonian age, are recognized
in the Argentinian Andean domain, and they represent tectonic directions close
to those of the Andean cycle. Plutonic activity accompanied (or rather followed)
these episodes, as well as Carboniferous activity associated with accretion in cen-
tral Chile. However, Paleozoic and post-Paleozoic plutonism appears as a con-
tinuous process in the Andean domain, although variable in intensity and
geographic distribution.
2.2 Metallogenetical Development
1. Pegmatitic Deposits (Argentina, Sureda et al. 1986). Their ages are Lower to
Middle Cambrian (564-523±25 m.y.) and they crop out at the northern end of
the Pampean ranges (24°40'S-24°46'S; 66°20'W). Ore minerals contain Nb-
Ta-Bi-Li, and Be. The pegmatitic bodies have a tabular shape and strike NW, with
a subvertical slip. They probably formed by fractional crystallization of a trondh-
jemitic magma. Although the main Argentinean reserves of Nb-Ta are contained
in these deposits, they have been mined out only on a limited scale.
2. Paleozoic Tin Deposits (Argentina, Malvicini 1975). They are distributed in two
areas (Fig. 1 a, b) of the Pampean ranges domain. The northern area (a) includes
mainly vein- and greisen-type deposits, which probably have a Cambrian or
Silurian age. In these deposits, cassiterite is associated to sulfides, wolframite,
fluorspar, topaz, etc. The southern area (b) contains mostly tin-bearing
pegmatites that have a Cambrian to Ordovician age (520-450 m.y.).
3. Paleozoic Tungsten Deposits (Argentina, Malvicini 1975; Brodtkorb et al.

1982). Older deposits of this group are in the Precambrian to Paleozoic crystalline
terrains of the Pampean ranges (Fig. 1 c). These deposits hosted by metamorphic
rocks, belong to the disseminated and vein types. Disseminations are located in
tactites, and scheelite is their principal ore mineral. Brodtkorb et al. (1982) con-
sider these mineralizations as syngenetic, and postulate a Precambrian volcanic
source for the metal. Vein-type deposits are rich in quartz, and contain scheelite,
wolframite, and tourmaline. Malvicini (1975) proposed an epigenetic origin for
both types, and distinguished three epochs of plutonic mineralization, between
the Cambrian and the Carboniferous (520 to 450 m.y., 420 to 370 m.y., and 350
to 320 m.y.). Vein-type tungsten mineralizations associated with Cu and Mo
64 J. M. Oyarzun
sulfides also occur in the frontal Cordillera (Fig. 1 d, e) and in the north Patago-
nian range (Fig. 1 f). Their age is Devonian to Carboniferous.
4. Stratabound Metalliferous Deposits (Argentina, Lower to Middle Ordovician,

Sureda et al. 1986). They are hosted by Ordovician sediments deposited on the
marine platform, north of the emerged zone of the central Argentinian shield.
Westward, these sedimentary environments passed gradually to deeper zones,
which received volcanic materials. This category of deposits comprehends three
types. The first includes the mineralizations located in structural heights in
quartzite-carbonate facies. The principal ones are in the El Aguilar district (Fig.
1g; Sureda and Marrin, this Vol.) that has produced about 2x 106 t of ore (50J"o
Pb; 6.5% Zn; 100 g/t Ag) during the last 50 years. The quartzites host the main
part of the mineralization, which has been interpreted as syngenetic by some
authors, although a Cretaceous plutonic intrusion has at least remobilized the ore
metals and modified the original mineralogy.
A second group of deposits includes vein-type Pb-Zn-Ba ores hosted by sand-
stones and shales that crop out in the northern part of the Eastern Cordillera (and
continue for 500 km to the north into the Bolivian territory). The Pumahuasi
district (Fig. 1 h) belongs to this group. Finally, Sureda et al. (1986) describe a
third group of deposits, integrated by vein-type and stratabound distal mineraliza-
tions of Au, Fe, Cu, distributed along a NNW band, between the Incahuasi
district (25°17'S/67°11'W) and the border with Bolivia.
5. Oolithic Iron Ore Deposits (Argentina, Boso and Bonaldi, this Vol.; e.g., Zapla,
Fig. 1i, Rio lrujya j, Unchime, k). Marine sediments of the central Argentinian
shield contain iron-bearing oolithic beds (with chamosite, partly altered to
hematite), deposited at the western border of the Lower Silurian transgression
(Zapla Formation). At the same longitude, between 22°30' and32°30'S,
phosphorite-bearing beds crop out, also deposited with coastal marine sediments
of the same basin but during the Middle to Upper Ordovician.
6. Mineralizations of the Oceanic Volcano-Sedimentary Complex (Chile, Oyarzun

and Clemmey 1986; Alfaro and Collao, this Vol.). This metamorphic complex
contains three kinds of deposits. First in importance are the BIF type magnetite
ores, stratified in micaschists. Total ore reserves of the central area (Mahuilque
- Relun, Fig. 11) are about 100 mio t, 30% Fe. Some massive Cu-Zn sulfide
deposits that occur along a western band are considered as a proximal mineraliza-
tion facies. Finally, some minor chromite podiform deposits and geochemical
anomalies of Ni are related to peridotitic bodies of the same complex.
7. Pb-Zn-Ag-(Cu) Deposits in Paleozoic Metamorphic Rocks of the Patagonian

Region (Chile, Peebles and Ruiz 1982; Schneider and Tolosa, this Vol.). These
mineralizations, hosted by phyllites and marbles of marine origin, intruded by
post-Paleozoic granitoids, have been recognized between 46°00' and 47°20'S and
71 °30' and 73°20'W. In the main deposit, Mina Silva (Fig. 1m), lenticular bodies
of massive sulfides are hosted by metamorphic limestone. Although their
paragenesis includes Pb, Zn, Cu and Fe sulfides, only Ag-bearing galena and
sphalerite are economic minerals. From 1947 to 1981, Mina Silva produced
42000 t Pb and 22000 t Zn. The average grade of the ore was 25o/o Pb, 21% Zn,
and 400 g/t Ag. The economic minerals of the deposits hosted by schists and
phyllites, are chalcopyrite (e.g., Las Chivas and Escondida) or sphalerite and Ag-
bearing galena (e.g., Cerro Colorado). These deposits are vein-type or have an ir-
regular shape (and a massive texture).
8. Paleozoic Porphyry Copper Deposits (Argentina, Sillitoe 1977). Paleozoic por-

phyries occur in the western part of the Argentinian territory (Fig. 1 n, p, q, t).
Those situated between latitudes 31 os and 34°S have K-Ar ages from 281 to
267 m.y. (Upper Carboniferous to Permian), while the Thea-Thea porphyry (Fig.
in), at latitude 24°30'S, belongs to the Lower Caboniferous (~323 m.y.). As
pointed out by Sillitoe, the presence of this belt suggests that an Andean-type
plate subduction system was already established in the Upper Paleozoic.
3 Mesozoic
After an important episode of acid magmatism during the Permian and part of
the Triassic, an extensive process of erosion led to the development of a platform
in the western part of the continent. At the Triassic-Jurassic limit, an andesitic
volcanic arc developed at the edge of the continental platform, while the sinking
of a band, east of the arc, originated the Jurassic back-arc basin, that was some
200 km wide. This N-S basin continues into Peruvian territory and has been
recognized southward at least as far as 48 os lat. The main part of the basin devel-
opment corresponds to Chilean territory. However, south of 34 °S, it passes
gradually into Argentina. The eastern facies, close to the foreland, accumulated
clastic and carbonate sediments, while the magmatic arc steadily migrated
eastward. By the end of the Dogger, a regressive episode began, announcing the
Upper Jurassic orogeny. As a consequence, evaporitic gypsum was deposited
along the axis of the last remaining marine basins.
During the Titonian-Neocomian, a stage of horizontal extension led to the de-
velopment of a new basin, that has sedimentary facies similar to the Jurassic one,
but is narrower and is contained within the former basin. Marine sediments, in-
terbedded with volcanic rocks, continue to be deposited until the Aptian. Since
then, the basin has hosted only continental sedimentary environments and
volcanism announcing the Cenomanian compressive episode. Later accumulation
of molassic continental sediments and volcanic rocks in taphrogenic basins per-
sists as a dominant processs for the Cretaceous and during Tertiary times.
Mesozoic magmatic activity, intrusive and extrusive, exhibits a remarkable
continuity along the principal arc, although several pulses of increasing activity
have been established (e.g., five pulses between 196 and 59 m.y. for the 26 os to
29°S E-W band; McNutt et al. 1975). Extrusive magmatism predominates during
the distensive tectonic stages, related to a drop in the speed of convergence of the
oceanic and continental lithospheric plates. The principal one of these stages,
66 J. M. Oyarzun
registered between 125 and 110 m.y., led to the extrusion and deposit of up to
10 km of alkali-rich prophyritic basalts during the Barremian. This tecto-
magmatic episode is interpreted by Aberg et al. (1984) in terms of the aborted de-
velopment of an oceanic marginal basin.
The geologic evolution of the Andean foreland, characterized by molassic
sedimentation in continental basins, complicates stratigraphic correlations of
Argentinian Mesozoic formations. Magmatic activity is less abundant in this sec-
tor, and its nature is more alkaline.
3.2 Metallogenic Development
I. Copper Deposits in Jurassic Volcanic Rocks of North Chile (Losert 1973;

Espinoza 1982; Palacios, this Vol.; Wolf, this Vol.; Fontbote, this Vol.). In the
coastal Cordillera, between 22° and 24 os lat, there are numerous manto-type
stratiform copper deposits, hosted by basalto-andesitic volcanic series affected by
propylitic alteration. The best-known deposit is Buena Esperanza (22°11'S lat)
and the largest is Mantas Blancos (66 mio t; 1.7o/o Cu).
2. Pb-Zn (Ag, Cu) Deposits in Patagonian Jurassic Rocks (Chile, Peebles and
Ruiz 1982). These are situated in the region described in Section 2.2. 7, and have
a mineralogy similar to the deposits hosted by Paleozoic rocks. Mineralizations
include stratiform bodies in volcanic sandstones, associated with cherts and car-
bonates, and also vein deposits, that cut quartz-bearing volcanic rocks, uncon-
formably scattered over the Paleozoic series (see also Schneider and Tolosa, this
Vol.).
3. Vein-zype Copper Deposits Related to Jurassic Plutonic Rocks (Chile, Ruiz et

al. 1965). Principal deposits are distributed between22 os and 35 os lat, close to
the borders of dioritic or granodioritic plutonic bodies, intruded during the Up-
per Jurassic (167 -147 m.y.). The paragenesis of these deposits includes, as main
mineral phases, chalcopyrite, pyrite, actinolite, and magnetite, with minor
amounts of cobaltite, uraninite, and magnetite. Well-known deposits of this type
are those of the Minita-Despreciada (22°05'S) and Carrizal Alto (28°06'S)
districts.
4. Silver Deposits in Sedimentary Jurassic Rocks (Chile, Ruiz et al. 1965).

Silverbearing vein deposits are hosted by Dogger to Oxfordian marine limestones
intruded by granodioritic to dioritic bodies (slightly mineralized), whose age may
be as late as Middle Tertiary. These deposits lack economic grades of other
metals. Total production of the principal districts (e.g., Huantajaya, 20° 13' S;
Caracoles, 23°03'S) is about nx 103t Ag (metal). Their primary and secondary
mineralogy includes several species (pyrargirite, proustite, argentite, native silver,
Ag halides, etc.). Hydrothermal alteration has a propylitic nature (Fig. 2).
5. Magnetite-Apatite Deposits of the Lower Cretaceous Magmatic Arc (Chile,

Oyarzun and Frutos 1984; Espinoza, this Vol.). Some 50 magnetite deposits are
..
71'
,_ I
ARICA
IILVEPI Df:P'OIITI
0 Medium deposit
0 BigDipositotDislri:t
• City
IQUiOUE
GEOLOGY
c:
I
\
Earlern lordtr ofthl
Jurassic: llasin.
' \ Eu·Mio Liminar Border of
\ tt. Jurauic Bnin.
\ Wtsttrn and Easttrn
~ \ \ 8or~rs of tht Neoeomian
u L. Bas1n.
0 ANTOFAGASTA
21"- u
TALTAL
(Age Cited for Each Deposit is
Tract of the Host Rocks)
N
u
a.
0 50 100 150 200km
31"-
Fig. 2. Geologic distribution of the Chilean silver deposits. (After Ruiz eta!. 1965, and Frutos 1975)
distributed in aN toNE-trending narrow belt; between 25 °S and 31 °S lat. The

axis of this belt is in close coincidence with the Neocomian magmatic axis. The
paragenesis of the deposits includes magnetite, actinolite, and apatite as principal
minerals, with minor scapolite and a late sulfide phase (pyrite, minor chalco-
pyrite, etc). Principal deposits (e.g., El Algarrobo-Penoso: 28°47'S; El Romeral:
29°43'S) are situated between 27° and 30°S lat, and have ore reserves (b.m.) of
over 200 mio t, 60o/o Fe. They were formed by filling and replacement of volcanic
or subvolcanic andesitic rocks, intruded by dioritic bodies, that are probably com-
agmatic. These mineralized complexes have a circular (e.g., Boquer6n Chatiar,
28°05'S) or ellipsoidal (e.g., El Romeral) horizontal section, modified by later
faulting. In general, faulting is intensive in these deposits, and is responsible for
the presence of dynamic schist zones. On a broader scale, the alignment of the
major deposits is coincident with a pre-Cretaceous line of crustal weakness.
Hydrothermal alteration is also intensive, extensive, and complex (it includes most
of the different facies, although silicification and bleaching are dominant).
68 J. M. Oyarzun
Radiometric dating for the iron belt deposits are between 128 m.y. (Boquer6n
Chaiiar) and 110m.y. (Los Colorados 28°18'S). Several datings at El Algarrobo
(Montecinos 1983) are also in the 128-111 m.y. span, that is, within the distensive
stage of the Lower Cretaceous, coincident with the climax of the mafic volcanism.
Apatite veins and sulfide vein districts of the type described in Section 3.2.3 (e.g.,
La Higuera, 29°31'S) are associated in time and space - and probably also
genetically - to the iron belt.
6. Stratabound Copper Deposits of the Neocomian Magmatic Arc (Chile, Camus

1986b; Klohn, this Vol.). These deposits are composed of stratiform (mantos) and
cross-cutting (veins, breccia bodies, stockworks) mineralizations. The major and
better-studied districts are Punta del Cobre (27°30'S; Hopf, this Vol.) and El
Soldado (32°39'S; Klohn et al., this Vol.) which have initial (b.m.) reserves esti-
mated at 25 and 50 mio t of ore of 207o Cu, respectively.
7. Silver Deposits in Neocomian Sedimentary and Pyroclastic Rocks (Chile, Ruiz

et al. 1965). Principal districts of this group are Tres Puntas 26°50'S}, Chaiiarcillo
(27°49'S}, Agua Amarga (28°45'S) and Arqueros (29°50'S). The mineralizations
occur as veins and ore shoots in interstratified volcanic and marine carbonatic
rocks, and are similar in paragenesis and morphology to the Jurassic ones de-
scribed in Section 3.2.4. The occurrence of intrusive rocks has also been establish-
ed in these districts. Thus, at Chaiiarcillo, the principal one, a granodioritic cen-
tral body, exposed in the underground mines, is responsible for the presence of
garnet skarns. Mineralization is scarce in the tuffs, but attains a high abundance
in the ore shoots situated in pure limestone (individual ore shoots at Chaiiarcillo
attained 200 x 10 x 50 m, and their grade 2.5% Ag) (Fig. 2).
8. Zinc-Lead-Copper (Silver) Deposits in Stratified Neocomian Rocks of Pata-

gonia (Chile, Wellmer et al. 1983). In the El Toqui district (45°00'S/70°58'W),
there are many mineralized bodies in an Early Cretaceous formation intruded by
quartz-bearing porphyries (Wellmer and Reeve, this Vol.). Some 30 km eastward
from the El Toqui district, there is porphyry-type copper mineralization, hosted
by andesitic-rhyolitic volcanic rocks of Upper Jurassic age (Nireguao-Katterfeld
mine).
9. Zinc, Lead, Silver, Barite, Iron in Stratiform Deposits of the Lower Cretaceous
Back-Arc Marine Basin (Chile, Amstutz et al. 1985; Cisternas and Diaz, this Vol.).
Mineralizations of this group have small magnitude and economic importance.
However, they are interesting because of their relationship with sedimentary facies
of the Neocomian marine basin. They include Mamiiia (barite, 28°03'S; Diaz,
this Vol. b) and Bellavista (Ag-Pb-Zn, 28°12'S; Diaz, this Vol. a). The stratiform
magnetite deposit of Bandurrias (27°57'S), hosted in pyroclastic-marine car-
bonatic transgressive facies, has also been included in this group, although it has
some characteristics of a skarn..
10. Skarn Deposits in Carbonate Cretaceous Rocks (Chile, Camus 1986b). Most
of these deposits are between 27° and 33 os lat, and their principal economic
metal is copper (Ccp), followed by Fe (Mag), Zn, Pb, Ag, and Au. The largest one
(El Sauce, 32°52'S) has about 5 mio t of ore, but most deposits have an average
of 0.5 mio t (and grades between 1.5 and 3.00Jo Cu). Granitoids responsible for the
contact zone have Cretaceous to Lower Thrtiary ages, and usually present complex
petrologic facies (gabbro to granite). Due to the frequent position of limestone
beds between volcanic rocks, these deposits are usually stratiform. Is is likely that
some of these deposits were formed contemporaneously with the Cu veins men-
tioned in Section 3.2.5.
11. Copper and Manganese Deposits in Volcano-Clastic Sediments, in Intra-Arc

Cretaceous Basins (Chile, Camus 1986b; Peebles and Ruiz 1985). Copper deposits
are in pyroclastic rocks, "volcanic" sandstones, and continental limestones of the
Lower Cretaceous. The "average" deposit has about 2 mio t of ore, and a Cu grade
of 1.7%. Principal districts are Talcuna (29°53'S; 4.3 mio t, Cu 1.5%; Camus, this
Vol.), Cerro Negro (32°35'S; 6 mio t, 2% Cu; Elgueta et al., this Vol.) and Los
Mantos de Catemu (32°41'S; 2 mio t, 1.8% Cu; Camus, this Vol.).
Manganese deposits are also stratiform, and occur between 28°18'S and
30°30'S in a N-S band, that includes two Mn-bearing horizons, separated by a
stratigraphical distance of 750 to 1250 m. The lowest horizon belongs to the
volcano-sedimentary formation Arqueros (Hauterivian-Barremian). Their
mineralizations are in continental "volcanic" sandstones, together with red chert
beds and - in some deposits - with Cu minerals. In the upper horizon, hosted
by the Quebrada Marquesa formation (Aptian-Albian), the Mn-bearing mantos
are mineralized volcanic sandstones that overlie eroded volcanic rocks. In this
horizon, calcium carbonate is abundant, either as travertine or as cementing ma-
terial. Principal Mn minerals of both horizons are braunite, pyrolusite,
manganite, and psilomelane. The mantos have a thickness of 2 to 6 m, and the
mineralized levels within the mantos a thickness of 10 to 60 em. Average grade
is in the 30% to 50% range. The manganese source is related to magmatic activity
that took place in two main cycles, and is considered responsible both for the
hosting volcanic sandstones and for the hydrothermal Mn mineralization (Peebles
and Ruiz 1985; Pincheira and Fontbote, this Vol.).
12. Vein-JYpe and Porphyric Ore Deposits Related to the Cenomanian Plutonism
(Chile and Argentina, Ruiz et al. 1965; Sillitoe 1981). Although the precise age
of most vein-type deposits in Chile is uncertain, Ruiz et al. relate to the Cenoma-
nian plutonism an important group of Cu-Au deposits that have N to NW direc-
tions as predominant strike. Among the principal ones are Thmaya (Cu; 30°33'S),
Punitaqui (Au; 30°52'S), and La Africana (Cu; 33°28'S). Their paragenesis in-
cludes hematite/magnetite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite.
The presence of a N-S belt of Cenomanian porphyry copper deposits, west of
the Tertiary one, was first pointed out in Chile by Llaumett (1975). It includes one
- or possibly two - deposits of middle importance and several prospects. The
principal deposit (Andacollo, 30°15'S) presents peripherical Au-bearing zones
with potassic metasomatism. The belt continues in the Argentinian territory be-
tween 38 os and 40°S, where the main mineralization is the stockwork of Cam-
pana Mahuida. None of the Cretaceous porphyries reaches a magnitude com-
parable to that of the major deposits of the Tertiary belt.
70 J. M. Oyarzun
13. Ore Deposits Related to Alkaline Cretaceous Intrusions (Argentina, Sureda et

al. 1986). These mineralizations are genetically linked to epizonal alkaline
plutonic rocks, intruded under a distensive tectonic regime. They comprehend two
main groups. One of them includes thorium and tungsten deposits at the eastern
border of the Puna region. A principal thorium district is the Cobres
(23°36'S/66°20'W), where Th (and Pb-Cu) minerals are in vein structures.
Known ore reserves are about 300000 t, with 0.260Jo Th. Thngsten mineralizations
are in aplitic schlierens, that contain wolframite and other minerals (e.g., Thsa-
quillas, 23°24'S/67°00'W). Their economic potential is still unknown.
The second group is at the Cordillera Oriental geologic environment, and in-
cludes polymetallic veins (U, Ni, Co, Bi, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn). The better-known
districts are formed by veins hosted in Lower Paleozoic sandstones and shales,
and are distributed at the provinces of Jujuy (e.g., Romicruz mine, 21 °53'S/
65°20'W) and Salta (e.g., Quirusillal mine, 21 °34'S/65°06'W). The deposits are
small and have more scientific (because of the complex paragenesis) than
economic interest.
14. Ore Deposits in Sub-Volcanic, Volcanic, or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks of the

Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary Intra-Arc Zone (Chile, Ruiz et al. 1965). This
tecto-chronological category includes a group formed by several Cu-Ag deposits
(e.g., El Venado, 27°1,6'S; Amolanas, 28°02'S) that are hosted by rocks of the
basal horizons of the Hornitos formation (Senonian-Eocene?). Their mineraliza-
tion (composed of sulfide and sulfosalts of Cu, Zn, Pb, with Ag and Hg) is
stratiform. Host rocks are mainly rhyolitic ignimbrites and pyroclastics, and par-
tially the overlying lacustrine sediments. A stratiform Ag deposit (Elisa de Bor-
dos, 27°43'S; Jurgeit and Fontbote, this Vol.) may also be included in the group.
This category also comprehends vein-type mineralizations such as those of the
Condoriaco (29°42'S) silver district. Host rocks of Condoriaco are volcanic and
subvolcanic rocks of Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary age, located in the in-
terior of a wide, ellipsoidal volcanic caldera.
15. Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary Stratabound Deposits in "Red Bed, Sandstones

(Argentina, Sureda et al. 1986). In different localities of NW Argentine and in the
Mendoza-Neuquen region, stratabound U, Cu, V (Pb, Zn) deposits crop out,
hosted by red bed-type sandstones. A principal part of this mineralization is
related to the continental sedimentary cycle of the Salta group. Ore deposits occur
in marginal zones of the Cretaceous basin and in connection with tectonic
lineaments and contemporary alkaline volcanism. Also, Cu deposits occur in
Lower Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Santa Barbara subgroup. Sureda et al.
define four types of mineralizations: (a) Subconformable Cu (U, V) deposits in
sandstones and conglomerates: Native Cu, where Cu oxides and carbonates and
minor pitchblende appear as a cement of the clastic components. Principal
deposit is Custodio (25°06'S/65°40'W) that has reserves of 152000t of ore with
an average grade of 0.7% of Cu. (b) Subconformable U (Cu, V) deposits: they
are hosted by sandstones and shales and have complex uranium minerals (mainly
phosphates) as predominant ore minerals. The principal deposit, Don Otto
(25°37'S/65°50'W), has produced about 500000 t of ore, 1.0% U 30 8 , and has
reserves of 200000 t (same grade; Ferreyra and Lardone, this Vol.). Mineralized
bodies are 100 to 2000 m long, 10 to 250m wide, and have a thickness of 0.5 to
1.7 m. (c) Stratabound Cu, Ag, Pb, Zn, Fe, Mn mineralizations of magmatic origin:
these are minor deposits, with Cu as predominant metal that have little, if any,
economic interest. (d) Mn and Fe nodules in sandstones: the nodules, 0.1-2 kg (ex-
ceptionally up to 50 kg) occur in quartz-rich coarse sandstones of an Upper
Paleocene-Lower Eocene continental formation (Rio Non). Principal ore mineral
is pyrolusite. Although significant reserves have been identified (about 50000 t), the
scattered distribution of the nodules precludes further economic interest.
16. Stratabound Ore Deposits in Limestones of Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary

Age (Argentina, Sureda et al. 1986). These mineralizations are dispersed along a
150-km-long band, east of the Salta-Jujuy dorsal (between coordinates
24°10'S/64°23'W and 25°15'S/65°06'W). The deposits are formed by Cu, Pb,
and Zn sulfides, hosted by the lower and middle levels of a carbonate formation
(Yacoraite), Maastrichtian to Danian in age. Sulfides cement oolithic dolomitic
limestones and lumachelas, and have average grades of 1OJo Pb, 1OJo Zn, 0.95%
Cu, and 20 g/t Ag. Known reserves are about 5 x 106 t of ore. Cu mineralizations
are also in veins and stockworks. In these cross-cutting structures, Cu oxides and
carbonates accompany the sulfide minerals (mainly chalcocite).
4 Cainozoic
The Cretaceous-Tertiary transition was not accompanied by significant geologic

changes in the southern Andean domain. In general, it is difficult to discriminate
between continental volcano-sedimentary formations of both periods unless
radiometric dating is used. This dating has indicated, e.g., a hiatus in the volcanic
activity registered for the 60 to 30 m.y. period between lat 31 o and 36 os and for
the 50 to 30 m.y. period between lat 26° and 29 °S. The development of
taphrogenic basins continues in Chilean and Argentinian territory. These basins
receive molassic sediments following episodes of compression and uplifting: Lara-
mian, Incaico (Miocene) and Quechua (Upper Miocene), and volcanic materials
during stretching stages. Compressive episodes are moderate and seem related to
plutonic phases, that present culminations (between lat 26° and 29 °S) at
67-59 m.y., 44-34 m.y., 23-22 m.y., and 13-5 m.y. The latter is remarkable
because magmatism migrated eastward and spread over a wide (250 km) belt that
had its axis about 275 km east from the present coast. Later, magmatism retreated
to its present position over the Andes.
Miocene Andean magmatism is distributed over two large plateaus, one of
them rhyodacitic (13 os to 27 °S) and the other andesitic-basaltic (32 os to 42 °S).
These magmatic activities started some 23 m.y. before. Eastward, in Argentinian
territory, a basaltic alkaline volcanism developed between 50 and 3 m.y., linked to
regional distensive episodes.
72 J. M. OyarZlin
The Upper Pliocene vertical movements configurated the present Andean mor-
phology that includes positive blocks (from west to east: coastal Cordillera, cen-
tral Cordilleras - north of lat 24 °S -, Principal or Andean Cordillera, Frontal
Cordillera, Pre-Cordillera and Pampean ranges) which are separated by tectonic
basins in subsidence. Plio-Quaternary andesitic volcanism developed along the
Andean Cordillera, with a hiatus between lat 28 °S and 33 °S, probably due to the
compressive tectonics that prevail in that segment.
4.2 Metallogenetic Development
1. Paleocene Porphyry Copper and Breccia Pipe Deposits. Mineralizations

Peripherical to Copper Deposits (Chile, Ruiz et al. 1965; Sillitoe 1981; Sillitoe and
Sawkins 1971). There is at least one Paleocene porphyry copper deposit in north
Chile (Mocha: 19°57'S; 56.5 m.y.) and several groups of breccia pipe deposits that
have a similar age. Most of the pipes occur in a NNW narrow band, close to the
axis of the Chilean territory, between 26°30'S and 32°00'S. Each of these groups
may enclose up to a hundred subvertical pipes that are n to nx 1& min diameter.
The pipes have a circular or ellipsoidal section and their mineralization is mainly
located in a peripheral ring zone. It includes pyrite and chalcopyrite as principal
metallic minerals. However, some deposits also have economic gold values and/or,
polymetallic sulfides. Scheelite is also a frequent minor component. Breccia pipes
are characterized by a strong sericitic alteration, accompanied by abundant tour-
maline. The swarms of pipes generally cut granodioritic plutonic rocks of Upper
Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary age. Among the principal groups of breccia pipes
are Cabeza de Vaca (27°37'S; 62±7 m.y.) and Llamuco (31 °41'S; 62± 1 m.y.).
Ruiz et al. (1965) postulate an Eocene age for several vein-type deposits de-
scribed as peripheral to Cu, Mo, and W mineralizations. They contain poly-
metallic sulfides, with variable concentrations of Ag and Au. Among them are
the Pb-Zn deposits of Jauja (20°08'S), Zapallar (27°35'S), and Carlota (33°52'S).
Considering their geologic situation it is probable that the age of these veins is
Paleocene (e.g., Zapallar), Eocene (e.g., Jauja), or younger.
2. Subvolcanic Gold Deposits of Lower Eocene Age (Chile, Camus 1986a). There
are several Au-vein deposits between lat 25 °S and 37 °S, hosted by Upper
Cretaceous volcanic rocks or by Lower Tertiary subvolcanic acid intrusions. Their
paragenesis includes Au, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and hematite, while argillic minerals
and silicification predominate as alteration phases. Au values are close to 4- 5 g/t
in the primary zone but attain up to 50 g/t in the oxidation zone, raising the
medium grade of some deposits to about 10 g/t. Principal deposits of this group
are El Guanaco (25°06'S; 550x 104 t, 4-5 g/t), Sierra Overa (25°47'S; 17 x 104 t,
13g/t), San Cristobal (29°32'S; 16x1ift, 4g/t) and Minas del Prado (36°41'S;
20x 104 t, 3 g/t).
3. Cu-Porphyries and Contact Deposits of Eocene-Oligocene Age (Chile and
Argentina, Oyarzun and Frutos 1980; Sillitoe 1981; Sureda et al. 1986). Four im-
portant porphyry copper deposits of north Chile have an age close to the Eocene-
Oligocene limit. They are El Abra (21 °56'S; 33 m.y.), Chuquicamata (22°18'S;
33 m.y.), El Salvador (26°15'S; 40 m.y.), and Potrerillos (26°29'S; 34 m.y.). Copper

reserves of these well-known deposits, expressed as metallic Cu, are over 8 mio t,
40 mio t, 6 mio t, and 3 mio t, respectively. Additionally, Chuquicamata is also
considered a major molybdenum deposit. The intrusion of the dacitic porphyric
bodies responsible for the mineralizations is coincident with one of the magmatic
pulsations pointed out by Farrar et al. (1970), between 44 and 34 m.y.
In NW Argentina there are skarn deposits hosted by Maastrichtian-Danian
limestones metamorphosed by Tertiary granodioritic intrusions. The most abun-
dant metallic mineral is magnetite, accompanied by small and variable amounts
of Cu, Zn, and Pb sulfides. An example of these deposits is El Ancay (24 o 36'S;
66°10'W), which has an Upper Oligocene age (26±5 m.y.) and contains several
high-grade (600Jo Fe) but small magnetite bodies.
4. Red Bed and Exotic Cu Deposits in Oligocene and Miocene Sediments (Chile
and Argentina; Fam 1979; Flint 1986; Sureda et al. 1986). The San Bartolo red
bed deposit is described elsewhere (22°44'S/68°14'W; Flint, this Vol.).
Sureda et al. (1986) describe subconformable Cu red bed deposit is the
paragenesis of which includes chalcocite, covelline, malachite, chrysocolla, pyrite,
and azurite. Some of them, (e.g., Los Colorados and Aguas Amargas, 24°44'S/
66°58'W) occur in red sandstones of the Oeste Formation (Oligocene-Miocene?)
along stratigraphic horizons, as well as in vein structures. The main deposit,
Eureka (21 °54'S/66°13'W), is hosted by a gold-bearing (1 g/t) conglomerate bed
(1-2m thick), considered as a fossil placer deposit, through which the Cu
mineralizing solutions circulated.
Fam (1979) postulates a Miocene age for the two major exotic Cu deposits in
Chile: Sagasca (20°12'S) and Exotica (22°18'S). The Sagasca deposit is made up
of a mineralized conglomerate of Tertiary age that unconformably overlies the
Paleozoic basement and is covered by an Upper Tertiary ignimbrite. The average
thickness of the deposit is 40 m. It extends along 2 km, and has a variable width
(that probably attained some 600 m before erosion). Ore minerals are chrysocolla,
Cu-wad, and minor atacamite; gypsum is an abundant gangue mineral. Average
grade is close to 20Jo and before-mining reserves are estimated at about 500000 t
(metallic Cu).
The Exotica (or "Chuqui-Sur") deposit is situated 2 km south of the Chuquica-
mata porphyry copper. Its mineralization, made of chrysocolla, atacamite, and Cu-
wad, appears as a cement in the Tertiary gravels, as a filling material in the underly-
ing Paleozoic rocks, or as a dissemination in altered gravels or rocks. Its average
grade is similar to the grade of Sagasga, but the amount of Cu is much greater
(about 3 600000 t metallic Cu). Like Sagasca, Exotica has a small uranium content.
While the origin of Exotica (due to leaching of the Chuquicamata porphyry
and horizontal migration of Cu-bearing solutions) is easy to understand, the
source for Sagasga is difficult to settle. The problem lies in the distance between
Sagasca and the known possible source, the porphyry copper deposit of Cerro
Colorado, situated 15 km in a NNE direction.
5. Metallic Ore Deposits Related to Miocene Magmatism (Chile and Argentina;

Araneda 1982; Maksaev et al. 1984; Malvicini and Llambias 1982; Sillitoe 1981;
74 J. M. Oyarzun
Sureda et al. 1986). These mineralizations, linked to subvolcanic intrusions, in-

clude mainly porphyry and vein-type deposits.
a) Porphyry copper deposits: due to the eastward migration of magmatism
during the Miocene, the porphyry mineralizations of this age (stockwork or brec-
cia pipe type), are in Argentinian territory, with the important exception of Los
Pelambres (31 °42'S/70°30'W; 10 m.y., 5 mio t Cu). This deposit, situated in
Chile, close to the border, represents a mineralized center together with the Argen-
tinian porphyry of El Pach6n. Other porphyry copper deposits or prospects of
Miocene age are of rather small economic importance. Among them are Pancho
Arias (24°14'S/65°30'W; 15 m.y.), Inca Viejo (25°10'S/66°45'W; 15 m.y.), a
group of porphyric mineralizations dated at 7- 8 m.y., close to the coordinates
27°20'S;66°30'W (Bajo del Durazno, Bajo de La Alumbrera, Bajo de San Lucas
and Mi Vida), Arroyo Chita (30°25'S/69°33'W; 12 m.y.) and other groups ar-
round coordinates 32°15'S/69°30'W: Paramillos Norte (16m.y.), Cerro Merce-
dario (13 m.y.), and Rio de las Vacas (8.5 m.y.).
b) Subvolcanic, vein-type deposits: they may be classified in three groups on
the basis of their composition:
- Au-Cu and Sb-Au vein mineralizations: the main ore deposit of this group
is El Indio, Chile (29°45'S/69°59'w';" 11 m.y.), made up of massive sulfide and
sulfominerals (enargite) veins and by later Au-bearing quartz veins. It has b.m.
reserves of about 3.4 mio t ore, with an average grade of 17 g/t Au, 140 g/t Ag,
and 407o Cu. TheEl Indio deposit is inside a Miocene volcanic center, situated in
a narrow N-S band of argillic alteration recognized along 200 km between Iat 29°
and 31 °S. Some 30 prospects have been identified in this band, including El Th.m-
bo, close to the El Indio mine, already in a stage of economic production. In
Argentina, there are also gold mineralizations of Miocene age. These deposits are
peripherical to porphyry copper systems. The principal one is Farall6n Negro,
close to the porphyry deposit of Bajo de Ia Alumbrera.
The epithermal Sb-Au veins belong, in part, to the extension into Argentina
of the Sb Bolivian belt. These deposits have a simple paragenesis (quartz, with
antimonite, pyrite, and free gold). The main one, Pabell6n (22°27'S/66°41'W),
produced some 14000 t of ore, 20 g/t Au.
- Pb-Zn-Ag (Cu, Bi) veins: they belong to the Bolivian polymetallic province,
that extends from Peru to Argentina (Salta and Jujuy provinces). The major
Argentinian districts, Pan de Azucar (22°43'S/66°10'W), La Esperanza
(24°14'S/66°34'W) and La Concordia (24°10'S/66°24'W), are linked to dacitic
domes and their mineralogy mainly includes galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
pyrite, and tetrahedrite. The principal deposits have reserves from 50000 to
26000 tore, with grades between 5%-11% Pb; 1-6% Zn, and 200-500 g/t Ag.
- Sn-Ag veins: they represent the southern part of the Bolivian tin belt. The
major Argentinian deposit, Pirquitas (22°44'S/66°27'W) is hosted by strongly
folded, clastic Paleozoic rocks. Its paragenesis includes high-temperature (pyr-
rhotite, cassiterite, arsenpyrite, etc.) and low-temperature (sphalerite, galena, sulfo
salts) phases, both crystallized at shallow (subvolcanic) levels. The ore produced
by the Pirquitas Mine (200 tlday) has an average grade of 1.1% Sn and 0.05%
Ag, although the richest ores of the mine have attained up to 10% Sn and
10% Ag.
6. Evaporites and Metalliferous Brines (Chile and Argentina; Sureda et al. 1986;
Vila 1986). During Cenozoic times, evaporitic concentrations of cations and
anions of soluble salts have been developed in north Chile and NW Argentina.
This process, which is still continuing at present, has occurred in taphrogenic
basins under arid conditions. The principal metallic concentrations are those of
Li and K of Salar de Atacama (23°00'S-23°45'S; 68°00'W-68°30'W), situated
in the Chilean Pre-Cordillera (Vila, this Vol.) The main "anionic" deposits of
economic interest are in the central Chilean depression (nitrate fields) and in the
Andean salars of both countries (mainly borates; Alonso and Vizamonte, this
Vol.) The principal factors in the formation of these deposits are the direct and
indirect (rock-leaching) contributions of Cenozoic volcanism, and the climatic
and tectonic conditions. Of special prospective interest are the probable uranium
concentrations in Andean basins surrounded by Tertiary ignimbritic rocks.
7. Metalliferous Deposits Linked to the Pliocene Magmatism (Chile and Argen-

tina; Frutos and Oyarzun 1975; Guzman 1986; Ruiz et al. 1965; Sureda et al.
1986). These deposits belong to three types: porphyry copper, volcanogenic
magnetite bodies, and exhalative manganese mineralizations.
a) Porphyry copper deposits: two huge centers of porphyric Cu mineralization,
situated in the central Chile Andean Cordillera, have a Pliocene age. They are the
Rio Blanco-Los Bronces district (33°09'S; 5 m.y.) and the El Teniente deposit
(34°06'S; 5 m.y.). The Cu-Mo mineralization of Rio Blanco-Los Bronces is linked
to a complex of granodioritic porphyries and breccia pipes that cut Cretaceous
and Tertiary volcanic rocks. Their Cu resources (b.m.) may attain up to 40 mio t
(metallic Cu). At El Teniente, the Cu-Mo mineralization occurs around a breccia
pipe (Braden formation) that has a diameter of 1000-1200 m. The ore-bearing
rocks are mainly Tertiary andesites, and the hydrothermal mineralization is linked
to a porphyric granodioritic-dacitic complex. Before-mining reserves at El Teni-
ente are estimated at 50 mio t Cu and 1 mio t Mo (expressed as metals). Rio Blan-
co-Los Bronces and El Teniente represent a chronologie and geographic cluster
of Cu-Mo mineralization of exceptional magnitude.
b) The magnetite bodies of El Laco (20°49'S/67°29'W, around 1000 mt ore,
500J'o Fe), are described by Frutos et al. (this Vol.).
c) Exhalative manganese deposits: At the northern part of the Chilean
Altiplano, around coordinates 18°00'S/60°40'W, several stratiform manganese
deposits crop out, hosted by Upper Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic and
sedimentary rocks. These deposits are related to exhalative volcanic activity and
are of small economic interest. Similar mineralizations, also of small magnitude,
occur in Cenozoic volcano-sedimentary formations of NW Argentina.
5 Conclusions
In general terms, two well-differentiated metallogenetic epochs, corresponding to
the Paleozoic and Andean (Mesozoic-Cenozoic) geologic "cycles", may be distin-
guished. The ore deposits of the first occur to the east of the Cordillera Principal,
except those of the B.I.F. and massive sulfide types belonging to the Carboni-
76 J. M. Oyarzun
ferous oceanic accretion complex. Marine sedimentary environments are impor-

tant in the genesis of some Paleozoic mineralizations (e.g., oolithic iron ores; Pb-
Zn sulfide deposits in transgressive marine facies, etc.). During the Carboniferous,
the first porphyry copper mineralizations are formed, and at the Permian, the
Chilean-Argentinian Andean domain attains a configuration (in terms of tectonic
plates interaction) that has essentially prevailed during Mesozoic and Cenozoic
times.
The Mesozoic-Cenozoic metallogenesis comprises: (a) Mineralizations of clear
magmatic association (e.g., porphyry copper, skarn deposits, etc.) at the calc-
alkaline principal arc, or in rather isolated magmatic centers (alkaline or
peraluminous) located eastward. (b) Mineralizations that present magmatic
and/or sedimentary traits, situated between the principal magmatic arc and the
foreland. (c) Mineralizations of the red-bed type (or similar), located in continen-
tal taphrogenic basins, with molassic sedimentation under arid conditions.
The major metalliferous concentrations (in volume and grade) were formed
during the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic and are situated west of the present An-
dean summits line (coincident with the geographic border). In exchange, the
deposits located eastward of this line present a wider compositional variety and
include some metals that are rare (e.g., uranium) or nonexistent (e.g., tin) in
Chilean deposits. The porphyry copper deposits are the metallic concentrations
of highest economic importance and in the case of Chuquicamata and El Thniente
attain peaks of magnitude. Although Paleozoic and Cretaceous prophyries exist
in these segments, the major resources are distributed in two chronologie-
geographic clusters of, respectively, Eocene-Oligocene and Pliocene age.
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Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes: A Review
and a Classification According
to Their Geotectonic Setting
L. FONTBOTE 1
1 Introduction
Systematic investigations of stratabound ore deposits in the Andes are relatively
modern. Perhaps as a result of the very intensive Andean magmatic activity, it was
not easy to break with the concept that most ore deposits are veins and replacement
bodies related to late magmatic hydrothermal activity of some known or unknown
intrusion. The role of the stratabound ore deposits was underestimated. As a conse-
quence, research on stratabound ore deposits was traditionally retarded with respect
to other groups of ore deposits in the Andes, such as porphyry copper or
hydrothermal vein deposits. Among the first works emphasizing the role of strata-
bound ore deposits in the Andes are those by Amstutz (1959, 1961), Entwistle and
Gouin (1955), Kobe (1960), Ljunggren and Meyer (1964), and Ruiz et al. (1971).
Stratabound ore deposits, including also some of the classic types known
worldwide, such as volcanic-associated massive sulfide, Mississippi Valley-type, and
red-bed type deposits, constitute, in fact, an important group in the Andes, also
from the economic point of view. From 44 major Andean mining operations listed
in the World Mining Map (operations with an annual gross metal value over
20 mio. DM, Metallgesellschaft 1987), 11 are stratabound. In Chile, "the porphyry
copper country" par excellence, four of ten mentioned operations are stratabound
ore deposits (Mantos Blancos, El Soldado, Lo Aguirre, and El Toqui), the other
six being porphyry copper (Chuquicamata, El Salvador, Andina, Rio Blanco-
Disputadatos Bronces, and El Thniente) and epithermal gold (El Indio) deposits.
Stratabound ore deposit is "said of a mineral deposit confined to a single
stratigraphic unit" (Glossary of Geology, A. G. I. 1980). To elucidate the limits of
this definition is, of course, problematic, and is not possible without clarifying
the scale used in describing the "single stratigraphic unit" considered (see also
discussions in Wolf 1976 and Gabelman 1976). Some of the ore deposits dealt
with in the present work are stratabound only in a broad sense, and it should be
pointed out that continuous transitions to nonstratabound ore deposits exist. This
is, however, a convenient definition which points out one main characteristic: a
stratabound ore deposit is linked to a certain stratigraphic (sedimentary or
volcanic) unit. This link is of empirical nature and does not imply either genetic
processes or time of formation. The term stratabound includes deposits formed
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRG

Present address: Dep. de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

80 L. Fontbote
Table 1. Metallogenetic stages of stratabound ore deposits as used in this volume
Andean Cycle
Northern Andes (North of 5°S)

NIIo Ore deposits in Mesozoic volcano-sedimentary sequences (accreted terrains and/or
marginal basins) (mainly massive sulfides)
Central Andes (5°- 42 °S)
Stage I (Triassic-Liassic) - Ore deposits in a carbonate platform without apparent relation to a
pair magmatic arc-back-arc basin (I a: polymetallic deposits, in part of massive sulfide type;
Ib and Ic: MVT deposits; only in the Pucara basin, Peru)
Stage II (Liassic-Albian) - Ore deposits in the ensialic paleogeographic pair magmatic arc-
back-arc, and in platform sediments attached to the foreland
IIa Ore deposits in volcanic sequences at the magmatic arc (Cu)
lib Ore deposits in volcaniclastic, mainly continental basins at the magmatic arc (in part
developed as intra-arc basins) (Cu, Mn, Fe)
lie Ore deposits in volcano-sedimentary sequences in back-arc basins (in part developed as
marginal basins) (Cu, Zn-Cu, Ba)
lid Ore deposits in marine sedimentary sequences of the back-arc basin (Fe, Ba, Zn, Pb, Ag)
lie Ore deposits in platform sediments attached to the foreland (Zn-Pb-Cu, Zn-Pb, Ba-Sr, U)
Stage III (Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic) - Ore deposits in continental intra-arc and foreland basins
Ilia Fluvial-lacustrine basins in intermediate to acid volcanic environment (polymetallic
deposits)
IIIb Molasse sequences in intermontane basins, in part foreland basins [red-bed type Cu and
Cu-(U-V) deposits]
III c Deposits related to Cenozoic alkaline volcanics, mainly in ignimbritic flows and tuffs (U)
Southern Andes (South of 42 °S)
SIIc Ore deposits in Mesozoic back-arc basins (in part marginal basins?)
Sub-Andean Basins (Lower Cretaceous-Eocene)
Ore deposits in shallow-water carbonate rocks and in clastic sediments [Cu-(U, V), Pb-Zn]
Pre-Andean Cycle
P2 = Carboniferous-Permian (mainly red-bed type Cu and U)

P1 =Pre-Carboniferous, stages not further differentiated
through volcanogenic, hydrothermal, metamorphic, diagenetic, and sedimentary

processes both penecontemporaneously and much later than the host rock, which
can be volcanic or sedimentary.
The scope of this chapter is to give an overview of the stratabound ore deposits
known in the Andes and to introduce the classification used in the organization
of the present book (Table 1). An additional aim is to complement the informa-
tion on deposits not dealt with in other contributions. The empirical link of ore
and host rock can be used to classify the stratabound ore deposit according to the
age and geotectonic position of the enclosing rock. This is the approach followed
below. A systematic classification could be achieved with ore deposits hosted by
rocks of the Andean Cycle (Mesozoic-Recent) because the regional geology and
geotectonic interpretation of the rocks of this period are well known. Information
on stratabound ore deposits of pre-Andean Cycles is more limited and a
systematic classification has not been attempted.
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes: A Review and a Classification 81
Ore deposits and districts described in other contributions of this volume are
only very briefly mentioned and no additional references are given. In other cases,
the main information sources and a summary of main features is presented. Addi-
tional data can be found in the lists of ore deposits and districts arranged
alphabetically and from north to south at the end of this book (Font bote this Vol.
appendix). They include the geographic coordinates and the main geologic char-
acteristics. A summary of this information is contained also in the map of strata-
bound ore deposits (Frutos, Fontbote, and Amstutz, this Vol.). A discussion on
the possible metal sources involved in the formation of the ore deposits of the An-
dean Cycle is given in Fontbote et al. (this Vol.).
Additional general reference works used in this overview are Putzer (1976), and
Oyarzun (1985). Peru: Raimondi (1878), Amstutz (1961, 1978), Bellido et al.
(1969, 1972), Petersen (1965), Soler (1986), Soler et al. (1986). Chile: Ruiz (1965,
1971), Ruiz and Peebles (1988), Frutos et al. (1986), Camus (1986). Argentina:
Angelleli et al. (1984), Brodtkorb and Brodtkorb (1984), Sureda et al. (1986).
2 Pre-Andean Cycles
Precambrian. In Precambrian rocks only small occurrences of banded iron for-
mations in the Arequipa Massif are known (Thrpuy, Matarani, Cardozo and
Cedillo this Vol.; Fermindez-Concha and Amstutz 1956).
Cambrian. The magnesite district of Alto Chapare in Bolivia occurs in a

metamorphic carbonatic-evaporitic Cambrian sequence (Cristalmayu Forma-
tion). This district has been described by Franz et al. (1979). It includes the San
Francisco and Minillo Mines.
Ordovician-Si/urian-Devonian. In schists and volcanic rocks of Ordovician age a

belt of Au-W ore deposits, which in a wide sense can in part be considered to be
stratabound, occurs in Bolivia (e.g., Mina Rosario, Chilicoya; Schneider this Vol.)
and in southeast Peru (e.g., Gavilan de Oro, La Rinconada; Cardozo and Cedillo
this Vol.).
In Ordovician metasedimentary rocks deposited in shelf environment at the
edge of the central Argentinian shield several polymetallic ore deposits are known.
The most important is the Aguilar Mine hosted by the Aguilar quartzite. Sureda
and Martin (this Vol.) support a synsedimentary-syndiagenetic genesis, whereas
for other authors (e.g., Spencer 1950) El Aguilar is the product of metasomatic
skarn related to a Cretaceous granitic intrusion. Another deposit hosted by Or-
dovician platform carbonates is La Helvecia (Pb-Zn-Ba, Brodtkorb and Brodt-
korb this Vol.). The Canota barite district is hosted by black shales of a flysch
sequence deposited in deeper parts of the basin (Brodtkorb et al. this Vol.). Addi-
tional small stratabound ore occurrences in Ordovician rocks in northern Argen-
tina are listed by Sureda et al. (1986, see also Sect. 1.4 in Oyarzlin this Vol.).
In a greenstone belt of probable Ordovician to Silurian age of south-central
Chile banded iron formations occur (the district Mahuilque-Relun, Collao et al.
this Vol.), small sulfide massive occurrences (e.g., Piren Alto; Alfaro and Collao
82 L. Fontbote
this Vol.; Schira et al. this Vol.), as well as minor manganese occurrences (e.g.,
Bellavista). The geologic setting is thought to correspond to an ensialic mature
marginal basin (Schira et al. this Vol.).
Much more to the south, in the Otway area, the polymetallic massive sulfide
ores of Cutter Cove hosted by metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of pro-
bable Paleozoic age (Arias-Farias 1985) are known. A small mining operation was
active there in the early 1970s.
Oolitic ironstones outcrop along in N-S direction for several hundred km in
northern Argentina and Bolivia. They are hosted by Silurian metamorphic wackes
and sandstones of the Lipe6n and Kirusillas Formations, which represents the
beginning of a transgressive sequence (e.g., Zapla, Unchime; Boso and Monaldi
this Vol.).
The Sn-Bolivian belt, with the ore districts of Kellhuani and San Jose Amarete,
is one of the classical examples of stratabound ore deposits in Paleozoic rocks in
the Andes. Lehman (this Vol.) presents arguments for a genesis bound to intru-
sions much younger than the hosting Silurian metamorphic rocks.
The genesis of the famous Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag deposit of Cerro de Pasco in central
Peru, hosted by phyllites and shales of the Excelsior Formation (Devonian), has
commonly been interpreted to be related to Miocene intrusive rocks. However,
Einaudi (1977), and more recently Cheney (1987), discuss also the possibility that
Cerro de Pasco represents a Paleozoic massive sulfide deposit.
Carboniferous-Permian. The polymetallic massive sulfide deposit Bailadores in

Venezuela is found in pyroclastic and pyllitic rocks of the Mucichacbe Formation
of Upper Carboniferous age (Carlson 1977). In shelf carbonate rocks of the Thrma
Group (Pennsylvanian) the copper mine of Cobriza occurs. Whether this deposit
is pre-tectonic in origin, as suggested by Huaman et al. (this Vol.), or related to a
post-Triassic skarn, as previously assumed, is still a matter of discussion.
Subsequently to the Hercynian orogenisis and in part in relation with rifting
episodes associated to intense magmatic activity, continental basins characterized
by red-bed sequences developed at different areas of the Andes. Among the
numerous small Cu and U deposits deposits known in this environment are the
copper mine of Negra Huanusha (Kobe this Vol.) and the uranium districts of
Sierra Pintada, Guandacol-Huachal, Dr. Baulies, and Tinogasta (Ferreyra and
Lardone this Vol.).
3 Andean Cycle
From north to south the Andes can be subdivided into three segments based on
the main features of the geologic evolution during the Andean Cycle (Triassic-Re-
cent). The Central Andes (5-42°S, i.e., Peru, Bolivia, and northern and central
parts of Argentina and Chile) are characterized by tectonic superposition, thick
continental crust and, in part, crust destruction, in contrast to the Northern and
Southern Andes, where the continental crust is thinner and accretion conditions
prevailed (Frutos this Vol.). This leads to the greater geologic complexity of the
Central Andes compared to the Northern and Southern Andes. The complexity
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes: A Review and a Classification
Table 2. Geotectonic position of representative ore deposits in the Central Andes
III Continental Intra-Arc and Sub-Andean Basin

Upper Foreland Basins (Salta Group)
Cretaceous- a) Polymetallic Ag-bearing deposits
- In lacustrine sed.
Cenozoic in lacustrine basins in calc-
Rio Juramenta
alkaline acid vole. environment
(Pb-Zn-Cu)
Colquijirca (Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu),
El Jardin (Ag-Cu) - In detrital sed. (Cu)
b) Red-bed type copper deposits in (U-V), (Mn)
intermontane, in part foreland
molasse basins: San Bartolo, Corocoro.
c) U deposits in alkaline acid volcanics
Macusani, Sevaruyo, Aguiliri
II Liassic- a) Magmatic Arc c) Back-Arc Basin d) Back-Arc Basin e) Platform

Albian Volcanic Volcano-sedimen- mainly Marine Sediments attached to
Sequence tary Sequence (in Sed. (Fe, Ba, Zn, the Foreland (Pb-
part Marginal Pb, Ag) Zn-AG, Ba-Sr, Ba)
Basin) (Cu and
Zn-Ba)
- Copara Metallo- - Bandurrias, - Hualgayoc (Pb-

teet (Cu) Manolete (Fe) Zn-Ag)
- Tambogrande - Mamiiia, Car- - Santa Metallotect
(Cu-Zn-Pb-Ba) ola, Gladys (Pb-Zn-Ag, Ba)
- Leonila Graciela [Ba-(Pb)] - Mina Ragra (V)
(Zn-Ba) - Jaula (Zn-Ag) - Domeyko (Ba)
Tithonian- - Palma (Zn-Pb) - Las Canas - Neuquen (Ba-Sr)
Albian - Punta del Cobre (Pb-Zn)
(Cu)
- M. Catemu
[Cu-(Pb-Zn)]
- El Soldado (Cu)
b) Sediments close to the Volcanic Arc

(in part Intra-Arc Basins)
(Cu, Mn, Fe)
- detr. sed.: C. Coloso (Cu), Talcuna
(Cu, Mn)
- marine sed. Coquimbana (Mn), Ch
Quemado (Fe)
Jurassic - [Cu-(Ag)] - Neuquen (Ba-Sr)

deposits in - Cercapuquio
La Negra Fm. (Zn-Pb)
I Triassic- Carbonate Platform without apparent Relation to a pair Magmatic Arc-

Liassic Back-Arc Basin (Pucara Basin)
a) Volcanic-associated ore deposits at the base of the carbonate sequence:
Carahuacra-Huaripampa, Manto Katy [massive pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-(Ag) ore]
(Central Pucara)
b) and c) MVT Zn-Pb deposits
b) Base of the carbonate sequence: Shalipayco [Zn-Pb-(Ag)] (Central-
Eastern Pucara)
c) Within a thick carbonate sequence: San Vicente belt (Zn-Pb) (Eastern
Pucara)
84 L. Fontbote
and plurality of geologic environments in the Central Andes is also reflected in

the amount and variety of ore deposits. From the 44 major mining operations in
the Andes (Metallgesellschaft 1987), all but one (Aysen) are located in this central
segment.
The available information on stratabound ore deposits also refer mainly to
those located in the Central Andes. For this reason the metallogenetic stages
defined below apply mainly to this segment of the Andean Cordillera (Table 2).
For a similar metallogenetic division of the Northern and Southern Andes addi-
tional data are still necessary.
3.1 Central Andes
Three metallogenetic "stages" can be distinguished in the Central Andes (Thble

1, Fig. 1). Each stage is characterized by its tectonic style, magmatic activity, and
basin evolution; and in each stage, characteristic types of stratabound ore deposits
occur.
3.1.1 Stage I (1Tiassic-Liassic). Ore Deposits in a Carbonate Platform

Without Apparent Relation to a Pair Magmatic Arc-Back-Arc Basin
Stage I (Triassic-Liassic) is a transitional period between the Hercynian and the

Andean Cycles recognized only in Peru. It comprises ore deposits hosted in
sediments of a wide shallow-water carbonate platform developed under exten-
sional conditions during the Upper Triassic to Liassic along the western margin
of the Brazilian Shield (Pucara Group). It follows Permo-Triassic sequences char-
acterized by continental sedimentation, important alkaline and peralkaline
volcanism, and horst and graben tectonics. As discussed by Fontbote (this Vol.},
sedimentation in the Pucara basin shows no relation to a possible magmatic arc
that could be located more to the west. This is a main difference compared to the
next metallogenetic stages.
Several important ore deposits occur in the Pucara carbonate platform, both
associated with volcanic activity (Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag) and purely carbonate-hosted
(Zn-Pb). The following three main groups may be distinguished (see references
and overview in Fontbote this Vol.).
Ia) Zn-Pb(-Ag-Cu) deposits rich in Mn and Fe in part with massive sulfide
parageneses located near the base of the carbonte sequence, spatially asso-
ciated to volcanic and/or volcanoclastic intercalations (e.g., Carahuacra-
Huaripampa).
I b) Mississippi Valley-type deposits at the base of the carbonate sequence (e.g.,
Shalipayco, Zn-Pb)
lc) Mississippi Valley-type deposits within the carbonate sequence (e.g., San
Vicente, Zn-Pb).
3.1.2 Stage II (Liassic-Albian). Ore Deposits in the Ensialic Paleogeographic

Pair Magmatic Arc-Back-Arc, in the Platform at the Continent Edge
The evolution of the Central Andes during the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic is
largely related to the subduction of the Nazca oceanic plate beneath the South
American continent, and the Andes have become the prototype for an orogenic
belt formed at a convergent plate boundary (James 1971). Coira et al. (1982) dis-
tinguished two main stages in the Meso-Cenozoic in northern Argentina and
Chile. An early period (Jurassic-Early Cretaceous) characterized by the develop-
ment of a well-defined magmatic arc-back-arc basin pair, and a late period (Late
Cretaceous-Recent) during which only an eastward-migrating magmatic arc was
present. These stages can be recognized also in the other sectors of the Central
Andes and correspond with the metallogenetic stages II (Liassic-Albian) and III
(Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic) as used in this chapter.
Eastwards of the magmatic arc, the proportion of marine sediments compared
to volcanic rocks gradually increases. This W-E asymmetry is a general feature
which can be recognized in Jurassic and in Lower Cretaceous times, both in Chile
and in Peru (see also Cardozo and Cedillo this Vol.), and serves as the base for
the interpretation of parallel belts which comprise, from west to east, magmatic
arc, back-arc basin and, in some regions, platform facies at the continent edge.
The distinction between the two latter environments is based on the relative in-
fluence of volcanic activity during sedimentation and on the type of basin evolu-
tion. The back-arc basin is strongly influenced by the volcanism at the magmatic
arc and the basin geometry controlled by extensional tectonics. The depositional
environment at the continent edge displays only subordinate volcanic activity and
is characterized by platform sediments. This division corresponds to the classical
distinction between eu- and miogeosynclinal facies (Auboin et al. 1973), and is
especially well recognized in Peru (see also Cardozo and Cedillo this Vol.).
The "Andean Model", based only on the subduction of the Pacific oceanic
plate under South America, although essentially coherent with present-day obser-
vations, does not explain all essential features of the Andean edifice (see reviews
on this topic in Aguirre 1985; Pitcher and Cobbing 1985). Levi and Aguirre (1981)
and Aberg et al. (1984) point out the important role played by spreading processes
in the construction of the Andes in central Chile. These authors suggest a
mechanism of "intracontinental spreading-subsidence" acting in conjunction
with oceanic subduction. Aguirre (1987) generalizes this model for the whole An-
dean Cordillera, and underlines that extensional regimes were the rule during An-
dean evolution and that compressive intervals were short-lived. The spreading
processes are of great importance for the evolution of back-arc basins during
Jurassic and Cretaceous times, especially because of the creation of ensialic
marginal basins, which in the Central Andes were always of "aborted" type (i.e.,
a back-arc basin in which spreading started but did not reach the stage of creation
of oceanic crust).
Aguirre (1987) interprets the formation of marginal basins during Jurassic and
Cretaceous times in the Central Andes as part of a general extensional process af-
fecting the whole Andes, during which "true" marginal basins (i.e., with creation
of oceanic crust) in the northern and Patagonian segments were developed.
86 L. Fontbote
STRATABOUND ORE DEPOSITS

IN THE CENTRAL ANDES
(ANDEAN CYCLE)
Tecto~ur:-l!s (sim lif•ed accord1Jl9 to Fruto~ 1986}
~ Undef ormed cover

~ Pl•o-Ouaternary volcanic belt
CJ eogene-Quaternary graben areas
f:I=~ :~i:::ne-Quaternary graben and depr~rssed
Andean grcanttoids {M~so zo•c-Cenozo•c)

lnternat basms IMesozoic-Cenozoicl
Dep ressed crusta! untts (m a•nl y Cretaceous-
Tertoar yl
Uplif ed crustal untts (mainly Ju rasstc -
Lowa r Cretaceous)
Sub-Andettn bas•ns (C reta ceous-Cenozotcl
Pre-Mesozo•c basement
Shield areas (PrecambuanJ
Zn-Pb ~ ~ 10
Ag .¢> ~ ¢ Q
Ba
Fe
Mn
v
u
ll-TG Stage and ore dtpos•t or
tn legendl
ll . FONTBOTE. 19871
Duw1 . , S ti0Pf
Fig. 1. Location, ore association, and host rock of representative stratabound districts (D), mines (M),
and pro.spects (P) in the Central Andes. Other deposits are included in the map within the folder at
the end of the book (Frutos, Fontbote and Amstutz this Vol.). See also Appendix for summary of
main features of mentioned deposits
North-south transitions in the degree of thinning of the continental crust would

be reflected in petrologic characteristics. According to Aguirre's hypothesis,
basins with strong attenuation of the continental crust are characterized by
primitive basalts and a high thermal gradient, resulting in burial metamorphism
at different periods in north-central Peru and in central Chile. On the other hand,
if the thinning of the continental crust is moderate, the volcanic rocks are evolved
and show calc-alkaline affinities, and the thermal gradient is lower.
As a result of this geologic scenario the paleogeography of stage II is mainly
characterized by a geotectonic couple consisting of a magmatic arc and a back-arc
basin, in part developed as an aborted marginal basin both formed on continental
crust. Towards the foreland areas platform sedimentation is recognized. Exten-
sional conditions and generalized transgression are recorded. Stratabound ore
deposits are found in a series of paleogeographic positions Fig. 2:
II a) Ore deposits in volcanic sequences at the magmatic arc (Cu).
II b) Ore deposits in volcaniclastic, mainly continental basins at the magmatic arc
(in part developed as intra-arc basins) (Cu, Mn, Fe).
lie) Ore deposits in volcano-sedimentary sequences in back-arc basins (in part

developed as marginal basins) (Cu, Zn-Cu, Ba).
II d) Ore deposits in marine sedimentary sequences of the back-arc basin (Fe, Ba,
Zn, Pb, Ag).
lie) Ore deposits in platform sediments attached to the foreland (Zn-Pb-Cu, Zn-
Pb, Ba-Sr, U)
It is important to emphasize that this division into five "paleogeographic posi-
tions" is based on lithological and morphological criteria. Stages Ila, lib, and
II c can correspond to different types of development of the subduction-related
magmatic arc, and the three types do not necessarily coexist in a given area. Fault-
induced and thermally-driven subsidence close to the magmatic arc can produce
AG, M Aguirre, Lo; EB, M Elisa de Bordos; PC, D Punta del Cobre;
AL, D Aguiliri; EJ, M Jardin, El; QU, D Corral Quemado;
AM, M Amolanas; EX, M Extraiio, El; RA, M Raul-Condestable;
AR, M Huachipato (Arica) FK, M Frankenstein; RG, M Ragra;
BA, M Bandurrias; HA, M Huemul-Agua Botada; SA, D Custodio;
BE, M Buena Esperanza; HG, D Bella Union; SB, M San Bartolo;
CB, M Coquimbana; HU, M Huanzahi; SD, M Santo Domingo;
cc, M Caleta Coloso; JA, M Jaula-Bellavista; SH, M Shalipayco;
CF, p Cifuncho; JU, M Cerro Plomo; so, M Soldado, El;
CG, p Chaglla (Harao); LC, M Las Caii.as; sv, M San Vicente;
CH, D Chaii.ar Quemado; LG, M Leonila-Graciela; SY, D Sevaruyo;
CL, M Colquijirca; MA, p Macusani; TA, D Talcuna;
CM, D Carolina de Michilla; MB, M Mantos Blancos; TA, D Talcuna;
CN, M Cerro Negro; MC, D Catemu, Mantos de; TG, D Thmbogrande;
co, M Corocoro; MM, M Mamiii.a; YA, D Yauli, Domo de
CQ, M Cercapuquio; MN, D Mendoza, South of;
DM, P Domeyko Cord., Chaco Q.; NQ, D Neuquen;
88 L. Fontbote
graben structures filled with volcano-sedimentary sequences. Such basins can

constitute the magmatic arc itself which would not form a morphologically
distinguishable volcanic arc. This situation, which has been compared to the
Eocene Pliocene evolution of the Sumatra-Java active margin (Uliana et al. in
press), is encountered during Mesozoic times in parts of Central Chile and in
Peru, where magmatic ares developed ensialic aborted marginal basins character-
ized by volcano-sedimentary sequences without generating true volcanic arcs.
Marginal basins are usually considered to represent a type of back-arc basin in
order to stress the fact that they develop under extensional tectonics; it should,
however, be taken into account that actually this "back-arc" type does not need
to be located behind a contemporaneous, morphologically well-developed volca-
nic arc.
II a) Ore Deposits in Volcanic Sequences at the Magmatic Arc
An ensialic volcanic arc is recognized in the La Negra Formation in the coastal

range of northern Chile. This formation comprises mainly thin flows of calc-
alkaline basalts, basaltic andesites, and high-K basaltic andesites, as well as some
volcaniclastic intercalations with a total thickness of 7 to 10 km (Garcia 1967;
Buchelt and Tellez 1988; Rogers and Hawkesworth 1989). Although for most
authors La Negra Formation represents a volcanic arc Rogers and Hawkesworth
(1989) suggest that the lava flows erupted in an ensialic back-arc basin rather than
in the actual volcanic arc, which should have been located more to the west. The
start of the volcanism of the La Negra Formation has been determined to be
Sinemurian (v. Hillebrandt et al. 1986). A comparable volcanic belt is recognized
also in the Lower Cretaceous in several areas of northern Chile.
In this magmatic arc of northern Chile important copper deposits occur. The
grade (1.5-30Jo Cu) and tonnage (5 to 60mio. t) makes these ore deposits a good
economic target even at low copper prices. Subordinate silver contents (in the
range of 20 g/t Ag) are also generally recovered. The most significative deposits
are the Buena Esperanza Mine (Palacios this Vol.), the Carolina de Michilla
district (Wolf et al. this Vol.), and the Santo Domingo Mine (Definis 1985), all
located in calc-alkaline and high-K basalts, basaltic andesites, and andesites of
the coastal range of the La Negra Formation. The Mantos Blancos Mine, which
is the largest in the area, occurs in volcanic rocks of probable Jurassic age located
30 km east of the coastal volcanic belt but attributed by Buchelt and Tellez (1988)
also to the La Negra Formation.
In the coastal ore deposits of the La Negra Formation, the ore occurs both as
breccia pipe bodies and as stratiform ore bodies, which are called mantos 2 , the
2 The term "manto" is used in several senses in the Andean countries. The miners employ it in contrast
to "veta" (vein) for tabular ore bodies which do not dip vertically. Usually, but not always it is a
synonym for stratiform. In Chile, the expression "manto type" has been assigned usually to
stratiform copper ore deposits (Ruiz et al. 1971), including ore deposits of very different types, for
example the (in part) stratiform, volcanic-hosted deposits in the La Negra Formation, and the sedi-
ment-hosted deposits in the Mantos de Catemu and Cabildo districts. The Punta del Cobre district
latter located preferentially in amygdaloidal and/or brecciated tops of lava flows

(Losert 1974; Definis 1985; Soto and Dreyer 1985; Palacios this Vol.; Wolf et al.
this Vol.). The main ore minerals in the sulfide ore bodies (the production in some
mines began with the exploitation of a thick zone of supergene copper minerals)
are chalcocite, digenite, bornite, and, subordinately, chalcopyrite. The host
volcanic rocks are affected by regional scale alteration, probably burial metamor-
phism which is especially visible in the flow tops. 'JYpical alteration minerals are
albite, chlorite, epidote, calcite, and quartz. In Buena Esperanza, zeolites,
prehnite, and pumpellyite have also been described (Losert 1974). In addition,
near the orebodies local scale hydrothermal alteration, spatially associated to bar-
ren subvolcanic intrusives, is recognized in the Buena Esperanza Mine and in the
Susana Mine (Carolina de Michilla district).
The Mantos Blancos copper deposit (Chavez 1984, 1985), situated some 45 km
northeast of Antofagasta, is hosted by an altered volcanic sequence consisting of
rhyolites, tuffs, dacites, and andesites, cross-cut by dacitic and andesitic dykes and
sills. The composition appears to be, therefore, intermediate to acid in contrast
to the more basic volcanic rocks of the coastal range of the La Negra Formation.
According to Chavez (1985), the volcanic sequence is Middle Jurassic or older and
not Cretaceous as previously assumed. Mantos Blancos shows host rock alteration
characteristics similar to those occurring in the coastal range of the La Negra For-
mation but the orebodies display a more irregular geometry. The ore minerals
(chalcopyrite, digenite, bornite, and subordinate chalcocite) occur mainly
disseminated and in veinlets and to a lesser extent in the amygdaloidal part of the
andesitic flows.
While all detailed investigations of these ore deposits recognize the existence
of hydrothermal alteration related to the ore, it is difficult to elucidate the
ultimate nature of the ore-forming fluids. It is also difficult to discriminate the
role of burial metamorphism versus hydrothermal alteration related to magmatic
processes, because both processes may lead to similar paragenesis. In this respect,
Wolf et al. (this Vol.). describing the alteration in the Susana Mine, note that the
ore shows a close temporal and spatial relationship to intense hydrothermal altera-
tion, which is more intense - but similar in mineralogy - to that observed on
a regional scale, probably due to burial metamorphism.
Two main hypotheses have been proposed to explain the genesis of these ore
deposits. Losert (1974) carried out very detailed petrographic investigations in the
Buena Esperanza Mine and distinguished two alteration types. The first is a re-
gional scale alteration. The second type, of local extent, is superimposed on the
first and is associated with the economic copper minerals. He proposes that the
ore formed by leaching and concentration of copper disseminated in the volcanic
rocks. Mobilization of Cu from mafic rock-forming minerals during regional
2 (continued) (with only subordinate stratiform orebodies) and the El Soldado Mine (with no
stratiform orebodies) have also been included in this "type" by Sato (1984). Thus, the expression
"manto type" should be avoided as it actually includes different descriptive and genetic types,
whereas the term "manto" can be used for tabular orebodies conformable with stratification (strati-
form at the mine scale).
90 L. Fontbote
Ore deposits
BA Bandurrias
BE Buena Esperanza
CB Coquimbana
cc Caleta Coloso
CF Cifuncho (prospect)
CG ChagHa (prospect)
CH Chaiiar Quemado
CM Carolina de Michilla
CN Cerro Negro
CQ Cercapuquio
DM Domeyko Cord.,
Chaco Q. (prospect)
EX Extraiio, El
HG Bella Union
HU Huanzalli
JA Jaula-Bellavista
LC Las Caiias
LG Leonila-Graciela
MB Mantos Blancos
MC Catemu, Mantos de
MM Mamiiia
MN Mendoza, South of
NQ Neuquen
PC Punta del Cobre
QU Corral Quemado
RA Raul-Condestable
SD Santo Domingo
SH Shalipayco
so Soldado, El
sv San Vicente
TA Talcuna
TG Tambogrande
UY Uyupan
YA Yauli, Domo de
Lithologic units
Peru Chile
1 Las Lomas Group 12 Liassic Cifuncho
2 Puente Piedra Fm. 13 La Negra Fm.
3 Morro Solar Fm. 14 Quebrada del Way Group
4 Copara Group 15 Bandurrias/Q. MarquesaFm.
5 Casma Group 16 Lo Prado Fm.
6 Cercapuquio Fm. 17 Veta Negra Fm.
7 Chaucha Fm. 18 Las Chilcas Fm.
8 Goyllarizquizga Fm . 19 Lo Valle Fm .
9 Santa Group 20 Chaiiarcillo Group
10 Chulec Group 21 L. Cretac. Domeyko
11 Pucara Group
Argentina
22 Mendoza-Neuquen Basin
Fig. 2. Schematic stratigraphic position of selected stratabound ore .deposits of Stages I and
II.
Left = situation of the considered synoptic sections.
PERU
lie
'' 12"5
''
''
'
''
' \
' Ic
'' 10°-12°5
11m· VA
''
''
''
''
\
''
\ \
CHILE
\ II c
32°-33°5
21·~·
0 BA ·~ -0- DM
0 ...·
vvvv
vvvv
vvvv
vvvv
vvvv
vvv v ~~
13 V V V V & MB
SD
vvvv
vvvv
vvvv
.-® CF
[IJ
ITIIllJ no deposrtron ~shale [Jm re!rct of evaporitic mrneral
~lrmestone Q clastrcseciments ~ volcanrcs
~dolomrte
t:iEEJ evapontes rr=lJ tuff or pyroclastic rock
Symbols for element distribution and main host rock of ore deposits are those used in Fig. 1
(seep. 86).
92 L. Fontbote
scale alteration (and specifically regional epidotization) played an important role.

Intrusive activity may have additionally promoted fluid circulation. Losert's ideas
have been taken up again recently by Sato (1984). Espinoza and Palacios (1982)
and Palacios (1986), without denying the existence of burial metamorphism,
underline the spatial relationship of at least some of the ore deposits to volcanic
necks and breccia pipes. This association appears to be especially clear in Buena
Esperanza (in areas not exposed during Losert's investigations) and in the Susana
Mine in the Carolina de Michilla district. Palacios (1986) proposes that late stage
hydrothermal fluids related to the magmatism which formed the La Negra
volcanic rocks are the major alteration and ore-forming agent. Homogenization
temperatures of fluid inclusions in quartz (440-550°C) and hypersaline com-
positions would support participation of magmatic processes in hydrothermal
alteration (Palacios this Vol.).
The Frankenstein Mine and other copper deposits in the Altamira district (Ro-
jas 1973) are comparable to those in the coastal range of the La Negra Formation.
Copper sulfides occur in amygdaloidal volcanic rocks of Jurassic age.
Jurassic volcanic activity is also recognized in coastal areas of Peru. The
earliest volcanic event linked to the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the
South American plate has a probable Sinemurian age (see discussion in Fontbote
this Vol.). However, a morphologically clear volcanic arc such as that occurring
in northern Chile is not known in Peru. For this reason copper deposits occurring
in purely volcanic sequences are not found in Peru. It is possible that a volcanic
arc located west of the Peruvian marginal basin has been tectonically eroded by
the Nazca plate subduction (Audebaud et al. 1973) explaining the absence of this
ore deposit type. An alternative, more probable hypothesis is, as discussed above,
that the magmatic arc developed as a marginal basin without ever generating a
true volcanic arc.
lib) Ore Deposits in Volcaniclastic, Mainly Continental Basins at the

Magmatic Arc (in Part Developed as Intra-Arc Basins) (Cu, Mn, Fe)
A number of stratabound copper and manganese deposits are known in northern

and central Chile from Lower Cretaceous clastic sequences near the magmatic arc
(in part in intra-arc basins). Copper deposits include, Caleta Coloso (Flint this Vol.)
and the Thlcuna district (Camus this Vol.). Stratiform manganese deposits (see also
Sect. 2.11 in Oyarrun this Vol.) occur in the mines and districts of Fragua, Corral
Quemado, La Negra-Coquimbana (Pincheira and Fontbote this Vol.), and Talcuna
(Camus this Vol.). In addition, iron deposits occur in Chaftar Quemado.
A common characteristic of many of the copper deposits located in these
basins is the fact that copper minerals occur as cement of brackish, lacustrine,
or shallow marine detrital volcaniclastic horizons. Hydrothermal alteration is
generally not recognized, but burial metamorphism commonly affects the host se-
quences. Circulation of brines during diagenesis (Flint this Vol.) or burial
metamorphism (Sato 1984) have been proposed as main metallogenetic factors.
In addition, the participation of magmatic hydrothermal fluids has been invoked
(Boric 1985).
According to Sato (1984), ore formation in the Talcuna district is bound to cir-
culation of connate or metamorphic waters carrying cations mobilized during
burial metamorphism. Many observational criteria support this hypothesis. The
genetic discussion on the Talcuna district is especially interesting due to the spatial
coincidence of the two stratiform ore types mentioned above: copper minerals as
cement of clastic sediments and in the amygdaloidal tops of the lava flows
underlying the same ore-bearing clastic horizons. This last textural type is very
similar to the copper ores in amygdaloidal flow tops in the La Negra Formation
(see stage II a). However, in Talcuna, hydrothermal alteration is weak, whereas in
the ore deposits in the La Negra Formation it is very intense. Therefore, the mor-
phologic convergence between the copper ores in amygdaloidal lava flows in the
Talcuna district and those in the La Negra Formation do not necessarily corres-
pond to identical genetic processes. In both cases, the porous tops of the lava
flows have increased the permeability. The circulating fluids could be, however,
of very different nature, temperature, and timing. The genesis of the copper ores
in the Talcuna district can be compared with that of the burial metamorphism-
related Michigan copper ores, although they differ in their mineralogy, probably
due to different sulphur fugacity grades. In the La Negra Formation ore forming
processes are apparently linked to subvolcanic-hydrothermal activity.
II c) Ore Deposits in Volcano-Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Basins (in

Part Developed as Marginal Basins) (Cu, Zn-Cu, Ba)
In this section basins characterized by thick volcano-sedimentary sequences

deposited under clear extensional conditions are dealt with. The type of
volcanism, recognition of burial metamorphism pointing to the presence of ther-
mal anomalies, and the geometry of the basin indicate that in places they corres-
pond to aborted ensialic marginal basins (see discussion above). Since no evidence
of the presence of a morphologically clear volcanic arc is found west of these
basins, and taking into account the very important volcanic activity registered
within the basin, it can be suggested that they constitute the magmatic arc. They
display, therefore, significant differences with the back-arc basins located east of
a morphologically clear volcanic arc, which are characterized predominantly by
sedimentary rocks, and which will be described under II d.
Important ore deposits, including several of the massive sulfide type, are found
in volcano-sedimentary sequences of stage II c. All of them occur in Lower
Cretaceous rocks. They comprise both ore deposits closely associated with volcanic
systems, and ore deposits associated with certain sedimentary facies in an overall
volcanic-influenced environment. The following groups can be distinguished.
Cu and Zn-Ba-(Cu) deposits in the central Peruvian ensialic aborted marginal
basin.
The Tambogrande Cu-Zn-(Ag) deposit in northern Peru (in an ensialic aborted
marginal basin?).
The Punta del Cobre Cu district in the Atacama basin.
Cu and Cu-(Pb-Zn) deposits in the central Chilean aborted ensialic marginal
basin.
94 L. Fontbote
Central Peruvian Aborted Ensialic Marginal Basin. In Lower Cretaceous rocks of

the central Peruvian aborted ensialic marginal basin, important ore deposits oc-
cur. Cardozo (1983) and Cardozo and Vidal (1981) distinguish two main types ac-
cording to their mineral assemblage. Each type corresponds to a different stage
in the evolution of the basin:
The association amphibole-pyrite-chalcopyrite occurs in ore deposits located
in submarine, andesites, and in interbedded volcaniclastic sediments of the
carbonate-volcanic lower Albian Copara Formation (e.g., the Cu mines of
Raul-Condestable, Los leas, and other deposits of the Copara Metallo-
tect).
The association barite-sphalerite occurs in ore deposits of the middle Albian
Casma Formation, which is characterized by fissure flood basalts, andesitic
lavas, tuffs and hyaloclastic breccias, and neritic sediments, with sediments be-
ing progressively more abundant to the east [e.g., the Leonila-Graciela, Palma,
and other barite and massive Zn-Fe-{Pb-Ag) sulfide deposits].
The Copara and Casma Formations are geochemically similar. They consist
predominantly of high K-alumina basalts to basaltic andesites with some
tholeiitic intercalations. A mantle origin with some crustal contamination is sug-
gested by Atherthon et al. (1983, 1985). The attenuation of the continental crust
is supported by geophysical data (Wilson 1985).
The Raul Mine is well studied and is a good example of the amphibole-
pyrite-chalcopyrite association in the Copara metallotect (Wauschkuhn 1979;
Cardozo this Vol.).
Vidal (1987) reviews the stratabound barite and massive Zn-Fe-(Pb-Ag) sulfide
ore deposits in the Casma Formation. By far the more important ones are the
barite and Zn-(Pb-Ag) deposits of the Leonila-Graciela and Juanita Mines, 50 km
east of Lima. Other deposits and occurrences are Maria Teresa (Ba-Pb-Ag),
Aurora Augusta (Ba), Palma (Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba), Balducho {Ba and Zn), and Cantera
(Ba). All of them occur within 50 km of Lima.
In Leonila-Graciela, although obscured by contact metamorphism and tec-
tonic effects, a clear vertical zonation can be recognized. Lenses of barite overlie
massive sulfide zones (mainly sphalerite and pyrite) located directly over a
siliceous stockwork interpreted as a feeder zone. Similar feeder zones are found
in Juanita, Aurora Augusta, and Maria Teresa. The massive sulfide beds are usual-
ly banded and locally exhibit soft sediment deformation textures. Furthermore,
in Leonila-Graciela, Juanita, and Santa Cecilia, Vidal (1987) reports replacements
of a first sulfide assemblage consisting of pyrite-sphalerite by chalcopyrite±
galena-tetrahedrite. On the basis of this evidence, Vidal compares these deposits
to the Kuroko-type deposits in Japan, whereby the shallow-water deposition envi-
ronment, and the absence of gypsum and ferruginous chert are important dif-
ferences. Vidal (1987) also notes that feeder zones are not known in all deposits
beneath the ore bodies; this is specifically the case of the nonmetamorphic sedi-
ment-hosted Palma prospect (Steinmiiller and Wauschkuhn this Vol.).
The Tambogrande Cu-Zn-(Ag) Deposit in Northern Peru. In Upper Jurassic-
Cretaceous volcanic rocks in northern Peru several stratabound massive sulfide
occurrences are known. The most important is the Tambogrande deposit with
large massive pyrite bodies and Cu-Zn-(Ag)-rich zones (Pouit 1988). Barite zones,
siliceous sulfide ore, and hematite chert beds are also found. Vidal (1987) com-
pares this district to the massive sulfide ore deposits found in Mesozoic volcano-
sedimentary sequences in southern Ecuador (see below).
Punta del Cobre District, Atacama Region, Chile. The Socav6n Rampla and
Agustina Mines in the Punta del Cobre district, near Copiap6, occur in altered
(mainly Na-metasomatized) andesites in the uppermost part of the Punta del
Cobre Formation (Upper Jurassic?, Lower Cretaceous?). A volcaniclastic unit
with abundant pyroclastics and carbonate intercalations overlies the volcanic
rocks. Camus (1980) gives an overview of the district; Hopf (this Vol.) presents
a description of the Agustina Mine. Ore minerals occur within the volcanic unit
in four geometric types: disseminated in the volcanic rocks; in veinlets as
stockwork ore; as matrix of the brecciated volcanic rocks; and along vein zones.
A complete transition exists between all these types. In addition, stratiform
massive sulfide horizons occur. The ore paragenesis consists of chalcopyrite,
pyrite, hematite, magnetite, and, very subordinate, sphalerite. Quartz and calcite
are the main gangue minerals. In deep parts of the mine, massive bodies of
magnetite and hematite are found. Camus (1980) relates ore deposition to
volcanogenic hydrothermal activity, the ultimate expression of which would be
the exhalative formation of stratiform massive sulfide and iron oxide orebodies
at the sea floor, the other ore types being the result of precipitation along their
feeder channels. Hopf (this Vol.) underlines the role played by hydrothermal
alteration and points out the fact that massive sulfide stratiform bodies represent
only a subordinate part of the orebody. Ongoing investigations indicate that the
ore deposit is bound to a local zone of intense hydrothermal alteration with K-
enrichment and Na-depletion.
A detailed investigation of the petrography and geochemistry of the Lower
Cretaceous volcanism in the Atacama region is lacking. Mayer (1988) has sum-
marized the available information and underlines the high K-content of the
volcanic rocks (characteristic of shoshonitic suites) and the flat patterns of the
REE diagrams, which would indicate relatively poorly differentiated and con-
taminated magma (i.e., characteristics also observed in the Lower Cretaceous
volcanic rocks in central Chile). In the Chaiiarcillo Ag-district (about 70 km south
of Copiap6) volcanic rocks interbedded with Lower Cretaceous marine sediments
thin, noneconomic, stratiform amphibole-bearing massive sulfide horizons are
found (Mayer and Fontbote 1986; Mayer 1988). They display alteration patterns
similar to those in the Raul Mine, Peru.
Central Chilean Ensialic Marginal Basin. The Lower Cretaceous in central Chile
consists of thick volcanosedimentary sequences affected by prehnite-pumpellyite
facies burial metamorphism (Levi 1970), which, according to Aberg et al. (1984)
and Aguirre (1985), represent an aborted ensialic marginal basin. In this basin,
two types of stratabound ore deposits occur. The El Soldado copper mine is the
best-known example of the first type. It is characterized by discordant orebodies
in intermediate volcanic rocks of the Lo Prado Formation (Holmgren 1985;
96 L. Fontbote
Klohn et al. this Vol.). These authors were able to discriminate between the local
intense alteration associated with the hydrothermal ore-forming event and the
alteration minerals produced by regional scale burial metamorphism. A genetic
model related to burial metamorphism as proposed by Sato (1984) is rejected in
favor of an epigenetic origin connected to hydrothermal fluids associated with
alkaline (sodium-rich) magmatic activity of Aptian-Albian age (Lo Valle flood
basalts). El Soldado is an example of transition betwen stratabound character
(evidenced by their connection to distinct volcanic environments in the marginal
basin) and nonstratabound hydrothermal systems associated to hypabyssal intru-
sions.
The stratiform Cu-(Pb-Zn) ores of the Mantos de Catemu (Camus this Vol.)
and Cerro Negro (Elgueta et al. this Vol.) districts belong to the second deposit
type. They are hosted in volcaniclastic and shallow-water sediments of the Las
Chilcas Formation. The rapid facies changes, the abundance of volcanic and
volcaniclastic material, and the inferred paleogeography of the restricted shallow-
water basins, all indicate the vicinity of a volcanic arc to the west. The ores, main-
ly occurring as cement between volcaniclastic fragments, present textural
similarities to those in detrital intra-arc basins (lib). The ore deposits in the Man-
tos de Catemu district are located at the lower and, to a lesser extent, at the upper
contacts of a shallow-water sedimentary intercalation in a mainly volcaniclastic
continental sequence. Such a facies control, the predominant stratiform geometry
of the orebodies, the paragenetic copper-lead-zinc zonation from bottom to top,
which is very typical for sediment-hosted ore deposit, and the ore paragenesis and
textures suggest that the ore deposits formed during diagenetic cementation
and/or burial metamorphism. Waters circulating throughout the volcaniclastic se-
quence and sulfide precipitation at reducing zones in the contact between
calcareous sediments and volcaniclastic breccias and conglomerates appears to be
a suitable ore-forming mechanism.
The Cerro Negro district, located about 20 km north of Mantos de Catemu
and still in the Las Chilcas Formation, displays similar characteristics, whereby
part of the orebodies are spatially associated with an andesitic intrusive and the
participation of magmatic fluids is likely (Elgueta et al. this Vol.). Among the
many other stratabound copper mines in this area, that of Guayacan, occurring
in an amygdaloidallava flow and at the base of the overlying sediments, has been
one of the economically most important (Ruiz et al. 1971). The copper mine Lo
Aguirre (Ruiz 1965) presents similarities to El Soldado, and is possibly located in
the southern continuation of this marginal basin.
II d) Ore deposits in Marine Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Position

(Fe, Ba, Zn, Pb, Ag)
This section deals with ore deposits hosted by a back-arc basin located east of a
clear volcanic arc characterized by a mainly sedimentary sequence with only
subordinate volcanic intercalations (in contrast to the volcano-sedimentary se-
quences of type lie). This is the Lower Cretaceous back-arc basin recognized in
the Atacama Region (Cisternas and Diaz this Vol.). The sediments are mainly
shallow marine carbonates with abundant volcanic and volcaniclastic intercala-

tions. They are limited to the west by volcanic rocks of the Bandurrias Formation
which constitute a morphologically clear volcanic arc and from which much of
the abundant epiclastic components found in the sediments derive. Detailed facies
analysis shows that the ore deposits occur within the Lower Cretaceous marine
sequence of the Nantoco Formation at two well-defined paleogeographic posi-
tions or metallotects: (1) At the base of the Lower Cretaceous transgressive se-
quence over a volcanic and volcaniclastic unit, e.g., Jaula (Zn-Ag), Las Cafias (Pb-
Zn), and (2) in a intermediate regressive episode (Upper Hauterivian), e.g.,
Mamifia (Ba), Thiunfo-Carola (Ba-Pb), Gladys (Ba), and Bandurrias (Fe). The
facies control on the ore deposits is well established. They occur in all cases in
sediments deposited in peritidal environments.
The Bellavista (or Jaula) Zn-Ag Mine, is one example of ore deposits at the
base of the transgressive sequence and is described by Diaz (this Vol.). Another
example of ore deposits located at the base of the transgressive sequence is the
Pb-Zn mine Las Cafias (Neuenschwander and Th.vera 1942; Diaz 1986). This is one
of the few stratabound mines which has been exploited for Pb and Zn in northern
Chile. A 1.5- 3 m-thick manto occurs about 20 m above the contact of the
shallow-water Lower Cretaceous marine sequence with a unit consisting mainly
of volcanic rocks. The manto consists of two to three 20- 40-cm-thick ore-bearing
levels separated by barren fine-grained limestone. The ore-bearing levels are
pyroclastic breccias and volcaniclastic calcarenites cemented by galena, subor-
dinate sphalerite, and in some cases barite and pyrite. The manto can be followed
for over 2 km in a north-south direction. The ore minerals occur only in the
volcaniclastic calcarenites and not in the intercalated fine-grained limestones,
probably an effect of porosity.
The second paleographic position hosting stratabound ore deposits is the Up-
per Hauterivian intermediate regressive episode. It is characterized by algal mats
with sulfate pseudomorphs in a sabkha-like facies (Cisternas this Vol.). According
to this author, the regressive episode culminated in many areas with emergence
documented by a collapse breccia horizon that can be followed intermittently for
more than 100 km from north to south. This horizon contains anomalously high
values for Zn and Pb, as evidenced in five lithogeochemical profiles across the se-
quence (Cisternas 1986; Mayer 1988). 1\vo types of ore deposits are spatially link-
ed to the collapse breccia: a belt of stratiform barite deposits (including Mamifia,
Thiunfo-Carola and Gladys; Diaz this Vol.) and the stratiform iron deposit of
Bandurrias (Cisternas this Vol.; Espinoza this Vol.). Forty km N of Bandurrias,
broadly in the same stratigraphic position, is located the Manolete district with
stratiform magnetite and jasper occurrences in carbonatic-tuffaceous rocks.
Lead isotope investigations (Puig 1988, this Vol.; Fontbote et al. this Vol.) in-
dicate that the metals in deposits in the Atacama back-arc basin are derived direct-
ly (exhalative processes) or indirectly (by erosion and leaching of volcanic materi-
al) from the volcanic activity in the magmatic arc. The common association of
the ore horizons with tuffaceous material could indicate exhalative processes of
ore formation. This possibility is emphasized by Lino and Rivera (1987), who also
report anomalously high Au values in siliceous-ferruginous and evaporitic
horizons in the Thes Amantes and San Pedro Mines.
98 L. Fontbote
II e) Ore Deposits in Platform Sediments Attached to the Foreland

(Zn-Pb-Cu, Zn-Pb, Ba-Sr, U)
As indicated above, the arc-back-arc pair developed a strongly asymmetric deposi-

tional system, with a western volcanic and volcano-sedimentary belt and an
eastern, predominantly sedimentary back-arc basin. In some areas of Peru and
south of latitude 33 os (Neuquen Basin, Argentina) east of the typical back-arc
basin, Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous marine sediments deposited in a platform
attached to the foreland are found. This depositional environment could also be
considered as a distal back-arc basin because it lies east of the magmatic arc, and
because the basin development is in part controlled by the evolution of the
magmatic arc, but it presents important differences compared with the back-arc
basins discussed under II d and, therefore, it will be dealt with separately (stage
II e). The main differences found in these platform sediments attached to the
foreland compared to those deposited in the back-arc basin are the scarce volcanic
activity and the only very subordinate amount of epiclastic components derived
from the western magmatic arc. The lead isotope composition of ores is also clear-
ly different in both paleogeographic positions and supports this subdivision, at
least in Peru (Fontbote et al. this Vol.).
The sedimentary sequences in platforms attached to the foreland consist main-
ly of shallow marine carbonate rocks with marly and detrital intercalations.
Detrital material is predominant in some sequences located near the emerged con-
tinent. Subordinate volcanic activity is also recognized. Four groups of strata-
bound ore deposits are known to occur in this paleogeographic situation (lie),
which corresponds in part with the term miogeosyncline as used by Auboin et al.
(1973) and Cobbing (1978).
Ore deposits in Jurassic sediments in central Peru (Cercapuquio).

Ore deposits in the Lower Cretaceous Santa Formation in central Peru ("Santa
metallotect").
Stratiform pyrite and Zn-Pb ore bodies in the Hualgayoc district, northern
Peru.
Barite-celestite deposits in the Neuquen-Mendoza basin in Argentina.
Jurassic Sediments in Central Peru. In central and northern Peru the paleogeo-
graphy of the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous marine sequences east of the
marginal basin is determined by the presence of an emerged block, the Marafi6n
geanticline, which can be followed from north to south for several hundred
kilometers (Megard 1978, 1987; Cobbing 1978). The platform sequences located
west of the Marafi6n anticline comprise several transgressive-regressive cycles and
consist mainly of neritic carbonate rocks with detrital intercalations. Volcanic ac-
tivity is recognized in several localities. To the west these platform sequences grade
into the predominantly volcanic and volcaniclastic marginal basin (lie). In the
basin between the Marafi6n anticline and the Brazilian Shield clastic sedimenta-
tion prevailed. Ore deposits are known only west of the Marafi6n anticline, the
detrital sequences east of it being poorly known.
The carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb mine of Cercapuquio lies west of the Maraft6n

geanticline (Cedillo this Vol.). The main ore minerals are galena and brunckite,
which mainly occur in several superimposed karst cavities spatially related to
paleosols near a contact zone between peritidal evaporite minerals bearing car-
bonate sediments (Chaucha Formation) and underlying detrital layers (Cercapu-
quio Formation). Cedillo (this Vol.) proposes a genetic model based on post-tec-
tonic supergene enrichment of previous MVT ores. In a similar paleogeographic
position, at the contact of clastic facies between the Cercapuquio Formation and
shallow-water carbonates of the Chaucha Formation are located stratiform Zn-
Pb-Ba occurrences in Miraflores, near Azulcocha, Peru (Munoz C. pers. com-
mun.).
Lower Cretaceous Santa Formation. In central Peru Samaniego (1980, 1982) and
Samaniego and Amstutz (1982) described approximately 80 stratabound Zn-
Pb-(Ag-Cu-) ore deposits and occurrences in shallow-water carbonate and clastic
facies of the Santa Formation (Late Valanginian). This work is one of the first
systematic regional-scale investigations of stratabound deposits in the Central
Andes. It includes previously known mines (e.g., Pachapaqui, Huanzala, Pacl16n
Llamac), but the potential for new areas was first recognized using the exploration
criteria developed during the investigation, as was the case in the El Extrafto
Mine. In several places the ore-bearing horizons display peritidal facies. These
authors emphasize the pre-tectonic character of the ore deposits and the lack of
genetic relations with intrusive bodies which, in some cases, produce an overprint
with skarn mineral assemblages (e.g., El Extraii.o and Huanzala). This interpreta-
tion contrasts with models based on skarn metasomatism (Imai et al. 1985). Ac-
cording to Samaniego (1982), the ore deposits in the Santa Metallotect occur at
two main paleogeographic positions. The first is over a positive block at the
western edge of the platform ("Rio Santa positive block"), and the second at the
eastern margin of the Santa Formation in the clastic facies adjacent to the western
part of the Maraft6n anticline. Ore deposits in the western belt include the Pb-Zn
mines El Extrafto and Pachapaqui, and the Iscay Cruz prospect (Oy6n area;
Flores this Vol.). Ore deposits in the eastern belt, i.e., at the western margin of
the Maraii.6n geanticline are the Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag Huanzala (Carrascal and Saez this
Vol.) and Aida Unica deposits (partly with massive sulfide ores). The sandstone-
hosted stratiform Pb-Zn occurrences in the Goyllarisquizga Formation near
Milpo were included also by Samaniego (1982) in the Santa Metallotect. However,
the possibility that they were formed by impregnation in relation with the Tertiary
skarn deposits of the Milpo-Atacocha district (Soler 1986) is supported by lead
isotopic data (Gunnesch and Baumann 1990).
A volcano-sedimentary origin for El Extraii.o, Huanzahi, Aida Unica, and
other ore deposits has been proposed based upon trace element contents in the
ores and the presence of intercalated tuffs (Soler 1986, 1987; Carrascal and Saez
this Vol.). Soler et al. (1986) explain the link between the ore deposits and certain
paleogeographic positions by a distribution of the possible volcanic centers along
normal faults at the border of the basin. It should be mentioned, however, that
although subordinate volcanic material is common, evidence of direct volcanic ac-
tivity during ore formation is not always clear.
100 L. Fontbote
In the Hualgayoc district, northern Peru, occur stratiform Pb-Zn and quartz-
pyrite bodies in limestones, marls and shales in the Chulec and Pariatambo For-
mations (Canchaya this Vol.). The mantos appear to be linked to definite
stratigraphic horizons, in part associated with thin tuffitic layers. This author sug-
gests that the stratiform orebodies are of synsedimentary origin, in part ex-
halative-sedimentary. In contrast, MacFarlane (1989) proposes that the mantos
are connected to Tertiary intrusions and Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag veins occurring in the same
area.
A further ore type in this geotectonic environment is represented by V-rich
lenses in asphaltiferous limestones in the Pariatambo Formation (Albian). The
supergene enrichment was exploited in the now closed Mina Ragra (Canepa this
Vol.).
In Argentina during Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous an extensive evaporitic-
shallow marine platform develops between the Andean basins to the west and
emerged cratonic terrains to the east (the Neuquen-Mendoza basin). In these
epicontinental sediments important barite-celestite ore deposits occur associated
with three evaporitic cycles of Middle and Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous
age (Ramos and Brodtkorb this Vol.). The ore deposits are mainly stratiform and
occur in peritidal carbonate facies which have reached burial depths over 2500 m.
Strontium isotope ratios of host rocks plot in the range of contemporaneous
ocean water, ore samples show slightly more radiogenic values indicating a
diagenetic rather than a purely synsedimentary formation (Gorzawski et al. 1989).
3.1.3 Stage III (Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic). Ore Deposits in Continental

Intra-Arc and Foreland Basins
The extensional stress regime prevailed up to the end of Lower Cretaceous times,
changing to several periods of compression during Upper Cretaceous and
Cenozoic times. The volcanic centers (consisting mainly of intermediate and acid
calc-alkaline suites) migrated eastwards, and only continental basins were
developed. Frutos (1981) relates the compressive episodes to changes in the rate
and angle of subduction. Other factors, like during Middle Cretaceous the Atlan-
tic opening pushing the continent into the arc, as well as the subduction of
aseismic ridges during the Tertiary· are also important. In Cenozoic times an
alkaline belt located east of the main calc-alkaline volcanic belt developed.
During this stage of the Andean orogeny (Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic), which
is of greatest importance for the genesis of other types of ore deposits (e.g., por-
phyry copper type, metasomatic skarn, and different types of hydrothermal
polymetallic deposits), significant stratabound ore deposits also formed. The
following main types of ore deposits occur.
III a) Fluvial-lacustrine basins in intermediate to acid volcanic environment

(polymetallic deposits).
Ill b) Molasse sequences in intermontane basins, in part foreland basins [red-bed
type Cu and Cu-(U-V) deposits].
III c) Deposits related to Cenozoic alkaline volcanics, mainly in ignimbritic flows

and tuffs (U).
In addition, the following group of deposits should be mentioned: (1)
manganese mantos in Pleistocene and recent intermediate to acid volcanic rocks
and lacustrine sediments in the Altiplano northeast from Arica (e.g., Huachipato,
Ruiz 1965; Sillitoe 1976; see also Sect. 3.7.c in Oyarzun this Vol.). (2) boron and
lithium deposits formed in strongly evaporitic environments in the salares in
Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina in relation to leaching of surrounding acid Plio-
Quaternary volcanic rocks (Vila this Vol.; Alonso and Viramonte this Vol.). (3)
the Quaternary iron-oxide flows of El Laco, in northern Chile (Frutos, Oyarzun,
Shiga and Alfaro this Vol.). (4) sulfur concentrations related to Cenozoic or
Quaternary exhalative activity in restricted basins (Ferraris and Vila this Vol.). (5)
"Exotic" copper occurrences formed by supergene leaching of porphyry copper
deposits (e.g., Exotica or Chuqui Sur, see Sect. 3.5 in Oyarzlin this Vol.).
III a) Polymetallic Ag-Bearing Deposits in Fluvial-Lacustrine Basins in Inter-

mediate to Acid Volcanic Environment
The Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag deposit of Colquijirca (Pasco) is one of the main silver pro-
ducers in Peru, was interpreted classically as hydrothermal metasomatic (Lind-
gren 1935; McKinstry 1936; Vidal et al. 1984). Lehne and Amstutz (1982) sug-
gested alternatively a synsedimentary-syndiagenetic genesis related to exhalative
vents associated with the rhyolitic to rhyodacitic Marcapunta volcanic complex
(Lehne this Vol.).
The Cu-Ag belt south of Copiap6, Chile (Lortie and Clark 1987), with the
mines Amolanas (Cu), El Venado (Cu-Ag), El Jardin [Ag-Cu-(Zn)] (Mayer and
Fontbote this Vol.) and Elisa de Bordos (Ag-Hg) (Jurgeit and Fontbote this Vol.)
occurs at the base of the Hornitos Formation (Upper Cretaceous?). El Jardin and
Elisa de Bordos occupy different paleogeographic positions within the same ig-
nimbritic complex. In Elisa de Bordos, located at the edge of the main ignimbritic
body, the ore is sulfur-free and is formed by supergene circulation along the lower
and upper contacts of the main ignimbritic body with tuff horizons. El Jardin oc-
curs in a more central part of the ignimbritic complex in an euxinic basin formed
over the irregular surface of the main ignimbritic body. The ore is probably form-
ed during diagenetic cementation in part under euxinic conditions. Fumarolic ac-
tivity during ore formation in relation with Ag-Cu-As-Hg epithermal systems
located in the vicinity but not directly in the known parts of the mines is a
possibility to be taken into account.
IIIb) Red-Bed '/jlpe Cu and Cu-(U-V) Deposits in Molasse Sequences in Inter-

montane Basins
A well-studied example of red-bed type Cu deposits in molasse intermontane

basins is the mine of San Bartolo, north of the Salar de Atacama, Chile, which
102 L. Fontbote
is located in a clastic-evaporitic sequence of Oligocene age (Paciencia Group). Ac-

cording to Flint (this Vol.), copper sulfides and native copper have formed during
diagenetic cementation from brines released from the detritic-evaporitic sequence.
The famous Cu-Ag deposit of Corocoro in Bolivia, in the Kollu-Kollu and Ca-
quiaviri Formations (Oligocene-Miocene) also belongs to this type (Avila this
Vol.). Numerous Cu-Ag occurrences are also known in red-bed sequences in the
Upper Cretaceous to Eocene Sicuani basin in southern Peru (Cadenas 1987; Cor-
dova 1986), and in Argentina (see Sect. 3.4 in Oyarzun this Vol.).
Red-bed type Cu-(U-V) and U-(Cu-V) ore deposits occur in Upper Cretaceous-
Cenozoic molasse sediments of the Riogn1ndico Cycle in the Neuquen-Mendoza
basin, Argentina (Brodtkorb and Brodtkorb 1984). The most important district
is that of Huemul-Agua Botada (U-Cu), which occurs in the Diamante Formation
(Upper Cretaceous, Ferreyra and Lardone this Vol.).
III c) Uranium Deposits Related to Cenozoic Alkaline Volcanic Rocks, Mainly

in lgnimbritic Flows and 'Iltjjs
Several important uranium ore deposits and occurrences are known along the in-
termediate-acid alkaline volcanic belt of Cenozoic age extending in the Central
Andes of Peru, Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina over more than 1000 km in
north-south direction. The peralkaline composition of this belt is explained by its
"back-arc" position with respect to the main calc-alkaline volcanic arc (Coira et
al. 1982). The most important are Macusani (Peru, Arribas and Figueroa 1985;
Valencia and Arroyo 1985), the Sevaruyo district (Leroy et al. 1985; Pardo-Leyton
1985), and the Aguiliri district and other occurrences in the Argentinian Puna
(Stipanicic et al. 1985). These deposits are associated mainly with rhyolitic and
rhyodacitic ignimbrites and tuffs of Miocene-Pliocene age. Disseminated uranium
content is found in definite units in the pyroclastic sequences. Secondary concen-
trations of economic interest are found in the ignimbritic units but also, when pre-
sent, in fine- to medium-grained nonconsolidated detrital sediments. Uranium
enrichments in evaporitic environment in salares are also found (e.g., Salar de Rio
Grande, northwestern Argentina, Stipanicic et al. 1985).
3.2 Ore Deposits of the Andean Cycle in the Northern and Southern Andes
Information on stratabound ore deposits of the Andean Cycle in Ecuador, Co-

lombia, and Venezuela is scarce and also less available to the author. All known
examples are Cu-Zn-Pb deposits of the massive sulfide type located in volcano-
sedimentary sequences, probably corresponding in part to areas of a Mesozoic ac-
creted ensimatic volcanic arc and in part to back-arc marginal basins (Ortiz this
Vol.; Lehne this Vol.). They include the ore deposits and occurrences of
Micogrande, El Roble, El Dovio, La Plata, and Macuchi.
In the Southern Andes is found the important Pb-Zn district El Toqui, in
Aysen, Chile (Wellmer and Reeve this Vol.). It occurs in marine carbonate rocks
intercalated with pyroclastic and black shale horizons of Lower Cretaceous age.
This volcanic-associated massive sulfide district appears to be linked to volcano-

sedimentary sequences close to the magmatic arc and therefore its tectonic posi-
tion can be compared to that of the ore deposits in the marginal basin in the Cen-
tral Andes (stage lie). The southernmost ore occurrence is the massive sulfide
polymetallic ore of Beatriz in the Tierra de Fuego region hosted by dacitic and
rhyodacitic volcanic rocks of the Lower Cretaceous Yahgan Formation (Zubia et
al. 1989). Probably other small ore showings in Mesozoic volcano-sedimentary se-
quences between Aysen and Tierra de Fuego also represent stratabound ores, but
no information is available on this very poorly accessible and little known region.
Relatively important stratabound uranium deposits are known in Lower Creta-
ceous reworked pyroclastic rocks associated to fluvial and lacustrine environments
in the Patagonia. To this type belong the mines of los Adobes and Cerro Condor
which were exploited in the 1970s and early 1980s (Angelelli et al. 1984).
3.3 Ore Deposits in Sub-Andean Basins
Some small stratabound ore deposits and occurrences are also known in Sub-An-
dean basins. Little information exists about them except for a number of ore
deposits in the Salta Group in northwestern Argentina (Sureda et al. 1986).
The Salta Group (Lower Cretaceous to Eocene) comprises mainly continental
sediments deposited in a basin limited to the east and south by cratonic terrains
and which to the west occupies an Andine position rather than a Sub-Andine one.
From bottom to top: the Pirgua, Balbuena, and Santa Barbara Subgroups are dis-
tinguished (Salfity 1982). Ore deposits are known to occur in the former two
subgroups. Sureda et al. (1986, see also Sect. 2.15 and 2.16 in Oyarzun this Vol.)
distinguish three main types of ore deposits. (1) Cu-(U, V) deposits in red-bed
facies of the detritic-evaporitic Pirgua Subgroup. The ore deposits are located in
an area 40 to 80 km south of Salta. Custodio (Cu) is the most significant ore
deposit of this type. (2) U-(Cu, V) deposits in detrital facies of the Yacoraite For-
mation (Maestrichtian) of the Balbuena Subgroup (e.g., Don Otto and Los Ber-
thos (U), Ferreyra and Lardone this Vol.). (3) Pb-Zn-Cu deposits also in the
Yacoraite Formation but in dolomitic limestones of a restricted carbonate envi-
ronment with indirect marine influence (Marquillas and Salfity 1989; e.g., Cerro
Plomo, south of Rio Juramenta). According to Sureda et al. (1986), erosion of
cratonic terrains located south and east of the basin, as well as favorable local
conditions (including the presence of organic matter) during deposition and
diagenesis are the main metallogenetic controls.
It is very probable that in other Sub-Andean basins with similar facies and
paleogeographic characteristics, stratabound ore occurrences also exist. However,
since no large ore deposits are known, not many investigations have been done
on this topic.
4 Conclusion
The preceding review shows that stratabound ore deposits are well represented in
the Andes, in terms of both economic importance and typologie variety. It should
104 L. Fontbote
STRATABOUND ORE DEPOSITS IN THE

CENTRAL ANDES (ANDEAN CYCLE)
W ISTAGE ill I E
Sub Andtan b.
Cu(U, V.Zn -
IsTAGE n I
[S) rn
1-U c--1 t-U t ~
Cu. Zn - Ba - Cu Zn - Pb-{Cu Ag.
l. Cretac .
'- CAfTh• , tJ
8
fia --t fib 1-fid Ire --t
Cu Cu. Fe Fe . Ba . Pb Zn Ba - Sr (Pb.
~®
M Jutas. - L . Cretac: .
ISIAGE I I
Slnem - Toarc
r- Ia --1 f-l b+fC -t

Pb - Zn (Mn. Fe, Ba. Zn - Pb (Ba - F.
<D
a -?- Nor i an - Hell.
Fig. 3. a Schematic W-E cross-sections for Stages I, II and III in the Central Andes constructed on
the basis of the following representative partial profiles. 1 Southern Peruvian coast. 2 Rio de La Leche.
3 Ore deposits in the Pucara basin (Domo de Yauli, Shalipayco, San Vicente). 4 Ore deposits in the
La Negra Formation (Carolina de Michilla, Buena Esperanza), in the Quebrada Marquesa (Talcuna,
Chaftar Quemado) and Bandurrias Formations (Coquimbana, La Negra). 5 Ore deposits in the
Atacama back-arc basin (Bandurrias, Mamifta, Jaula). 6 Ore deposits in the Neuquen basin. 7 Ore
deposits in the marginal basins in Central Peru (Raul, Leonila Graciela) and in the Central Chile (El
Soldado, Mantos de Catemu). 8 Ore deposits in the foreland platform in Central Peru. (El Extrafto,
Cercapuquio). 9 El Jardin, Elisa de Bordos. 10 San Bartolo, Corocoro and Aguiliri. 11 Ore deposits
in the Sub-Andean basin near Salta.
CA [B-1) Intermediate-acid calc-alkaline volcanism; (Th) tholeiitic intercalation; CA [I-A) intermedi-
ate-acid calc-alkaline volcanism; AL intermediate-acid alkaline volcanim.
<- Nonradiogenic lead isotope ratios; '\ Nonradiogenic to moderately radiogenic; i Moderately
radiogenic lead isotope ratios; ---+ Radiogenic lead isotope ratios (see Fontbote et a!. this Vol.)
Fig. 3. b Situation of the cross-sections
be noted that the knowledge and exploration of stratabound ore deposits in the
Central Andes is not complete. The real economic potential of ore belts such as
the massive sulfide deposits of Ecuador, Peru, and southern Chile, the Mississippi
Valley-type deposits of the eastern Pucara, and also the Cu-(Ag) deposits in the
La Negra Formation, has only been recognized in the last 30 years. Although the
information on Andean stratabound ore deposits is still not homogeneous, several
trends are clearly recognized, and it is already possible in many cases to predict
in what tectonic environments distinct types of ore deposits may occur. The ore
deposits are closely coupled to regional geologic evolution, and therefore can be
largely classified in a scheme based on the geotectonic position of the host rock
with respect to the evolution of the Andean orogen.
The ore deposits of the Andean Cycle are commonly used as an example of
metal zonation perpendicular to a convergent plate boundary (Clark et al. 1976;
Sillitoe 1976). In the case of the stratabound ore deposits, west to east zonations
are also recognized (Fig. 3). The stratabound ore deposits are related to geologic
environments which evolved in time and space. Thus, the distribution trends are
not simple, but rather respond to superimposition patterns. Therefore the zona-
tions are better recognized by considering each stage separately (Fig. 3) or con-
sidering types of deposits instead of elements, as some elements are found in
several types of deposits (e.g., Zn, Pb, Cu). In particular, the bipolarity of stage
II with a magmatic arc to the west and back-arc and platform sediments to the
east is perfectly reflected in the types and metal content of the ore deposits of this
stage.
It should be emphasized that the zonation patterns cannot be explained just
as a function of the distance to the subducting slab of oceanic crust. They cor-
relate with geotectonic environments trending north-south, which, of course, are
largely determined by the subduction mechanism, but also by spreading-sub-
sidence processes in back-arc environments. Irregularities in type of subduction
must also be considered. In addition, all geologic environments developed during
106 L. Fontbote
the Andean Cycle in the Central Andes form on continental crust. Thus, dif-
ferences in the pre-Mesozoic basement are an important factor to be taken into
account. Although the west-east variation patterns are predominant, differences
in a north-south direction are also observed. The following are three examples:
(1) Significant Zn-Pb Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits are not known south of
latitude 12 °S. (2) Equivalents of the important barite and/or pyrite Zn-Pb-Cu
massive sulfides known of the marginal basin of Peru are absent in northern
Chile. (3) Copper deposits in sequences hosted almost exclusively by volcanic
rocks, as in the volcanic arc of the La Negra Formation, Chile, are absent in Peru.
All these differences can be explained by the general geologic record of the An-
dean belt. The fact that the Andean basins are narrower south of the Arica-Santa
Cruz deflection accounts for the lack of extensive platform sedimentation up to
the Neuquen basin, and therefore the absence of the ore deposits linked to this
environment. Massive Zn-Pb-Cu sulfides appear to be related to marginal basin
development recognized in several areas all along the Andean Cordillera but not
in northern Chile. In northern Chile, in contrast, copper ores occur typically asso-
ciated to a morphologically well distinguishable volcanic arc which is represented
mainly by the La Negra Formation. The different evolution types of the magmatic
arc discussed above can explain this typological diversity. Inhomogeneities in deep
sources (upper mantle), as suggested by Noble (1976), probably exist, but they are
not necessary to justify the known north-south variations.
Finally, it can be concluded that the occurrence and genesis of the stratabound
ore deposits in the Andes is linked to the regional geological evolution. The occur-
rence of stratabound ore deposits should therefore be considered as an integral
element in the evolution of the Andean basins. The driving force for the overall
geologic evolution during long periods is the subduction process. The supply of
the metals and the actual formation process of the stratabound ore deposits is,
however, not directly controlled by this mechanism. Lead isotopic investigations
on ore deposits of the Andean Cycle indicate conclusively that relative to the
geotectonic position, different ore sources were involved (Fontbote et al. this Vol.).
Acknowledgments. Support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German National Foundation)

and the Volkswagenstiftung (Volkswagen Foundation) is acknowledged. The author wishes to thank
E. Cedillo (Guanajuato, Mexico), and St. Flint (Shell Exploration, The Netherlands) for critical read-
ing of previous versions of the manuscript. S. Hopf and H. Schonfelder carefully drafted the figures.
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Part II Description of Ore Deposits
Pre-Andean Period 113 -251
Andean-Cycle 253 -732
- Triassic-Liassic (Carbonate Platform) 253-312
- Liassic-Lower Cretaceous 313-613

a) Volcanic Sequences at the Magmatic Arc 313-338
b) Volcaniclastic Sequences in Intra-Arc Basins 339-378
c) Volcano-Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Basins
(in Part Marginal Basins) 379-494
d) Marine Sedimentary Sequences
in Back-Arc Basins 495-536
e) Platform Sediments Attached to the Foreland 537-613
Upper Cretaceous-Recent 615-732

Stratabound Sulfide Occurrences in the Paleozoic
of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru
H.W. KOBE 1
1 Introduction
The Yauli domal structure is located in the Western Cordillera of the Peruvian
Andes (76 ow, 11 o40'S) at 4000- 5300 m altitude. Among several inliers to the W
of the coherent Paleozoic belt in the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 1) it is the largest
(covering an area of 10 x 30 km), best studied, and most distinguished for its
economic potential.
A core of Lower to Middle Paleozoic weakly metamorphosed formations (Ex-
celsior Group) is overlain discordantly by Upper Paleozoic volcanics and
volcaniclastics (Mitu Group) surrounded by discordant Lower Mesozoic (Pucara
Group) and younger sediments with minor volcanics and volcaniclastics. Plutonic
to subvolcanic activity had taken place during all these periods, to which at least
in the Tertiary extensive mineralized vein sytems in the Morococha and San
Cristobal mining districts can be related (Fig. 2).
These Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations, as well as the Tertiary structures,
are the metallotects for the mineral content of each epoch; summaries of these
formations are given in Kobe (1982a) and Rivera and Kobe (1983a, b). This ac-
count, however, is restricted to the somewhat unique stratabound sulfide occur-
rences in the metamorphic Paleozoic formations (see also Kobe 1982 b, 1984,
1986), while the figures illustrate their pertinent features from the regional to the
microscope scale.
2 Geology of the Excelsior Group Formations

The metamorphic Paleozoic is exposed over an area of 6 x 20 km, updomed in
essentially two subparallel anticlines. While the western Chumpe anticline extends
continuously over 17 km, the eastern Ultimatum anticline is divided into two por-
tions (N and S) by a cover of Upper Paleozoic volcanics in the center of the dome
(Fig. 2).
The Excelsior Group consists predominantly of dark gray phyllites with occa-
sional thin sandy (quartzitic) beds. Whitish, highly fossiliferous limestones (mar-
ble) intercalations are concentrated particularly in the Ultimatum anticline and
have been macrofolded into the two outstanding hills Morro Blanco in the N and
Cerro Yuraccgaga in the S, besides the partly disjointed occurrences at Trapiche.
Fairly abundant basic volcanics (lavas and breccias) to volcaniclastics (tuffs) are
1 Geology Department, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

~0 IOOim
R
u PAlEOZOIC
Fig. 1. Distribution of Paleozoic in Central Peru and location of the Yauli Dome. (After Megard 1979)
TO lA OROYA
76" OO"W
SIA.ROSA
OE SACO
~ ·"o
~:.:-_:·_, -;::_--I r~rtiory . inlruswes ond related

l . · vein systems
0 5 10 lvn --'-It~"
Rn.post-Mitu; min!'rol dl!posits of Pucor6 agl!
Mitu Gp.;rt>laled subKJiconic intrusives
· . basic volcanics ond morbl"s ;
Exct>lstor Gp., relal!'d mm!'fol d!'posits HWK87
Fig. 2. General geology of the Yauli Dome

Stratabound Sulfide Occurrences in the Paleozoic of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru 115
C!Yuro~gago
IGNEOUS !IIUll Bose//- dykes

(~~r~~'fv~j 00uortzdiorite-docile(P~rmion)
MITU GP. rvvvl Valcr:nicslvolcani~losfics

?t:::=3Sedtmenfory Sertes
OISCOROANCE A/VV
v
,......,_, Phyllites .
EXCELSIOR ---Marbles N;;;o,As,Fe) Type Yurcccgago
5 GP. - --- Cu,Fe.Zn,Pb) Type Ultimo tum
3 11 " P Basic rolcanics
(P:pi/low love)
Fig. 3. Geology and stratabound mineral deposits in the Lower-Middle Paleozoic of the Ultimatum
anticline
transformed into greenschists, but pillow lavas can still be recognized in various
places (Fig. 3).
Stratabound sulfide concentrations accompany basic volcanic/limestone com-
plexes predominantly in the Ultimatum anticline, but they are not entirely absent
in the originally small and tectonically dismembered occurrences in the S of the
Chumpe anticline. Folding at all scales has affected the whole formation and a
superposition of Paleozoic (more northerly) and Andine (more NW) trends can
be observed, especially in the larger limestone accumulations. A thorough struc-
tural analysis of the region, however, is still to be done.
3 Stratabound Sulfide Deposits

Two types of stratabound sulfide deposits can be distinguished by their metal con-
tent, mineralogy, fabric differences and associated rock formations (the position
of the two types in the legend to Fig. 3 does not mean that they occur necessarily
in that stratigraphic order):
Ultimatum 7Ype
Metals Fe, Cu, As, Zn, Pb, Ag

Minerals pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite (mar-
matite), galena, hematite, leucoxene, siderite, dolomite, quartz
116 H.W. Kobe
Fabric - predominantly massive, also cementing breccias and dis-

seminated sulfides
Associated rock formations:
hanging wall phyllites
footwall basic volcanics (partly host rock), minor limestone and volcani-
clastic/limestone mixtures
Yuraccgaga-Trapiche 'Jjlpe
Metals Ni, Co, As, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sb

Minerals pyrite, violarite, millerite, gersdorffite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
tucekite, leucoxene, hematite, chlorite, sericite, calcite, Mn-Fe
carbonate, muscovite, quartz and chalcedony
Fabric disseminated sulfides
Associated rock formations:
hanging wall - phyllites
footwall (also host rock) marble, but bulk of sulfides occurs among an
intimate mixture of fossiliferous limestone with basic tuffaceous
and siliceous exhalative matter, now mainly chlorite, leucoxene,
quartz/chalcedony and less often hematite.
3.1 Ultimatum '!Ype
This paragenetic type is represented at only one locality, around the Ultimatum
Mine (Fig. 2, 3) in the SE of the district. Unfortunately, little information is avail-
able from the mine (now inoperative) itself, but the overall setting (Fig. 4) shows
that there is a close space-time relation between the basic volcanics and the asso-
ciated, partly inherent (W portion), partly overlying (E portion) stratabound
sulfide concentrations. Differentiation of the sulfides (and/or metals) is striking:
in theW, pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-(pyrite) occur as massive beds, accompanied by
disseminations and veinlets, while in theE, pyrrhotite (with advanced transforma-
tion into the "intermediate mineral") is accompanied by pyrite, marmatite,
galena, and siderite in massive beds and as breccia matrix, and in the lowermost
adit, marcasite-pyrite rather than pyrrhotite forms the main sulfide body.
The zonation of the metals from the central Cu-Fe to the lateral Fe-Zn-Pb sug-
gests a high-level submarine hydrothermal system in relation with the basic
volcanics (mainly vesicular lavas, volcanic breccias, and minor tuffs), which only
here are seen associated with a hydrothermally altered subvolcanic intrusive of
gabbrodioritic composition. Large plagioclase laths (with clay alteration) are a
major component, with titaniferous pyroxenes (in advanced alteration into half-
opaque matter - leucoxene), chlorite, dendritic ilmenite, carbonate, and
chalcedonic quartz. The fabric shows intense deformation and fragmentation of
the component minerals, probably due to the eruptive conditions of emplace-
ment. All these characteristics suggest a volcanic exhalative environment of for-
mation for this deposit.
Mina Ulrimatum
v v
v
v
v
v
v
- r o Tra iche
T n:- Breccia of Excelsior phyllites
:I.:::t::J: Car b. Perm.(?) calcareous -Siliceous sediment series
!!i'"-"'= Stratabound mineral de osit HWK ~ 7
Fig. 4. View of the stratabound Fe-Cu-Zn-Pb mineral deposit (Ultimatum type)
3.2 Yuraccgaga-Trapiche JYpe
The paragenetic type is quite abundant in the two portions of the Lower Paleozoic
exposed in the Ultimatum anticline (and even within a small occurrence in the
southernmost part of the Chumpe anticline) (Figs. 2, 3). Stratabound sulfide
enrichments are fairly strictly related to the complexes of substantial volumes of
volcanics/volcaniclastics and limestones, where one component is very minor or
absent, no mineral deposit has formed.
The association at outcrop scale is illustrated with Fig. 5 (two views of the
macrofolds of Cerro Yuraccgaga) and partly microfolded in a cross-section at
Trapiche (Fig. 6). The thickness of the sulfide-bearing portion of the limestone
may vary from 0 or a few em through an average of 2m to locally over 10m. The
sequence basic volcanics/volcaniclastics-limestone-stratabound sulfides-phyllites
is maintained in each occurrence and is taken to be the actual stratigraphic se-
quence (Fig. 7).
The host rock to the sulfides is a highly fossiliferous limestone (crinoids, corals
etc.) which varies in composition. The bulk weathering colour of this quite pure
limestone, away from the sulfide concentrations is white (zone 5), but turns to
brown (zone 4) and black (zone 3) due to a change of composition of the consti-
tuent carbonate (higher Fe in 4, higher Mn in 3), and there is an increasing admix-
ture of volcanogenic (tuffaceous/exhalative) material including the sulfides
towards the top (the fine-grained fresh rock here taking a light gray-greenish col-
or). Shrinkage cracks through this top portion stand out by their white infilling
of calcite and quartz. The contact to the dark gray phyllites (without sulfides) is
sharp.
The irregularly layered intimate mixture of limestones with volcanogenic/ex-
halative material and the fine dissemination of sulfides at hand-specimen scale
is illustrated in Fig. 8:
Siliceous titaniferous volcanic fragments causing geopetal deformation of the
sediment layering (4) represent the coarsest volcaniclastic material, while
enrichments of chlorite (several varieties) often with quartz and titaniferous mat-
118 H.W. Kobe
3> To Ultimatum
8 ~--------------------------------------------~
Fig. SA, B. Views of the stratabound Ni-Co mineral deposits (Yuraccgaga-Trapiche type)
~ approximat~ seal~
Fig. 6. Section through the marble outcrop

1 km N of Trapiche (coord. 8'700'100/391 '300)
(bedding 160/70 SW): 1 Phyllites (dark gray);
2 sulfide-bearing bed (1m); 3 marbles (white);
4 mixed series of marble with intercalations
of green volcanics, folded; 5 volcanics (dark
green)
ter (leucoxene) (1, 3) are derived from the finer tuffaceous depositions. Quite well-
defined microlayered schlieren of chalcedonic silica with fine hematite and
leucoxene (5) are interpreted as intercalated exhalative material (cf. Fig. 4 in Kobe
1982b).
There is no apparent preference for sulfides to be concentrated in one or the
other of these host" rocks. Sulfides are irregular intercalations in a mixed matrix
Increase of:---.r~-:~-:'· ,1;.-:~:-

Ni,Co,Fe,Mn,
._1...1:·-_,l::
-· · : : _._. :
(!)
: ·. :
2
®
SIJlfides,silica, · ·. ·· · · · ·. ·. @
hematite,
chlorite
Fig. 7. Schematic section through stratabound
® Ni-Co mineral deposit (Yuraccgaga-Trapiche
type): 1 Phyllites (dark gray); 2 shrinkage frac-
tures; 3-5 marbles: 3 fine-grained black; 4 me-
dium-grained, brown; 5 coarse-grained, white;
6 basic volcanics/volcaniclastics (dark green)
Fig. 8. Polished face of sulfide-rich tuffaceous sediment: 1 Mainly chlorite-( quartz) aggregate; 2 pre-
dominance of carbonate (including fossil fragments); 3 titaniferous chlorite-quartz aggregate; 4
volcanic fragments; 5 titaniferous-siliceous schlieren; 6 sulfide aggregates
(Fig. 9D), but at microscope scale larger aggregates are often associated with
coarse carbonate and muscovite among the volcanogenic matter (compare Figs.
6, 7, 8 in Kobe 1982 b and Figs. 4, 6 in Kobe 1984). Other examples showing
typical intergrowths are illustrated in Fig. 9 A, B, C:
The following characteristics of the sulfide minerals can be specified:

1. Pyrite - in irregular patches, appears corroded and porous among violarite;
frequently intergrown myrmekitically with chalcopyrite.
2. Gersdorjfite - has strong tendencies towards idiomorphism, is often zoned,

occasionally with chalcopyrite inclusions. Its composition varies widely, which is
reflected in two electron-microprobe analyses of adjacent grains (see Fig. 6C in
Kobe 1984), calculated to Ni 7(Co,Fe)As 4S6 and Co 5(Ni,Fe)JAs4 S6 respectively
(Kobe 1982 b, Table 1).
120 H.W. Kobe
A 8 c
5
... c c
.... .. ·
c
c c
c c
~-~~ '-/~> '
c
c
c o0
c
v······ 0 a
c c
...
... c
c ·'"•:
c ... c
... ... ..·
0 I 1 mm
c 0 I 7 mm ..
c
c
,;it~r:\ c c 0,1 mm
·:
D
-,,
C I
~ [Jf:l
.
c\
'J
'~r:-~:~;f~~.• ~
J
c\ r
\ol
,u(
... ("J
c'~·'t
c)
.······.:"' c I'I '

•,,
·. c c )
' i. (
c
}c ,
V'-"', ...
c__r
'...
'
1 I0 C!) 61 I I II
5-
2 I J 71 c c I
Jl v v 1 BI I
~ 9 Ji::~?;~:!;}:-;;;1
70-
Fig. 9. A- D. Polished section, typical sulfide distribution in gangue: 1 Pyrite; 2 gersdorffite;

3 violarite; 4 millerite; 5 tul!ekite; 6 sphalerite; 7 carbonate; 8 chlorite-quartz mixtures; 9 Ti-phase
(leucoxene); 10 (in Fig. D only) sulfides
3. Violarite - (Ni,Co,Fe)3S4 , appears to be a relatively early formation,

because it is seen traversed by millerite veins (fracture fillings?), its most common
associate with irregular contacts.
4. Millerite - NiS, the most abundant sulfide (with violarite), usually coarser-
grained, is often dove-tailed with surrounding coarse carbonate (see, e.g., Fig. 8,
middle frame, in Kobe 1982b).
5. TUcekite - approximately (Ni,Fe)9Sb2S8 is a rare, and the only Sb-bearing
phase present. It rims partially both violarite and/or millerite (Figs. 7b and 8,
Kobe 1982b and Fig. 6F in Kobe 1984) but may itself be surrounded by millerite
(Fig. 9 C). Although investigations other than electron-microprobe analyses could
not be made due to the rarity of this sulfide phase, composition, fabric, and op-
tical properties compare reasonably well with those reported by Just and Feather
(1978) (see Kobe 1984).
6. Sphalerite - with very fine chalcopyrite inclusions, is irregularly distribut-
ed, often associated with coarse muscovite, more rarely with other sulfides.
7. Chalcopyrite - in addition to the mentioned intergrowths with other
sulfides, it occurs as small specks disseminated and clustered among the
silicate/carbonate mixtures.
The nonsulfide minerals may be roughly characterized as follows:

1. Carbonate - (a) may be fine-grained admixture to the chloritic-siliceous
complexes, or (b) occur in radiating, spheroidal aggregates, or (c) coarse-grained
in association with the sulfides and/or muscovite. Systematic analytical work has
not yet been done, but it appears possible that at least biochemical precipitates
- organic remain, mostly of (b) -, probable metamorphic recrystallizates (c),
and a primary zonation according to Fig. 7 could be distinguished.
2. Chlorite/silica - again, no work on these mixtures has as yet been done.
3. Muscovite - practically always present with the coarse carbonate-sulfide
aggregates, interpreted as metamorphic recrystallizates from sericite (decomposi-
tion product of former plagioclase).
4. Titaniferous matter (leucoxene) - may occur (a) as pseudomorphs in
distinct crystal shapes (showing lamellar networks akin to those derived from
alteration of titanomagnetite), or coarser intergrowths of rutile(?)/quartz, or (b)
more commonly finely interlayered among silica (sometimes associated with fine
hematite blades, both also observed as coarser prismatic crystals/blades in a fine
volcaniclastic rock without sulfides) and displaying a very fluidal fabric, that may
express primary sedimentary features and/or their metamorphic modifications
(Kobe 1982, Figs. 5 A, B, 6, and 7).
5. An unkown, fine-grained isometric mineral (possibly a silicate) is
disseminated throughout most of the sulfide-bearing rock (Kobe 1982, Figs.
5 A, B), even as inclusions in the sulfides, and appears to be an early metamorphic
formation.
122 H.W. Kobe
4 Conclusions
The stratabound character of the sulfide concentrations in both types of deposit
from the regional to the microscopic scale and their association with submarine
basic volcanics/volcaniclastics and fossiliferous (reef) limestones within an
argillaceous sedimentary sequence indicates a syngenetic formation. The volcanic
influence is manifest most directly in the proximal volcanic-exhalative setting of
Ultimatum, while for the Yuraccgaga-'frapiche type deposits a more distal
chemical/biochemical precipitation is envisaged. The pre-Permian greenschist-
grade metamorphism has affected these deposits only slightly (mainly by
recrystallization in .situ).
The stratabound concentration of Ni-Co sulfides described above is unique in
that it is not repeated in otherwise similar environments in the other, more recent-
ly investigated Paleozoic inlier, the Malpaso Dome (Fig. 1) (see Kobe 1986), while
the Ni-Co deposits in the Eastern Belt are reported to be of vein-type, related
dissemination and replacement, thus epigenetic to their Paleozoic host rocks
(Kobe 1982b).
Acknowledgments. My sincere thanks go to the organizers for the invitation to participate in the Inter-
national UNESCO Workshop MULTICIENCIAS-86 in Cuzco, while continuous generous support of
my geological investigations in Peru by CENTROMIN is acknowledged with gratitude.
References
Just J, Feather CE (1978) Tucekite, a new antimony analogue of hauchecornite. Min Mag 42:278 (and
M21-M22)
Kobe HW (1982a) El ambiente de Ia mineralizaci6n de Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba-Mn, Fe-Cu estratoligada en los
sedimentos de Ia cuenca occidental del Pucara en el Peru Central. Bol Soc Geol Peru 69:41-69
Kobe HW (1982b) A strata-bound Ni-Co arsenide/sulphide mineralization in the Paleozoic of the
Yauli Dome, Central Peru. In: Amstutz GC et al. (eds) Ore genesis - the state of the art. Springer,
Kobe HW (1984) Contribuci6n a Ia metalogenia del Paleozoico del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru
73:67-91
Kobe HW (1986) Apuntes sobre el Paleozoico en el Domo de Malpaso - Peru Central (En compara-
ci6n con las regiones de Yauli y de Lircay). Bol Soc Geol Peru 76:35-44
Megard F (1979) Estudio geol6gico de los Andes del Peru Central. Inst Geol Min Met Bol 8:227 p
Rivera G N, Kobe HW (1983a) Evoluci6n geol6gica del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru
72:159-175
Rivera G N, Kobe HW (1983b) Metalogenia del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru 72:177-195
Stratabound Cu-(Ag) Deposits
in the Permian Mitu Red-Bed Formations,
Central Peru
H.W. KOBE 1
1 Introduction
In central Peru, stratabound metal-sulfide concentrations of red-bed type are pre-
sent throughout the stratigraphic column. Examples are:
Lower Tertiary Casapalca Fm. Dofia Basilia
Mid Cretaceous Goyllarisquizga Fm. Cochas Region
Permian Mitu Fm. Goyllarisquizga
Negra Huanusha
However, only descriptions of the latter have been published (Amstutz 1956; Kobe
1960), and will be summarized below.
2 General Geology
The Negra Huanusha region lies in the high pampa (approx. 4300 m alt.), 25 km
NNE of La Oroya, E of La Cima (on the La Oroya-Cerro de Pasco railway line),
in the source area of the Palcamayo and Tishgo Rivers respectively.
The stratigraphic sequence from bottom to top (or from E toW - see Fig. 1)
is:
Excelsior Formation 2 (Lower to Middle Paleozoic). Sericite-(chlorite) schists

with quartz veinlets, locally intercalated coarse conglomerate beds, amphibolite
accompanied by chlorite schists containing magnetite in well developed octahedra
(discordance).
Mitu Formation (Permian). Essentially medium- to fine-grained red sandstone or

arkose with some beds of red mudstone (cross-bedding, ripple marks, shrinkage-
crack patterns with fossil raindrops are occasionally observed), sandstone with
abundant mud-lenses (main sulfide-bearing horizon), often bleached gray-
greenish and with abundant carbonized plant remains (determined by Jongmans
(1954) and by Alleman and Pfefferkorn (1988) and Pfefferkorn and Alleman
(1989)). In the SE a red-violet porphyry substitutes the thinning-out sandstone
1 Geology Department, University of Auckland, New Zealand

2 According to Megard (1978), however, the Mitu red-beds are underlain by Precambrian schists with
amphibolites and truncated by faults and thrusts along both flanks of the anticline.

124 H.W. Kobe
MN
rn
Mesozoic
Pucara Fm
Paleozoic
CJMitu Fm
8 Excelsior Fm
Intrusive
I /'I Quart:o::diori tc porphyr 1 te
1 , 2, 3 Types of' mineral dcposi ls
••••• Sulfide-bearing horj_r.otl
0 2 km
Fig. 1. Geology and metal concentrations, Negra Huanusha region (number 1 to 3 indicate types of
deposits mentioned in the text)
series 2 • Discoloration is also often observed along the contact to the overlying
Pucara Group (discordance).
Pucara Group (Lower Mesozoic). Thin shaly beds at the base are followed by
white, massive limestone with rare undeterminable fossils.
A flat westerly plunging anticline, affecting both the Paleozoic formations and
their Lower Mesozoic cover, is the main regional structure.
An intrusive stock of quartzdiorite-porphyrite lies across the contact Mitu-
Pucara along the anticlinal axis. A thin contact zone against Pucara limestone in
the NW indicates a post-Pucara age for this intrusive.
The Mitu Fm. thins out rapidly along both flanks of the anticline and disap-
pears then completely towards theE (Harrison 1940) 2 •
3 Mineral Deposits - Field Appearance

Three types of metal-sulfide concentrations are present in the Negra Huanusha
region; two, rather similar, within the body of the Mitu sandstone formation, the
third along the contact with the overlying Pucara Group (Fig. 1):
Tjlpe 1. Sulfide concentrations occur in bleached portions of the otherwise red-

colored sandstone; the outlines of bleached volumes are irregular, but may follow
the bedding. The largest volume of bleached and sulfide-bearing sandstone, ex-
posed over an area of about 250x 15m at Negra Huanusha (the target of the
largest mining operation in the past), appears to lie in the same stratigraphic posi-
tion as the 1-km-long intermittently bleached zone 1.5 km to the NE (see Fig. 1).
Stratabound Cu-(Ag) Deposits in the Permian Mitu Red-Bed Formations, Central Peru 125
Other, unrelated occurrences are much smaller (dimensions in the decameter x m

range). The gray-greenish discolored rock volumes contain characteristically con-
centrations of carbonized plant remains. Plant leaves and branches several em
thick mark bedding planes. The coalification process has produced shrinkage
cracks, now filled by calcite and malachite. Occasionally, bleached areas extend
along faults and follow narrow mylonite zones. Among the disseminated sulfides
which - with increasing concentration - darken the color to a dark gray, there
is chalcocite with bornite and covellite. Near the surface, these may be altered to
malachite.
TJipe 2. Copper sulfide spots and patches may occur in the red sandstone, only
rarely bleached. The sulfide concentrations do not persist over more than a few
meters. Here, typically magnetite/hematite accompany the Cu-sulfides.
TJipe 3. Along the contact Mitu-Pucara, portions of the sandstones appear ir-
resularly tectonized, with black argillaceous shear planes. Such zones, occasional-
ly several100 m long but only meters wide, are the loci for a slight concentration
of Cu-sulfides, mainly chalcocite, notably altered into malachite and azurite.
4 Mineral Deposits - Hand Specimen to Microscope Scale

A fairly coarse-grained, layered sandstone/arkose with mud lenses is the principal
host for metal-sulfide concentrations, which appear as disseminated black specks
particularly in the coarse-grained portions. Rock constituents are quartz,
plagioclase, microcline, sericite/muscovite, calcite, rutile/anatase pseudomorphs
after titanomagnetite, some chlorite as well as rounded volcanic fragments of
andesitic composition. The red color - outside the sulfide-bearing portions -
is due to hematitic-limonitic matter disseminated among the silicate grains.
Bleaching would be the result of conversion of Fe3 + to Fe2 + or due to massive
removal of Fe as a whole. Carbonaceous matter is restricted to larger plant re-
mains or coaly fragments among the other constituents, but does not occur as
matrix of the rock. Calcite is the only fracture-filling mineral through coaly
fragments and silicates, and may occur coarse-grained among sulfide concentra-
tions. There is little or no matrix between the mineral grains; they are in direct
contact or have some c lay minerals between them.
TJipe 1. Chalcocite, bornite and covellite as primary sulfides, and malachite,

azurite, cuprite and Cu-sulfate as secondary phases are the Cu-bearing consti-
tuents, while minor Ag-compounds are stromeyerite, polybasite and native silver.
The Cu-minerals need not to be in direct contact with carbonaceous matter,
although the heaviest concentration is around or within the coal (see photos in
Amstutz 1956 and Kobe 1960). Chalcocite (s.l.) is the most common sulfide,
disseminated with jagged outlines, smaller and of the same size as the silicate
grains, occasionally with mutual penetrations. It is concentrated around coal re-
mains and penetrates the cell structure to varying degrees, and is often accom-
panied by covellite. Bornite only occurs with stronger chalcocite concentrations
126 H.W. Kobe
and is always surrounded by it (e.g., as fillings of cell interiors or as graphic-

myrmekitic intergrowth with chalcocite). Some silver minerals are also concen-
trated around coal fragments and may occur as fine, short veinlets through the
arkose.
7Ype 2. Here, chalcocite is accumulated in spots and nodules in the barely bleach-
ed red sandstone, and particularly in a coarse-grained reddish-gray arkose. The
nodules are composed mainly of quartz in a matrix of chalcocite, which contains
abundant hematite prisms. In places magnetite, rutile/anatase is disseminated
throughout the rock, but only rarely within the sulfide nodules. Chalcocite may
substitute hematite, while hematite, rutile/anataste often replace magnetite. Coal
in this type of deposit is absent or at most a very minor component.
7Ype 3. This type is poorly documented and comprises tectonized parts of the
bleached top portion of the Mitu Formation and the overlying thin terrestrial
series of the otherwise calcareous Pucara Group. Disseminated chalcocite, partly
weathered to malachite and azurite, was the target for small extractive operations.
5 Metal Contents
Bulk analysis of selected rock types gave the following results:
Cu (wt.o/o)
0.02 Normal, fine-grained red arkose
0.02 Layered, coarse-grained red-gray arkose
0.29 Somewhat layered, fine-grained greenish bleached arkose
2.95 Bluish-gray mud-sandstone with visible chalcocite dissemination
3.67 Bleached sandstone with coal remains and malachite stain
8.2 Blackish sandstone with high concentration of coal and Cu-sulfides
Vanadium is indicated by spectrographic analysis in the range between 0.01
and 0.1 %, and uranium is below the detection limit. The ore extracted over 2 years
at Negra Huanusha proper averaged a grade of 3.2% Cu and 2.9% Ag with a
trace of Au, while the rock material (bleached sandstone) averaged 61% Si02 ,
16% Al 20 3 and 2.3% Fe. This copper-bearing sandstone was mainly mined as
SiOraddition to the copper revet smelter in La Oroya.
6 Conclusions
Interpretation of environmental conditions favorable for the accumulation of the
clastic host sedimentary formations and the concentration of metal sulfides is dif-
ficult without additional investigations. However, it appears likely that the red
sandstone, arkose, and mudstone were deposited in a flat river plain or near-shore
flats - with vegetal remains swept together along the water courses - occa-
sionally submerged for short periods. The climate was arid, as indicated by the
shrinkage cracks and fossil raindrops and the red color of the whole formation.
Contemporaneous volcanic activity is demonstrated by the lateral grading of the
Stratabound Cu-(Ag) Deposits in the Permian Mitu Red-Bed Formations, Central Peru 127
sediments into a porphyry as well as the volcanic fragmental content of the

arkoses themselves. The detrital components (including magnetite - location of
type 2 deposits closest to Excelsior Fm., see Fig. 1) were derived from the erosion
of the underlying metamorphic basement and possibly the Carboniferous
sedimentary formations (missing in this region) and the contemporaneous
volcanites. The metals contained in the groundwater (in form of soluble sulfates
and possibly chlorides) were preferentially reduced and precipitated as sulfides in
and around the decaying and carbonizing vegetal matter. The activity of bacteria
could have intensified this process by the production of H 2S.
The observed features suggest that the Cu-sulfide concentration was a con-
tinued process during accumulation and diagenesis of these sedimentary forma-
tions (mainly erosion products of the Paleozoic basement and contemporaneous
volcanics for types 1 and 2) while renewed post-Permian erosion led to the forma-
tion of the intermittent, stratabound accumulations (type 3) at the base of the
Mesozoic.
References
Alleman V, Pfefferkorn HW (1988) Licopodos de Paracas: Significaci6n geol6gica y paleo-
climatol6gica. Bol Soc Geol Peru 78:131-136
Amstutz GC (1956) A note on a peculiar association of copper with fossil plants in Central Peru. Soc
Geol Peru Anales pt 1 Torno 30:5 -11
Harrison JV (1940) Nota preliminar sobre Ia geologia de los Andes Centrales del Peru. Bol Soc Geol
Peru Torno X:5- 29
Jongmans WJ (1954) The Carboniferous flora of Peru. Bulletin British Museum (Natural History),
Geology 2(5):189-224
Kobe HW (1960) Cu-Ag deposits of the Red-Bed type at Negra Huanusha in Central Peru. Schweiz
Mineral Petrogr Mitt 40:163-176
Megard F (1978) Etude geologique des Andes du Perou Central. Mem ORSTOM 86, 310 p
Pfefferkorn HW, Alleman V (1989) New climatic belt in Carboniferous of Southern Hemisphere. 28th
Intern Geol Congr Abstracts 2:602
Geology of the Cu-(Ag, Bi) Stratabound Deposit
Cobriza, Central Peru
M. A. HUAMAN, E. ANTUNEZ DE MAYOLO and A.M. RIVERA 1
1 Introduction
The Cobriza deposit is located on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental of
the Central Andes, 580 km SE of Lima, in the Department of Huancavelica
(Fig. 1). It is exploited by Centromin-Peru S.A. with a production of
10000 tons/day of Cu-, Ag-, and Bi-minerals.
2 Geologic Setting
The sedimentary sequence in the region comprises stratigraphic units ranging
from the Lower Paleozoic to the Jurassic (Fig. 2) with a thickness of approximate-
Sierran Mesozoic/Quoternory
Cooslo/Botho/ilh •rerliory/Quoternory volcanics
Coastal Mesozoic/Ouoternory q
Fig. 1. Location map and general regional geology, central Peru
1 Centromin-Peru S.A. (Departamento de Geologia-La Oroya), Casilla 2412, Lima 1, Peru

130 M. A. Huaman et al.
QUATERNARY Alluvium -colluvium

MESOZOIC
TRIAS·:-JURA . Dorll gr~y lim~slones wi th thin
~ PUCARA GP.
!o'Jndston~ int~rcolotions
Anqul or di:.cordonc~
( Po:. I -HPrcynion t~clon ism)
~ It:
(()
R~d shal~s
R~ddish and brownish arkosic
~ ;::,
.....
'.."'
sandston~s
R~d shal~s
-
~ I
"'{ c:i ~
Conglomuot~s
~ ~ ,._..,-....;..-...,./'<yfl-"~,...._-:,..-...l~Angular discordanc~
<!J
Q:: (Late -H~rcynian tuton ism)
ltJ ~
~ a\
- s0
<...> Q Grey lim~stones wi th colcoreou:.
~ 1-'--r-~--1--'----.---1 s hol~s
~ Mineralization in veins and breccias
0 ~
8
1'\,j V)
::) ~
0 0 ~
~ §<:
Q;
ltJ (()
~ !:!;;
~ ~ ~
"'{ 0 Q;
~ ~ ~ Capricorn quartzite
~
Q "'{
Ouortzite intercalations
<...>
Angular discordonc~
SILURIAN (Eo-~rcynion t~clonism)
~ EXCELSIOR GP. Blod< slol~s grading into phyl/il~s and
chlorilic m/coschis/5
1-G...-"""'--=-L---":......o.-'---:C:=
o b r I r o granite
INTRUSIVES Small stocfa, dyk~s and sills
~No I pr~sMt of Cobrizo (s .str.) •-• Min~rollzotion
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column, Cobriza region
ly 6000 m. From the base to the top the following stratigraphic units have been
distinguished:
Excelsior Group (Silurian/Devonian) (not exposed at Cobriza)
Tarma Group (Carboniferous/Pennsylvanian)
Copacabana Group (Lower Permian)
Mitu Group (Lower-Middle Permian)
Pucara Group (Triassic/Jurassic) (not exposed at Cobriza)
This sedimentary sequence is folded into an anticlinorium with NW-SE trend, in

which locally the Coris-Anticline can be outlined (Fig. 3).
The intrusive period related to the Andean cycle is represented by a granite
body of batholitic dimensions of post-Triassic age, emplaced in the NE of the
region. Numerous dykes, sills, and stocks of quartzmonzonite and diorite, ex-
posed in the south of Cobriza, in the Santa Rosa area, are responsible for the Ter-
tiary vein mineralization extending in some structures as far as the Cobriza
deposit.
Geology of the Cu-(Ag, Bi) Stratabound Deposit Cobriza, Central Peru 131
8'615DOO
._._._3===-'---5km
8'605.000
. . ·..
CotlrtZO li'~5tonc
Copricorn quortz,'tt'
SW
2000m
b ~'------------------------------~~~--~~
Fig. 3. Geologic map and sections of the Cobriza areas ; C Coris; M Matibamba; B Banos de Coris;
P Pampalca; S. R. Santa Rosa
3 Tectonic Evolution
Two periods of deformation affected the Paleozoic sedimentary sequence of
Cobriza (Fig. 2). The first developed between the Middle Devonian and the Lower
Mississippian (Eo-Hercynian tectonic phase), causing an intricate folding of the
sediments of the Excelsior Group. The subsequent period of strong erosion is
documented by the discordance against the Upper Paleozoic sediments.
A faulting period (Late Hercynian tectonic phase) is documented by a drastic
change in sedimentation from the neritic carbonate series of the Lower Permian
132 M.A. Huatmin et al.
(Copacabana Group) to the molasses and purple volcanics of the Middle Upper
Permian (Mitu Group). The intermediate angular discordance is of a few degrees
only, suggesting that there was no folding, but only an uplift of the basin along
numerous new and reactivated fault lines, particularly in NW-SE direction (sub-
cortical longitudinal faults), which possibly were again active during the Andean
cycle (Megard 1978).
The second deformation period dates from the end of the Cretaceous to the
Pliocene (Andean tectonic phase), developing in its several phases the present
structures of epigenetic aspect.
4 Morphology and Paleogeography of the Pennsylvanian Basin
At the beginning of the late Namurian, the Pennsylvanian basin developed in

Central Peru (Fig. 4) with its major axis corresponding approximately to the ac-
tual Cordillera Oriental. It was delimited by emerged zones, located possibly to
theW of Thrma-Huanta and in the Territory of Acre in Brazil to the E.
Apparently a connection between this basin and the Pacific Ocean existed in
the extreme north and south, represented by the occurrences of marine mudstones
and sandstones in the Cerro Amotape to the north and the Camana region to the
south.
During the development of the sedimentary basin, intense and continuous ef-
fusive volcanic activity supplied pyroclastic material and possibly metallic ions to
the sedimentation. The center of this magmatic activity was located in the Sub-
Andine zone of the present Cordillera Oriental in the south of Peru (Dalmayrac
et al. 1980).
5 Stratabound Mineralizations in Cobriza
Throughout the exposed Pennsylvanian sequence, up to six mineralized horizons

concordant with the stratification have been recognized, of which the most im-
portant with respect to its metal content is the Cobriza limestone (Duenas 1908;
Cahoon 1970; Valdez 1983; Rivera et al. 1989). These horizons are characterized
by similar mineral assemblages and vary only in thickness and in their stratigraph-
ic position (Fig. 2). They are from bottom to top of the sequence the following:
- Capricorn horizon: composed of irregular lenses of arsenopyrite, fine-grained
chalcopyrite and calc-silicates, concordant with the layers of quartzite and
calcareous sediments.
- Lenticular horizon 1: composed of layers of chalcopyrite, pyrite, and calc-
silicates among the slates, with a thickness varying between 0.1 and 0.5 m.
- Cobriza horizon: this is the major one and is composed essentially of calc-
silicates, magnetite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite, distributed in a stratiform man-
ner, laterally grading into limestones recrystallized into marbles. It is delimited on
both sides by slates and slaty mudstones.
'-, 70"
'-.., 0 /em 500
' ......
.... . . . .>
\.
--~-.,
/
I
I
12°
• Borehole
-Connection to ocean
Emergent regions
P. eroded in pre-Cretac
Fig. 4. Paleogeography and

facies distribution of the
Pennsylvanian in Peru (After
Megard 1978, Dalmayrac et
" a!. 1980)
- Lenticular horizon 2: characterized by a rhythmic banding of arsenopyrite,

chalcopyrite and pyrite within the slate series, with a thickness varying between
2 and 6m.
- Concretionary horizons: they consist of calcareous concretions which contain
sulfides like pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena, distrib-
uted in fine layers, filling septarian cracks and replacing fossil remains.
- Matibamba mineralization: consists of two stratabound mineralized horizons
with pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite at the base of the limestones
of the Copacabana Group.
6 Mineralogy and Zoning
The mineral association of the main deposit consists essentially of: magnetite,
pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, amphiboles (hornblende and actinolite),
pyroxenes (augite and diopside), garnets (grossular and andradite), barite, and
calcite.
134 M.A. Huaman eta!.
NW Colluvium SE
~
CrlCoris Oxyd~.l
lSOOm Zon~ ' or:s~nopyrltt,c holcopyrll<",pyrrhotr r•
3§00
•· 2 ma9nrlllr~ hornbltndr , pyrrholitr-
" J hornbltndr. garntl, mognrtit~
•· ' badlt,golrna , :spholtrltr
Lim.,lo~~< CrlPumogayoc
2 4 '--·
COBRIZA
::.:.::-
3
2000 I
A. Lateral zonation ° 1km
B. Vertical zonation (no scale)

3 2 • 1 o I• • 3 hong1n g wa ll
:s I a I r :s footwall
sw NE
Section through orebody
along coordinate 2500
.. 0
• 0 •.
•
colluvium
0 0 granite
slates
Zonation indica tor minerals:
I I I I barite in limestone
1111111 hornblende
magnetite
••••• pyrrhotite
chalcopyrite
......... arsenopyrite
2000
Fig. 5. Zonation pattern in the Cobriza manto and vertical section through main deposit
Minor amounts of galena, sphalerite, pyrite, limonite, dolomite, siderite,

quartz, scapolite, and fluorite are present; under the microscope, tetrahedrite
(freibergite), pentlandite, native bismuth, bismuthinite, loellingite, pyrrhotite,
gypsum and others have also been observed.
Minor and trace metals are present in high amounts (in the range of traces),
such as Sn, Ga, and In, as well as small amounts of Cd and Se.
A zonal variation exists in the mineralogy of the Cobriza manto both laterally
and from base to top. Laterally, a central concentration with predominance of Cu
and Fe sulfides gives way to calc-silicates, oxides (magnetite) and sulfates (barite)
with some galena and sphalerite, to end up in recrystallized limestone. Across the
manto from the base to top, the variation ranges from a predominance of Cu and
Fe sulfides at the base to Fe oxides (magnetite) and calc-silicates towards the top
(Fig. 5).
7 Discussion of Genesis
Cobriza was classified for many years as a deposit of the type "distal skarn"
(Petersen 1965), due to some metasomatic associations present. As in so many
deposits of this type, the lack of a "mineralizing intrusive" in contact with the
calcareous sediments led to the supposition of an underlying magmatic center,
from which mineralizing fluids, migrating long distances, would come in contact
and react with the Cobriza limestone. In the last few years, the revision of certain
stratigraphic aspects in the distribution of the mineralization led to a rethinking
about the genetic interpretations of the deposit. According to our present
understanding, it could have formed syngenetically with the Pennsylvanian
sediments. This assumption is supported by the paleogeographic position,
lithological association, and structure of the ores.
The zonal distribution could indicate, from a paleogeographic viewpoint, that
there could have been a basin of limited dimensions with unimportant bathyme-
trical variations and typical minerals in the border zone.
The distribution of the volcanic facies in the Pennsylvanian basin reached the
proximity of what is actually Cobriza (Fig. 4), making it probable that this event
was the generator of the mineralization. As can be seen from the stratigraphic col-
umn (Fig. 2), the stratabound and stratiform mineralization of the Cobriza
deposit (s. str.) is not unique in the Tarma and Copacabana Groups, as there are
mineralized horizons of arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, hornblende,
and sphalerite concordant with the bedding throughout the whole sequence.
The regional character and the congruency of the mineralization with the bed-
ding - in some cases so complete that typical sedimentary features are preserved
- cast doubt on a possible replacement of the calcareous strata by distal hydro-
thermal solutions in such a way as to preserve such sedimentary characteristics.
It has to be emphasized that the actual textures and some mineralogic associa-
tions are the results of transformations caused by diagenesis, regional metamor-
phism, and the tectonic evolution of the area, all of which partly obscure the pri-
mary features of the mineralization.
References
Cahoon BC (1970) Geologia de Ia mina Cobriza. In: Geologia de los yacimientos minerales operados
por Ia Cerro de Pasco Corp. Proc Ier Congresso Latinoamericano de Geologia, Lima, pp 41 - 81
136 M.A. Huaman et al.
Dalmayrac B, Laubacher C, Marocco R (1980) Geologie des Andes Peruviennes. Caracteres generaux
de !'evolution geologique des Andes peruviennes. 'Ii"avaux et Doc de L'ORSIOM 122, 501 p
Dueiias E (1908) Fisonomia Minera del Departamento de Huancavelica. Bol No 62, Cuerpo lng de
Minas del Peru
Megard F (1978) Etude geologique des Andes du Perou Central. Mem ORS10M 86, 310 p
Petersen U (1965) Major ore deposits of Central Peru. Econ Geol 60:408-473
Rivera A, Huaman M, Antunez de Mayolo E, Kobe H (1987) Manto Cobriza: Mineralizaci6n
estratoligada y estratiforrne en los sedimentos del Grupo Thrrna. Bol Soc Geol Peru 79:23- 32 p
Valdez M (1983) Alteraci6n y mineralizaci6n hidrotermal del Manto Cobriza - Mina Cobriza. Bol
Gold Deposits in Lower Paleozoic Sediments
of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia
H.-J. SCHNEIDER 1
1 Introduction
In the Cordillera Real and its adjacent areas a remarkable concentration of gold
occurrences is found. This region seems to be the richest in gold of the entire Boli-
vian Andes and extends towards the NW into the Peruvian Andes. The numerous
gold deposits are of varying order of magnitude and different genetic development.
The economically most important group are placer deposits in Upper
Cenozoic sediments (Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina 1964) which accumulated
in two chronologically distinguishable drainage systems, an older one of late Ter-
tiary to Pleistocene age (Cangalli Formation) and a younger one of recent river
sediments (Fig. 1). The temporal difference of the two drainage systems is demon-
strated by many outcrops at the eastern slope of the Cordillera Real because the
recent valleys always cut the older sediment-filled gorges (Stoll 1961; Freydanck
1966).
The sources of the placer enrichments are considered to be the various types
of vein deposits which are spread over the eastern Cordilleras of Bolivia, and
which are particularly concentrated in the Cordillera Real. They have been
unanimously interpreted so far as linked to the hydrothermal halos of the granitic
intrusions of the area (Stoll1961; Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina 1964; Ahlfeld
1967).
However, recent investigations into the mineralization of the Cordillera Real
(Lehmann 1979; Winkelmann 1983; Tistl 1985; Koeppinghoff 1988) have
established at least two types of gold-bearing vein deposits (referring to gold oc-
currences). The first type represents classical veins with a very variable para-
genesis of sulfides (e.g., Fe-Pb-Zn-Sb-Cu-Bi-Ag), generally cross-cutting the wall
rock. The second type is characterized by a monotonous paragenesis of quartz
with native gold, occasionally few sulfides and scheelite. Furthermore, the
geometry of these lenticular-shaped veins differs significantly from the discordant
ones: They are intercalated semi-conformably into the host rock as so-called man-
tos and are stratabound to a certain sequence of Upper Ordovician sediments
(Fig. 2). This type will be described in this chapter.
In order to complete the review of the various kinds of mantos occurring in
the eastern Cordilleras of Bolivia there should be mentioned briefly two further
types of stratabound mineralization: In the northern edge of the Cordillera Real
quartz-scheelite mantos are found at some places, also with very uniform
1 Freie Universitllt Berlin, lnstitut ffir Angewandte Geologie, Wichernstr. 16, D-1000 Berlin, FRG

138 H.-J. Schneider
An to·
fegesta
~ Variscan granite
I~t!l Upper Triassic gr. diorite
mTertiary granodiorite
lou J Quaternary
ls-oJSil.- Devon
lOtti! Ordovician
l. sedtments
high- ~ medium- 0 low-grade metamorphism
& Gold - quartz - mantos •• • Gold placers

Gold Deposits in Lower Paleozoic Sediments of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia 139
paragenesis. Only little pyrite is associated locally, but there is no native gold, as
Ahlfeld (1967) presumed. These mantos are stratabound to a sedimentary se-
quence of Middle Ordovician (Koeppinghoff 1988).
Moreover, quartz-cassiterite mantos of a uniform paragenesis are again distrib-
uted nearly over the entire eastern Cordilleras of Bolivia, from the Cordillera Real
in the north towards the area of Potosi in the south. At least in the Cordillera Real
(Fig. 2), these mantos are remarkably stratabound to a sedimentary sequence of
Upper Silurian age (Schneider and Lehmann 1977; Lehmann 1979). They are de-
scribed by Lehmann (this Vol.).
2 Geologic Setting
The Cordillera Real is built up by some 10000 m of Paleozoic marine sediments
which were folded and overprinted by low-grade regional metamorphism during
the Variscan orogeny (Bard et al. 1974; Lehmann 1979; Martinez 1980; Tistl
1985). Subsequent (Mesozoic) uplift caused intense, regionally variable erosion
processes. Therefore, continental sediments and volcanic rocks of Cretaceous age
locally overlie Lower Devonian or Lower Silurian sediments.
The Paleozoic series is composed of a monotonous sequence of pelitic and
psammitic marine sediments (Fig. 2). Various outcrops reveal properties which in-
dicate a probable Lower Ordovician age. At the northern edge of the Cordillera
Real, Middle and Upper Ordovician (Llanvirnian and Caradocian) is proved by
well-preserved graptolites in dark shales (Tistl 1985).
In the same area a meter-thick layer of trachyandesite outcrops at the base of
the Caradocian sediments, indicating submarine volcanic activity. About 200 m
higher up in the sequence, pyritic shales of maximal 50 m of thickness bearing
lenses of massive sulfide ores are intercalated in dark shales (Fig. 2). They might
be the source-bed for the gold-quartz mantos described below, which are linked
to a psammitic sequence of about 500 m thickness in the hanging wall (Tistl
1985).
The uppermost parts of Ordovician (Ashgillian) as well as parts of Lower
Silurian (Valentian, partly Llandoverian) are lacking in the entire Cordillera Real
(Rodrigo and Castafi.os 1978). This regionally important stratigraphic break is in-
terpreted by various authors either as a result of orogenetic movements (e.g.,
Branisa et al. 1972) or of regional uplift (e.g., Martinez 1980). The base of the
Silurian is marked by the so-called diamictite series of Llandoverian age with a
distinct transgressive contact. The following Silurian and Devonian sequences are
built up again by alternating pelitic and psammitic marine sediments. Only at few
localities of the Cordillera Real their stratigraphic age is confirmed by fossils, thus
the boundary between Silurian and Devonian is still discussed (Fig. 2). The main
part of the Devonian series in the Cordillera Real was eroded during the Mesozoic
(Martinez 1980; Winkelmann 1983).
Fig. 1. Generalized geologic map of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia, and its gold deposits. (Compiled
from Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina 1964; Tistl 1985; Winkelmann 1983)
140 H.-J. Schneider
oi
"0
Geological record C:!:!
E~c
e
Q U ATER -
NARY
gg ~~~c:>0 ~0 o. ·.'<_-.<:::::.
~ ---';-:_-;-:__-;---;---:- ·
nuvl•!~n<lrt1gtac•••
locuotrl~;'.ecllmenll
T ERT IARY 8§ ~- .~~--::.·~ . -:-. -:-· ~n~ean
+ + + ++
Qfngeny
g'.!!noc:llontes
¥J
~
1U ~ rl ~~ &_~;:~~ ~ ·. -7:-: conun;;t:.ec:llmenta

5 I~ ~ · ~-v ~o 0 0 0 --;:;- anc:l..ltlcvolconlom
L ower..Jurassic i ++++++~ Mesozoic Intrusions

/Upper Tr iassic + + +l j granoc:llorlt""
Upper Devonian
I Lower Carbon.
-
!_ -;-=: -;:_~ Voris c;-;;--- 0 ro g en y
Y
-
~ gronlllc lntruolons
pelitic anc:l paammltlc

m1rlne aedlments
In gen.,.ol
quoru - Cllallerlte
m1ntoa
Cllamlcllles
1-- stratigraphic breok
Z ii ~ ~ f:1f·t~~~j{
<t ~ ~ ~~ '~:_b :~-::1
golc:l-quaru mantos
mmlvoultlc:letayera
_ f---+---t-.:.:·-_::·:-.:.:·:-....:·_-~-~
-:='· . _ .) volcanltes
~ ~ ~i" ~8 ~~~-:L~
0 c:
01
- .!2. ==
(5 0 1----S' - --
ol ..; . . ~ ~~
shales with graptolites
quaru-schaellte mantos
0 :::J u . -·- - --~- ~ ...:~
a:: f-? :- f-? - -- -=:j
o;i 8 · ---1
~
~
i
,E
<>i
I
:<:: <:":: ." :"::::::: <.·.·."- >j··
• ·. · . · : . ·' ... . · ,', , •·•· ,','
meta-sandstones
. ·.·.·.·:.·.·.·,· .· .· .·. ·.·
Fig. 2. Geologic record and stratabound mineralizations of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia. (Compiled
from Koeppinghoff 1988; Lehmann 1979; Martinez 1980; Rodrigo and Castaftos 1978; Tistl 1985;
Winkelmann 1983)
On its western slope, Upper Cretaceous continental clastic sediments with gyp-
sum and volcanics, mainly of Santonian age, are transgressing the locally deeply
eroded Paleozoic series at many places. In the Sorata area the volcanics have an
andesitic composition (82.5 m.y., McBride et al. 1983). The occurrences of the
Cretaceous rocks are isolated by erosion and block-tectonic movements in connec-
tion with the Andean orogeny and younger events.
The tectonic style of the Cordillera Real is controlled by a general strike in the
Andean direction (NW-SE), which predominates in Variscan fold axes, foliation,
and lineaments. In temporal connection with the Variscan orogeny, a widespread
contact metamorphism is developed linked to granitic intrusions. This observa-
tion is important for the genetic interpretation of the gold-quartz mantas (Tistl
1985). The Andean orogeny, on the contrary, generated only block tectonic
movements and a reactivation of faults.
The Paleozoic sequences of the Cordillera Real were intruded by granitoides
in three magmatic epochs (Fig. 1, 2):
1. During the Variscan orogeny, voluminous synorogenic magmas intruded the
Ordovician sediments, forming granitic plutons with dimensions of more than
150x50 km. Bard et al. (1974) gave a first comprehensive survey of this event,
based on their observations, mainly in the Zongo area ("Zongo-Yani granite").
Detailed petrologic investigations in the Yani area by Tistl (1985) proved the huge
extent and syntectonic S-type character of the intrusion. It is surrounded by three
distinct zones of thermal metamorphism in Ordovician sediments. An inner high-
grade zone is overlain by a ca. 600-800-m-thick zone with a typical medium-
grade paragenesis. The external low-grade zone shows the greatest spatial extent
(Fig. 1) (Tistl 1985). The gold-quartz mantas are linked to this zone. This se-
quence, influenced by contact metamorphism, is overlain by Paleozoic sediments
of a typical low-grade regional metamorphism (Bard et al. 1974; Lehmann 1979;
Winkelmann 1983).
The age of the Zongo-Yani granite is still under discussion, because the present-
ly available K-Ar determinations give ages not consistent with geologic evidence
in the range of 40 m.y. to 157 m.y. (McBride et al. 1987). These discordant data
are thought to be caused by multistage reheating of the foliated granite during
later tectono-thermal events.
2. Relative to the Variscan orogeny, post-orogenic, mainly granodioritic intru-
sions formed batholiths in the Cordillera Real, i.e., Illampu, Huayna Potosi, and
Thquesi-Mururata (Fig. 1). Their K-Ar ages range from 219 to 204 m.y. (Evernden
et al. 1977; McBride et al. 1983). In contrast to the Variscan syntectonic granites,
these granodiorites show only a small zone of low-grade contact metamorphism
in the sedimentary host rocks. There is no indication of a genetic influence on
the gold-quartz mantas. In the middle and southern part of the Cordillera Real
the granodiorites are accompanied by Sn-W mineralizations (Ahlfeld and
Schneider-Scherbina 1964; Lehmann 1979; Santivafiez et al. 1981; Winkelmann
1983).
3. The third magmatic epoch is represented by a chain of granodioritic intru-
sions which extends from Illimani at the southern edge of the Cordillera Real
(Fig. 1) to the Cordillera Santa Vera Cruz. Recent K-Ar determinations (McBride
et al. 1983) confirm previous indications for an age from 28 to 19 m.y. They are
142 H.-J. Schneider
accompanied by Sn-W mineralizations again, but without any detectable in-

fluence on the formation of the gold-quartz mantos.
3 The Gold Mineralization
3.1 Stratiform Massive Sulfide Layers
In the upper part of the Ordovician sequence (Caradocian: Amutara formation,

Fig. 2) with predominantly dark metasandstones, a series of characteristic black
shales with a thickness of 30 to 50 m is intercalated. They contain considerable
amounts of pyrite in stratiform disseminated small crystals and concretions. Len-
ticular massive sulfide layers, reaching thicknesses of 1 to 2 m, occur locally. In
outcrop, extensive gossans are typical.
In polished sections of the massive ore pyrite crystals of 1 to 5 mm diameter
exhibit small inclusions of pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite. The
idioblastic shape of the pyrite crystals proves recrystallization after mechanical
deformation (foliation of the host rock?). A distinct optical anisotropy of the
pyrite crystals indicates a remarkable As content. In areas with a higher-grade
metamorphism, pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite predominate, the former exhibiting
small inclusions of native gold (Tistl 1985).
The sulfide layers were discovered recently in many outcrops distributed over
more than 15 km in extent in the area NW of Yani (Fig. 1). They are all of the
same stratigraphic age. Presumably, their existence in other areas of the Cordillera
Real has gone unnoticed until now. The occurrence of a trachyandesitic layer at
the base of the Caradocian Amutara formation, about 200 m below the sulfide
layers, indicates volcanic activity during the Upper Ordovician, as has been re-
ported from other areas of the Eastern Cordillera in Bolivia (Rodrigo and
Castafi.os 1978). Therefore, the sulfide layers can be interpreted as exhalative-
sedimentary products. Furthermore, these sulfide layers are considered to be the
source-bed of the gold-quartz mantos.
The same genetic conditions are reported by Fornari and Bonnemaison (1984)
from the southern part of the eastern Cordillera of Peru. Here exists as well a
close connection in space and time with gold-bearing mantos. Thus, a distinct
Upper Ordovician "gold province" might be reconstructed for the eastern Cor-
dillera ranging from southern Peru through northern Bolivia (Tistl 1985).
3.2 The Gold-Quartz Mantos
The predominantly arenaceous sequence in the hanging wall of the sulfide layers
hosts the mantos in local concentrations over a thickness of about 500 m. They
occur in parallel swarms of 10 to 30 quartz-bearing veinlets, as exposed in many
ancient mining areas (Fig. 1). They are linked to the Caradocian sedimentary se-
quence with low-grade metamorphism solely. The mineralizations occur neither
in the granites nor in sediments of higher metamorphic grade.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of gold-quartz mantos in Caradocian low grade metamorphic sediments. (After
Tistl 1985)
The regional distribution of the gold-quartz mantas in the Cordillera Real is

proved to extend at least over a distance of 150 km to the south. For instance, the
Chilicoya Mine near Palca (Fig. 1) was working on the same kind of mineraliza-
tion hosted by Upper Ordovician meta-sandstones and shales (Unduavi
Formation = Amutara Formation, Winkelmann 1983). Presumably, there are
some more mineralizations of this type in the area which so far generally are
known as gold-quartz veins. To the north, the extension of this Paleozoic gold
province into the southern part of Peru was proven recently by Fornari and Bon-
nemaison (1984).
The geometry of the manto mineralization is very irregular, partly semi-con-
formable (Fig. 3); its thickness ranges from few em to 1 m with an average of 10
to 20 em. In general, the strike of the gold-quartz lenses and veins is parallel to
the sedimentary planes of the host rock, except for variations in dip. Bedded gold-
quartz veins predominate (the mantas in a strict sense) but change locally into
discordant veinlets. Their spatial and temporal development is connected with a
late stage of the Variscan orogeny, shortly after the regional foliation of the
sediments and the intrusion of the Yani granite. The latter generated elevated heat
flow combined with thermometamorphism and subsequent fluid (brine) migra-
tions which caused the hydrothermal formation of the mantas.
The mineral paragenesis is remarkably uniform. Quartz predominates with
more than 96 vol.o/o accompanied by small amounts of pyrite, arsenopyrite, and
chlorite. Occasionally chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, pyrrhotite, and albite are
present (Fig. 4). Scheelite obviously represents an early stage of the mineralization
because the crystals are growing mainly at the selvages of the veins. Neither
cassiterite nor wolframite have been observed so far. They would point to a quite
different type of mineralization in space and time.
144 H.-J. Schneider
GOLD
PYRITE
ARSENOPYRITE
CHALCOPYRITE
SPHALERITE
GALENA
PYRRHOTITE
QUARTZ
SCHEELITE
CHLORITE
ALBITE
Fig. 4. Paragenetic scheme of the gold-quartz mantos.
Temperatures from pressure-corrected microthermome-
tric data. (After Tistl 1985)
Native gold, the only gold mineral, occurs in small leafs or flakes intergrown
with quartz or at its grain boundaries. The gold content of the mantos is very ir-
regular; it can be estimated ranging from 10 ppm to (sometimes) 300 ppm. Due
to the irregular form of the mantos, gold mining is very difficult.
The P-T conditions of manto mineralization have been estimated from fluid in-
clusion data of the vein quartz (Tistl 1985). According to these results, the
mineralization took place in the range of 1.8 to 2.7 kbar and 320°-450 oc (Fig. 4).
This is in agreement with the metamorphic paragenesis of the host rock, which
does not reach the biotite-in-isograde in the gold mineralized area. Liquid C0 2
is a common component of the fluid inclusions. Furthermore, a regional compari-
son of the various occurrences studied reveals an interesting trend (Fig. 5). The
deposits of group A with highest T h and lowest salinities represent mineraliza-
tions within the low-grade zone next to the thermic center (i.e., granite intrusion).
On the other hand, mineralizations of group C are linked to the external zone of
low-grade metamorphism at a distance of about 25 km from the outcropping
pluton. There is a significant increase of salinity towards the distal zone (C). It
could be explained by the dilution of formation water through meteoric water in
the inner part of the convection system with higher flow rates. This trend provides
an indication for the direction of the migrating fluids.
The main features of the Lower Paleozoic gold province can be summed up
as follows:
1. In the Lower Paleozoic of the Eastern Cordilleras from southern Peru
through northern Bolivia a stratabound gold province exists, distinctly separated
in space and time from the tin province. The extent of this metallogenic province
is estimated to be about 600 km along the general strike of the Cordilleras.
2. Synsedimentary exhalative-submarine sulfide layers and massive ores are
considered to be the source-beds for the gold-quartz mantos. The manto
mineralization is formed during a late stage of the Variscan orogeny and is
generated by thermal metamorphism.
Tm.ICe
LEGEND
-c
0
25 c 1 LA SUERTE
~A
2 FORTALEZA
8
3 YANI
4 STA. ELENA
5 SAN JORGE
6 PROGRESIVA -~
20 7 ITULAYA 8
8 COLLABAMBA_
9 5/LUSANI
~o/
10 ANANEA
15
8
11 LACAYANI
12 MARIA c
13 MAUCALLAJTA
14 STA. BARBARA
10
/" A
5
~~
100 200 300 400 Thee
Fig. 5. Homogenization temperatures (Th) vs. melting temperatures of ice (Tm) of fluid inclusions in
vein quartz. For explanation see text. (After Tistl and Schneider 1986)
3. Both, the stratiform sulfide layers, and the mantas are linked to a well-de-
fined sedimentary sequence of Upper Ordovician (Caradocian) age. They are
stratabound in a strict sense.
References
Ahlfeld F (1967) Metallogenetic epochs and provinces of Bolivia. Min Deposita 2:291-311
Ahlfeld F, Schneider-Scherbina A (1964) Los yacimientos minerales y de hidrocarburos de Bolivia.
Dep Nac Geol, La Paz, Bol Espec 5, 388 p
Bard J-P, Botello C, Martinez C, Subieta T (1974) Relations entre tectonique, metamorphisme et mise
en place d'un granite eohercynien a deux micas dans Ia Cordillere Real de Bolivie (Massif de
Zongo..Yani). ORSTOM, Ser Geol6 (1):3-18
Branisa L, Chamot GA, Berry WBN, Boucot AJ (1972) Silurian of Bolivia. In: Berry WBN, Boucot
AJ (eds) Correlation of South American Silurian rocks. Geol Soc Am, Spec Pap 133:21-31
Evernden JF, Kriz SJ, Cherroni MC (1977) Potassium-argon ages of some Bolivian rocks. Econ Geol
72:1042-1061
Fornari M, Bonnemaison M (1984) Mantos et amas sulfoarsenie a or: Ia Rinconada, premier indice
de mineralisation de type exhalatif-sedimentaire dans Ia Cordillere orientale du Perou. Chron Rech
Min 474:33-40
Freydank HG (1966) The gold placer deposits at the foot of the Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia. Rep
Serv Geol Bol, La Paz, pp 1 - 22
Koeppinghoff A (1988) Die Scheelit-Lagerstiitte Mina Rosario und die Geochernie ihrer ordovizischen
Nebengesteine. Reihe Geowissenschaften, VWB-Verlag fur Wissenschaft und Bildung, Berlin, 82
pp
Koeppinghoff A, Schneider HJ (1986) The scheelite deposit Mina Rosario and its geological setting,
Northern Cordillera Real, Bolivia. Zbl Geol Paliiont Thil 1:1591-1603
Lehmann B (1979) Schichtgebundene Sn-Lagerstiitten in der Cordillera Real/Bolivien. Berliner
Geowiss Abh 14, Reimer, 135 p
146 H.-J. Schneider
Lehmann B (1990) The stratabound Kellhuani tin deposits, Bolivia. This Vol. pp 147-160
Martinez C (1980) Geologie des Andes Boliviennes. Structure et Evolution de Ia Chaine Hercynienne
et de Ia Chaine Andine dans le Nord de Ia Cordillere des Andes de Bolivie. Tl"av Doc ORSTOM
119:1-352
McBride SL, Robertson RCR, Clark AH, Farrar E (1983) Magmatic and metallogenetic episodes in
the northern tin belt, Cordillera Real, Bolivia. Geol Rundsch 72:685 -713
McBride SL, Clark AH, Farrar E, Archibald DA (1987) Delirnination of a cryptic Eocene tectono-
thermal domain in the Eastern Cordillera of the Bolivian Andes through K-Ar dating and
40Ar-39Ar step heating. J Geol Soc Lond 144:243-255
Rodrigo LA, Castafios A (1978) Sinopsis estratigrafica de Bolivia. I Parte: Paleozoico. Acad Nac
Cienc Bol, La Paz, 146 p
Santivafiez R, Hein U, Schneider H-J (1981) Untersuchungen an Flussigkeitseinschlussen im Gang-
quarz der Sn-W-Lagerstatte Chojlla, Bolivien. Zbl Geol Palaont Thil 1: 478-493
Schneider H-J, Lehmann B (1977) Contribution to a new genetical concept on the Bolivian tin pro-
vince. In: Klemm DD, Schneider H-J (eds) Time- and stratabound ore deposits. Springer, Berlin
Heidelberg New York, pp 153-168
Stoll WC (1961) Tertiary channel gold deposits at Tipuani, Bolivia, Econ Geol 56:1258-1264
Tistl M (1985) Die Goldlagerstatten der nOrdlichen Cordillera Real/Bolivien und ihr geologischer
Rahmen. Berliner Geowiss Abh 65, Reimer, Berlin-West, 93 p
Tistl M, Schneider H-J (1986) The Variscan Thermometamorphism and its relations to gold-quartz
mineralizations in the NE Cordillera Real, Bolivia. Zbl Geol Palaont Teil 1:1579-1589
Winkelmann L (1983) Geologie und Lagerstatten im Bereich Palca (Mururata) und die Geochemie der
Silursedimentite in der Cordillera La Paz/Bolivien. Berliner Geowiss Abh 51, Reimer, Berlin-West,
110p
The Stratabound Kellhuani Tin Deposits, Bolivia
B. LEHMANN 1
1 Introduction
Stratabound tin mineralization is fairly common in the Bolivian tin belt (Fig. 1).
At least three stratabound tin mining areas are known from the Cordillera Real
section in northern Bolivia. These are the San Jose/Amarete district to the north
(Cordillera de las Mufiecas), the Kellhuani district very close to La Paz, and the
Monte Blanco deposit to the south (Cordillera Quimza Cruz) (Schneider and
Lehmann 1977). With the current tin market situation, the deposits are of only
marginal economic importance, but have a major tonnage potential for the future.
The Kellhuani tin mantos (manto is the local term for gently dipping orebodies
whose form is controlled by bedding) have been under evaluation since the late
1960's, a large part of the concession areas is currently hold by the Empresa
Minera Unificada S.A. (EMUSA). There are proven reserves of about 1.3 mio mt
with 0.50Jo Sn (Matthews 1985), indicated reserves are on the order of 10 mio mt
with 0.5% Sn (Lehmann 1979). A mining project with combined open pit and
trackless underground exploitation (300 mt ore/day) was in an advanced stage
when the tin prize crash in October 1985 occurred. Currently there is only the
traditional selective mining and handpicking of the richest sections of manto ore
going on, a practice which over a period of many years produced innumerable ex-
cavations and tunnels (each of only a few meters), which document the very re-
markable stratabound character of the mineralization down to a meter scale
(Fig. 2).
2 Geologic Situation
The Kellhuani mining district is situated about 15 km north of La Paz, at an
altitude of betweeen 4500 and 5000 m, and is part of the Cordillera Real of north-
western Bolivia. The Cordillera Real is a NW-trending mountain chain with
glacial peaks up to 6500 m high, and is composed of a thick sequence of Lower
Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks intruded by granites and granodiorites. The
sedimentary section ranges in age from Lower Ordovician to Early Devonian, and
consists largely of a monotonous succession of dark shales and meta-sandstones,
attaining a maximum stratigraphic thickness of more than 10000 m (Ahlfeld and
1 Freie UniversitiU Berlin, lnstitut fiir Angewandte Geologie, Wichernstr. 16, D-1000 Berlin 33, FRO

148 B. Lehmann
70' Major vein tin

deposits and
tin porphyries
• Manto tin
deposits
BOLIVIA '6 '
PERU
km
0 tOO 200
Fig. I. The Bolivian tin province: major tin ore deposits with special reference to manto deposits.
(After Schneider and Lehmann 1977)
Schneider-Scherbina 1964). The stratigraphic record is detailed in Fig. 2 of the

contribution by Schneider (this Vol.). Large-scale folding and low-grade regional
metamorphism developed during a two-phase Hercynian orogeny (Martinez
1980), accompanied by syntectonic granitic intrusions of possibly Upper Car-
boniferous age (Bard et al. 1974; Miller 1987). Post-tectonic granitic rocks in the
northern part of the Cordillera Real are of Upper Triassic age, a second genera-
tion of Middle Tertiary granitic intrusions is present in the southern part of the
Cordillera Real and in the northern extension of the Cordillera Real into Peru
(Clark and Farrar 1973; Clark et al. 1983). The Andean orogeny affected the area
essentially by block tectonics, locally compressional movements and subsequent
sharp uplift (Winkelmann and Schneider 1983).
The NW-trending Kellhuani district is about 16 km long and 4 km wide
(Fig. 3). Its local geology is characterized by the limb of a large anticlinal structure
of Silurian metasediments dipping to the southwest under the Quaternary Alti-
plano piedmont. The stratigraphic sequence of the mining area consists of about
650 m of Wenlockian dark shales (Uncia Formation), overlain by about 700 m of
The Stratabound Kellhuani Tin Deposits, Bolivia 149
CJ BLACK SHALE
D QUARTZITE Fig. 2. The Kellhuani manto

deposit: stratabound tin
~ FAULT
mineralization in the quartzitic
0 100 200 :300
• MINING ACTIVITY units of the Silurian Catavi
Formation
alternating quartzitic and argillic beds of Ludlow age (Catavi Formation). The
quartzitic units of the Catavi Formation reach thicknesses from several decimeters
up to 30 m and consist of fine-grained meta-sandstone and meta-siltstone. The
contact to the intercalated dark shale units is sharp; the shale/quartizite ratio is
about 2.
In the central part of the mining district at the Cerro Chacaltaya massif, the
Catavi Formation is intruded by a small, discordant stock of biotite-muscovite
granite porphyry, dated at 210±6 m.y. (McBride et al. 1983). The granite por-
phyry has an exposed surface area of about 0.5 km2, and is characterized by
locally extreme hydrothermal alteration (greisenization). The primary magmatic
fabric is locally completely extinguished by blastesis of coarse-grained quartz,
muscovite, tourmaline, fluorite, siderite, and cassiterite. Relicts of a narrow con-
tact-metamorphic aureole of the muscovite-biotite-chlorite-andalusite zone can
be traced in shale units of the Catavi Formation, which is, however, mostly
destroyed by later pervasive hydrothermal alteration. The hydrothermal alteration
halo can be mapped for several kilometers around the Chacaltaya stock, and is
characterized by the overall granoblastic mineral assemblage of quartz-chlorite-
sericite/muscovite-siderite. Additionally, tourmaline (schorl) becomes very abun-
dant toward the Chacaltaya stock, and in the innermost zone of the hydrothermal
halo fluorite is very frequent (Fig. 4).
150 B. Lehmann
······ ............................... --·

590 ::::: :; ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
............
600 .. :
8200 ·• • • ;; ' ' • HUAYNA POTOSI GRANITE •. ~ ::
8190
MINING ACTIVITY (PAST & PRESENT)
~ GRANITE /GRANITE PORPHYRY

c:;:) CATAVI FORMATION
CJ UNCiA FORMATION+ QUATERNARY COVER
Fig. 3. Kellhuani mining district: congruency of tin mineralization and the Silurian Catavi Formation
The dimensions of the hydrothermal aureole are controlled by an extensive

fracture pattern around the Chacaltaya stock. Especially the quartizitic beds of
the Catavi Formation are intensely shattered on a centimeter to decimeter scale.
Tourmaline breccia pipes are abundant in the immediate vicinity of the
Chacaltaya stock. Boron metasomatism is a major feature of the mining district
(typical of the entire Bolivian tin province), with selective tourmalinization of
chemically reactive constituents of the quartzitic rocks such as fossils or
argillaceous material in graded bedding units producing textbook examples of
mimetic metasomatism (Fig. 5).
In the northwest of the mining district at the Huallatani Mine, a second but
much less pronounced hydrothermal alteration halo is exposed. Relict contact-
metamorphic mineral assemblages point to a hidden magmatic body in this area.
A few kilometers north of the Kellhuani area a large granitic batholith is exposed
(Huayna Potosi granite). This intrusion has been dated at 205-218 m.y. (McBride
et al. 1983).· The Huayna Potosi granite is largely a muscovite-biotite granite with
transitions to granodioritic composition. Accessory fluorite and tourmaline are
common; plagioclase displays several growth periods and is frequently zoned;
muscovite is of subsolidus origin.
8200
8190
'""'
Cranot~~astlc type mineral•
A Tourn"\4Uno o Fluorite
• Chlet"lte • Siderite
• C•st~teruo 0 BIOtlle
iJ Pleg!Qftal·mel.:af'I"'QrphiC: rererenc:e f)'stem

wni'\Out hydr-Othermal o ve' prln.l
Fig. 4. Hydrothermal-alteration haloes in Silurian quartzites and shales around the Chacaltaya granite
porphyry and in the area of Huallatani (see text). Cassiterite homogenization temperatures from Kelly
and Thrneaure (1970)
3 Ore Deposits
Since the end of the last century, the Kellhuani mining district has been the scene
of small-scale but extensive tin mining and intermittent zinc, copper, tungsten,
and bismuth production. Until its closure in 1986, Milluni Mine was the largest
producer (50 t Sn02 concentrate/ month from the Milluni vein system), but for
future mining operations the large tin potential of the Kellhuani manto deposits
will be of dominant importance.
On a kilometer scale, a distinct lithostratigraphic control of all mineralizations
by the Catavi Formation is evident (Schneider and Lehmann 1977) (Fig. 3). On
a larger scale, there are discordant vein systems and concordant stratabound tin
mineralizations. The most important vein system is located at the Milluni Mine,
where the Veta Rothschild (1 0/80 °E) is over 1600 m long and has been mined
down to the -200m level. Other veins of minor size are frequent in the
Chacaltaya, Kalauyo, and Huallatani areas.
The stratabound manto mineralizations display a remarkable congruency with
the quartizitic units of the Catavi Formation. The quantitatively dominating
152 B. Lehmann
B
Fig. 5. Mimetic replacement of argillaceous material in tourmaline quartzite from the innermost
hydrothermal halo around Cerro Chacaltaya granite porphyry. Conservation of sedimentary
microfeatures such as graded bedding and load casts. Dark material: fine-grained tourmaline ag-
gregates; light material: quartz mosaic. A Hand specimen (3 em large). B Thin section (20 mm large)
Fig. 6. Network/ stockwork character of the manto tin ore. Tin mineralization is located in multidirec-
tional veinlets. Paleofracture pattern is characterized by dark tourmalinization rims in wall rock of
veinlets (Kellhuani Mine, manto 1)
shales are barren (Fig. 2). Although stratigraphically conformable on a regional

and local scale, the manto deposits show disconformable relationships on the out-
crop scale. Mineralization is essentially confined to a network of veinlets scattered
through the quartzitic country rocks, indicating intense shattering prior to and
during ore deposition. The ore fabrics are similar to copper porphyries of the wall
rock type (Fig. 6).
The paleopermeability has been measured in several outcrop sections of Manto
2 in Fig. 2. Identification of the paleofractures is easy because of mm- to em-wide
tourmalinization rims in the wall rocks of mineralization-related fractures, which
contrasts with the picture of the fracture pattern of recent origin. Average fracture
width d is 1.3 ± 0.7 mm, fracture abundance n is 0.134 em- 1 • According to the
definition of permeability k by Norton and Knapp (1977):
k=nd 3/12
a value of k = 2.5 x w-s cm2 results; a permeability comparable to uncon-
solidated gravel, and several orders of magnitude higher than average permeabili-
ties of unaltered sandstone (10- 8 -10- 13 cm2) or shale ( < 10- 13 cm2) (Criss and
Taylor 1986).
The mineralogy of the manto deposits is simple and consists mainly of quartz,
tourmaline, cassiterite, and/or chlorite. Fluorite, siderite, hematite, albite, and
muscovite are locally abundant. Sulfides are subordinate, although minor
amounts of pyrite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite are common. Wolframite occurs
only in the immediate vicinity of the Chacaltaya granite prophyry stock.
In contrast to the mineral assemblage of the manto deposits, the vein
mineralogy is more complex and consists of several superimposed mineral
associations, partly of reactive origin. A schematic summary of the mineral se-
154 B. Lehmann
Table 1. Schematic diagram of the mineral sequence in the Kellhuani mining district
Tin-tungsten stage Base metal stage Pyrrhotite Supergene

alteration alteration
Quartz
Fluorite
Siderite
Tourmaline
Chlorite
Cassiterite
Hematite
Albite
Muscovite
LOllingite
Wolframite
Bismuth
Arsenopyrite
Pyrrhotite
Bismuthinite
Chalcopyrite
Sphalerite
Stannite
Galena
Pyrite
Markasite
Baryte
Skorodite
Covellin
Limonite
Native gold
quence is given in Th.ble 1. The tin-tungsten stage comprises the complete ore se-
quence of the manto deposits, whereas in the vein deposits this stage is present
as well but is followed by base metal sulfides and a very pronounced phase of pyr-
rhotite alteration. Pyrrhotite is thereby replaced by highly porous marcasite-pyrite
aggregates which are typically associated with siderite.
Kelly and Turneaure (1970) give some fluid inclusion data for the Kellhuani
mining district. Homogenization temperatures of cassiterite are reported in Fig.
4. Correcting for depositional pressures between 0.5-1 kbar (Lehmann 1985) and
taking into account the salt contents of 5-25 wt.o/o equivalent NaCl in the fluid
inclusions, the Kellhuani Mine cassiterites have formation temperatures of
410°-500°C, and those from the Milluni Mine have temperatures of
380°-430°C. Fluid inclusion data for siderite of the pyrrhotite alteration stage
at the Milluni Mine (Kelly and Thrneaure 1970), corrected in the same way, give
formation temperatures of 235°-260 °C.
The above fluid inclusion data, combined with the reaction parageneses deter-
mined by ore microscopy and the thermodynamic data on sulfide stabilities, allow
the delineation of a fs 2-T mineralization path for the Kellhuani mining district
(Fig. 7). The earliest mineralization stage is defined by the cassiterite temperature
data and the stability limits of lollingite. The mineralization then proceeds across
200 300 400 500

-2
dl
86
....)
-10
-14
-18
t.4 [to\.K']
Fig. 7. Sulfide-mineral equilibria pertinent to Kellhuani ore district, and proposed mineralization
path. Delineation of Fs -T stability fields of tin-tungsten stage (A Chacaltaya area; B Milluni area)
and of pyrrhotite alteiation stage (C) from pressure-corrected fluid inclusion data (Kelly and
Turneaure 1970) and from inclusion data (Kelly and Turneaure 1970) and from paragenetic relation-
ships
the bismuth/bismuthinite and pyrrhotite/pyrite boundaries, where the pyrrhotite

alteration stage is fixed by siderite temperature data and the upper limit of
arsenopyrite stability (arsenopyrite shows no corrosion textures but may be
metastable). From this diagram the entire mineral sequence can be understood as
a function of decreasing temperature under essentially constant sulfur activity.
A muscovite sample from the manto-type mineralization has been radiometri-
cally dated at 213±5 m.y. (K-Ar method; McBride et al. 1983) corresponding in
age to the Chacaltaya granite intrusion. The location of this sample (Chac 71-M)
is given in Fig. 2.
4 Genetic Discussion
The largely stratabound nature of the Kellhuani tin mineralization makes it very
tempting to speculate about a synsedimentary origin of the tin (Fleischer and
Routhier 1970; Schneider 1975; Schneider and Lehmann 1977). The congruency
between mineralization and the quartzitic units of the Catavi Formation and the
discordant network character of mineralization on the outcrop scale would allow
the application of the genetic characterization "epigenetique-familier" (Routhier
1967) or "epigenetic-endogenous" (Amstutz 1962). Such a concept would require
remobilization of sedimentary cassiterite accumulations (marine paleoplacers)
through hydrothermal activity induced by the Chacaltaya porphyry intrusion. On
closer inspection, however, this apparently simple model is difficult to reconcile
with some geologic data.
156 B. Lehmann
Fig. 8. 'lli.modal tin distribution in sedi-

mentary rocks of the Kellhuani district.
A regional background (3-4ppm Sn);
B hydrothermal overprint (ca. 100 ppm
Sn); C stockwork mineralization
(0.3- 1OJo Sn). (Data from Lehmann
1979 and Lehmann et al. 1988)
There are no indications or relicts of stratified cassiterite accumulations or of

any other heavy mineral concentrations. The quartzitic units of the Catavi Forma-
tion correspond to sheet sands in a low-energy, shallow-shelf environment. Beach
and seashore conditions, the modern environments of marine placer formation,
must be excluded (Lehmann 1979). Coarse-grained clastic sediments, the typical
facies of placer deposits, are lacking. The medium grain size of 0.04-0.10 mm
of the quartzitic beds places these rocks at the transition between fine sand and
coarse silt. This grain size class is unfavorable for placer formation because gravi-
ty-separation mechanisms are of relatively low efficiency. Paleogeographic recon-
struction of the sedimentary environment of the Catavi Formation (Martinez
1980) places the source areas of the Kellhuani sediments at least 100 km away.
Over such distances, the tendency for mineral disintegration and dispersion of pri-
mary tin accumulations will be great, as can be deduced from modern sedimen-
tary dispersion haloes of cassiterite accumulations in SE Asia (neutralization of
primary tin anomalies after 10-15 km of fluvial or marine transport; Kudrass
and Schluter 1977).
There is no sedimentary tin specialization in the quartzitic units of the Catavi
Formation. The regional tin background of the Catavi Formation, as well as of
the Lower Paleozoic sequence of the Cordillera Real in general, is around 4 ppm
Sn (Lehmann et al. 1988). The trimodal tin distribution in the larger Kellhuani
area is portrayed in Fig. 8. Bulk rock samples from the mineralized mantos
(stockwork mineralization) are represented by a sample population with mean
values of 0.3- 1.00Jo Sn. These are assay data from the Kellhuani pilot plant where
large rock volumes on the order of several m 3 have been treated and analyzed.
Hand specimens with mineralized veinlets fall into the same category. A second
sample population has a mean value of around 100 ppm Sn. These are samples
from the hydrothermal aureole around the Chacaltaya granite porphyry, having
no visible veinlet mineralization, but revealing strong pervasive alteration fea-
tures. In thin section, these samples show intense granoblastesis of quartz, meta-
somatic transformations of argillic material into fine-grained tourmaline aggre-
gates, disseminations of fluorite and cassiterite. The tin contents of these samples
display a zonal distribution around the Chacaltaya porphyry stock (Lehmann
1979), whereby the geochemical halo is much larger in the quartzitic rocks than
Fig. 9. Rb-Sr variation diagram

for granitic rock samples from the
larger Kellhuani area: magmatic
i:J. CHACALTAYA
fractionation path of least-altered
A CHACALTAYA (altered)
samples as opposed to open-
0 HUAYNA POTOSI
system behavior during hydrother-
0 ZONGO
mal alteration (Rb content is fixed
by muscovite). Average composi-
100 1000 tion of upper crust from Taylor
Rb (ppm) and McLennan (1985)
in the shales. This portrays the petrographically identified hydrothermal overprint

pattern which is a function of rock permeability. The regional tin background is
3 ppm in quartzitic rocks and 4 ppm for argillaceous rocks. This is deduced from
an extensive sampling program which has been carried out with special regard to
the Catavi Formation (Lehmann et al. 1988).
The positive geochemical halo pattern around the Chacaltaya granite porphyry
is characterized by a suite of granite-incompatible elements such as Li, B, F, Zn,
Rb, Sn, and Cs. The element haloes are up to several km large, the ore deposits
are part of the hydrothermal tin halo and are centered on the Chacaltaya stock.
The same elements display systematic geochemical variations in least-altered
samples of the Chacaltaya stock consistent with a fractional crystallization model
(Lehmann 1985). The variation pattern of rubidium and strontium is shown in
Fig. 9. The linear variation line in a log-log plot is typical of fractionation pro-
cesses and cannot be explained by a mix of two endmember compositions (such
as country rock assimilation). The samples from the Chacaltaya granite porphyry
display different stages of magmatic fractionation and are, in comparison to the
coeval granitic rocks of the Huayna Potosi batholith, the most advanced on a
cogenetic fractionation line. The fractional crystallization of the Chacaltaya
granite porphyry and its neighboring granitic intrusives results in tin enrichment
of up to about one order of magnitude (Fig. 10). Although, due to analytical pro-
blems and to hydrothermal overprint, there is considerable scatter in the diagram
of Fig. 10, the magmatic differentiation process can be traced back down to Sn
levels of 5 ppm, which leaves little room for any hypothetical primary tin enrich-
ment of the granitic magma.
The ore deposits are centered on the highly evolved, tin-specialized igneous
system of the Chacaltaya porphyry stock, and there is evidence for contem-
poraneity between hydrothermal alteration/mineralization and magmatic intru-
158 B. Lehmann
Fig. 10. Ti0 2-Sn variation

diagram for granitic rock samples
from the larger Kellhuani area:
least-altered samples follow the
general fractionation trend in tin
granites (Lehmann 1982), open-
~~~:; system behavior of tin during
+---r--r-r-r..,----...---,---,--,.- -,--,-..,:::;=F hydrothermal alteration. Data for
0.1 average upper and lower crust
Ti0 2 (wt %) from Taylor and McLennan (1985)
sion. In addition, the extensive fracture pattern in which the ore is located is
spatially related to the intrusive body, and there is evidence for explosive venting
of hydrothermal fluids (stockworks and tourmaline breccia pipes) in the vicinity
of the stock. The extreme paleopermeability of the quartzitic units of the Catavi
Formation which allowed large-scale hydrothermal circulation/mineralization
documents a localized release of mechanical energy; a process typical of porphyry
environments and understandable as a consequence of second boiling of shallow-
seated, hydrous magma bodies (Burnham 1985).
The specifically layered rigidity structure of the Catavi Formation results in
overall plastic deformation of the shale units and in brittle failure of the quarzitic
units. The latter process provides the high-permeability channel ways for the
migration of ore-forming fluids. In summary, the concept of second boiling and
release of an ore-forming fluid phase from a highly evolved tin granite system in
a transitional magmatic-hydrothermal state, coupled with a layered rigidity struc-
ture of the wall rocks, provides an explanation for the stratabound tin mineraliza-
tion in the Kellhuani district which best satisfies the sum of geologic data.
5 Conclusions
The above observations and interpretations give little support for the general
assumption that congruency in ore deposits relates to a syngenetic origin
(Amstutz 1959). Hydrothermal ore deposits ·are relicts of fossil fluid flow.
Permeability is the single most important rock parameter that is pertinent to fluid
flow. Stratified permeability structures are a natural consequence of the variabili-
ty of sedimentary processes; and given no fracture permeability, any hydrothermal
fluid flow will be stratabound. Other physical parameters such as ductile strength
also are strata-specific, and, through variable deformation characteristics, can
lead to a stratabound permeability structure. Stratabound fluid flow will be pro-
nounced most where physical rock parameters are distributed in a stratigraphical-
ly most variable pattern (rigidity/permeability contrasts). The association of con-
gruency with the notion of syngenesis is therefore only valid in an ideal case of
an isotropic distribution of permeability-relevant rock parameters. In natural en-
vironments, some degree of congruency of ore deposits is the inevitable conse-
quence of a complex, heterogeneous rock formation. The stratabound character
and the stratiform geometry of ore deposits have therefore no genetic implication.
References
Ahlfeld F, Schneider-Scherbina A (1964) Los yacimientos minerales y de hidrocarburos de Bolivia.
Dep Nac Geol, La Paz, Bol Espec 5:1-388
Amstutz GC ( 1959) Syngenetic zoning in ore deposits. Proc Geol Assoc Canada 11:95 -113
Amstutz GC (1962) I.:origine des gites mim!raux concordants dans les roches sedimentaires. Chron
Min 308:115-126
Bard JP, Botello R, Martinez C, Subieta T (1974) Relations entre tectonique, metamorphisme et mise
en place d'un granite eohercynien a deux micas dans Ia Cordillere Real de Bolivie (Massif de
Zongo-¥ani). ORSTOM, Ser Geol6:3-18
Burnham CW (1985) Energy release in subvolcanic environments: implications for breccia formation.
Econ Geol 80:1515-1522
Clark AH, Farrar E (1973) The Bolivian tin province: notes on the available geochronological data.
Econ Geol 68:102-106
Clark AH, Palma VV, Archibald DA, Farrar E (1983) Occurrence and age of tin mineralization in
the Cordillera Oriental, southern Peru. Econ Geol 78:514-520
Criss RE, Thylor HR Jr (1986) Meteoric-hydrothermal systems. In: Valley JW, Thylor HP Jr, O'Neil
JR (eds) Stable isotopes in high temperature geological processes. Mineral Soc Am, Washington,
pp 373-424 (Rev Mineral16)
Fleischer R, Routhier P (1970) Quelques grands themes de Ia geologie du Bresil. Miscellanees geologi-
ques et metallogeniques sur le Planalto. Sci Terres 15:45-102
Kelly WC, Thrneaure FS (1970) Mineralogy, paragenesis and geothermometry of the tin and tungsten
deposits of the Eastern Andes, Bolivia. Econ Geol 65:609-680
Kudrass HR, Schluter HU (1977) Report on the geophysical and geological offshore survey, Malacca
Strait project. Part 1. Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover
Lehmann B (1979) Schichtgebundene Sn-Lagerstatten in der Cordillera Real/Bolivien. Berliner
Geowiss Abh A 14:1-135
Lehmann B (1982) Metallogeny of tin: magmatic differentiation versus geochemical heritage. Econ
Geol 77:50-59
Lehmann B (1985) Formation of the strata-bound Kellhuani tin deposits, Bolivia. Min Deposita
20:169-176
Lehmann B, Petersen U, Santivaiiez R, Winkelmann L (1988) Distribuci6n geoquimica de estaiio y
boro en Ia secuencia paleoz6ica inferior de Ia Cordillera Real de Bolivia. Bol Soc Geol Peru
77:19-27
Martinez C (1980) Structure et evolution de Ia chaine hercynienne et de Ia chaine andine dans le nord
de Ia Cordillere des Andes de Bolivie. 'll"av Doc ORSTOM 119:1-352
Matthews PFP (1985) Kellhuani, Bolivia - a manto tin deposit. Mining Mag, January 1985:
24-29
McBride SL, Robertson RCR, Clark AH, Farrar E (1983) Magmatic and metallogenetic episodes in
the northern tin belt, Cordillera Real, Bolivia. Geol Rundsch 72:685 -713
Miller J (1987) Granite petrogenesis in the Cordillera Real, Bolivia. Poster presented at: The origin
of granites, 14-16 Sep 1987, Edinburgh
160 B. Lehmann
Norton D, Knapp R (1977) 'Ihmsport phenomena in hydrothermal systems: the nature of porosity. Am
J Sci 277:913-936
Routhier P (1967) Le modele de Ia genese. Quelques concepts fondamentaux en petrologie et en
metallogenie. Modeles des theories metallogenetiques. Chron Min 363:177-190
Schneider HJ (1975) Ein neues genetisches Konzept fUr die sogenannte bolivianische Zinn-Silber-Pro-
vinz. Paper presented at: Int Clausthal-Kolloq, April 1975, Clausthal-Zellerfeld
Schneider HJ, Lehmann B (1977) Contribution to a new genetical concept on the Bolivian tin pro-
vince. In: Klemm DD, Schneider HJ (eds) Time- and strata-bound ore deposits. Springer, Berlin
Heidelberg New York, pp 153-168
Schneider HJ (1990) Gold deposits in Lower Paleozoic sediments of the Cordillera Real. This Vol, pp
137-146
Thylor SR, McLennan SM (1985) The continental crust: its composition and evolution. Blackwell, Ox-
ford, 312 pp
Winkelmann L, Schneider HJ (1983) Geologie and Lagerstatten im Bereich der Palca-Zone, Cordillera
Real/Bolivien. Zbl Geol Palaont Teil 1:550-562
El Aguilar Mine: An Ordovician Sediment-Hosted
Stratiform Lead-Zinc Deposit in the Central Andes
R. J. SUREDA 1 and J. L. MARTIN 2
1 Introduction
El Aguilar mine is located along the eastern slope of the north-south Aguilar
range in the Humahuaca department of Jujuy province, Argentina, at approx-
imately 23 o 12' S latitude, 65 °42' W longitude, at an elevation of 4450 m above sea
level. El Aguilar is 1900 km from Buenos Aires by rail, and 900 km from La Paz,
Bolivia. At present the mine is the leading Argentinian producer of nonferrous
ores, generating 2000 to 2200 t/day of crude ore containing 5.5o/o Pb, 6.2% Zn,
and 60 to 110 g/t Ag. The main parameters show 2 volume of 30 X 106 t ore
(production+reserves), and an average combined grade of 18% (Pb+Zn+Cu).
This deposit represents the largest Paleozoic lead-zinc mineral concentration in
South America.
The Aguilar range links the morphostructural provinces of the Puna and the
Cordillera Oriental in northwestern Argentina. The range is a fault-bounded
block, about 45 km long by 10 km wide, of essentially folded Paleozoic sedimen-
tary rocks. Two major Cretaceous granite stocks outcrop on the flanks of the
mountains and minor bodies of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks are found locally.
Numerous geologic papers make reference to the El Aguilar Mine since pro-
duction began in 1936. Early papers include Brown (1941), Spencer (1950), and
Ahlfeld (1955). Isotopic and geochronologic studies were published by Brown
(1962), Linares (1968), Stipanicic and Linares (1969), Halpern and Latorre (1973),
and Linares and Latorre (1975). Recent works include Brodtkorb et al. (1978),
Sureda and Amstutz (1981), Alonso et al. (1982), and Martinet al. (1986, 1987),
and describe general geology, paleontological records, and ore genesis.
2 Geology of the El Aguilar Mine

The classical Andean-type mountain belt located in northwestern Argentina
shows a Precambrian basement overlain by siliciclastic marine rocks. The
Paleozoic basins during the Famatinian Tectonic Cycle are colmated (Acefiolaza
and Toselli 1976; Turner and Mon 1979). The sediments of the Cambrian Meson
Group (Turner 1960) were deposited in an intracontinental aulacogenic basin tren-
ding NNE-SSW and consisting mainly of orthoquartzitic sandstones. It appears
1 Universidad de Salta, Mineralogia, 4400 Salta, Argentina

2 Compaiifa Minera Aguilar S. A., Argentina
Stratabound Ore Deposits in tbe Andes

162 R. J. Sureda and J. L. Martin
that the Cambrian sedimentary cycle was very sterile, in both the paleontologic
and geochemical sense. Likewise, the geochemical base metal background is as
low as 50-200 ppm (Pb+Zn+Cu), at least in the known southwestern part of the
Meson basin. After the lruyic diastrophic phase, the Santa Victoria Group and
equivalent units of the Ordovician sedimentary cycle are transgressive to the
southwest of the region. The fossiliferous content and paleontologic age control
are excellent. Ordovician volcanic events began in the Tremadoc and culminated
with Guandacolic and Ocloyic phases (Salfity et al. 1984), also of important
metallogenic significance. The geochemical base metal background increases to
400-5000 ppm (Pb+Zn+Cu). The Quiaqueiia Metallogenic Province groups the
metalliferous ore deposits within the Ordovician marine stratigraphic column of
the Central Andes (Sureda and Galliski 1986). In general, there are Au, Cu and
Fe vein mining districts mainly in the distal deep positions of the basin, and Pb,
Zn, and Ba vein mining districts and stratiform Pb, Zn, and Ba deposits in the
proximal shelf positions (Fig. 1).
The El Aguilar Mine consists of ten major stratiform Pb-Zn ore bodies, which
are hosted in a favorable 200-m-thick section of interbedded metaquartzites and
hornfels of the Cretaceous Aguilar quartzite (Spencer 1950; Alonso et al. 1982).
The orebodies average 150 to 1000 m in length, 50 to 300m in width, and 5 to
80 m in thickness. Conformable ore units extend approximately 2000 m north-
south along strike in the southwestern contact aureole of the Aguilar granite. The
Aguilar quarzite unit dips approximately 70° to the west. The emplacement of the
Abra Laite and Aguilar granites transformed the Ordovician sedimentary
lithology in metamorphic rocks. The protoliths of the Aguilar quartzite should
be correlated with the Lower Themadocian Padrioc Formation (Aceiiolaza 1968;
Alonso et al. 1982). During recent mapping of critical areas it has been identified
the lateral stratigraphic equivalence between the Padrioc and Lampazar Forma-
tions (Martin et al. 1986).
Figure 2 shows the location of the El Aguilar Mine and other presently inactive
Pb-Zn prospects within the Sierra de Aguilar mining district. By far the most sig-
nificant deposits are those of the El Aguilar Mine and the Esperanza, Oriental,
and Pirita prospects, which are interbedded within the equivalent of the Lower
Tremadocian Padrioc-Lampazar Formations. Three distinctive sedimentary ore-
bearing horizons may be identified with careful mapping in the primary beds of
the Padrioc basin. The underlying and overlying stratigraphic units of Ordovician
age contain only comparatively small base metal occurrences (Blancaflor, Fitz-
hugh, Thpada, Hueco, and Zarzo prospects). Some smaller mineral prospects in
the vicinity of the granitic intrusions and igneous dyke complexes (i.e., Josefina,
Porfia, Lagartija, Quera, Pozo Bravo and Candelaria) have an unclear genetic af-
filiation. At the present time, the extent and significance of the different
mineralization types in the Sierra de Aguilar district is not yet well understood.
The Aguilar quartzite, which hosts the orebodies, consists of a series of white
to gray metaquartzite beds with interbedded dark-colored hornfels and slates. The
average thickness is estimated to be 450 m. Individual beds are generally massive
and range from 2 to 10m thick. Bedding planes are frequently absent. Toward the
top, metamorphosed shales and siltstones increase with a corresponding decrease
in metaquartzites. This upper section is frequently referred to by miners as the
El Aguilar Mine 163
1-. '
\: .'f.
+ \.,_
s4ow \ G2ow
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G U A 'p ..0 R E
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D Deep Focies(wilh
} Ordovician \ \- . . \
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volcanic layerS ) · " . •
Mar~ne ;·.~CONDE, ANZALDO ,.-···· ,_ . . ..
\\ -~-:,;;~\\-.''<~~<:~::~-.
:-:-: Shelf Facie$ Bos1n ~UE.j'.- : '· •
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P~~~~~i~RR~ND /,,·:·t··- ,;~-,t-?'':\~.·:;:S!.~:.~:· ... ··_) . r:
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Fig. 1. Central Andes, Quiaqueiia Metallogenic Province, Early-Middle Ordovician. Ordovician
paleogeography and El Aguilar mine location. ~ Mining districts with polymetallic Au-
Cu-Ag-Pb-Zn-Fe veins; hW mining districts with Pb-Zn-Ba veins; X mining district with
stratiform Pb-Zn deposits; " " " Ordovician volcanic layers and plutonic intrusions. LQC = La
Quiaca, LRJ = La Rioja, LSR = La Serena, SCR = Sucre, SFC = Catamarca, SLT = Salta,
SMT = Tucuman, SSJ = Jujuy, TRJ = Tarija
~ PA DRIOC ·LAMPAZAR F
~ DESPENSA F
.,
z 6 Poto Bro~o
w
a
a: (Or d ' - K ' )
" 5- Bloncaflor
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" ......,..0 --''
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ua> Aroentmo
0~
T
Fig. 2. Sierra de Aguilar district, Jujuy, Argentina

El Aguilar Mine 165
Aguilar shale. Down-section the formation contains several conglomerate lenses

and calcareous zones. Soft sediment deformation structures are common and
locally intraformational breccias occur. Some primary depositional features have
been preserved after contact metamorphism. Cenozoic faulting and folding are
very important factors in the spatial distribution of the orebodies, metamorphic
wall-rocks, and Ordovician sedimentary units.
Five sedimentary formations compose the Ordovician section in the Sierra de
Aguilar district. From oldest to youngest they are the Despensa (Alonso et al.
1982}, Padrioc (Aceiiolaza 1968}, Lampazar (Harrington 1937}, Cardona! (Keidel,
in Harrington 1937) and Acoite (Harrington and Leanza 1957). The oldest rocks
outcrop in the southern portion of the mountain range, in the Despensa river
valley and in the western zone of the El Aguilar Mine. The Aguilar mountain
range as a whole is an elongated anticline, somewhat complicated by two granitic
intrusions. Large-scale faulting is a dominant feature that forms the mining
district limits. On the east is the main Aguilar Este fault and on the west is the
Guayatayoc fault, which forms a horst that was uplifted, pushing the Aguilar
mountains into the Cenozoic stratigraphic sequence. The main Aguilar Este fault
trends nearly northsouth and dips 70° to west, with concave-upward surface at
depth (Boll and Hernandez 1986). The amount of vertical movement is estimated
to be 6500 m, with the west side up. There is minor mineralization along the fault,
best represented by the Pb, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn Lagartija prospect. The major fracture
system in the mine is also parallel to these major faults. Three main chronologie
stages of faulting and folding are evident in the Aguilar horst based upon their
relative relationship to the granitic intrusion.
2.1 Some Isotopic Ratios and Radiometric Ages
Brown (1962) published the first lead isotopic data from El Aguilar and Esperan-
za Mines for galena minerals on samples collected by Brown and Whiting in 1959.
These data are as follow:
OJo Pb 204 206 207 208 ratios 206/204 207/204 208/204
El Aguilar 1.386 24.84 21.53 52.54 17.92 15.53 36.69
Esperanza 1.398 24.87 21.42 52.31 17.79 15.32 37.42
According to Stipanicic and Linares (1969}, Brown's data indicated a lead age
of 351 ± 20 m.y. by the Russell-Farquhar-Stanton model and 428 ± 25 m.y. by the
Holmes-Houterman model. The Lower Tremadocian Padrioc Formation has very
good paleontologic age control. The younger lead age and the small difference
with the fossil age might be explained by contamination of the Ordovician
sources, possibly in association with Cretaceous-Cenozoic events.
Sulfur isotope data have been provided by Linares (1968). The average value
of 32S/ 34S ratios over 40 samples of sulfide minerals from the El Aguilar Mine,
(37 galenas and 3 sphalerites collected by Whiting), is o 34S + 18%o, with very
limited variations on extreme values. These values are compatible with an exo-
genic fractionation process for the sulfur source.
The Aguilar granite age was reported first by Halpern and Latorre (1973) by
Rb/Sr methods on whole rock at 133±8 m.y. and 110±5 m.y. from chloritized
biotite. Later, Linares and Latorre (1975) gave new analyses by K/Ar and Rb/Sr
methods, with an average granite age of 118 ± 15 m.y. Recently, Barbieri et al.
(1987) reported 87 Sr/86Sr ratios on barite from the Esperanza mine, and the
Blancaflor and Quebrada Vilte Pb-Zn prospects. The values are close to 0.7130
and may be correlated with similar ratios of the Ordovician igneous rocks.
3 Mineralogy and Ore Structures of the Pb-Zn Deposits

The primary ore mineralogy of the El Aguilar mine is relatively simple and in-
cludes dark sphalerite (marmatite) and galena. The principal sulfide gangue
minerals are pyrite and pyrrhotite with minor greigite. The lighter, nonmarmatitic
sphalerite occurs in a narrow association with skarn and is apparently a product
of remobilization and replacement. The sphalerite and galena are accompanied
by the minor minerals: chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrargyrite, alabandite,
magnetite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, marcasite, and molybdenite. Identified trace
minerals, all of microscopic size, include: wurtzite, boulangerite, bournonite,
cubanite, jamesonite, semseyite, gudmundite, antimony, stannite, isostannite,
mackinawite, breithauptite, silver, gold, and ullmannite. It is postulated that most
of the trace minerals could be formed by metamorphic transformations of the pri-
mary sulfides and oligo-elements in the sedimentary pile. However, from data
available to date, the precise effect of contact metamorphism versus granite
metasomatism upon the preexisting ore mineralogy is not well understood. Out-
side the metamorphic aureole, parallel fine-grained laminae of framboidal pyrite
are a conspicuous texture in layers of cherts, siltstones, and pelitic rocks. It is less
common, but may be seen in albite-epidote hornfels facies, as also in hornblende
hornfels facies.
The orebodies generally occur in the upper section of the metaquartzites and
in the contact zone with the overlying hornfels. They are distinguished by their
stratigraphic position and textural characteristics. Thble 1 summarizes the various
ore structures. These mesoscopic textural features are equivalent to Gustafson and
Williams's (1981) term "ore structure". The major ore structure types present are:
brecciated, pyrite-sphalerite banded, disseminated and massive type (greater than
700Jo sulfides). Other ore structure types represent less than 5% of the orebodies.
Figure 3 has two mine sections which illustrate the ore structure distribution. In-
ternal zoning of individual ore bodies or ore structure types has not been
recognized. The Aguilar quartzite shows only a general tendency to increase the
Zn/Pb ratio from the footwall to the hanging wall.
Brecciated type ore is predominantly angular fragments of metaquartzites
ranging from several centimeters to one half meter in diameter, in a matrix of
quartz and sphalerite (both Fe-rich and Fe-poor), with lesser amount of galena
and pyrite. The matrix often appears to be massive sulfides, but is rarely so.
Banded ore structure is also mineralogically simple, composed of pyrite and
marmatite bands with minor galena in a siliceous matrix. Locally, the banded
type may be transitional to massive ore, which can be either galena or sphalerite
Table 1. Ore structures of the El Aguilar Mine
Description (types) Common base metal (%) Relative Surrounding or Location (stope) t!l
mineral association abundance host rock (some examples) >
00
E.
63 Metaquartzite BED-A: OCA-302 iii
...,
Sph>Gn
{- B<=l«<d
- Banded Sph, Py, On 15 Metaquartzite, hornfels BED-0, C: 9-G-267 ~
Primary textures s·
(Syngenetic or pene- - Disseminated Sph-Gn 10 Metaquartzite BED-ANX: 6-ANX-430
contemporaneous) - Massive On> Sph (Po, Cpy) 5 Metaquartzite, marble BED-B2B3 , K: 10-B2B3 345 "'
- Cementation Sph, On (Py, Po) 1.3 Sabulous sandstones BED-C: 14-C-278
(Conglomerate matrix) conglomerates
Stringer Gn~(Sph) 3 Metaquartzite BED-A, K: 15-A-325
Replacement On, Sph (Py, Po, Cpy) 2 Marble BED-B, K: OCB-306
Secondary textures (skarn)
(Epigenetic Stockwork Gn~(Sph) 0.6 Metaquartzite BED-A, K: 14-K-307
transformation) 1 (post-tectonic ore)
Filling Sph, On 0.1 Calcareous sandstones BED-A: 5-A-302
(microkarstic bodies) marble
Table 2. Wall-rock alteration types in the Pb-Zn deposits of the Siena de Aguilar
Geologic position Description (OJo) Relative Guest Location

abundance elements (some examples)
30 Mn-Fe 7-A-316, OCB-306, 7-A-325

{ - Hydmth<rm•l
Synsedimentary Fe-Mn-Ba, Halos
(Paleozoic) - Silicification I 10 Si0 2 6-ANX-426, 2-E-378
(coticules)
20 B-F-Be 4-A-407, OCA-302, OCA-370
rSkMO Mo-Fe-Mn OCE-370, 6-A-407, 9-G-267
Pyrometasomatism and 10 K-Na 7-A-341, 7-A-336, 6-A-407
- Alkali-feldspar
metamorphism
(alteration)
(Mesozoic) 1 Mn-Fe-B OCA-300, Oriental Mine,
- Hydrothermal II
Fe-Mn, Halos Toro Mount
Tectonic phenomena 5 HzO, C0 2 Major fault zones a.
--1
with thrust faults and { - Dlaphthore•l•
- Silicification II 20 Si0 2 Vaca Ravine, Padrioc Valley
-
folds arrangement 2 Mn-Fe Lagartija Prospect,
Hydrothermal
- Cataclastic rocks Oriental Mine
Fe-Mn, Halos
(Cenozoic)
l - Hotnfels + ( P y or Po)
w 2 -B onded Zn> Pb ( Py )
3- Hornfels-metoquorulte
4 -Brecciated- bonded Zn>Pl
...
+ +
~-4300N
0 50 lOOm .
LITHOLOGY
G ron it e
Hornfels
MetoquariZite
0 R E STRUCTURES
B Mass i ve
§§€! Bonded
~
L.:::::..:..:.J 3225 N
_..,.' Faults
Fig. 3. El Aguilar Mine: schematic sections (+explanation on fig.)

El Aguilar Mine 169
dominant with significant pyrite. Massive sulfide type is mainly scarce in the
mine. The banded ore is almost always conformable with the enclosing country
rock.
The disseminated type is the dominant footwall ore mineralization and the
sulfide content ranges from traces to 700Jo. Marmatite and galena are the principal
minerals, with lesser amounts of pyrite and pyrrhotite. Galena and pyrrhotite are
relatively more abundant in the skarn lithofacies.
Banded ore occurs near or at the contact of metaquartzites and the overlying
hornfels. The rock is interbedded hornfels and metaquartzites. Down-section,
banded ore gives way to brecciated ore, which occurs in a rock approaching meta-
quartzite. Underlying the breccia ore is stringer- and stockwork-type ore which
gives way to the disseminated type. The last three types are often coexistent in the
large quantities of ore, but can prove to be useful in determining some aspects
of ore genesis. Stringer ore occurs in the footwall beds of the Aguilar quartzite
unit. Singular vein thickness increases downward vertically from very thin veinlets
to wider veins, with galena-pyrite-chalcopyrite fringes. Equi-dimensional galena-
pyrite blebs may also be arranged in elongated clusters parallel to bedding. Thble
2 illustrates about the well-rock alteration types from the Pb-Zn deposits of the
siena de Aguilor.
3.1 Skarn Deposits - Metamorphosed and Metasomatic Ores
Several massive or broad-zoned skarns are found in the El Aguilar Mine. These
skarn zones consist mainly of sphalerite, galena, and pyrite intercalated with com-
mon carbonate-silicate skarn minerals. It is common to have Pb-Zn ore bodies in
the skarn zone. The main skarn minerals are wollastonite, calcite, spessartitic and
granditic garnets, manganoan pyroxenes, and amphiboles, with minor amounts
of idocrase, epidote, rhodonite, bustamite, pyrosmalite, ankerite, zoisite,
clinozoisite, and apatite. All these minerals could be of limestone origin. In the
Esperanza mine, within the Padrioc equivalent strata and outside the metamor-
phic aureole, thinly bedded biohermal limestones have been found. A small
horizon, less than half a meter thick, displays a distinct stromatolitic lamination
of supratidal LLH-C algal mats (Collenia). Some of the stromatolite sheeting
units consist of alternating carbonate-chert laminae and ore barite layers (Sureda
and Amstutz 1981). It is postulated that the parent rock for the skarn zones was
an Ordovician limestone. At least, there are two sedimentary limestones. One
biogenic limestone type built biohermal bodies and an exhalative limestone which
is associated with chert, Mn-Fe oxides, and other exhalites. All these limestone
bodies are very small in the Aguilar range's sedimentary column.
Other skarn minerals of minor importance are associated with igneous in-
trusives or restricted to fault zones. These include fluorite, tourmaline, scapolite,
helvine, ludwigite, axinite, rutile, and titanite. Metalliferous minerals that are
locally abundant but not common include molybdenite, magnetite, and
arsenopyrite, which also are considered to be associated with late-stage igneous
activity. Table 3 shows some chemical analyses of skarn minerals from the El
Aguilar Mine.
Table 3. Chemical analyses of skarn minerals from the El Aguilar Mine
2 3 4 5 6
Si02 38.05 37.33 37.78 46.85 47.28 43.82

Alz0 3 20.84 20.86 20.64 0.15 0.09 17.93
FeO 6.40 6.37 1.68 5.39 4.12 2.08
MnO 31.01 24.84 4.42 38.47 31.56 10.64
MgO 0.88 0.22 0.46 1.41 0.50
CaO 3.07 10.92 35.42 8.31 15.10 19.24
Ti02 0.33 0.26
H 20 0.20 0.18
1. Garnet 16-307-XCW El Aguilar; 2. Garnet 14-K-307 El Aguilar; 3. Garnet 4-A-404 El Aguilar; 4.

Rhodonite OCB-306 El Aguilar; 5. Bustamite OCB-306 El Aguilar; 6. Axinite OCE-370 El Aguilar.
1, 2, 3,6 Anal: J. de Ia Puente, Spain. 4, 5 Anal: C. E. Gordillo, Argentina.
El Aguilar is considered a typical example of thermal metamorphism of a pre-

existing sulfide orebody. There is recrystallization of the sulfide minerals resulting
in a coarser texture. The degree of recrystallization is highly variable, often chang-
ing from weakly affected to highly affected in a matter of several meters. This ir-
regular metamorphism is also observed in the erratic distribution of the pyroxene
hornfels facies in the wall rock near the granite contact. The intergrowths of large
sericite and amphibole crystals with galena have a random orientation, typical of
crystal growth in an unoriented stress field during metamorphism. Second-
generation idioblastic pyrite from skarn orebodies is generally intergrown with
pyrrhotite, hedenbergite, and actinolite. There are metamorphic rhythmites in
contrasted layers 1 em thick, with pyroxene hornfels min.eral assemblage. The
rhythmicity may be inherited from previous diagenetic crystallization-differentia-
tion rhythmites (Sureda and Amstutz 1981).
Pyrrhotite is ubiquitous in the orebodies and formed as a result of the contact
metamorphism of primary pyrite and greigite. Microscopic observations show
pyrrhotite as a pseudomorph after pyrite and greigite, occasionally revealing a pri-
mary bedding of the pyrite. Etched polished sections show a mosaic of pyrite,
galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and minor sulfides with the galena and sphalerite
crystals having approximately 120 o angles at triple junctions. Along grain bound-
aries of the major sulfide minerals, it is common to have peripheral displacement
of the less abundant sulfide inclusions (chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, alabandite,
bournonite). Small mineral inclusions in the major sulfides generally exhibit a
variety of rounded shapes. Typical examples are rounded gudmundite crystals be-
tween tetrahedrite and galena, drop-like to star-shaped sphalerite grains in
chalcopyrite, alabandite parallel to [110] form in sphalerite and flame-like
breithauptite grains along pyrrhotite boundaries. Additional microscopic details
are given in Brodtkorb et al. (1978).
The thermal range of the contact metamorphism has been placed between
270° and 650°C, which would indicate a partial melting of pre-existing ore
minerals. It is postulated that the majority of stringer, stockwork, and vein-brec-
ciated ore occurrences were formed by remobilization and intrusion of later ore-
El Aguilar Mine 171
bearing solutions. Metamorphism and minor remobilization are notable charac-

teristics in the stratiform sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits of the Sierra de Aguilar
district.
4 Comments and Genetic Approach

Interpretations of the origin of the El Aguilar Pb-Zn deposits have evolved as
mining has advanced. During the 1940s and 1950s when the major portion of the
mining occurred in the upper eight levels, the prevailing view favored an epigenetic
pyrometasomatic or hypothermal replacement process associated with emplace-
ment of granitic plutons (Brown 1941; Spencer 1950; Ahlfeld 1955). In the next
two decades, investigators from Brown (1962) to Linares (1968) and Linares and
Latorre (1975) collected isotopic and geochronologic data that indicate a widely
separated age relationship between ore and granite. Observations of the ore tex-
tures and depositional environment by Brodtkorb et al. (1978) and Sureda and
Amstutz (1981) emphasize a narrow depositional range of the sulfides contem-
poraneous with deposition of the enclosing sediments. Recent fossil finds and
stratigraphic correlations have placed the ore horizons at Lower Tremadocian
(Alonso et al. 1982; Martin et al. 1986, 1987).
In our opinion, the El Aguilar Pb-Zn orebodies were emplaced in a restricted
sub-basin which formed during a period of basinal instability near the Padrioc
Formation sedimentary time. The degree of subsidence of this sub-basin, the
thickness of proximal terrigenous sediments, the rupture of the Palermo-Salinas
Grandes uplift (Cambrian Meson basin's southwestern limit) by Ordovician
marine transgressions, and the location of sea-floor metal-bearing brine vents
may be related to extensive movements of the Iruyic diastrophic phase at the base
of the Ordovician Santa Victoria Group sedimentary cycle. There is at present rea-
sonable evidence and general agreement (i.e., J. K. Duff 1985; D. F. Sangster 1988,
pers. commun.) that the bulk of the El Aguilar orebodies formed by hydrothermal
exhalations on the Tremadocian sea floor. These Pb-Zn deposits have definite
sedimentary-exhalative affiliations. The postulated hydrothermal system was
powered by hydraulic and thermal forces. Factors which may have contributed to
the development of hydraulic gradient include the tensional stress regimen
in the vent area, sub-basin faulting, local uplift, and uneven sediment loading,
large-scale Ordovician basin instability and thermal peaks below a thinned crust
of an incipient rift evolution. Figure 4 illustrates an idealized evolutionary pattern
of major genetic characteristics of the El Aguilar stratiform Pb-Zn orebodies.
The depositional environments of the Despensa, Padrioc, and Lampazar For-
mations in the Aguilar range area are characterized by a transitional tide-
dominated deltaic to shallow marine lithofacies, trending WSW-ENE. Scarce
biohermal limestones in this sequence show metal capture by algal mats within
stromatolitic layers. The mixed nature of endogenous and exogenic elements in
the ore fluids has been outlined by previous isotopic research and is supported by
recent data (Barbieri et al. 1987). However, the sources of the components now
contained within the El Aguilar deposits remain speculative. A surface expression
of an exhalative vent has not yet been recognized in the area outside the metamor-
e) LATE PUOCENE- POST MJUOR ANOE:AN COMPRESSIVE TECTONIC EVENTS-(DIAGUITIC PHASE)
SAN AIIBLD DORSAL SALTA GROUP CONTINENTAL BASIN

tiN 1~ AGUILAR ~SE
~· ~
;;-__ .-~~~/~be
GRANITIC~~~~'
+ + ~~
;c-q ~,;jfll ETAMORPHISM
r.J
,._.,.
, + + f'e
d) CRETACEOUS-PRE ANDEAN RIFT- ± + ,.-..;
NW
FIRST ORDER SANTA VICTORrA BASIN

PAL£RMO- SALINAS GRANDE$ UPLIFT
SW AGUILAR CAJAS NE
-THIRD ORDEl PADRIOC BASIN-
A p
RM
r-/
.rJ
b) '(} TREMADOCIAN-( POST IRUYIC TENSIONAL PHASE)
- -- - - - - - - - MESON GROUP BASIN - - - - - - - - - - -
sw CAJAS NE
I
.. . ........ . . .·.·.·.·.·.·.·: ..
0) MIDDLE CAMBRIAN - ( PRE- IRUYIC DIASTROPHIC PHASE)
Fig. 4. Idealized evolutionary pattern of major genetic characteristics of the El Aguilar stratiform
Pb-Zn orebodies
El Aguilar Mine 173
phased mineral zones. In early work, Angelleli (1971) hypothesized Paleozoic

volcanic sources, but Guandacolic volcanic or pyroclastic rocks are unknown in
the Tremadocian profiles of the Sierra de Aguilar district. Only since Middle
Arenigian, with the Guandacolic movements, volcanic rocks have been widely
recognized in the deep marine facies ofthe major Ordovician basin (Schwab 1971;
Coira 1973; Aceiiolaza and Toselli 1984).
Most, if not all, of the major metal constituents within the hydrothermal fluids
were most likely leached from the older provenance areas and the Padrioc basin
sedimentary pile and transported to the vent area by migrating interstitial fluids.
Lead and sulfur isotope data are consistent with an exogenetic fractionation
model. Sulfur may have been derived from seawater sulfate with reduction both
in the sediment pile and in the brine pool. Additionally, barite from other Sierra
de Aguilar Pb-Zn deposits, outside the El Aguilar Mine, show high radiogenic
strontium content, with values significantly different from Lower Paleozoic
seawater values. These 87 Sr/ 86Sr ratios are consistent with Ordovician volcanic
data. Also, the iron and manganese content in the ore, typically present in
hydrothermal halos assumed to be in connection with vent locations, may be
related to Tremadocian endogenous sources.
Contrasting with the exhalative model, boron, fluorine, beryllium, and
molybdenum may be related to metasomatic and metamorphic events from the
Cretaceous granitic intrusions. Late Cenozoic tectonic phenomena have modified
the Aguilar area to the present panorama. Faulting and folding from major An-
dean movements have deformed the orebodies. A pervasive silicification with
minor iron-manganese alteration, and oil migrations are localized spatially to
unequivocal post-Cretaceous structures.
Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge a great debt to Prof. Dr. G. C. Amstutz for inviting us
to participate in this book. We thank the Compaflia Minera Aguilar S.A. for permission to publish
this paper. Numerous CMASA geologists and technicians working over five decades have contributed
directly or indirectly to the data and interpretations presented here. However, particular mention must
be made of our colleague J. K. Duff, ex-chief CMASA Geology Department, with whom we have had
very interesting discussions and an extensive exchange of ideas. Our dear friends Prof. Dr. A. Aparicio
Y. and J. G. Viramonte provided us with electron microprobe and petrochemical analyses. We thank
R. Dominguez for providing invaluable help in making the high quality polished sections of the ore
samples. Our colleagues J. R. Husman and M.G. Shaw are thanked for critically reviewing English
drafts of the manuscript, greatly improving its clarity. Errors that remain are ours.
References
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Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba 1:57-94
Oolitic Stratabound Iron Ores in the Silurian
of Argentina and Bolivia
M.A. Boso 1 and C. R. MONALDI 2
1 Introduction
The ironstones of minette type cropping out at the Paleozoic sedimentary basin
of northwestern Argentina (Salta and Jujuy provinces) and their continuation in
Bolivian territory are hosted in Silurian rocks assigned to the Lipe6n Formation
(Argentina) and to the Kirusillas Formation (Bolivia).
2 Stratigraphy
The Silurian basin extends from southern Peru up to the Santiago del Estero sub-
surface, in northern Argentina (Fig. 1A).
In northern Argentina, Silurian outcrops are exposed in the Sub-Andean Sier-
ras: Cresta del Gallo, Puesto Viejo, Zapla, Santa Barbara, Centinela, Calilegua,
Caspala, and Zenta. In the Eastern Cordillera, however, the outcrops are more
reduced and they can be found in the Sierra de Santa Victoria (Fig. 1 B).
Several different names have been used to denominate the Silurian units in the
northwestern Argentinian stratigraphical sequence. For instance, the Zapla For-
mation (Mingramm and Russo 1972), considered as the fundamental unit of the
Silurian sedimentary cycle, is also known as the Horizonte Glacial de Zapla
(Schlagintweit 1943), Serie 7 (Nieniewski and Wleklinski 1950), or as the
Mecoyita Formation (Turner 1960). Furthermore, the Lipe6n Formation (Turner
1960), which lies just over the latter, is also known as Yellowish Sandstones
(Angelelli 1946), Cachipunco Formation (Padula et al. 1967), or Unchime Forma-
tion (Ruiz Huidobro 1955).
The stratigraphic definition of the Silurian-Devonian sequence of north-
western Argentina is mainly due to the works of Bonarelli (1921), Feruglio (1931),
Hagermann (1933, 1936), Schlagintweit (1937, 1943), and Nieniewski and
Wleklinski (1950). Works by Padula and Mingramm (1963), Padula et al (1967),
Mingramm and Russo (1972), and Amos (1972) extended the stratigraphic
knowledge of the Silurian-Devonian sequence; Turner (1960) defined the
stratigraphy of northern Argentina, the part bordering Bolivia.
In almost all the profiles already known, the basement of the Silurian units
is formed by sandstones and quartzites of the Centinela Formation (Upper Or-
1 Universidad Nacional de Salta, Argentina

2 Universidad Nacional de Salta, Conicet, Argentina

176 M. A. Boso and C. R. Monaldi
65° N.
I
B 0 L v A
220
I
I oAr
'''
I
' ..... ,
J
,J (
I
' 1
I ~-
l,\
..
I
I
I
I
"·\
l
'' ·~ J
r
' \,, 0
%
'·t
I
l
'
I N A
l.()Okm 30'
0
0: "' ', '
I I
'
I ,
'
I
.
I
10 20 lO '"'
6 0
Oolitic Stratabound Iron Ores in the Silurian of Argentina and Bolivia 177
Table 1. Correlation of upper Ordovician and Silurian formations in northern Argentina and south-
ern Bolivia
System Stage Northern Argentina Southern Bolivia
Sub-Andean sierras Eastern Cordillera
Silurian Ludlov. Wenlock Cachipunco Lipe6n Formation Kirusillas

Llandov Formation Formation
Ordovician Ashgill. Zapla Formation Zapla Formation Cancaiiiri
Formation
dovician). The unconformity which separates them is considered to be of Late Or-

dovician to early Silurian age (Ocloyic Phase); the latter, together with the Guan-
dacol Phase, modeled the late Ordovician Sub-Andean basin (Salfity et al. 1982).
Monaldi and Boso (1986), based on the findings of the trilobites within the
upper part of the Zapla Formation, assign to it an upper Ashgillian age, and
postulate that the diastrophic Ocloyic phase occurred in Late Ordovician times.
In Bolivia, the Lower Silurian strata were called Cancafiari Greywacke
(Turneaure 1935). Rivas and Carrasco (1968) formally established the Cancafiari
Formation, although the name Sacta Formation is also used in some places in
middle-south Bolivia (Branisa et al. 1972).
The Cancafiari Formation normally lies in conformity over an older layer
assigned to the Ordovician, locally with a low-angle unconformity. Near the
Argentinian-Bolivian border it overlies gray sandstones of the Santa Rosita For-
mation (Lower Ordovician). Towards the north, the Cancafiari Formation covers
younger layers, and near Thrija it lies over Caradocian beds (Crowell et al. 1980).
The Cancafiari Formation is conformity covered by predominantly pelitic and
fine sandy sedimentary rocks belonging to the Kirusillas Formation (Ahlfeld and
Branisa 1960), or its stratigraphic equivalents the Huanuni, Lipeon, and
Llallagua Formations. The correlation of Upper Ordovician and Silurian forma-
tions in northern Argentina and southern Bolivia is shown in Thble 1.
3 Ironstone Beds
Knowledge of Silurian iron-bearing basins in northwest Argentina is much larger
than of the Bolivian territory. In Argentina, deposits are being mined in the Sierra
Fig. 1. A Location map showing the distribution of the Silurian marine basin. a Paleogeographic
boundaries of the basin; b positive areas; c ferriferous deposits. Ar Arequipa; LP La Paz; SC Santa
Cruz; An Antofagasta; S Salta; TThcuman; As Asunci6n; LTTiticaca Lake. B Location map showing
the distribution of the Silurian outcrops in northern Argentina. I Silurian outcrops; 2 mine; 3 Silurian
sections surveyed: I Corral de Piedras river; 2 Zanj6n streams; 3 Las Capillas river; 4 Los Tomates
stream (9 de Octubre Mine); 5 Garrapatal stream; 6 Los Leones ravine (Puesto Viejo Mine); 7 Las Pir-
cas brook; 8 Pedregoso brook; 9 Unchime area (Unchime Mine); IO Paja Colorada brook
178 M.A. Boso and C. R. Monaldi
de Zapla (9 de Octubre mine) and at Sierra de Puesto Viejo (Puesto Viejo mine)
(Fig. 1 B).
Several researchers have, more or less deeply, studied the southern section of
the iron-bearing basin in northwest Argentina, including Angelelli (1940, 1946),
Bellmann and Chomnales ( 1960), Bellmann ( 1962), Rayces ( 1965), Mauri ( 1967),
Pages (1971), and Bossi and Viramonte (1975). However, there are very few
references to the northern section lying between San Francisco river and the Boli-
vian border. Nessossi (1953) and Thrner (1960) have proved the continuity of the
iron-bearing basin into the Sierra de Santa Victoria.
The economic importance of these iron-bearing deposits in northwest Argen-
tina is shown by the fact that there is a mineral reserve estimated at 826 million
tons (Pages 1971).
According to their metallogenic aspects, these deposits have been grouped in
the First Metallogenic Epoch (Upper Precambrian-Paleozoic) (Angelelli and Fer-
mindez Lima 1980; Sureda et al. 1986); they also belong to the Sedimentary Iron
Province (Chomnales 1978; Sureda and Galliski 1986).
Boso and Monaldi (1987) are presently conducting investigations on the
stratigraphy and sedimentology of these deposits in the Sub-Andean section in
north Argentina.
In Bolivia, the published literature includes only some references to the
presence of iron-bearing beds. Branisa et al. (1972) mention that the Sacta Forma-
tion has two hematite sequence layers in the southern part of the country.
Ayaviri (1969) describes a stratigraphic sequence very similar to that of the
Sierra de Santa Victoria, in Argentina. Therefore, it can be perfectly correlated
from the lithostratigraphic point of view. Castafios and Rodrigo (1978) indicate
that in Sucre and Thrija, some important iron-bearing beds have been detected,
although their economical relevance has not yet been established. Antelo (1978)
points out that in Jarcas-Negra Muerta, the Cancafiari Formation roof shows a
significant hematitic layer.
The descriptions and characteristics of the ironstone beds that follow refer to
the southern area, i.e., the Argentinian basin.
3.1 Locations of Ironstone Beds
The oolitic iron beds in the southern part of the ferriferous basin frequently con-
sist of two mantos or horizons, although in some sequences a third one has been
recognized (Sierra de Zapla and Sierra de Puesto Viejo).
It is interesting to point out that besides the ironstones, other sedimentary
iron-bearing occurrences also exist; they are located in Devonian sediments and
even in the Lipe6n Formation. However, as they occur as lenses and concretions,
they lack any economical value.
As a result of the fact that these deposits have a planar geometry, with hun-
dreds of kilometers in north-south direction and some dozens of kilometers in
east-west direction, they are subject to changes in thickness, mineralogy, sedimen-
tary structures, textures, facies, hematitic content, and positional variations in the
Silurian sequence.
Two iron-bearing mantos are normally found in the Sierra de Zapla. The Man-
to I maintains a basal position in the sequence, it lies directly over sediments of
the Zapla Formation, or is separated from it by fine- and medium-grained wacky
sandstones (laminated or massive, yellow greenish, quite micaceous), with a maxi-
mum thickness of 2.25 m, very occasionally separated by thin layers of con-
glomeratic sandstones (Zanj6n and Tomates streams), and quite exceptionally by
a 0.40 m rhyolite layer (Garrapatal stream).
The thickness of the mantos varies between 0.70 m (Las Capillas river, inferior
stream) and 3.60 m (Corral de Piedras river).
Manto II is placed between 8 and 25 m above Manto I. Between them occur
fine wacky sandstones (chamositic, very micaceous), siltstones and sandy
micaceous shales, which are gray-greenish when fresh and yellowish when altered.
Manto III crops out only in the Corral de Piedras river. It is situated in the
roof of the Lipe6n Formation, and has a thickness of 3.50 m.
In the Sierra de Puesto Viejo three mantos were also identified. Manto I ap-
pears directly over the Zapla Formation. Sometimes it has in the middle a thin
lens of fine, yellowish, micaceous sandstones. This has been observed in several
exploitation benches at the Puesto Viejo Mine and the El Yuchan and Los Leones
ravines. Manto I is very variable - even at short distances - in thickness, number
of layers, and composition. Its thickness varies between 2.85 and 8 m.
Manto II is situated 30-70 mover Manto I, and its thickness ranges from 1.45
to 7 m (Nieniewski and Wleklinski 1950; Boso and Monaldi 1986).
Manto III is exposed only in the south-central section of the range; it occurs
at the roof of the Lipe6n Formation and exhibits a thickness of 3 m.
Two ferriferous mantos were recognized in the Sierra de Santa Barbara. They are
hosted by the Cachipunco Formation, the unit equivalent to the Lipe6n Formation.
The position of Manto I in the sequence varies considerably. Thus, in the northern
end of the range it is situated between 100 and 150m above the roof of the Zapla
Formation (Bellmann 1962) its thickness being 3.20 m at Las Pircas brook. In the
central part of the range, however, it lies directly over the Zapla Formation and its
thickness varies between 2.58 and 4.80 m (Rayces 1965). In the southern end of the
range (Pedregoso brook) Manto I is located 10m from the Lipe6n Formation base,
and exhibits a thickness of 1.56 m (Boso and Monaldi 1986).
Manto II is stratigraphically situated from 30 to 290m above Manto I, depen-
ding on the area in the range; its thickness is also highly variable, between 0. 70
and 8.45 m (Mauri 1967).
In the Sierra Cresta del Gallo, the iron-bearing outcrops are restricted to the
Unchime area. Two ferriferous beds enclosed within the Unchime Formation
(Ruiz Huidobro 1955) were verified there. Manto I lies over diamictites of the
Zapla Formation (El Tunal and Cuerito brooks), where its thickness ranges be-
tween 4 and 10 m.
Manto II is stratigraphically situated between 50 and 160 m above Manto I; its
thickness ranges between 1.90 and 6 m.
The surveys performed in the Sierra del Centinela (Paja Colorada and Los
Rastros brooks) lead us to suppose that the ironstone beds are not as well
developed as in the ranges situated towards the west, where the beds constitute
key horizones.
In the Paja Colorada brook, a level of irregular thickness has been found; it
reaches a maximum of 1 m at the base of the Lipe6n Formation.
3.2 Petrography of the Ironstone Beds
Both megascopic and microscopic analysis of rocks belonging to the ironstone

horizons establish that petrographic compositions are highly variable even within
individual strata, specially when the strata contain two or more iron-bearing
minerals, for example chamosite laminae and lenses interbedded between highly
hematitic strata; similarly, siderite concretions lamina and lenses appear
associated with chamosite and hematite.
Each ferriferous horizon is composed of a variable number of strata from 1 to
20. The strata are generally compact, tabular, lenticular, and in certain places they
are large- and medium-scale troughs, mainly of medium thickness, although in
some cases thin and thick strata are well represented. The contacts among hematitic
strata are sharp and irregular in shape when hematitic strata interstratify with
chamosites and quartzites. Flaser lamination, although not well developed, is a fre-
quent feature. A similar process occurs with massive strata. In some places, hollow
concretions and bioturbations parallel to the stratification can be observed.
Table 2. Lithologic types
Components a Lithologic types b
2 3 4 6 7 10 12 14 18
Extrabasin
Quartz 20 30 60 70 35 60 60 30 70
Feldspars 0 0 1 2 1 7 3 1 1
Muscovite 10 5 5 5 3 15 10 3 15
Biotite 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 7 1
Zircon 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Turmaline 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
Apatite 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Intrabasin
Chamosite grains 10 5 10 3 20 35 10 20 3
Peloids 80 0 35 0 60 3 1 3 1
Ooliths 2 1 5 0 5 1 0 1 0
Intraclasts 1 0 1 3 1 3 0 1
Phosphate grains 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1
Fossils, bioclasts 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
Hematite 10 50 10 30 10 15 5 1 5
Siderite 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 15 25
Matrix 10 0 10 30 15 40 70 45 10
a The total percent is frequently over 100, because data represent maxi-
mum values based upon different thin sections
b Lithologic types refer to Fig. 3: (2) Sandy peloidal hematite; (3) sandy
hematite; (4) hematitic sandstone; (6) hematitic wacke; (7) peloidal
hematitic wacke; (10) chamositic wacke; (12) sandy silt-wacke; (14)
chamositic claystone; (18) sideritic silt-arenite
Fig. 2. a Lithologic type 2. Sandy peloidal hematite. Hematitic peloids surrounded by quartz,
muscovite and hematitic cement. b Lithologic type 3. Sandy hematite. Rounded quartz grains,
lamellas of muscovite and hematitic cement. c Quartz grains (red and white layers), muscovite sheets,
hematitic peloids and hematitic cement. d Peloidal grains, multilayer oolites with replacement by
microcrystalline quartz. Matrix composed of a mixture of chamosite clay and quartz particles
The color ranges from grayish red, blackish red with a purple tint for the
highly hematitic strata, to reddish green for the chamositic strata.
In the hematitic strata, the texture is generally sandy, peloidal, or oolitic. It is
pelitic or medium sandy in the chamositic, sideritic, and barren beds.
Microscopic examination of about 200 thin sections illustrates an association
of intra- and extrabasin materials. Among the extrabasin components, quartz,
feldspar, muscovite, biotite, zircon, turmaline, opaque mineral, apatite, and
epidote can be mentioned.
The intrabasin components are chamosite, peloids, oolite, intraclast chamositic
quartz, phosphate grains, hematite, siderite, limonite, goethite, pyrite, chert,
chalcedony and calcite. The spectrum of intrabasin components of the rock fabric
is completed by scarce fragments of phosphatic shells, which show different
degrees of replacement of microcrystalline quartz. Graptolites have also been
found (Boso et al. 1983; Ortega et al. 1984).
The extrabasin and intrabasin components listed are associated in different
ways to a variable range of lithologic types, some of which are summarized in
Thble 2. These lithologic types grade into one another; they co-exist within the
same stratum, and can be distinguished or individualized by the relative abun-
dance of the most frequent components - expressed in percentages - or by the
textural variations of the matrix and the cement. The main lithologic types, from
the economical point of view, are shown in Fig. 2 (a, b, c, and d).
It is evident that all the lithologic types are a response to the sedimentary pro-
cesses which were at work in the depositional basins, and also to the source area
of the material, although evidently with a smaller incidence than that mentioned
before.
4 Diagenesis of the Ironstone Beds

One of the diagenetic processes found in the ironstone beds is the replacement
of Fe silicate by Fe oxide (hematitization), which takes place in both the fabric
elements and the matrix and cement ones. Of all the processes involved,
diagenesis proves to be the most important event concerning the ore genesis.
Hematitization may be total or partial, and is represented by black-blue and
scarlet-red hematite. When hematitization is total, it is possible to see quartz
grains with corroded contours, red- and white-layered (Fig. 2c) and muscovite
lamellae and plates with corroded contours and mica sheets swollen by the
hematite penetration. In general, the lithologic types which show total hematitiza-
tion constitute in-trough criss-crossed and tangential strata; they have medium to
coarse sand texture, they are oolitic (Fig. 2d) and peloidal (Fig. 2a), dark red-col-
ored, and with high grade, between 35 and 50o/o of hematite content (Fig. 3).
When hematitization is partial, small lenses, irregular lamellae and dark green
mottles (in the red hematitic sandstones) are seen within the outcrops. It is ob-
vious that the iron grades depend on the degree of hematitization supported by
the components in the deposit.
The replacement of the Fe silicates by hematite evidently takes place with
migration of the silica and fast authigenic precipitation afterwards. This is proved
"li
STRUCM. lEX LITHJLI);;Y Fi
10
,o . 0 0
,o . ~
' 1 0 0 · ·0
CD 0
0
o· o
0
0
5 18
o . ,o .'
''
0
o. 0 .0
0 0
~ §J DDEZI§BB!2~BB
a bed e f g h
L 1 j k l
Fig. 3. Typical sections at Puesto Viejo mine, Zapla mine and Pedregosa Brook. Lithologic types refer
to Thble I. I Puesto Viejo mine; 2 Zapla, 9 de Octubre Mine; 3 Pedregosa Brook; a Cross-bedding;
b lamination; c massive bedding; d fine-grained quartz; e coarse-grained quartz; f intraclasts;
g peloids; h chamosite grains; i shale, siltstone; j bioturbation; k oxidized siderite; I siderite. Textural
scale: I Claystone; 2 siltstone, shale; 3 fine sandstone; 4 medium sandstone; 5 coarse sandstone; (for
lithologic types see Table 2)
by examining fragments of phosphatic shell, either with their corroded contours,

or completely or partially replaced by quartz; this is the case also in hematitic
oolites (Fig. 2d), with alternating layers of hematite and microcrystalline quartz.
In many samples, quartz grains with minor overgrowths were observed. In some
thin sections, several rounded quartz grains have been cemented so to form a
quartzite patch. Spatic quartz crowns and the same type of envelopes surrounding
the detrital and peloidal grains show the migration of the silica out of the silicates
and its subsequent authigenic precipitation.
In the northern and eastern area of the southern part of the ferriferous basin,
there is sideritization of grains, matrix, and cement. This replacement is ac-
complished by microcrystalline siderite in minute crumbs; both forms of the
siderite show variable oxidation, from incipient to total. This diagenetic replace-
ment is well confirmed by examining the incrustating texture of the siderite ce-
ment in the contours of the oolites of chamosite and of other grains such as
quartz and plagioclases.
Another process is chamosi~ization. This is a heterogeneous process, which oc-
curs in different textures and compound grains. This is proven by the presence of
quartz grains, plagioclase, and some elements of the matrix corroded by
chamosite. It is most evident when peloids occur as nucleus in surficial oolites,
of which the enveloping layer is chamosite without oxidation.
It seems that chamosite and silica mutually replace each other. This is demon-
strated by the fact that chamosite grains, oolites of chamosite, and chamosite
clay from the matrix appear replaced by cherty microcrystalline silica and chalce-
dony.
5 Origin of the Iron-Bearing Stratabound Deposits

A marine littoral origin is postulated for the iron-bearing stratabound deposits
occurring in northwestern Argentina and southern Bolivia. Textural and struc-
tural features, lithologic characteristics, paleogeographic distribution, and bio-
stratigraphic associations support the proposed genetic model. The marine -
near shoreline - character is proven by the abundant fossil fauna of trilobites
graptolites, brachiopods, tentaculitids, and others, all found in the Lipe6n Forma-
tion, and more specifically by Calymene angelelli and Pseudoclimacograptus pre-
sent at Manto I of the Puesto Viejo mine.
It is proposed that the iron-bearing ore is formed by chemical precipitation of
chamositic mud in littoral troughs. Iron hydroxides and bicarbonates, transported
in solution from the continent, react in a reducing environment with the colloidal
argillaceous material producing chamosite, which appears mixed with silty quartz
and micas (chamositic mud). This mixture, still in plastic state, is removed by
marine currents and swells, which break it apart and rework it, forming in-
traclasts, ooliths, and chamosite grains. These components are affected by dif-
ferent grades of oxidation, depending on the energy of the basin. If the material
deposits in a low-energy environment, few textural and compositional changes are
seen in the resulting rocks. On the other hand, if the sediments are transported
and deposited in a high-energy environment, deep modifications in both matrix
and fabric elements are observed; stronger oxidation stages are detected in the
sedimentary rocks. This explains different facts such as variable oxidation grades
of chamosite grains, the occurrence of powdery hematite on the surface of quartz
grains, the existence of ooliths with altered rims of chamosite and hematite, etc.
Later, a new hematitization takes place as a result of emplacement in an oxi-
dant diagenetic environment. This finally is shown by the present characteristics
of the iron-bearing stratabound deposits.
Particular features in the morphology of the basin can play an important role
in the formation of the mineralogic variations of this type of ore deposits. Other
external factors, such as a tropical-subtropical climate, determines the high level
of iron being removed from the continent. This idea was already mentioned by
Valencio et al. (1971}, with whom the authors are in agreement.
Acknowledgments. The authors thank Prof. Dr. G. C. Amstutz and Prof. Dr. R. J. Sureda for the in-
vitation to participate in this book. We are also grateful to our colleague N. Rojas for the translation
of this chapter.
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The "La Helvecia" Pb, Zn, and Barite Deposit,
Argentina
A. BROUTKORB 1 and M. K. DE BROUTKORB 2
1 Introduction
The La Helvecia Mine (Brodtkorb and Brodtkorb 1980), contains stratabound
ores of lead, zinc, and barite emplaced in Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1).
It is located some 30 km west of Guandacol in the province of La Rioja, on the
western side of the Cerro Urcuschun, that has a slope of 30-40°W. This is coinci-
dent with the dip of the ore-bearing bed, sporadically exposing lead, zinc, and
barium minerals over a surface of 1 km2 (Fig. 2). This area was exploited for bar-
ite and for the secondary zinc minerals smithsonite and hemimorphite, from
1930-1960, without exploiting the primary sulfides. In La Helvecia mine there
is a 385-m exploration gallery, a vertical shaft and a cross-cut towards the west,
(Fig. 1).
The main host rock is the San Juan limestone of Middle Ordovician age, which
is paraconformably overlain by Volcan Formation sandstones of Carboniferous
age. Andesite dikes of Triassic age and a Miocene monzodioritic stock intruded
the area.
In the San Juan limestone there is other evidence of mineralizations to the
north and east over a distance of about 15 km, not yet explored in detail, such
as the prospects of El Llanito, Los Sapitos, El Ingenio, El Hoyo, and Ureal.
2 General Geology
The San Juan limestone crops out all along the Sierra de Urcuschun. Smaller out-
crops are found to the east of the La Helvecia Mine as a series of erosional win-
dows, partly controlled by the structure and surrounded by Carboniferous rocks.
Their lithologic characteristics differ from north to south. In the north the
rocks are a thick sequence of yellowish brown massive limestones, up to 3 m thick,
interbedded with layers of black chert of irregular lamination. In the south the
massive limestone beds crop out and also a member of limestones and dolomites
with thin beds of 5-10 em in thickness, intercalated with beds of clay.
The sedimentary environment of these limestones ranges from a basin facies
to a platform facies. This would indicate a progressive decrease in depth towards
1 Direcci6n Nacional de Mineria y Geologia Av. Santa Fe 1548-1060 Buenos Aires, Argentina
2 Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas Paso 258-9A, 1640 Martinez, Argentina

L. Fontbote, G.C. Amstutz, M. Cardozo,
188 A. Brodtkorb and M. K. de Brodtkorb
0 0
ARG~TIN(
•.
"'P
N
... ....
v v
v v
v v
v
v v
v
v v
v 5J Triassic vatconic
v v r:-;1 Panoccin Fm
v v L.:..!.J Carboniferou-; _
v v
v v
v v
0 Vokcin Fm.Carboniflorous
v v • ~Son Juan Fm Ordovician
v vv • ~Mineralized areas
v
,IJ Oikes .
to Gu an doc oI
/ Foul~.
.,? Roads
E ,/Creek.
SECT ION A- B ~::: Under ground work""JS
0 100 200m
Fig. 1. Geologic map of La Helvecia mine area
the top of the San Juan limestone in this region, which is tentatively explained
by a gradual regression of the Ordovician sea.
The Volcan Formation lies unconformably over several Ordovician deposits. The
Upper Member records a short period of coastal marine sedimentation, which by
gradual transition passes into the continental environment of the continental
Panacan Formation. The structure of the region is characterized by a succession
of southerly-trending fault blocks, with a tilt of 10-25 °W. Some important
The "La Helvecia" Pb, Zn, and Barite Deposit, Argentina 189
Fig. 2. View of Cerro Urcuschun slope and the mining area
subparallel fractures possibly result from the influence of basement structures

that also may be responsible for the possible structural control of the mon-
zodiorite intrusion of the Cerro Urcuschun.
3 Lithology of the Zone Investigated

The different lithologic types found in the mine working and on the surface have
been grouped as follows:
Type 1 - Dark gray, fine-grained massive limestone: Oligoterrigenous
microsubsparite (the typical rock of the San Juan limestone). The predominant
elements in the limestones are the orthochemical compounds micrite and
subsparite. The allochemical elements are not abundant, and organic remains are
very scarce. There is some clay material intimately bound to the micrite.
Type 2 - Brecciated conglomerate arenites and lithic breccious conglomerate.
The particles range from coarse gravel to coarse sand; they are angular, and are
composed of silicified limestone and chert. The matrix of these breccia conglom-
erates is composed of fine to silt-sized quartz. These rocks are important because
Fig. 3. Lithic breccious conglom-

erate with chert clasts. Fine galena
subparallel banding gives a strati-
fied appearance
Fig. 4. Lithic breccious conglom-

erate with colloform precipitates
of sphalerite with syneretical tex-
ture
Fig. 5. Load cast of a chert clast in a PbS mud,

now massive galena, within the lithic breccious
conglomerate
they contain the main synsedimentary primary sulphide mineralization and in

them load casts and deformation structures are observed (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). They
may be clearly observed in the exploration gallery.
Galena, sphalerite, and pyrite aggregates and thin veinlets are found, produc-
ing an irregular and subparallel banding that gives a stratified appearance (Fig. 3).
Colloform sphalerite (schalenblende Fig. 4) and massive galena ores (Fig. 5) are
frequent.
Type 3 - Calcitic breccia conglomerates. The fragments originate from the
massive fine-grained limestone (microsubsparites) of the San Juan Limestone.
The cementing material is composed mainly of sparitic and granosparitic calcite,
and very few grains of quartz. It is believed that it is product of surficial
karstification of the limestones.
The "La Helvecia" Pb, Zn, and Barite Deposit, Argentina 191
Type 4 - Yellowish gray sandstones: quartz and mica-quartz-bearing arenites

and wackes (Volcan Formation).
4 Types of Mineralization
In the study area, there are different types of mineralization associated with geo-
logic events and in close relation to geomorphologic and climatic processes. They
have been divided into primary (a, b, and c), remobilized (d) and secondary (e).
a) The first manifestation of mineralization in a chronologie sense (type a) is
present in the micrites of the San Juan limestone. It is composed of generally fine
disseminated grains, that are often found aligned along the bedding and consist
of galena, sphalerite and minor chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, and barite. They often
occur as nodules or rosaries. This mineralization was observed in the cross-cut at
level - 30 that goes through 50 m of micrite.
b) The second type of mineralization (type b) is clearly observed in the explora-
tion gallery, between 386 and 341m, limited by two faults. The primary textures
are load casts and colloform sphalerite. The first are located in conglomeratic
arenites.
c) The third type of mineralization (type c) is common. It appears in the un-
conformity between the San Juan and Volcan Formations; to be more precise, be-
tween the calcitic breccia conglomerates and the sandstone. The mineralization
consists fundamentally of coarse-grained spatic barite, surrounded by some nod-
ules of galena and scarce sphalerite. The barite orebodies are tabular and concor-
dant with the sediments of the floor and top, and up to 30 m long and 2 m thick.
These orebodies do not always end suddenly along the unconformity, but rather
narrow out as the mineral grains are finer and more sporadic, increasing later in
size to form another body of larger dimensions. The galena is altered on the sur-
face to cerussite, which preserves it from further oxidation. Microscopic-sized
laths and fine stringers of barite were also found in the overlying sandstones from
the Volcan Formation.
d) On the southern slope of the Cerro Urcuschun, which falls abruptly towards
the Guandacol river, and whose limestone beds have been disturbed by the intru-
sive, there are veins and ore shoots of barite unconformable with the San Juan
limestone, not far from the overlying sandstone. It is understood that these discor-
dant veins were produced by remobilization.
e) Finally, the secondary mineralization must be mentioned and, which, al-
though not of genetic interest, has been up to the present the main mineralization
exploited.
5 Genetic Remarks
It is interesting to mention the paper by Assereto et al. (1976) that relates many
Pb, Zn, and barite deposits in Italy with emergent surfaces, considering the stages
of emergence as important for the concentration of minerals.
Evaluation of the identifiable structures and textures within the La Helvecia

district leads the following evidence. The type a mineralization (in micrites) is
stratiform, while the mineralization of type b is stratabound, limited to a "defined
lithologic facies". In this mineralization stage, there are geopetal textures which
give evidence of the deformation of sulfide-bearing muds, and also a certain
rhythm of the sulfides within the wackes and arenites. There are also botryoidal
textures of sphalerite, and although they are not exclusive indicators of a sedimen-
tary origin, their arrangement within the beds and their synergetical texture indi-
cate it. The mineralization of type c is located in direct relation to the unconfor-
mity between the limestones of the San Juan and the sandstones of the upper
member of the Volcan Formation. Diagenetic effects are suggested by the notable
development of the barite grains and also the preferential trend of the galena nod-
ules to locate themselves in the periphery of the barite crystals. In between the
Ordovician and the Carboniferous sedimentation, the relief was filled by the lithic
and calcilitic conglomerates, arenites, and wackes proceeding from the emergent
areas. During the filling of the lowlands, the positive relief continued to be subject
to karstic type conditions forming calcitic breccias.
The origin of the ions and the precipitation processes of the minerals in these
deposits are not clearly known up to now. Isotopic studies are in progress. As in
similar ore deposits, precipitation of some minerals in euxinic, hypersaline envi-
ronments, or on account of the meeting of fresh and salt water is a possibility
for the deposition of cations which can be considered.
1\vo galena samples of type b and c were analyzed in the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey (Brodtkorb and Brodtkorb 1982) for lead isotopes. Doe (in this paper) calcu-
lated the ages with the Stacey-Kramers method and obtained the following results:
Sample
'IYPe b 380±80m.y. 360±80m.y.

Type c 400±80m.y. 390±80m.y.
This would mean that the main mineralizations occurred between Ordovician
and Carboniferous times, when the area became emergent, the calcitic breccia
conglomerates formed, and the brecciated conglomerates were deposited. Further
investigation is, however, required.
References
Assereto R, Brigo L, Brusca C, Omenetto P, Zuffardi P (1976) Italian ore mineral deposits related
to emersion surfaces, a summary. Min Deposita 11 pp 170-179 ·
Brodtkorb MK de, Brodtkorb A (1980) La Helvecia: a stratabound Pb-Zn barite deposit, Argentina.
Proc 5th IAGOD Symp 1979. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart pp 785-795
Brodtkorb MK de, Brodtkorb A (1982) Datos isot6picos de plomo de Ia mineralizaci6n de laMina
La Helvecia, prov. de La Rioja. Asoc Geol Arg Rev XXXVII (3):358-361
The Barite Deposits of Canota, Argentina
M. K. DE BRODTKORB, I. B. A. SCHALAMUK, S. AMETRANO, R. FERNANDEZ
and R. ETCHEVERRY 1
The Canota district represents an approximately 4-km-long belt which comprises

two mines, La Victoria and Pirucha, and two prospects, Don Manuel and Ramon-
cito (Fig. 1). The area ist located about 37 km north-northwest of the city of Men-
doza, (province of Mendoza, Argentina).
The geology of the area is composed of a series of flysch and distal platform
deposits of the Empozada (Ordovician) and Villavicencio (Ordovician-Devonian)
Formations (Etcheverry et al. 1983; Brodtkorb et al. in press). The Empozada For-
mation in the study area is made up of gray and black shales rich in organic mat-
ter, which locally have an intense bleaching produced by weathering. An abun-
dant fauna of graptolites confirms a Caradocian age for the shales. Stratigraphy
and composition suggest a reducing, low-energy marine platform environment.
The barite occurrences are arranged according to the bedding of the shales of this
formation.
Barite is present in this belt as nodules, small lenses, massive beds, and small
crystals disseminated through certain shale beds. The barite-bearing levels are
0.50 to several meters thick and are scattered throughout the sequence, alternating
with barren levels. The barite is dark gray to black in color and has densities from
3.8 to 4.15.
The nodular levels, in the area between the Don Manuel and Ramoncito occur-
rences, are the most common form of barite accompanied by small barite lenses
and beds bearing barite crystals. Conversely, massive barite beds, accompanied by
layers with less nodular barite are more important in the Pirucha and La Victoria
Mines.
The nodules present ellipsoidal to subspheroidal shapes with a length-
to-width-to-thickness ratio ranging from 1.25: 1 : 0.3 to 1.5: 1 : 0.8, the most fre-
quent length axis being 15 to 20 em. They present two different forms of internal
crystallization. The first (Fig. 2) shows a homogeneous crystallization in the
whole nodule with a grain size of 0.3 to 0.4 mm, whereas in the second form, the
crystal size increases up to 5 mm from the center to the marginal zones. Nodules
with such a varying growth present a rough external surface in contact with the
shale. This is followed by an outermost layer with small barite crystals in the shaly
matrix (Fig. 3). The amount of nodules in some beds is large enough to have two
or three nodules coalesced to form undulating pseudolenses (Fig. 4). The nodules
occur aligned along two planar directions and are conformable with the S1-planes
of the black shales' (Figs. 4 and 5).
1 INGEA, Universidad de La Plata, Calle 47 No. 522, 1900 La Plata, Argentina

194 M. K. de Brodtkorb et al.
MAP UNITS
0 Anuvium ~ VIllavicenciO Fm.(Ordovicion-Devonian)
~ Grovel terroces(Quoternary) ~ Empozodo Fm.lOrdavocoan )
~ Volconocs(Triassic-Tertiary)
Fig. 1. Geologic map of the Canota district
The name of small lenses is given to those geometric forms which are 5- 30 em
thick and 1- 8 m long. On the other hand, there are massive beds which are len-
ticular bodies 1 - 5 m thick and up to 15- 30 m long (Fig. 6). Mining exposed
three massive beds in the La Victoria and seven in the Pirucha mine. It is worth
mentioning that nodular barite levels occur at the bottom and top of massive beds
in a way similar to those of the Vide de Alba deposit, Spain (Moro Benito and
Arribas Moreno 1980).
Barite crystals occur in two different forms, as haloes surrounding barite nod-
ules of type 2, and disseminated within layers of shale 5-10 em thick, which al-
ternate with beds of barren shales.
Several theories for the origin of the barium in sedimentary sequences and the
mechanism of its precipitation are advocated. For deposits formed at distal plat-
forms somewhat connected to oceanic activity (corresponding to the previously
considered transfacies to the eugeosynclinal realm) or in proper oceanic environ-
The Barite Deposits of Canota, Argentina 195
Fig. 2. Nodules of the first

type
Fig. 3. Nodules of type 2

with a halo made up of
crystals
Fig. 4. Nodule concentra-

tion in the shales, showing
coalescence of two or three
nodules in the same places
196 M. K. de Brodtkorb et a!.
Fig. 5. Mining front of a

nodule-bearing layer
Fig. 6. Subvertical massive bed, La Victoria

Mine. On the left side, concordant nod-
ule-bearing layers
ments, the most probable source of barium is a submarine hydrothermal activity

such as the one known from oceanic rift systems. It is also probable that interac-
tion of ascending barium chloride solutions with sulfate-bearing intersticial
seawater, present in the neighborhood of the sediments, played an important role
in the precipitation of barite during ore formation.
Since the barite levels are stratabound, the barite-bearing beds define a real
sedimentary facies formed in a basin with heavy organic matter. It is proposed
The Barite Deposits of Canota, Argentina 197
that the deposition of the barite layers and nodules were syn- to early diagenetic
and the growth of the barite crystals occurred in a late diagenetic stage.
References
Brodtkorb de MK, Schalamuk IBA, Barbieri M, Puchelt H, Ametrano S, Fernandez R, Etcheverry
R (in press) Nodular barite deposits of Canota, Argentina. VII IAGOD Congr Lulea
Etcheverry R, Fernandez R, Ametrano S, Schalamuk IBA, Brodtkorb de MK (1983) El destrito
baritico de Canota, prov. de Mendoza. II. Congr Nac Geol Econ, San Juan Argentina 11:669-682
Moro Benito MC, Arribas Moreno A (1980) Procesos de sedimentaci6n y diagenesis en los yacimien-
tos sedimentarios de barita de Ia provincia de Zamora. Rev lnst Invest Geol Univ Barcelona
34:325-338
Massive Sulfides in the Greenstone Belt
An Overview
G. ALFARO and S. COLLAO 1
1 Introduction
The investigations done by the Instituto de Investigaciones Geol6gicas (former
Geological Survey of Chile) and the Department of Geosciences of the University
of Concepci6n during the last 10 years have shown that in the Coastal Range of
south-central Chile, between 38° and 42° south latitude, there are ore occurrences
related with a structurally dismembered ophiolitic complex assigned to the Paleo-
zoic (Frutos and Alfaro 1985, 1987) (Fig. 1). Within this ophiolite suite, there are
polymetallic massive sulfides interbedded with metabasites ("greenschists")
(Alfaro 1982, 1985a, b, 1986; Alfaro and Frutos 1988; Collao and Alfaro 1982,
this Vol.; Alfaro et al. 1983; Frutos and Alfaro 1985, 1987), which have been inter-
preted as volcanic-exhalative depositions formed on the oceanic bottom during
the Paleozoic. These ore occurrences are genetically similar to the Besshi-type de-
posits of Japan, characterized by their spatial relationship with tholeiitic volcanic
and volcaniclastic rocks.
2 Geologic Setting
The massive sulfide-bearing Paleozoic rocks of the southern Chile Coastal Range
correspond, tectonically, to the most internal (westernmost) part of an
eugeosynclinal realm developed during the Paleozoic tectonic cycle in the south-
western continental margin of South America. An extensive belt of ultramafic
rocks, serpentinized peridotites, and pillow-lavas intercalated in greenstones
(ophiolitic complex) appears mainly in the western part of the Coastal Range of
Arauco, Cautin, and Valdivia Provinces, in south-central Chile. This belt, affected
by a metamorphism not higher than greenschist facies, includes also metaquartz-
ites and chlorite-mica schist horizons and represents the most internal or proximal
position, perhaps tectonically related with an arc, in the Paleozoic System.
To the east weakly metamorphosed clastic sedimentary rocks occur. They form
the basement of the Cenozoic Volcanic Chain, near the Argentinian border. These
flyschoid and pelitic sequenes are in more distal or external position.
All these belts seem to correspond to three different cycles. The westernmost
one, the ore-bearing greenstone-ophiolitic belt, is the oldest, with a usually as-
sumed Ordovician-Silurian age. Herve et al. (this Vol.) present Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd
1 Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad de Concepcion, Casilla 3-C, Concepcion, Chile

200 G. Alfaro and S. Collao
E3 Outcrop• of Poleoto•c rocKs
PALEOZOIC FACIES DISTRIBUTION

~ Zone w 1fh predominance of meta_
bOIIIea,quOr1ZIIe& and miCO-
·~·
l
ICt'Uifl Meromorphllm t'lot hiq_
her than lt'le qreenach1tf foe •••
EZJ Zone "W ith predom•nonce of flyaa

) cho.d .. d•mentory
metomorpl'u1m
aer••• Weak
'\
Fig. 1. Geologic metallogenic characteristics in the southern Chile Coastal Range
(not conclusive) data which would be consistent with this age. The younger rocks
appear successively to the east, with a possible Devonian age for the clastic sedi-
mentary external belt.
Herve et al. (1976), Herve (1977), and Godoy (1979, 1986) have interpreted the
western belt of the greenstone-ophiolitic series ("Western Series") as a result of
oceanic crust accretion in an outer-arc position prism. Frutos and Alfaro (1985,
1987) agree with this idea only for some restricted melange rock series in the most
Massive Sulfides in the Greenstone Belt of South-Central Chile 201
western part of the belt, which are affected by high pressure metamorphism (blue-
schist facies), as for instance those described in the Pichilemu area (Herve et al.
1976). Frutos and Tobar (1975) and Frutos and Alfaro (1985) propose a paleosub-
duction zone trending to the east, which would be close and subparallel to the re-
cent coast line.
3 Geology of the Massive Sulfide Occurrences
The massive sulfides, composed mainly of pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and

sphalerite, are found as "mantas" lying condordantly with the stratification. The
host rocks are principally quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote schists ("greenschists"),
interbedded with albite-muscovite-epidote schists("grayschists").
The "greenschists" are considered to be metabasites produced by metamor-
phism of submarines tholeiitic basalts and pyroclastic rocks of tholeiitic affinity.
The "grayschists", based on their texture and chemical composition, are probably
metapelites.
Massive sulfide occurrences are known in Tirua, Casa de Piedra, Hueiialihuen,
Trovolhue, Piren, and Corral (Fig. 1 and Callao et al. this Vol.). They normally
form a stratiform sequence of beds or "mantas" (in Piren Alto, for instance, up
to 7 "mantas" were recognized, Schira et al. this Vol.), usually showing sharp
boundaries with the greenschists; the thickness ranges between 5 and 30 em. The
lateral extent is unknown because of insufficient exploration. The dip and strike
of the "mantas" coincide with the main penetrative-type schistosity. In spite of
the metamorphism and the tectonics affecting these rocks (at least four main fold-
ing phases Schira et al. this Vol), this feature can be interpreted as a relic primary
character. This disposition, well exposed in the Piren area, shows the sulfide bed
directly underlain by a grayschist strata (metapelites) and overlain by a greenschist
bed (metabasites).
In the northern part (Tirua), the main schistosity, also apparently coinciding
with a possible relic stratification, trends N 80° E/ 40°- 50° SE. There, it is affected
by decimetrical folds, with plunging N 60° E/ 1oo NE.
The main ore mineral is pyrite, followed by pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and
sphalerite. Subordinated chalcocite is found surrounding chalcopyrite grains. The
pyrite/chalcopyrite ratio is variable, but always less than 5/1. Chalcopyrite is more
abundant than sphalerite, but at some points of the Mina Vieja of Tirua, the ratio
chalcopyrite/sphalerite is approximately 1/2.
The gangue minerals are those common in the host rocks, that is, epidote,
quartz, and chlorite. They appear only in the upper and lower parts, where the
proportion of sulfides decreases.
4 Regional Geochemistry and Geophysics
From a geochemical point of view, the rocks which constitute the serpentinite belt
can be traced in the fluvial sediments by their high values of chromium, nickel,
' ....
I
' .
.
Cu co <• No
• >ti+ SSI
0 ~"' S$
"
Cl )11"2$
i• 2 S o X+.S
,.. " 0
'I
f
..
.. .
" " Temuco _,..-./
c:: "" flo"
Clltll __./
,... " \
)
I
0
I
0
•
..
0 " 0
f--'
0
)
<0 ' ~
I
I
\,..~
r
a_
)
(
\ I
I
.,. )
i\~
I
\ Fig. 2. Geochemical distribution of ele-

ments in sediments (factor analysis) (see
,.. ,. text)
and cobalt, demonstrating their original mafic character. The factor analyses of
the contents of trace elements in sediments (Cu, Ni, Cr, Fe, AI and Zn) is concor-
dant with the geologic observations (Alfaro 1980) (Fig. 2). Factor I (Cu-Mn-Co)
explains 76!1Jo of the variance and Factor II (Cr-Ni) 19%; this means that 95%
of the total variance of the system is explained by the two factors. The first of
these can represent the lithology and is distributed in zones in which the
greenschists crop out; the second represents chromium and nickel associated to
ultramafic rocks.
From a geophysical point of view, the regional manifestation of the ultramafic

belt is a sequence of magnetic anomalies (Fig. 1). Some of them do not show their
corresponding ultramafic outcrop.
5 Mineralogy and Geochemistry

of the Massive Sulfide Occurrences
The main sulfide composition is shown in Table 1. The analyses of composite sul-
fide concentrates from Piren and Tirua is indicated in Table 2. Table 1 indicates
that the cobalt values in pyrite are higher than in chalcopyrite and sphalerite, and
in general these values are higher than those from similar sulfide occurrences in
the world (i.e., the Besshi-type deposits). Other trace element contents, zinc, silver,
manganese, and cadmium in pyrite and chalcopyrite are low.
The zinc contents in sphalerite vary between 54.3 and 65.50Jo (Table 3). The
other trace elements can be considered to have normal values for this kind of sui-
Table 1. Microprobe analyses in representative ore samples
Element (OJo) Place
Piren (cp) Piren (py) Tinia (cp) Tirua (py) Huefialihuen (cp)
Fe 25.63 ± 0.13 33.19±0.22 25.75±0.10 32.67±0.13 25.45

Cu 29.93±0.11 n.d. 24.24±0.10 n.d. 24.52
Co 0.04±0.02 0.1 ±0.02 0.04±0.02 0.20±0.10 0.03
Ag 0.07±0.02 n.d. 0.12±0.06 n.d. 0.40
s 50.01 ±0.08 66.62±0.23 49.86±0.00 66.96±0.20 49.67
n 3 4 2 5 1
n.d., not- detected.
Table 2. Ore samples analyses from Piren and Tirua
Element Place
Piren Tirua
Cu (OJo) 0.96± 0.55 0.12± 0.10

Fe (OJo) 43.76± 6.38 19.00± 8.00
Mo
(ppm) 26.66± 15 8.0 ± 2
Ag
(ppm) 5.8 ± 2.5 27.0 ± 2
Zn
(ppm) 400 ±300 245 ±70
Au
(ppb) 50 ± 10 20 ±10
n 10 6
Table 3. Microprobe analyses of sphalerite grains in selected

samples of Piren, Tirua and Corral
Element (OJo) Place
Tirua Piren Corral
Fe 1.2±0.4 7.3±2.0 10.08±0.4

Zn 65.15±0.42 57.39±5.0 55.30±0.6
Mn <0.1 <0.1 0.2 ±0.0
Cd 0.76±0.1 0.16±0.1 0.4 ±0.1
s 33.0 ±0.1 32.0 ±2.0 33.0 ±0.1
n 7 17 10
fide occurrence (Mn: 0.1 to 0.20J'o and Cd: 0.1 to 0.90J'o). The low gold and silver
values are notable (Thbles 1 and 2); molybdenum is relatively high for this type
of sulfide deposit (to 48 ppm).
6 Chemistry of the Country Rock

Several papers are concerned with the chemistry of Paleozoic metamorphic base-
ment rocks; they include major and trace elements (Aguirre et al. 1972; Alfaro
1984; Gonza.J.es-Bonorino 1970; Herve 1977; Collao et al. 1979; Godoy 1979,
1986; Frutos and Alfaro 1985; Oyarzun et al. 1984). Recently, Alfaro and Frutos
(1988) report the chemical composition of the massive sulfides and of their coun-
try rocks (Thble 4).
Based on major elements, immobile trace elements, and using some known di-
agrams (e.g., Miyashiro 1973; Pearce 1975), the protolith of the metabasites has
been found to be similar to OFBB (Herve et al. 1976; Godoy 1979, 1986; Oyarzun
et al. 1984). Alfaro and Frutos (1988), using LIL-elements (Ba, Cs, Rb, K) con-
clude that the parental rocks are similar to low-K tholeiites from an island-arc en-
vironment (Table 4).
The REE patterns of metabasites show an enrichment of HREE and a negative
anomaly of Eu (Eu between 0.73 and 0.90) (Fig. 3). This phenomenom might be
explained by the destruction of the feldspar in the basalt during the interaction
between seawater and the rock or during metamorphism with formation of mus-
covite (sericite-type) and chlorite (Alfaro and Frutos 1988).
Preliminary analysis of the isotopic composition of sulfur in pyrite approxi-
mates the composition obtained for the Besshi deposits (o34S about+2.5) and
suggests a magmatic origin for the sulfur (Collao et al. this Vol.).
Table 4. Trace elements in metabasites (ppm)a ~
I"
MORBb VABb
"'
Sample element PR-7 Tl-3 A-10 HU-1 CP-2 G0-8 HU-4 LON-2 A-54 CP-22 ~-
en
Sc 34.31 57.06 52.84 41.71 32.07 54.66 47.00 35.00 14.00 34.00 40 15 E.
:::n
p.
Cr 244 310 291 282 162 297 164 326 251 201 300 50
Hf 1.07 2.04 1.33 1.10 4.22 1.95 2.28 3.90 713.00 5.27 2.1 44 ""'s·
Ba 61 68 68 62 61 65 83 72 448 65 11 60 ;.
Cs 0.59 1.78 1.74 0.59 0.57 1.71 0.15 0.15 13.00 0.94 16 16 "0
Rb 14.35 12.22 13.50 12.94 13.17 11.71 6.00 6.00 188.00 5.00 2.1 5.9 (il
Co 45.00 70.00 56.56 58.08 33.00 66.00 38.00 43.00 12.00 30.00 32 20 "::s
Ta 0.68 0.52 0.61 0.58 0.82 0.50 0.25 1.40 1.30 1.16 2 2.5 s::s
Sb n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.05 0.80 0.60 0.52 1.4 0.2
As n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.20 1.10 3.08 1.20 - 0.77 "t:C
Mn n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1994 1475 678 1109 1700 0.17 ~
0
....,
Zr n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.60 110 140 47 100 60
Th n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.12 11.00 13.70 5.39 0.18 0.14 en
0
s=
....
u n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.60 0.2 3.38 1.01 0.10 -
La 2.56 7.45 5.63 2.57 22.93 7.31 2.09 14.00 377.00 22.60 3.5 3.9 ::r
(")
Ce 5.37 14.72 13.13 7.09 48.35 14.10 35.49 30.23 76.40 46.76 12 7 :a"
Nd 0.23 0.22 0.27 0.25 0.68 0.22 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 11 6 a
Sm 1.90 3.71 3.05 2.04 6.18 3.56 2.26 500.00 7.50 6.16 39 2.2 (")
Eu 0.71 1.43 1.25 0.58 149.00 1.37 0.65 218.00 179.00 212.00 1.5 0.9 [
Dy n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 4.05 5.21 5.71 3.65 7.0 27 "
Yb 9.31 16.81 13.23 10.65 17.40 16.10 275 0.90 3.17 3.49 3 2
Lu 0.35 0.75 0.60 0.49 0.70 0.71 0.82 0.68 0.67 2.00 0.3 0.5
a n.a., Not analyzed.

b Conde (1981); MORB, mid-ocean ridge basalt; VAB, volcanic arc basalt.
~
100
50
T o <~
Go-a
A· IO
10
Hu-1 -
., PR · 7
'0
c
0
.c
u
'..
Q.
E
0 Semp l e Lc I Lu Eu •
(/)
A· 10 0 .9 1 0 .93
CP · 2· 1 3 . 16 0 73
Go · 8 1.0 093
Hu·l 0 .5 0 79
0 .5
Hu-4 0 25 073
PR -7 0 71 0 .90
Ti-3 0 .96 0 .9 1
• Erw; ErJ 1omp 11 I Eu enon d r1f 1
Lc Ce Sm Eu YbLu !Zl
Fig. 3. REE patterns for country rocks (greenschists) of massive sulfides (Alfaro and Frutos 1988)
7 Conclusions
The geologic, mineralogic, and geochemical characteristics of the massive sulfides
of the Coastal Range of southern Chile allow the following conclusions
They are polymetallic deposits consisting of iron, copper, and zinc, almost
without lead.
The age of the greenstone-ophiolitic belt, where the massive sulfides occur, is
probably Silurian-Devonian.
They are associated with metabasites inserted in a sequence of quartz-

albite-muscovite-chlorite schists of which the protolith corresponds to pelites
and graywackes.
There is no clear geochemical evidence about the geotectonic setting, (mid-
ocean ridge or volcanic arc environment) of the metabasites (mainly volcani-
clastic rocks of tholeiitic affinity). Preliminary REE patterns seem to show an
enrichment of HREE and a negative Eu anomaly. Schira et al. (this Vol.) state,
in contrast, a LREE-enrichment of an alkaline bimodal sequence at Piren
Alto.
The preliminary sulfur isotope composition shows an average of 34S + 2.5,
similar to the Besshi-type deposits of Japan.
Sphalerite shows a variable iron content from 1% to 10o/o. Pyrite shows a high
cobalt content (between 0.1% and 0.6% ). These values are higher than the
Besshi deposits of Japan. The gold grade in sulfides varies between less than
20 ppb to 0. 7 ppm. Silver and lead values are low.
The geologic and geochemical characteristics of the massive sulfides make it pos-
sible to compare them with the Besshi deposits of Japan and with those of the
Caledonian Mountains of Norway.
1\vo geotectonic models have been proposed for this area: (1) the existence of
an oceanic crust accreted onto the South American continent, or (2) the develop-
ment of an arc-trench associated with a paleo-zone of subduction, with
magmatism of mafic to ultramafic type, with development of marine-sedimentary
rocks, including pillow-lavas intercalated in this sequence, in the eugeosynclinal
zone of the system. Evidence clearly favoring one of these possibilities is lacking.
The presence of a belt of ultramafic serpentinized rocks with chromite (podiform
bodies), common in island arcs, and also found in the Coastal Range of south-
central Chile, could support the second possibility.
The quartz-banded deposits of magnetite and hematite that exist in the north-
ern part of the Coastal Range under study, and the manganese beds in the
Valdivia area (southern part of the Coastal Range studied) would represent the
distal and proximal phases in respect to the volcanic centers.
Acknowledgments. This research was done with the support of the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk and the
Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitat Heidelberg, F. R. Germany.
References
Aguirre L, Herve F, Godoy E (1972) Distribution of metamorphic facies in Chile: an outline.
Krystalinikum 9:7-19
Alfaro G (1980) Antecedentes preliminares sobre Ia composicion y genesis de las cromitas de La
Cabana (Cautin). Rev Geol Chile 11:29-41
Alfaro G (1982) Distribuci6n de Ia mineralizaci6n en Ia Cordillera de Ia Costa entre los 38 ° y 40° Lat.
Sur. III Congr Geol Chile, Concepci6n, pp E 38- E 59
Alfaro G (1984) Study on metallic ore deposits in central-south region of Chile. D. Sc. Thesis, Tohoku
Univ, Sendai, Japan, 268 p (unpublished)
Alfaro G ( 1985 a) La esfalerita como geobar6metro: antecedentes preliminares para los sulfuros
polimeta!icos del sur de Chile. IV Congr Geol Chile, Antofagasta 2 -14
Alfaro G (1985b) The massive sulfides of the Coastal Range, southern Chile: Preliminary antecedents.
Zbl Geol Palaont Thil I H9/10:1649-1661
Alfaro G (1986) Los sulfuros masivos de Ia Cordillera de la Costa del sur de Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyar-
znn R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia y Recursos Minerales de Chile. Univ Concepci6n, Chile, pp
637-652
Alfaro G, Frutos J (1988) Geochemistry of the massive sulfides and their country rocks from the
Coastal Range, southern Chile. Min Geol 38(1):1-13
Alfaro G, Frutos J, Collao S, Helle S (1983) Los sulfuros masivos de Ia Cordillera de Ia Costa:
Antecedentes preliminares. II Congr Arg Geol Econ, San Juan 1:337-360
Collao S, Alfaro G (1982) Mineralizaci6n sulfurada de hierro, cobre y zinc de Ia Cordillera de Ia Costa
del sur de Chile. Rev Geol Chile 15:41-47
Collao S, Montecinos P, Oviedo L, Oyarzun R (1979) Nuevos antecedentes estructurales en Ia serie
occidental de Ia Cordillera de Nahuelbuta, Chile. II. Congr Geol Chile 1:B 99- B 110
Collao S, Alfaro G, Hayashi K Banded iron formation and massive sulfide orebodies, south-central
Chile: geologic and isotopic aspects. This Vol., Chapter 15
Conde K (1981) Archean greenstone belts (Developments in Precambrian geology 3). Elsevier, Amster-
dam, 433 p
Frutos J, Alfaro G (1985) El complejo ofiolitico del ambito eugeosinclinal paleozoico en la Cordillera
de Ia Costa del Sur de Chile. IV Congr Geol Chile, Antofagasta 1:310-332
the southern Chile coastal cordillera. Geol Rundsch 76/2:343-356
Frutos J, Tobar A (1975) Evolution of the south-western continental margin of South America. lii
Int Gondwana Sym, Canberra, Australia (1973) 39:565-578
Godoy E (1979) Metabasitas del Basamento Metam6rfico, nuevos datos geoquimicos. II Congr Geol
Chi!, Arica, p E133-E144
Godoy E (1986) Die Entwicklung des Gondwana-Randes in Chile wahrend des Palaozoikums unter
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der geotektonischen Stellung der Metavulkanite. D. Sc. Thesis, Univ
Munster, 70 p (unpublished)
Gonzales-Bonorino F (1970) Series metam6rficas del Basamento Cristalino de Ia Cordillera de Ia Cos-
ta, Chile Central. Dpto Geol Univ Chile, Santiago 18, 68 p
Herve F ( 1977) Petrology of the crystalline basement of the Nahuelbuta mountains, south-central Chi-
le. Soc Promotion Sci, Tokyo, 51 p
Herve F, Godoy E, Del Campo M, Ojeda M (1976) Las metabasitas del basamento metamorfico de
Chile central y austral. I Congr Geol Chile, Santiago, pp F175-F187
Herve F, Pankhurst RJ, Brook M, Alfaro G, Frutos J, Miller H, Schira W, Amstutz GC Rb-Sr and
Sm-Nd data from some massive sulfide occurrences in the metamorphic basement of south-central
Chile. This Vol., pp 221-228
Miyashiro A (1973) The 'Ii"oodos ophiolite complex was probably formed in an island arc. Earth Plan-
et Sci Lett 19:218-224
Oyarzun R, Clemmey H, Collao S (1984) Chemical characteristics of the Nahuelbuta mountains band-
ed iron formation, southern-central Chile. I Jpn Assoc Min Petrol 79:146-156
Pearce JA (1975) Basalt geochemistry used to investigate past tectonic environments on Cyprus. Thc-
tonophysics 25:41-67
Schira W, Amstutz GC, Fontbote L The Piren Alto Cu-(Zn) massive sulfide occurrence in south-cen-
tral Chile - a Kieslager-type mineralization in a Paleozoic ensialic mature marginal basin setting,
This Vol., pp 229-251
Banded Iron Formation and Massive Sulfide Orebodies,
South-Central Chile:
Geologic and Isotopic Aspects
S. COLLAO\ G. ALFAR0 1 and K. HAYASHI 2
1 Introduction
Paleozoic base metal massive sulfide ores and the banded iron formation (BIF)
occur as scattered outcrops along a N-S belt in the Coastal range, South-Central
Chile. (Fig. 1).
The Mahuilque ores, as well as Pocuno, Relun, and La Cabana, represent the
only known BIF along the west coast of South America (Van Dorr 1973). The iron-
bearing mineral is mainly magnetite and its average grade ranges from 31 0,1o to 390,1o
Fe with reserves of over 100 million tons (Alvarez 1970). The sulfide minerals are
of limited occurrence and are characterized by a pyrite-chalcopyrite association.
Massive sulfide (MS) mineralizations, except for the Mina Vieja de Tirua, are
new deposits found between 1978 and 1982 (Collao et al. 1980; Collao and Alfaro
1982; Alfaro and Collao this Vol.). The more significant deposits are Mina Vieja
de Tirua and Piren Alto (Schira et al. this Vol). The main orebody in Mina Vieja
has a maximum thickness of 0.5 m and can be followed for 15m in the schistosity
direction. In Piren Alto, seven massive sulfide beds with thickness between 10 to
30 em are intercalated in the greenschists following the schistosity trend (Schira
et al. this Vol.). The other orebodies (Casa de Piedra, 'ftovolhue, and
Huefialihuen) are smaller. The ore is mainly composed of pyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, and pyrrhotite. The contents of main elements and some minor ele-
ments in the massive sulfide deposits (34 samples) are: 1.007o -1.80,1o Cu,
0.10,1o-6.20,1o Zn, 29-115ppm Ni, 14-78ppm Co, 6-92ppm Ag and
0.04-0.05 ppm Au (Alfaro et al. 1983). Due to the lack of exploration, it is impos-
sible to predict the lateral variations of the deposits, but it is referred to the defor-
mation model of massive sulfides presented in Schira et al. (this Vol). Although
mining exploration has not been recorded in this area, with the only exception of
the Mina Vieja de Tirua mined early in this century, the whole belt is considered
as a potential ore source. Based on petrologic and field relationships, both MS
and BIF have been interpreted as formed by volcanic-exhalative activity (Collao
and Alfaro 1982; Collao 1985; Oyarzun et al. 1986).
Sulfur isotopic analyses were carried out on pyrite from the banded iron de-
posits at Mahuilque (Figs. 1 and 3), and in massive sulfide orebodies (Mina Vieja
de Tirua, Casa de Piedra, Huefialihuen, Trovolhue, and Piren (Fig. 1).
1 Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad de Concepci6n, Casilla 3-C, Concepci6n, Chile

2 Institute of Mineralogy, Petrology, and Economic Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Tohoku University,
Sendai 980, Japan

210 S. Collao et a!.
73'00' 72'30'
38'0<1
JB'JO' CJ
~8
EZ:l 9
Q 1o
m
,,,
II
--
12
13
;
;- 14
39'00' '
15
~16
<::> 17
By Sanf i OOO Colloo

19 85
Ba•ed on
- M•r., • . F C1977 I
- Couoo. $ . Mon,•crno• . P
Ov•eiJQ, L and O~o,.aUn. R ,
11 -e&OI
39'30'
- Colloo,S OI'UI Alforo, Q
'18821
Fig. 1. Geologic map of the Nahuelbuta and Queule Mountains. Quaternary: 1 Sandstones, dunes;
2 Sandstones and gravels. Tertiary: 3 Sandstones, shales, sillstones, conglomerates belonging to the
4 Tubul Formation (marine); 5 Cholchol Formation (continental); and 6 Pupunahue Strata (continen-
tal). Triassic: 7 Sandstones and shales. Paleozoic: 8 Granitoids; 9 Metapelites and metagraywackes
(Eastern Unit); 10 micaschists, metacherts, Fe-bearing metacherts (Nahuelbuta Unit); 11 greenschists,
micaschists and metacherts (Tirua Unit); 12 serpentinite bodies; 13 fault; 14 inferred contact;
15 podiform Cr deposits; 16 orebodies, stratabound type; 17 placer deposits (Au)
2 Geologic Setting
The banded iron formation and massive sulfide deposits occur in Paleozoic meta-
morphic rocks belonging to the central southern part of the so-called crystalline
basement of Chile along the coastal cordillera (Fig. 1). The Paleozoic basement
Banded Iron Formation and Massive Sulfide Orebodies, South-Central Chile 211
is unconformably overlain by marine and continental rocks of Mesozoic and

Cenozoic ages (Fig. 1). Plutonic rocks of about 320 m.y. (Herve et al. 1976) crop
out toward the NE margin of the studied area.
Aguirre et al. (1972) divided the crystalline basement into two series (Western
and Eastern). The Eastern Series is characterized by an alternation of metapellites
and metagraywackes. Micaschists, quartzites, greenschists, metabasalts, and
serpentinites characterize the Western Series. Both series are affected by deforma-
tion and greenschist facies metamorphism. All the known mineralization (BIF
and MS) is included in the Western Series. In this chapter, this series has been sub-
divided into two units (Fig. 1). The Tinia Unit, constituted of green schists
(metabasalts}, micaschists, metacherts, and serpentinites, and the Nahuelbuta
Unit, characterized by micaschists, metacherts, and serpentinites.
2.1 The Tirua Unit and Massive Sulfide Mineralizations
The Tirua Unit is located in the western part of the region, steadily widening to-
ward the south, becoming 70 km wide near to Queule (Fig. 1). The unit is charac-
terized by greenschists (dominant) with intercalations of micaschists. Other
lithologic types are scarce occurrences of metacherts intercalated within the green
schists and a serpentinite body near Piren.
Based on the geochemistry, the greenschists have been interpreted as basic meta-
volcanic rocks of tholeiitic affinity (Godoy 1979; Herve 1977; Collao et al. 1980).
The Tirua Unit has been less tectonically deformed than the Nahuelbuta Unit.
The penetrative foliation (S 2), which is the main regional structural feature af-
fecting both units, has a general strike varying between ENE to NE, dipping
20-40 o toward SE.
Massive sulfide (Fe, Cu, Zn) mineralizations are particularly embedded in this
unit. These are lense-shaped bodies which crop out along a N-S fringe in the
Nahuelbuta and Queule Mountains. These mineralizations of massive sulfide ores
are found in five sectors of the coastal belt, southward of the village of Tirua.
From north to south these are: Tirua (Mina Vieja}, Casa de Piedra, Hueiialihuen,
Thovolhue, and Piren (Fig. 1). The Mina Vieja of Tirua is the largest deposit. In
this area the ores occur as a main lenticular body with four smaller beds having
a general structural attitude of N 80 ° E/ 40 ° SE. The lense-shaped body has a
maximum thickness of 0.5 m and can be followed for 15m in the S2 direction.
In Casa de Piedra and Hueiialihuen the mineralizations strike 32-36 ° E and
dip 21 -25 o SE. Further south the most important outcrops are located at Piren
Alto. The ores occur as tabular sheets (seven) having a general strike of N 40 o E
and dipping 33 ° SE. The ore lenses have a thickness varying between 0.1 to 0.3 m.
Laterally they cannot be followed due to covering of soil and vegetation.
The sulfides consist essentially of pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and pyr-
rhotite. The ratios of chalcopyrite to pyrite are very variable, but always greater
than 1: 5. Sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite appear intergranulary with re-
spect to the grains of pyrite and less frequently as inclusions in pyrite (Figs. 2, 3).
Sphalerite and pyrrhotite occur in less quantity than chalcopyrite, with the excep-
tion of Mina Vieja, where the relation is reversed.
212 S. Collao et al.
Fig. 2. Sphalerite (Sp)-pyrrhotite (Po)-chalcopyrite (Cp) of filling intergranular between pyrite (Py)
grains. Sample COM from Pineo Alto massive sulfide orebody
Py
Py
2li ,AI
Fig. 3. Inclusion of sphalerite (Sp)-chalcopyrite (Cp)-mackinawite (Ma)-Quartz (Qz) within pyrite

(Py) grain. Sample C-18 from Trovolhue massive sulfide orebody
Pyrite occurs as massive granular aggregates of euhedral and subhedral cubic

crystals. The sizes are variable but generally around 0.5 mm. Some of the pyrite
grains analyzed for sulfur isotopes present as traces small inclusions of sphalerite,
pyrrhotite, bornite, chalcopyrite, and mackinawite (Fig. 3).
Minor minerals are bornite, mackinawite, galena, arsenopyrite, molybdenite,
chalcocite, covellite, marcasite, and magnetite. Major gangue minerals include
albite, epidote, chlorite, and quartz. Minor gangue minerals include actinolite,
sphene, calcite, and rutile.
2.2 The Nahuelbuta Unit and Banded Iron Formation
The Nahuelbuta Unit rocks occupy most of the area studied (Fig. 1). The dominant
lithology is constituted of thick sequences of micaschists with metachert intercala-
tions. 1\vo types of metacherts can be recognized in this belt: nonmineralized
metacherts, and iron-bearing metacherts. Iron-bearing metacherts occur in the
northern part of the area studied (Pocuno, Mahuilque-Rehin, and La Cabana Ar-
eas). The iron-bearing metacherts of Mahuilque are the thickest ones (up to 72 m).
Thbular bodies of serpentinite striking in N-S direction are known in this unit
in the Pocuno and La Cabana areas (Fig. 1). Cr-Ni mineralization occurs associat-
ed with these serpentinites.
The penetrative foliation (S2) is the most conspicuous structural feature of
Nahuelbuta Unit. The strike of S2 is very variable, although N-S and less often
NE are the most frequent. The Srplanes have an undulating subhorizontal
trend.
In the Mahuilque-Rehin area, the banded iron formation comprises five zones.
From north to south they are: the Lisperguer, Mahuilque, Flores, Fernandez, and
Rehin areas (Fig. 4). The deposits consist of mineralized metachert horizons
which alternate with barren micaschists and metacherts following the general atti-
tude of Srfoliation.
The most important zone is Mahuilque, where Alvarez (1970) has described an
upper iron-bearing horizon of approximately 12 m thickness and a lower main ho-
rizon of variable thickness, reaching a maximum of 45 m. In the remaining zones,
the iron-bearing metachert thickness varies from 3 to 8 m. The reserves of the
Mahuilque zone have been estimated at 90 million tons of possible ore, with 31 OJ'o
average grade of Fe.
On a microscopic scale, the mineralized metacherts consist of an alternation
of bands rich in aggregated granular quartz and magnetite. Other minerals are
garnet, stilpnomelane, muscovite, albite, and amphibole. Oxide minerals, in addi-
tion to magnetite, include limonite, ilmenite (minor), and hematite (as martitiza-
tion). Sulfide minerals are subordinate but present in almost all deposits. At
Mahuilque, sulfide occurs as small bands (1 to 20 mm thick), finely scattered, and
as bleb inclusions (toward the central part of certain magnetite grains) (Figs. 5, 6).
The sulfide minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, pyrrhotite, and
galena, which are mainly distributed as inclusions in some magnetite grains. In
the small bands, pyrite followed by chalcopyrite is the main mineral, arranged in
the Srplanes between the iron oxides and gangue minerals. Chalcopyrite, galena,
and pyrrhotite also appear as minor inclusions within well-developed cubic pyrite
grains. Finely scattered pyrite, chalcopyrite, and galena (rare) have been observed
as isolated grains in the silicate minerals. Sulfur isotopic analysis was made on
pyrites both from the small bands and from those finely scattered.
3 Sulfur Isotope Studies
Seven samples from the Mahuilque banded iron deposit (mainly magnetite-sili-
cates) contain small quantities of disseminated pyrite and sulfide microbands.
'....._ oo> ~
#/ " <¥,#' PJ-.1 ,<f' """
~~
"'"' ~~
~" ~-
""
0 500 ~~ .. ~~~.~~
~
QUATERNARY PALEOZO I C CRYSTAL LI NE BASEMENT
f:::::::/:1 F" IU \t" I OI 9r0'Wth M IC:O ICh i l t l ond ll'll •r loyt r td matoc:htrlt (7<TI Jn hrrtd foul1
D
l ruck .ron DtO t•no rno.nl,. rnoon•••••, lnftrr•d conroc.t f.ll
~ ••• ~--./·j
Quo rl t one! oorn•l ("')
Strlllt and chp lrot.ollon} g.
Tr. i n trOtl biOtin_ btdl "'a' nly rnogne 1111, D
~ j;)
quoru, Qornet ond &l alpnomtlont 0
~
Fig. 4. Geology of the Mahuilque-Relun Area (after Alvarez 1970) ~
Fig. 5. Small sulfide band mainly with pyrite (Py). Inclusions of galena (Gn) arranged between magne-
tite (Mt). Sample R03 from Mahuilque banded iron formation
Mt
Bn
/
Cp/
so,..
Fig. 6. Inclusions of bornite (Bn)-chalcopyrite (Cp)-pyrrhotite (Po) within magnetite (Mt) grain. Sam-
ple 51 B 6 from La Cabana banded iron formation
They were treated by magnetic and sulfide flotation techniques in order to sepa-
rate pyrite.
Pyrites from the massive sulfide orebodies were collected by picking the coarse
fraction which was ground (50 to 100 mesh) and subsequently selected under a
stereoscopic microscope. The isotope analyses were done both at the Department
of Geology of the University of Tasmania, Australia (preliminary data in Collao
1985) and the Economic Geology Section of the Tohuku University, Sendai, Ja-
pan (Samples CM-15,R0-3B,R-2B,R0-2,R0-3,CTi-2,CTi-3,CTi-4,CPi-2; Table 1).
The pyrite samples were treated according to Sasaki et al. (1979). The S02 ob-
tained by the method of Robinson and Kusakabe (1975) was analyzed on MM 903
Table 1. Sulfur isotopic analyses on pyrite from massive sulfides and banded iron formation deposits,
South-Central Chile
Type of deposit Locality (sample) J34S%o
Banded iron formation Zone of Mahuilque (CM-15) -2.4

(CM-1) -3.5
(CM-2) -4.5
(R0-3B) -7.2
(R-2B) -7.4
(R0-2) +3.4
(R0-3) +2.7
Massive sulfides Tinla, Mina Vieja (CTi-1) +5.4
(CTi-3) +6.3
(CTi-4) +6.3
(CTi-2) +6.5
Casa de Piedra (CP-1) + 1.0
Hueiialihuen (A-45) +0.6
(A-45') +0.3
Trovolhue (CTro-1) +2.0
Piren Alto (PA-28) +2.9
(PA-2) +3.0
(CPi-1) +3.6
(CPi-2) +6.3
Piren Bajo (PB-1) +3.4
(VG Isogas) mass spectrometer in Tohoku University and on a Micromass 6020

mass spectrometer in the University of Thsmania.
The results, expressed in the conventional o34S (CDT) permil scale (Thble 1),
show that o34S is always positive in samples from massive sulfide orebodies hav-
ing a range of values between +0.3 and +6.5%o with a mean of +3.7%o (standard
deviation: 2.1). In the case of seven analyses in pyrite from the banded iron forma-
tion at Mahuilque, five of them are negative and two positive (Thble 1 and Fig. 7),
varying between -7.4 and +3.4%o. The negative values are mainly from samples
with finely scattered pyrite, while the positive values belong to pyrite of small
bands presenting mineral assemblages and paragenetic features (inclusions of
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and galena) similar to those observed in some pyrite
grains of the massive sulfide deposits.
4 Discussion and Conclusions

Field evidence, such as the well-preserved pillow structures in some metabasalts and
the mineralogical and textural characteristics of the massive sulfide ores, indicate
that a submarine volcanic activity is the most probable origin of the massive sulfide
deposits (Collao and Alfaro 1982; Alfaro et al. 1983; Alfaro and Collao this Vol.).
In the case of the banded iron deposits, the strongly enriched trace element
content (Oyarzun et al. 1984) seems to be closer to banded iron formation of
5 10
I I I I I I
-38°00' S. Lot
**•
4
N ¥Jf
**
Mohuilque
....• Tiruo (Mino Viejo}
• Coso de Piedra
Hueiialihuen
~"""
I
I
I • Trovolhue
I
I 50 km
I
I
-39°00' S. Lot I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 0
I
I
I
I
I
lfi.'JI.A.
• Pire'n
Pire'n
Alto
Baja
-10 -5 0 5 10
34
<5 s
VALUES REPORTED IN °/oo DEVIATION FROM COT STANDARD
* Values in Bonded Iron Formation
.&. Values in Massive Sulfides
Fig. 7. o34S in pyrite from massive sulfides and banded iron formation deposits, South-Central Chile
probable volcanogenic origin (Algoma type) than those of platform sedimentary

origin (Lake Superior type). The geochemical characteristics as well as mineralog-
ical features close to the volcanogenic BIF type are thought to have been formed
by submarine volcanic exhalative activity (Collao 1985; Oyarzun et al. 1986).
Considering the low metamorphic grade of both the Tirua and Nahuelbuta
units (greenschist facies), it could be reasonably expected that the observed isoto-
pic ratios could well represent either the initial values or very similar ones.
Volcanogenic stratabound massive deposits in volcanic rocks related to submarine
volcanism and formed near the water-rock interface present positive o34 S values
with the only exception of those from sulfides formed during the late stages of
mineralization.
When o34 S values obtained in pyrite from the massive sulfides ores and the
Mahuilque deposit are compared with values from different sources (Nielsen
1979), a magmatic source seems to be more probable, as is shown in Fig. 7. Based
on Ripley and Ohomoto (1977) and Ohomoto and Rye (1979), the following
model can be suggested. The magmatic source of the mineralizing fluids was
proximal to the massive sulfide ores and distal to banded iron formation sulfide
minerals (in the sense of Plimer 1978). Mahuilque pyrite would have been formed
in a late mineralization stage, thus allowing enough time for a more complete mix-
ture with seawater during fluid migration, through a mechanism similar to the
one proposed by Sato (1972) for metalliferous brines (probably Sato's Type 3). By
this way the o34 S reached lower values because of the mixing of magmatic with
seawater sulfur. This also agrees well with Kirkham (1979), who has proposed that
a Cu-bearing banded iron formation would have been formed from solutions
Type 1 or 3 of Sato (1972).
A comparison with other banded iron formations also seems to indicate a
volcanogenic source for pyrite values from the Mahuilque banded iron deposit
with a mean of o34S of -2.7%o (standard deviation: 4.3). Appel (1979) and
Kirkham (1979) have studied the problem of Cu-sulfide minerals in iron forma-
tions of Canada and West Greenland. Both of them concluded that the ores prob-
ably originated by hydrothermal activity. This may be significant, considering the
similarities between Isua and Nahuelbuta banded iron deposits, including
lithologic, mineralogic (sulfide inclusions in magnetite) and isotopic aspects, that
is, o34 S values close to zero ( +0.45%o for Isua different facies of BIF; Monster
et al. 1979), which seems to indicate a primary source for sulfur instead of bacteri-
al fractionation.
Briefly, the sulfur isotope data presented here are consistent with values de-
rived from a magmatic source and complement the hypothesis of a volcanogenic
origin of these deposits (BIF and MS).
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to express their gratitude to Prof. A. Sugaki, Director of the In-
stitute of Mineralogy, Petrology, and Economic Geology, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, and to
H. Ueno, for assistance and valuable discussions of this work. We are grateful to Prof. Jan-Cent van
Moort of the Geology Department, University of Thsmania, where the greater number of isotope ana-
lyses were made. Part of this research was done with a grant of the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk through
the Mineral. Institute of the University of Heidelberg.
The work was supported by the Grants 20.34.22 and 20.34.07 of the Direcci6n de Investigaci6n,
Universidad de Concepcion, Chile and by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
References
Aguirre L, Herve F, Godoy E (1972) Distribution of metamorphic facies in Chile: an outline.
Krystalinikum 9:7-19
Alfaro G, Collao S Massive sulfides in the greenstone belt of south-central Chile: an overview. This
Vol., pp 199-208
Alfaro G, Frutos J, Collao S, Helle S (1983) Los sulfuros masivos de Ia Cadena Andina Paleozoica
en Ia Cordillera de Ia Costa, Sur de Chile. II Congr Geol Econ San Juan, Argentina 2:245-261
Alvarez 0 (1970) Estudio geol6gico de los yacimientos de hierro de Ia Cordillera de Nahuelbuta. The-
sis, Univ Chile (unpublished)
Appel P (1979) Stratabound copper sulfides in a banded iron-formation and in basaltic tuffs in the
Early Precambrian Isua supracrustal belt, West Greenland. Econ Geol 74:45-52
Collao S (1985) Los dep6sitos bandeados de hierro de Ia Cordillera de Nahuelbuta. Consideraciones
mineral6gicas y metalogenicas, pp 775-797. In: Frutos J, Oyarzlin R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia
y Recursos Minerales de Chile Vol 2. Univ Concepci6n, Chile
Collao S, Alfaro G (1982) Mineralizaci6n sulfurada de hierro, cobre y zinc en Ia Cordillera de Ia Costa,
Sur de Chile. Rev Geol Chile 15:41-47
Collao S, Montecinos P, Oviedo L, Oyarzun R (1980) Estudio genetico de las mineralizaciones de
hierro de Mahuilque. Univ Concepci6n. Opt Geociencias 4, 160 p
Godoy E (1979) Metabasitas del basamento metam6rfico chileno, nuevos datos geoquimicos. II Congr
Geol Chile, Arica-Chile, pp 25-28
Herve F (1977) Petrology of the crystalline basement of the Nahuelbuta Mountains, south-central Chi-
le. In: Ishikawa T, Aguirre L (eds) Comparative studies of the circum-Pacific orogenic belts in
Japan and Chile. Tokyo, Japan Soc Prom Sci Rep 1:1-51
Herve F, Munizaga F, Mantovani M, Herve M (1976) Edades Rb/Sr neopaleozoicas del basamento
cristalino de Ia Cordillera de Nahuelbuta. I Congr Geol Chile, Santiago 2:F19-F26
Kirkham RV (1979) Copper in iron formation. In: Current research, Part B, Geol Surv Can, 79-1 B,
pp 17-22
Monster J, Appel P, Thode H, Schidlowski M, Carmichael CM, Bridgewater D (1979) Sulfur isotope
studies in early Archaean sediments from Isua, West Greenland: implications for the antiquity of
bacterial sulfate reduction. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 43:405-413
Nielsen H (1979) Sulfur isotopes in lectures in isotope geology. Jager E, Hunziker (eds). Springer, Ber-
lin Heidelberg New York, pp 283-312
Ohomoto H, Rye RO (1979) Isotopes of sulfur and carbon. In: Barnes HL (ed) Geochemistry of
hydrothermal ore deposits, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, pp 509-567
Oyarzun R, Clemmey H, Collao S (1984) Chemical characteristics of the Nahuelbuta Mountains
banded iron formations, southern Central Chile. J Jpn Assoc Min Petrol Econ Geol 79:146-156
Oyarzun R, Clemmey H, Collao S (1986) Geologic and metallogenic aspects concerning the
Nahuelbuta mountains banded iron formation, Chile. Min Deposita 21:244-250
Plimer I (1978) Proximal and distal strata-bound ore deposits. Min Deposita 13:345-353
Ripley EM, Ohomoto H (1977) Mineralogic, sulfur isotope, and fluid inclusion studies of the strata-
bound copper deposits at the Raul Mine, Peru. Econ Geol 72:1017-1041
Robinson BR, Kusakabe M (1975) Quantitative preparation of sulfur dioxide for «534S/32S analyses,
from sulfides by combustion with cuprous oxide. Anal Chern 47:1179-1181
Sasaki A, Arikawa Y, Folinsbee RE (1979) Kiba reagent method of sulfur extraction applied to isoto-
pic work. Bull Geol Surv Jpn 30:241-245
Sato T (1972) Behaviours of ore-forming solutions in seawater. Min Geol 22:31-42
tral Chile - a Kieslager-type mineralization in a Paleozoic ensialic mature marginal basin setting.
This Vol, pp 229-251
Van Dorr NJ (1973) Iron formation in South America. Econ Geo168:1005-1022
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd Data from Some Massive Sulfide
Occurrences in the Metamorphic Basement
F. HERVE 1, R.J. PANKHURST 2 , M. BROOK 3 , G. ALFAR0 4 , J. FRUTOS 4
H. MILLER 5 , W. SCHIRA 6 and G.C. AMSTUTZ 6
1 Introduction
The coastal range of Chile between 36° and 41 °S (Fig. 1) is mainly composed of
low-grade metamorphic rocks developed in a subduction-accretion environment
during Paleozoic times.
Herve et al. (1976), Herve (1977), and Godoy (1979, 1986) have interpreted this
complex as an accretionary prism in an outer arc position. Frutos and Alfaro
(1985, 1987) agree with this idea only for some restricted melange rock series in
the most western parts of the area, which are affected by high pressure metamor-
phism (blueschist facies) (Herve et al. 1976). Frutos and Tobar (1975) and Frutos
and Alfaro (1985) propose a paleosubduction zone trending to the east, which
would run close and subparallel to the recent coast line.
In this region, several localities with massive sulfide-type mineralization are
known (Alfaro and Collao this Vol., Schira et al. this Vol.). A Rb-Sr study of
rocks closely associated in space with the sulfide layers was undertaken, with the
purpose of investigating the age and the origin of the massive sulfides. The isoto-
pic results are presented according to the localities, including discussion of field
relations and lithologies.
2 Rb-Sr Data
2.1 Mina Vieja de Tirtia
At Mina Vieja de Tirtia, a greenschist horizon containing lenses (about 10 em) of

massive pyrite crops out near the base of a 200 m sea cliff. The dominant mineral
assemblage consists of albite+ epidote+ amphibole+ biotite± chlorite± quartz
(VW 1, 2, and 3). In some samples (VW 4, 5, and 7) biotite is missing. One speci-
men (VW 10) is a quartz-muscovite-chlorite schist, located some tens of meters
above the other samples.
1 Depto. de Geologia y Geofisica, Universidard de Chile, Santiago, Chile

2 British Antarctic Survey, c/o NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory, Keyworth, Nottingham, UK
3 Previously of British Geological Survey, London, England
4 Depto. de Geociencias, Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile
5 Institut fiir Allgemeine und Angewandte Geologie der Universitat, 8000 Munchen, FRG
6 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitat, 6900 Heidelberg, FRG

222 F. Herve et al.
5" TJ " 72° n•
LEGEND \
\ .
J6 " ~w '2 so mol • N vmD • t
\ ,?)
• - __ ,
. --\ r
Ocurr •nc•
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s..,tetfl•d•
, "'
* uoromaf l ' fh<lt
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vw- ~~
.,.
Paleozoic intrusive rocks
Zone with predominance of metabasites, quartzites and micaschists

Metamorphism not higher than the greenschist facies
Zone with predominance of flyschoid sedimentary series
Weak metamorphism
Fig. 1. Geologic sketch map of South-Central Chile, showing the location of analyzed samples
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd Data Metamorphic Basement, South-Central Chile 223
The analytical data are presented in Table 1. The initial ratio of 87 Sr/86Sr (ca.
0.706 or 0.704) gives model ages of 313±7 m.y. to 326±7 m.y.
2.2 Casa de Piedra
This is a locality 12 km S of Mina Vieja de Tirua, where a sedimentary alternation

of greenschist and so-called grayschists (metapsammites and metapelites) is seen
in beach outcrops. The greenschists are finely banded with occasional biotite con-
centrated in distinct horizons. The mineral assemblage is quartz-albite-epidote-
chlorite-actinolite (VW 12, 14, 15, and 16), having calcite and biotite in one case
(VW 16). Greenschists are composed of quartz-albite-epidote-biotite-chlorite
(VW 17 and 18) or quartz-albite-epidote-biotite-chlorite and stilpnomelane (VW
19).
The analytical data are presented in Table 1. Figure 2a shows an isochrone cal-
culated for VW 14 to VW 18, which indicates a 331 ±29 m.y. age with a 87 Sr/86 Sr
initial ratio of 0.706. Samples VW 12 and VW 19 suggest a possible resetting event
at 163±33 m.y., with a slightly higher 87 Sr/86 initial ratio of 0.707.
2.3 Huenalihuen
In this locality, banded and foliated greenschists with disseminated pyrite grains
crop out. Pyrite appears in chlorite-rich seams with quartz segregations. Inter-
calations of grayschists are observed.
Some greenschists have albite+ epidote+ chlorite+ amphibole± quartz
(VW 22, 25, 27, 30, and 31). Sample VW 28 has abundant biotite instead of
chlorite and is the most enriched in 87 Sr at this locality (Table 1). Its model age
can hardly be older than 150 m.y. at 0.7035 (Fig. 2b). It seems possible that the
biotite, at least in this sample, grew during an unidentified late Jurassic event, tak-
ing up Rb from metamorphic or metasomatic fluids in which Sr had equilibrated
with the country rock. The remaining points form a cluster of low 87 Sr/ 86Sr ini-
tials (0.7035 -0.7045) and are difficult to classify, although a 330 m.y. age is quite
possible.
2.4 Donguil
In Donguil, a green rock with very well-preserved pillow structures was sampled.
All the specimens come from the same structural unit, no discontinuity being ob-
served in the 10m2 outcrop. The mineral assemblage is albite-epidote-chlorite-
actinolite± white mica± biotite+ magnetite. Relict textures of ophitic nature are
discernible and the whole-rock chemistry was compared with ocean-floor basalts
(Herve 1977; Godoy 1980).
The six samples, whose analytical data are given in Table 1, define an isochrone
(MSWD = 1.5) of 177 ± 32 m.y., with a 0.7045 87 Sr/86 Sr initial ratio (Fig. 2c). The
low Rb/Sr ratios (0.7030-0.7035) implicate a closed system with resetting of bulk
material formed ca. 300 m.y. ago.
224 F. Herve et al.
Table 1. Rb-Sr whole-rock data
Locality and sample no. Rba ppm sra ppm 87Rb/86Srb 87Sr/86Sr
Mina Vieja de Tinia

vw 1 5.4 127 0.124 (4.8) 0 0.70646
VW3 4.8 144 0.095 (5.4) 0.70632
VW4 1.9 428 0.013 (13.0) 0.70424
VW5 2.1 419 0.015 (12.0) 0.70421
VW7 2.9 150 0.055 (9.1) 0.70614
vw 10 70 22.5 9.026 (1.1) 0.74606
Casa de Piedra
vw 12 114 326 1.008 (0.5) 0.70950
vw 14 4.6 313 0.043 (5.2) 0.70636
vw 15 11.3 338 0.097 (2.2) 0.70636
vw 16 11.6 312 0.107 (2.2) 0.70651
vw 17 42.4 325 0.378 (0.7) 0.70784
vw 18 47.3 339 0.404 (0.7) 0.70793
vw 19 12.0 421 0.082 (2.1) 0.70742
Hueftdihuen
VW22 2.5 104 0.069 (10.6) 0.70403
VW23 3.3 66 0.145 (7.5) 0.70402
VW24 4.3 72 0.174 (6.3) 0.70419
VW25 1.4 107 0.039 (18.5) 0.70356
VW27 3.6 69 0.152 (7.3) 0.70362
VW28 34.2 66 1.497 (1.0) 0.70685
vw 30 4.3 93 0.133 (6.4) 0.70422
vw 31 6.2 80 0.224 (4.3) 0.70458
Donguil
vw 33 15.2 60 0.727 (1.7) 0.70651
VW34 23.6 79 0.869 (1.2) 0.70665
VW35 16.5 68 0.700 (1.6) 0.70634
VW36 11.9 71 0.485 (2.1) 0.70577
VW37 14.3 62 0.665 (1.8) 0.70613
VW38 12.7 75 0.491 (2.0) 0.70574
Piren
VW49 197 65 8.788 (0.5) 0.74316
vw 50 257 81 9.205 (0.5) 0.74392
vw 51 107 39.6 7.869 (0.7) 0.74156
VW52 144 59 7.087 (0.6) 0.73495
VW53 11.0 161 0.198 (2.3) 0.70483
VW54 194 62 9.012 (0.5) 0.74392
a Rb/Sr by X-ray fluorescence.

b 87Sr/86Sr by automated mass-spectrometry, ±0.0107o.
c % Errors in parentheses (2-sigma).
2.5 Piren
Here, massive pyrite layers (5- 30 em thick; Schira et al. this Vol.) are intercalated
with grayschists and greenschists containing also disseminated pyrite and
sphalerite. The grayschists are characterized by quartz-albite-muscovite
(VW 49, 50, 51, and 54). Sample VW 53 is a greenschist which is the only low
87Sri85Sr 87Srl81i5r
11.712 (a) 11.712 (b) Huenallhuen
9.719
11.719
11.7118
""
B.716
.......... ""'
11.7111!+i"~---
-- ---
"".,.
\501'\~
-----
11.7111 9.782
87Rb181i5r
11.2 11.4 9.6 9.B 1.11 11.2 8.4 8.6 11.8 1.9 1.2 1.4
875rt865r 87Sri85Sr
II. 7119
(c) Dongu i 1 9.759 (d) Piren
11.7118
11.787
11.7B6 _.....,.... _-f
..r-!:.---+ -- 9.748
9.739
11.7115
9.729
8.794
RI m +1- 32 111 (2-sl~l)
Intercept 8.78454 <t/- 8.1l91!31
JISNIJ 1.5 9.719
a. 71!3
87Rbi86Sr 87Rbi86Sr
8.2 11.4 a.6 9.a 2 4 6 a
Fig. 2. Rb-Sr whole-rock isochrone diagrams for analyzed suites of samples. a Schists from Casa de
Piedra. Five of the points fit an isochrone (MSWD = 2.2), giving an age of 331 ±29 m.y. and an initial
87Sr/ 86 Sr ratio of 0.7060±0.0001. 1\vo of these points are also collinear with data points of samples
VW 12 and VW 19, giving a secondary errorchrone with an age of 163±33 m.y. (MSWD = 4.9) and
an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.7071 ±0.0003. b Pyritic schists from Hueiialihuen. Five points lie on an
errorchrone (MSWD = 4.1) with an age of 330± 165 m.y., and an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of
0.7035±0.0003. c Metabasalt from Donguil. The six data points define a good isochrone of
177 ± 32 m.y. d Mica schists from Piren. The cluster of high Rb/Sr points, when combined with the
low point (VW 53), give a crude errorchrone of 313± 12 m.y. (MSWD = 33) and an initial 87 Sr/86Sr
ratio of 0.7039±0.0009. However, the upper four points are aligned on a 133±31 m.y. secondary
isochrone (MSWD = 3.3) with a high intercept of 0.727±0.004
Rb-Sr point of the suite. The most probable age for the whole set appears to be
ca. 310 m.y. (Fig. 2d) with an initial ratio of ca. 0.7048. The alignment of points
for VW 49, 50, 51, and 54 may be due to a partial closed-system resetting in mid-
Mesozoic times (Fig. 2d, 133±31; 0.74666, MSWD = 3.3).
3 Sm-Nd Data
Three samples of metamorphosed pillow basalts from Donguil, one of an
ultramafic tectonite, and of a grayschist from Pin!n were analyzed for Sm and Nd
contents and Nd-isotope composition. The results are given in Thble 2. The
metabasalts are characterized by concentrations of Sm about ten times those of
226 F. Herve et al.
Table 2. Sm-Nd whole-rock data
Sample no. Smppm Ndppm t47Sm/t44Nd t43Nd/t44Nd eNd310 Ma
Donguil
vw 33 2.2145 5.5887 0.2396 0.513137 +8.0
VW34 2.4501 6.5853 0.2250 0.513075 +7.4
vw 35 2.1293 5.6968 0.2260 0.513100 +7.8
VW44 0.1618 1.1378 0.086 0.512837 +8.2
vw 54 2.8636 14.033 0.1234 0.512161 -6.4
Analyses by automated mass-spectrometric isotope dilution with 151Nd spike.

Sm/Nd±0.211Jo, 143 Nd/144Nd±0.0111Jo (2-sigma).
chondritic meteorites and high Sm/Nd ratios (i.e., light rare earth element deple-
tion) as well as high initial 143Nd/ 144Nd ratios (shown as positive eNd values at an
assumed age of 310 m.y.). The parameters of these samples are actually very close
to values derived from depleted mantle material as represented by mid-ocean
ridge basalts. The ultramafic sample from Quitratue has very low Sm and Nd con-
centrations, and an unusually low Sm/Nd ratio. It has a model age for fractiona-
tion from depleted mantle material of 290±60 m.y. and, when plotted together
with the basalts, it yields a comparable isochrone age and error. If these four sam-
ples are regarded as being possibly cogenetic, this suggests a maximum age of for-
mation for the igneous parents of ca. 350 m.y. The muscovite-schist sample VW
54 is chemically very different: high concentrations of rare earth elements and
strong light REE enrichment (Nd: 22 times chondrite). It also has nonradiogenic
Nd, implying some continental component. Whereas the Rb-Sr systematics sug-
gest a maximum age of about 310 m.y., the Nd-depleted mantle model age is
1400 ± 80 m.y. It is not collinear with the four-point isochrone for the metaigneous
rocks.
4 Discussion
The massive sulfide-type mineralization in the metamorphic basement of south-
central Chile is emplaced in or near greenschist horizons of assumed metavolcanic
origin. Major and trace element geochemistry of similar rocks further south in
the basement (Herve et al. 1976; Godoy 1979, 1986) indicates a chemistry compa-
rable to present-day mid-ocean ridge tholeiites, as suggested by the Sm-Nd data
given above. The host rock metamorphism can be assigned to the greenschist
facies, with biotite as a conspicuous phase in certain rocks at all localities. Collao
et al. (1986) have shown that the sulfides equilibrated at pressures of 5 to 7 kbar,
similar to those estimated for the silicates of the host rocks.
Alfaro (1982, 1986) suggested that the sulfide mineralization was contempora-
neous with the volcanic activity which produced the original basalts or
volcaniclastic materials. Metabasalts with pillow structures in scanty outcrops
(e.g., Donguil) indicate submarine deposition of the volcanic rocks. A pillow
basalt, spatially associated with serpentinite bodies, is considered to represent

part of a dismembered ophiolite (Herve 1977; Frutos and Alfaro 1985, 1987;
Schira 1990).
Rb-Sr whole-rock data for most of the suites analyzed contain evidence of ages
as old as 300-330m.y., sometimes, e.g., at Mina Vieja de Tirua and Casa de
Piedra, as the only obvious event. These include schist samples containing both
biotite and muscovite and it seems probable that the ages record isotopic homoge-
nization during the main low-grade metamorphic event responsible for these min-
eral assemblages, which is thus dated as mid to late Carboniferous. Other locali-
ties, i.e. Hueiialihuen, Piren, and Donguil, show secondary isochrone alignments
indicating a younger event (or events) in mid-Mesozoic times (ca. 150 m.y. ago).
At Piren and especially Hueiialihuen, this evidence is apparent only in high Rb/Sr
samples with compositions effectively dominated by micas, and at Donguil it is
revealed by large-scale whole-rock equilibration resulting in a 177 ± 32 m.y.
isochrone. In most cases, re-equilibration may be of an isochemical type, but at
Hueiialihuen there may have been introduction of Rb. At Mina Vieja de Tirua,
samples containing biotite tend to have higher initial 87 Sr/86 Sr ratios (ca. 0.706)
than biotite-free greenschists (ca. 0.704), a fact that complicates the consideration
of initial 87 Sr/ 86Sr ratios in Carboniferous times, which range from 0.7035 to
0.7060. On the whole, the data suggest derivation from primitive sources (e.g., at
Donguil and Hueiialihuen) with only a minor component of continental prove-
nance (e.g., at Mina Vieja de Tirua and Casa de Piedra). The maximum age of
the basement (Lower Carboniferous), as well as the mid-ocean ridge affinities of
the metabasalts at Donguil, is confirmed by the Sm-Nd isotope systematics.
A mid-Carboniferous age for metamorphism is in accordance with previous re-
sults for nonmineralized areas of the Coastal Range basement complex
(Munizaga et al. 1985). It seems possible to regard it as a minimum age for the
deposition of the sulfide bodies, which are cut by the main foliation of the meta-
morphic rocks (Schira et al. this Vol.). The extent of Mesozoic effects is discussed
by Davidson et al. (1987). With such low Rb/Sr ratios, resolution of pre-metamor-
phic history is poor, but it seems likely that the original deposition of an accre-
tionary wedge material did not occur very long before mid-Carboniferous times.
Elsewhere in Chile similar rocks have yielded (though only rarely) Upper Paleozo-
ic fossils, and Brook et al. (1986) argue that the overall Rb-Sr systematics of
metasediments in the Chonos Archipelago indicates a maximum age of mid-
Devonian.
The sulfide mineralization is related to the same Late Paleozoic oceanic envi-
ronment as the host rocks, before the metamorphism in the subduction zone of
SW Gondwana took place in Carboniferous times. A Silurian-Devonian age may
be possible for the deposition of the host rocks and sulfides, but a younger age
cannot be excluded on the base of the presented data.
Acknowledgments. This research was done with the support of the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk, FRO.
Rb-Sr and Nd-Sm analysis were carried out by the three senior authors at the Geochemical Laborato-
ries of the British Geological Survey in London, during a visit by F. Herve in 1986 funded by a CON-
YCYT-Royal Society of London grant.
228 F. Herve et al.
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Godoy E (1979) Metabasitas del basamento metam6rfico, nuevos datos geoquimicos. II. Congr Geol
Chile, Arica, pp E 133-E 144
Godoy E (1980) Zur Geochemie der Griinschiefer des Grundgebirges in Chile. Miinster Forsch Geol
Palaont 51:161-182
Godoy E (1986) Die Entwicklung des Gondwana-Randes in Chile wahrend des Palaozoikums, unter
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der geotektonischen Stellung der Metavulkanite. D Sc Thesis, Univ
Munster, 70 p (unpublished)
Herve F (1977) Petrology of the crystalline basement of the Nahuelbuta Mountains, South-Central
Chile. First rep Jpn Soc Prom Sci, Thkyo, 50 p
Herve F, Godoy E, Del Campo M, Ojeda J (1976) Las metabasitas del basamento metam6rfico de
Chile Central y Austral. I Congr Geol Chile, Santiago 2:F175-F187
Munizaga F, Herve F, Drake R, Brook M, Pankhurst RJ, Snelling N (1985) Geochronology of the
granitoids: Chilean Lake region (38 o_ 42 o s.L.). Comunicaciones, Univ Chile, Santiago
35:167-170
Schira W (1990) Die siidliche Kiistenkordillere Chiles: Ein palaozoischer Ophiolithkomplex des "en-
sialic mature marginal basin"-Typs mit Kieslagervorkommen. Dr rer nat Thesis, Univ Heidelberg
tral Chile - a Kieslager-type mineralization in a Paleozoic ensialic mature marginal basin setting.
This Vol., pp 229-251
The Piren Alto Cu-(Zn) Massive Sulfide Occurrence in
South-Central Chile - A Kieslager-Type Mineralization
in a Paleozoic Ensialic Mature Marginal Basin Setting
W. SCHIRA 1, G. C. AMSTUTZ 1 and L. FONTBOTE 1•2
1 Introduction
The Piren Alto Cu-(Zn) massive sulfide occurrence is a minor, noneconomic but
genetically interesting ore type of the Paleozoic Coast Range ophiolite (Schira
1990) in south-central Chile. Manto-type massive sulfides in the greenstone belt
south of 38 os lat were first mentioned in reconnaissance studies (Alvarez 1970;
Vergara 1970; Alvarez and Rivera 1970) and later outlined by various authors of
the Universidad de Conception (for reference see Alfaro and Collao this Vol.).
The occurrence under consideration is one of the more important and less
supergenely altered ones described therein.
The area of interest is located in the littoral part of the Coast Range south of
Rio Tolten, near Queule at the headwaters of the Piren creek. The hill range of
Piren Alto Norte displays several ore exposures traceable by float fragments of
gossan and some costeaning activity between 550 m and 650 m above sea level.
The main site (39°21'68"S lat; 73°05'22"W long) crops out at 315m in a hidden
gulch above a waterfall, where it was discovered in 1949 by Leusterio Oiiate and
occasionally mined on a very small scale.
Aguirre et al. ( 1972) subdivided the Pre-Andean basement in the Coast Range
according to the concept of a paired metamorphic belt sensu Miyashiro (1961):
A Western Series with Barrow-type metamorphic greenstones of oceanic affinity
differs from an Eastern Series with Abukuma-type metamorphic platform sedi-
ments and batholitic granitoids. Both units are considered to belong to different
orogens, juxtaposed by converging plate boundaries and separated by a suture
(Ernst 1975), locally denominated Puren Line (Kato 1976).
The existence of a dismembered ophiolite in the southern Coast Range was
first assumed by Herve et al. (1976) and Herve (1977). 1Wo contrasting models
were set to explain the serpentinite - pillow lava - metachert field association:
One group (for reference see Herve et al. 1981 and Davidson et al. 1987) holds
for an accretionary complex mainly based on scattered outcrops of blueschist, on
locally described melange series, and on a westward increase of metamorphism
and strain. Frutos and Alfaro (1987) use paleogeographic reconstruction and the
tholeiitic affinity of greenstones to apply the geosynclinal model of Aubouin
(1965) in favor of an ophiolite formation in a back-arc setting.
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitlit, INF 236, 6900 Heidelberg, FRO

2 Present address: Dep. de Mineralogic, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH 1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

230 W. Schira et a!.
P n n
-~.
36·
,.,.
(
·'
(
:
'''
I '
\
\
\
I
'
\
..
I
{,.,.,
'
I'
\-'
1(0
(,, D Cl."-GZOC
. D 1\ND S
1++++1 Gr:fAI"t.,;tODS
D FA"'~TfRI'... Sf l c:
- WlSTt ~U\J )lH il &
Fig. 1. Regional geology of south-central Chile with subdivisions based on tectonometamorphic and
lithological criteria. The Coast Range ophiolite is consistent with the Western Series
Table 1. Arguments for an ensialic mature marginal basin setting of the Chilean Coast Range
ophiolite
1. Existence of a sedimentary sequence composed of alternating arc-related andesitic sediments and

continent-derived flyschoids (with intercalations of mafic sediments and chert-bearing mafic rocks
transitional to a volcanic sequence) suggests an autochthonous ophiolite formation next to a con-
tinental margin and a magmatic arc.
2. Structural conformity of all lithostratigraphic members excludes random tectonic contact of
allochthonous terranes.
3. Geochemical characteristics of mafic rocks transitional between within-plate basalts, N- toE-type
MORB and volcanic arc basalts, LIL-enrichment of tholeiitic basalts, and a bimodal component
can be explained by spreading of continental crust next to a subduction regime.
4. Two post-ophiolitic intrusive cycles with calc-alkaline trend (deformed Caledonian-type granitoids
and undeformed rhyodacites) indicate continental provenance of assimilated material in arc posi-
tion.
The Pirc~n Alto Cu-(Zn) Massive Sulfide Occurrence in South-Central Chile 231
Extensive field work in the Coast Range between Temuco and Valdivia (Fig. 1)
has revealed lithostratigraphic members typical for an ophiolite, such as conform-
able dioritic-gabbroic rocks and a possible root zone of sheeted dykes represented
by discordant bands of amphibolite in metagabbros. Further results are an
ophiolitic bimodal volcanism and minor post-ophiolitic intrusions with a calc-
alkaline trend. The combination of petrographic, structural, and geochemical da-
ta (Table 1) made it possible to assign the Coast Range ophiolite to an ensialic
mature marginal basin setting (Schira 1990).
The aim of this study is to describe the geology of the Piren Alto occurrence
and contribute to the genetic discussion of metamorphic stratiform massive sul-
fides.
2 Host Rock Characteristics

The Piren Alto ore horizons are bound to the basal section of the autochthonous
metasedimentary sequence within the Coast Range ophiolite. Though all known
outcrops of massive sulfides in south-central Chile are restricted to locations more
or less near the coast, similar lithostratigraphic conditions favorable for mineral-
ized sites likewise occur in other parts of the ophiolitic terrain. This is confirmed
by the regional distribution of metasediments and suggested by tectonic alterna-
tions due to extensive imbricate structures (Schira 1990). According to the three-
fold lithostratigraphic classification of the greenstone belt (Fig. 2) into a sedimen-
tary, volcanic, and plutonic sequence (Schira 1988), the metasediments form an
1\nc:H-·~·t C.. vo Cc~n c ln!'"~t. c.S
5 OIMENTARY Hy~chOUS
SE UENCE
(w•t..h C cont.entl
Maftc volcan•cast.•cs W1th chert..
Plllow lave
VOLCANIC
Muf•Cs (WPE3-MOR8 IAT)
SE UENCE
••• •
0'0 I £'
PLUTONIC
GJ b•o
SEQUENCE
••••
••••
~.-...- (u) B·o t:.e -muscov• P grun• olds
Calcdon•An typ I POSL- col IIston
~----- (t"J) Rt,yoOdC t S
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic section of the Chilean Coast Range ophiolite with position of massive Cu-
(Zn) sulfides bound to the sedimentary hanging wall of the volcanic sequence
232 W. Schira et al.
Table 2. Common features of the metasedimentary rocks within the Chilean Coast Range ophiolite
1. Sedimentary alternation of greenschists with quartzitic layering and quartz-mica schists with
metapelites and related minor quartzites.
2. Transitional contacts, internal volcano-sedimentary differentiation into fine mafic-felsic layering,
relict psammitic textures with compositional banding, occasional graded bedding.
3. Diagnostic content of graphite [0. 1517Jo- 0.87% C; it= 0.46% C; n = 36] and barium [x =
1550 ppm; n = 20].
AI
Fig. 3. Si-Al-Fe ternary diagram for common clastic rocks after Moore and Dennen (1970). The pelitic-
psammitic suite (circles) of the Coast Range ophiolite is classified essentially as shales and
graywackes. The Piren Alto host rock is marked by stars. Cherts (squares) fall to a great extent beyond
the range [Al/ Fe = 1.5-2.5] defined by normal clastic sediments
integral part of the ophiolite (Table 1.1 - 1.2). Summarized criteria for the sedi-
mentary affiliation of metamorphic rocks in the Coast Range are given in Table 2.
The following outline of the metasedimentary sequence is based on petro-
graphic and geochemical data (see also Appendix 1) from Schira (1990):
A dominant part of metasedimentary greenschists displays andesitic trace ele-
ment signatures [SiOrNb/Y; Zr/TiOrNb/Y; Winchester and Floyd 1977]. Their
volcano-sedimentary origin is inferred from internal quartzitic layering, grada-
tional contacts, and a graphitic component. The metapsammites and metapelites
are geochemically classified as graywackes and shales (Fig. 3). This association is
interpreted as flyschoid, mainly substantiated by relict graded bedding (Kato
1976) and the intrinsic occurrence of graphitic material, which may be an indica-
tion of rapid subsidence of the sedimentary environment, causing both euxinic
conditions in special basins and a marked relief necessary for marine turbidites.
The graywackes have a relatively high feldspar content and are considered as
poorly recycled sediments of average shield composition [Si02/Al 20 3 ::::: 5.0].
a Tl /100 2 N t> b
WPB
1 .1 WPA (OIA • CA>
1 .1ii: WPT <OIT•C::T)
..
11.1
MORB/OFB
N • MQAe
a.a T · ~e
10.3 E · MCJAe
Zr
c Cr Ht /3 d
10CO
"""
""'
bO
"'
e 3Tt>
7() AR
GO
..
• I
.,
I . "• • "
SAB ••
~
+-------Q
~,., ~--~-0
~------,~ ~ ~NbiY
Fig. 4. Geochemical signatures of mafic greenschists in the Chilean Coast Range ophiolite including
the Piren Alto host rock (stars) and its leptitic intercalation (open stars); [a to c and f, XRF analyses
(small symbols); d and e, INAA analyses of selected samples (large symbols); complete data in Schira
1990]. AB alkali basalts; BN basanite/ nephelinite; CA continental alkali basalts; IMBB immature
marginal basin basalts; 0/A ocean island alkali basalts; OfT ocean island tholeiites; PAT primitive
arc tholeiites; SAB subalkali basalts; VAB volcanic arc basalts. a In the conventional Zr-Ti/100-3Y
diagram of Pearce and Cann (1973) most mafic greenschists plot in the within-plate basalt (WPB)
field. b The Zr/ 4-2Nb-Y diagram of Meschede (1986) makes it possible to distinguish between within-
plate alkali basalts (WPA) and within-plate tholeiites ( WPT) . It also identifies different types of mid-
ocean ridge basalts (N-type MORB and E-type MORB). c The Cr-Y diagram of Pearce et al. (1981)
is used to clear the volcanic arc affinity of mafic greenschists whiclt·coincide with fields of WPB,
CAB, OFB, IAT and N-type MORB in the preceding diagrams. d The Th-Hf/3-Th diagram of Wood
(1980) considers nature and extent of crustal contamination. The plot is proposed for basic to silicic
volcanics and allows both the representation of the bimodal suite of Piren Alto and the distinction
between calc-alkaline lavas (CAB) and island arc tholeiites (!AT). e The Th-3Tb-2Ta diagram of
Cabanis and Thieblemont (1988) provides discriminants between orogenic and anorogenic settings.
The intermediate position of marginal basin basalts and continental tholeiites (C7) results from mix-
ing of MORB-WPB-type and VAB-type magmas. f The SiOrNb/Y diagram of Winchester and Floyd
(1977) with its alkalinity ratio Nb/Y>0.67 displays the alkali rhyolitic (AR) character of the Piren
Alto leptite
Intercalations of mafic sediments with associated massive sulfide layers and

mafic flows mark the lithostratigraphically lower part of the metasedimentary se-
quence. The mafic rock geochemistry proves affinities to intraplate basalts, differ-
ent MORB varieties, and volcanic arc basalts (Fig. 4). These features, together
with ratios typical for intracontinental alkali basalts [Th./Tb = 3.5; Th/Hf = 0.8;
Th/Th. = 1.0], high abundance of LREE [80-250x chondrite; (La/Yb)cn"" 11],
and enrichment of LIL (K, Rb, Sr, Ba, Th)-elements relative to HFS (P, Ti, Y, Zr,
Nb, REE, Hf, Th.)-elements even in tholeiitic basalts, suggest continental rifting
with development of oceanic crust next to a subduction regime.
All metasediments are additionally distinguished by an increased barium con-
tent indicative of rift-related faulting according to Coasts et al. (1984).
The host rock of the Pin~n Alto outcrop in the gulch displays a sedimentary
alternation of quartz-mica schists and mafic greenschists with quartzitic layering,
and an associated gneissic intercalation (Fig. 5). Spatially related serpentinized
ultramafic tectonites with talc schists occur downstream at 280 m above sea level.
The lithologic transition into chert-bearing greenschists and metamorphic rocks
of the volcanic sequence uphill indicates an inverse lithostratigraphic succession
due to large-scale folding. The ore-bearing bedrock is unconformably overlain by
a Cenozoic fluvially reworked mass flow breccia with soft matrix prospected by
local gold panners.
The quartz-mica schists are mainly composed of quartz seams with varying
amounts of feldspar, typically forming intergrown granoblastic aggregates. The
lepidoblastic texture in more pelitic portions is due to white mica and chlorite
with relics of biotite. In places, abundant graphitic matter is concentrated in folia-
tion planes or included in porphyroblastic feldspar or almandine-rich garnet
causing their dark appearance. Disseminated pyrite, pyrrhotite, and subordinate
chalcopyrite (sulfides< 3 vol OJo) define hook-like rootless folds with patterns simi-
lar to those of quartz segregations in Fig. 5 b. Some layered concentration of
euhedral tourmaline is restricted to pelitic seams where elongate crystals can be
traced occasionally around minor crenulations. Microprobe analyses of the opti-
cally zoned tourmaline indicate a variable dravitic [FeO/FeO + MgO = 0.29- 0.62]
composition; yellow-brownish zones turned out to be more Mg-rich than greenish
ones. (Clino)zoisite, calcite, and apatite are common accessories.
The quartz-mica schists are considered to be metamorphosed graywackes
according to the geochemical classification (Fig. 3) of Moore and Dennen
(1970). The aluminous nature of these metaclastics (13 -16wto/o A120 3) is in
clear contrast to the chert affinity of spatially related siliceous rocks ( < 5 wt OJo
Alz03).
All metagraywackes are depleted in Na20 and CaO relative to the igneous
spectrum (Fig. 6); this regional alteration is in part due to their clastic nature,
which implies pre-depositional weathering. In addition, the metapsammitic host
rock shows certain differences in major and trace element composition which are
identified as hydrothermal alteration (Fig. 7 a).
The greenschists with quartzitic layering are conformable with the adjacent
quartz-mica schists. Generally, massive sulfide lenses occur at facies transitions
of both lithologic units. The mafic bands contain clusters of epidote and
(clino)zoisite in a matrix of chlorite, varying amounts of poikiloblastic, nearly
The Piren Alto Cu-(Zn) Massive Sulfide Occurrence in South-Central Chile 235
Nf= sw
H10
a
I::K::.I -, C.:OV[,ff
H9
[SJ CJ.41l"< N•l" t .,.
~D.e.t_6goj 01 POS•TIO,....I\t EJ~l.CC.: A

HB 8 ~ASS•':~~~ AVEr~
H7
H2
Fig. Sa. Schematic outline of the Piren Alto massive Cu-(Zn) sulfide occurrence within a meta-
sedimentary alternation of graywackes and mafic volcanics, covered by a Cenozoic Au-bearing deposi-
tional breccia. NE-SW orientated projection onto a 45°-inclined sketch plane approximately perpen-
dicular to manto dipping. b Host rock microstructure delineated by quartz segregations. For discus-
sion see Section 4.
Ore characteristics:
M7 py-po-sl-(gangue-po )*
M6 py-( cp-gangue-sl)
M5 py-(gangue-cp-sl)
M4 py-po-(po-gangue-cp)
M3 py-(po-gangue-cp)
M2 py-cp-po-(cp-gangue-sl)
Ml py-(cp-gangue-po-sl)
*parentheses indicate matrix composition
Host rock characteristics: Geochemical classification

according to Figs. 3 and 4
HJO Greenschist with quartzitic layering (WPT/E-MORB)
H9 apatite-bearing leptite (alkali rhyolite)
H8 carbonate-bearing greenschist with quartzitic layering (WPT/VAB)
H7 carbonate-bearing greenschist with quartzitic layering (WPA)
H6 greenschist with quartzitic layering (WPA)
H5 carbonate-bearing greenschist with quartzitic layering (WPT)
H4 carbonate-bearing quartz-mica schist (graywacke)
H3 carbonate-bearing greenschist with quartzitic layering (WPA)
H2 subgraphitic [C = 0.34 wtOJo or 2 vol%] quartz-mica schist (graywacke)
Hl tourmaline-bearing quartz-mica schist (graywacke)
Na 2 0
wt% 6
5
•
* *
*
3
*
•• *• •
* • • •• • I
2
.... • • •• ••
* •
• • •
"* •• • • • •
•
a 0
0 2
•
4 6 B 10 12 14 16
CaD
wt%
Na 2 D+K 2 0
wt% 16
14
12
10
••
6
4
* .~. *
••••
2
•
• •• •
b 0
0 20 40
• 60 BO 100
K2D · 100
Na 2 0+K 2 0
Fig. 6a. Alteration diagrams for the flyschoid (squares) and mafic metasediments (circles) of the
Coast Range ophiolite and the Piren Alto host rock. The rectangular and oval fields in the diagram
after Stephens (1982) contain mean values of several suites of unaltered mafic and felsic rocks. Vari-
able grades of weathering are suggested by the general loss of Na and Ca and the scattered distribution
of analyses. b The field of normal igneous composition (igneous spectrum) in the Na20 + K20 vs.
K20x100/Na20+K20 diagram is taken from Hughes (1973). The dashed line outlines the spilite
field. The compositional deviation of graywackes is mainly due to their clastic nature. Some mafic
rocks are grouped together with the flyschoids as a result of intense supergene alteration with relative
enrichment of K20. The Piren Alto host rock is marked by small closed (mafics), small open (lep-
tite), and large closed (graywackes) stars
pure albite (An< 2), and some carbonate and white mica confined to quartzitic
layers. Leucoxene with relics of sphene may dominate in local mafic zones. Anas-
tomosing tabular sulfides ( < 5 vol o/o) constitute the main opaque portion. Apatite
is sometimes present as an accessory mineral.
10,----------------,.-------, .----------------------;r10
s
05 05
01 01
005 00!5
* PI~EN ALTO
0 COAST RANCE: CHE~T
e AV RAGE GA YWAC::KES
10,-------------------------- ,
"
01
005
Fig. 7 a. Alteration spidergram of psammitic-siliceous rocks normalized to metagraywackes of the

Chilean Coast Range ophiolite. In comparison to the average graywacke composition (Pettijohn 1963),
the Coast Range metaflyschoids are strongly depleted in CaO and Na20 and, to a lesser extent, in
P 20 5 and MnO. This alteration pattern is attributed to post-depositional chemical weathering super-
imposed on hydrothermal metasomatism which may be evident in the Piren Alto area by the conspicu-
ous loss of Sr and the supply of Cu and Zn (see also Van den Boom et a!. 1980). Likewise, spatially
related cherts differ clearly from metagraywackes in all major and trace element signatures. b Altera-
tion spidergram of the Piren Alto mafic host rock normalized to alkali basaltic greenschists of the
Chilean Coast Range ophiolite. The sulfide-localized element changes are marked by higher values of
Na20, base metals and Cr, and generally lower contents of Ti0 2 , MgO, mostly K20, Rb, Sr, Ba, and
Ni
The Piren Alto green schists have a mafic igneous origin as indicated by high
average concentrations of V (155 ppm), Cr (439 ppm), Co (44 ppm), and Ni
(95 ppm). These contents also suggest a nearly primitive composition with minor
evolution through differentiation. The immobile trace element signatures of the
host rock (Fig. 4) point to within-plate alkali basalts and within-plate tholeiites
as possible protoliths; a trend to volcanic arc basalts (H8, Fig. 5) emerges in the
Cr-Y plot (Fig. 4c). In addition, WPT-like orE-type MORB features (H10) are
confirmed by high more-HYG/HYG element ratios [enrichment of K, Rb, Nb,
Ba, La, Ce, Th, Th, U; relatively high Ta/Tb = 1.3; Th/Hf < 0.27; fractionated
REB distribution (La/Tb)en = 5. 7] transitional between typical mid -ocean ridge
and within-plate basalts (Fig. 4d, e).
The regional alteration of greenschists in the Coast Range is evident from Fig. 6.
A former ,spilitic" alteration [+Na20; -(K20+Ca0)] proved for relatively fresh
samples but generally blured by thorough weathering, is supposed for a significant
portion of greenschists which plot in the left corner of the Hughes diagram
(Fig. 6 b). On the other hand, the mafic host rock of Piren Alto is nearly unaffected
by supergene effects and therefore presents a more reliable hydrothermal alteration
pattern (Fig. 7b) than the metapsammites. Comparing the multi-element plots of
the different host rock types, the major and minor element changes are comple-
mentary or at least inhomogeneous, whereas trace element patterns indicate a clear
enrichment of the base metals Cu-Zn and of Cr, and a general removal of Ni and
Sr (see also Van den Boom et al. 1980; Klemd et al. 1989).
The gneissic intercalation consists of a quartz-feldspathic schist with musco-
vite and chlorite. Ribbon quartz layers alternate with albite-dominated feldspar-
mica bands. The opaque portion is formed by elongate hematite grains in intersti-
tial position. Apatite as a characteristic minor constituent occurs irregularly dis-
persed in different form and size.
The geochemical classification of the leptitic schist reveals an alkali rhyolitic
character (Fig. 4t). In the Th-Hf/3-Ta diagram of Wood (1980), which is designed
for basic rocks and its silicic differentiation products, the gneissic intercalation
plots in the same field as its mafic hanging wall (inverse lithostratigraphic succes-
sion) with WPT/E-type MORB affinities, and is therefore considered to form the
felsic metavolcanic or leptitic part of a bimodal suite. The leptite displays by far
the highest concentration of barium (7625 ppm) found in the whole metasedimen-
tary sequence (Table 2), which is a further characteristic for associated rift setting
and hydrothermal activity according to Bostrom et al. (1973).
3 Ore Characteristics
The Piren Alto Cu-(Zn) occurrence in the gulch comprises seven exposed tabular
orebodies intercalated in an almost barren host rock without indications of
stockwork or stringer zones (Fig. 5). The conformable sulfide layers, so-called
mantos, are considered to form only small lenses up to several meters in length,
with a maximum thickness of 0.3 m.
The ore-bearing horizons are all massive, generally containing more than 980Jo
metallic sulfides. The ore paragenesis is dominated by pyrite within a matrix of
The Pin!n Alto Cu-(Zn) Massive Sulfide Occurrence in South-Central Chile 239
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and minor sphalerite. Accessories are bornite, mackin-

awite, and molybdenite; in addition, cobalt-bearing sulfides like talnakite and
haycockite, and some carrollite with pentlandite can be observed in one layer
together with chalcopyrite. Other sulfides present as secondary minerals in vary-
ing amounts are marcasite, digenite, chalcocite, and covelline. The simple base
metal composition lacks any magnetite and is almost free of lead minerals. The
gangue consists mainly of quartz and rutile, the rest corresponds to the normal
constituents of the host rock, i.e., chlorite, epidote, calcite, sphene, and tourma-
line.
Typical ore textures show oriented metablastic growth of sulfide minerals with
differential mobilization under repeated plastic and brittle deformation. A verti-
cal metal zoning is apparent in single mantas by variations of the chalcopyrite or
pyrrhotite content. The lower contacts with the host rock are often marked by a
thin layer of coarse pyrite within a matrix of quartz; like the upper manto bound-
aries, they are usually sharply defined except for some discordant fracture fillings
with late-stage remobilization of the ore.
Figure 5 indicates position, form, and dimension of the mantas described in
the following outline of common and particular ore features (see also Fig. 8):
Ml. Thickest sulfide lens of typical pyrite-dominated composition, displaying
a fold structure. The main sulfide defines a granoblastic elongate texture with in-
tergranular films of chalcopyrite. Pyrrhotite and sphalerite occur both as inclu-
sions in pyrite and in interstitial position. Discontinuous streaks of extremely
fine-grained, recrystallized pyrite with massive appearance contrast with coarser-
grained layers marked by an increased quartz content in the matrix.
M2. Sulfide horizon with the highest content of chalcopyrite and with a com-
positional banding best developed in the whole sequence. Layers of copper-iron
sulfides dominate next to the hanging wall. Some laminae of altered pyrrhotite
display S-shaped folds with differential mobilization into the related axial plane.
Pyrite may form large oval metablasts up to 1.5 em in size; sigmoidal poikiloblasts
formed when floating in the matrix. Bornite is rare and confined to chalcopyritic
layers or to minute inclusions in poikiloblastic pyrite.
M3. Folded manto with distinct deformation features such as relict thrust
planes and cataclasis with subsequent healing by matrix components. A symmet-
rical vertical zoning of the matrix is evident from the qz-cp-po-cp-qz mineral suc-
cession.
M4. Sulfide sheet with highest pyrrhotite content present in layers or rounded
masses with contorted host rock fragments (Durchbewegung). The striking bird's
eye texture results from the incipient low temperature conversion of pyrrhotite in-
to marcasite and pyrite (Zwischenprodukt of Ramdohr 1975) with admixtures of
iron oxides/hydroxides (Einaudi 1971 ).
M5. Ore-bearing horizon without compositional banding, consists of annealed
subhedral pyrite with preferred orientation and a matrix of gangue and chal-
copyrite. Two generations of pyrite can be distinguished by the presence or ab-
sence of inclusions. The purified ones with lower reflectivity formed by high-
grade recrystallization from poikiloblasts. A post-annealing cataclasis caused
fracture fabrics also in the second generation of pyrite, resulting in cracking, shat-
tering until drawing-apart of fragments in the fringe zones of larger crystals, or
Fig. 8a. Pyrite(py)-dominated layer with granoblastic texture and orientated crystal growth during
syntectonic recrystallization. Annealing and pressure solution caused purified pyrite surrounding for-
mer grains with abundant inclusions of matrix composition. The interstitial matter consists of
chalcopyrite (cp) and quartz (qz) [M5]. b Cataclastic pyrite with fissure fillings of chalcopyrite (cp)
occasionally accompanied by mackinawite (mk), and tiny flakes (25 ~m) of molybdenite (mo ).
Sphalerite (sf) outside of pyrite is supergenely replaced by carbonate (cc) . Pyrrhotite displays an incipi-
ent conversion into marcasite, shown by supergene formation of the intermediate product and its
admixtures (ip) [M7]. c Primary layering marked by compositional change and variation in grain size
of pyrite [M2]. d Chalcopyrite (cp)-rich layer with metablastic pyrite (py) surrounded by copper-iron
sulfides, some pyrrhotite (po) and quartz (qz). Irregular-shaped bornite (bn) is found in py-
Cu
Fig. 9. Pb-Cu-Zn ternary plot of well-known massive sulfide deposits with contour line after Franklin
et al. (1981). The Piren Alto data plot in the field of Cu-rich deposits and cover also the gap caused
by the usual cutoff for economic recovery, which separates the copper-rich cluster from Zn-Cu ores.
The volcanic-associated ores are entirely in the Cu-Zn and Zn-Pb-Cu groups; the Pb-Zn group can
largely be attributed to the sediment-hosted deposits
in accumulation of sphalerite attrition in interstitial gangue. The carrollite-lin-

neite-pentlandite assemblage is only preserved as inclusions in chalcopyrite,
whereas talnakite and haycockite occur as intergranular fillings of pyrite. Digenite
replaces chalcopyrite; chalcocite, and covelline are supergene. Galena is extremely
rare and found only as a tiny inclusion in pyrite.
M6. Thin, compact layer of sulfides, consisting of small patches of chalcopy-
rite and gangue, surrounded by coarse grains of pyrite.
M7. Manto with a high sphalerite content restricted to a quartz layer at the
bottom. Upwards, the ore fabric is marked by layers of pyrrhotite and quartz-
poikiloblasts and in the cp-matrix. The occurrence of sphalerite (sf) is commonly linked to quartz (qz)
[M2]. e The grain shape of pyrite closely reflects the matrix in which it grew; euhedral overgrowths
of individual py-poikiloblasts are especially well developed in quartz-rich layers of the ore contacts
[MJ}. f The sigmoidal poikiloblast of pyrite (py) reflects plastic deformation due to a large ductility
contrast. Left-handed simple shear with syntectonic growth of pyrite in a po-qz-layer caused a pressure
shadow with tail-form concentration of more mobile chalcopyrite (cp). Inclusions in pyrite are quartz
(qz), sphalerite (sf), pyrrhotite (po), mackinawite (mk) in fissure relics, and tiny laths (5 !lm) of
molybdenite (not reproduced) [M2]. g Pyrite metablasts reveal at least two stages of brittle deforma-
tion, which are evident from the mutual relationship of cementing sulfide minerals. Cracks healed by
chalcopyrite (cp) are prior to a superimposed cataclasis with fillings of pyrrhotite (po) and to a post-
cataclastic growth of sphalerite (sf). Layered po-concentrations (bars) bound and cut the disrupted py-
rite; they are considered as a set of thrust planes or as a spaced cleavage. Note the rolled-out fragments
of pyrite (signs) which may indicate movements within the po-layer. This ore tectonite is marked in
the field by its "sandy" appearance due to weathering of the po-matrix [M3]. (All scale bars=
0.25 mm, except for f = 0.25 em)
dominated gangue containing coarse-grained, fractured pyrite with occasional in-

clusions of mackinawite and molybdenite. Pentlandite is a common accessory sul-
fide in pyrrhotite. The top layer is more massive in appearance, made of fine-
grained pyrite within a quartz-poor gangue; rutile is the main opaque mineral in
the mica-dominated -gangue.
The classification of the Piren Alto massive sulfides as a Cu-(Zn) ore (Fig. 9)
according to Franklin et al. (1981) is based on chemical analysis from Collao and
Alfaro (1982) and Oyarzun and Helle (1984). The copper content ranges from
0.21 OJo to 1.83% with a weighted average of 0.97%; zinc values are distinctly sub-
ordinate, ranging from 26 ppm to 0.11 OJo. The bulk assays confirm high Fe/Cu
and Cu/Zn ratios but significantly low values of Pb [x = 26 ppm; n = 6]. The
amount of Co and Ni is slightly higher than the content of other trace elements
reported [Co = 58 ppm; Ni = 41 ppm; As = 17 ppm; Mo = 27 ppm; Ag = 6 ppm;
Sb = 5 ppm; Au= 0.053 ppm; n = 6; see also Appendix 2].
4 Structure and Metamorphism
The structural analysis of the Chilean Coast Range ophiolite reveals multiple defor-
mation with two superimposed sets of transverse, low-plunging fold axes [b 1 .L b2 ;
b3 .L b4]. 1\vo phases of shear folding can be distinguished: The older ductile one
(D~ is related to the formation of a regional main schistosity and imbricate struc-
tures; the subsequent, more brittle refolding is due to crenulation style folds (D 3)
with local development of axial planar mylonitization (Schira 1990).
The tectonic events recognized are listed in Thble 3. Most of the structures have
non-Andean trends; even younger ones (D 5) reactivate older, oblique lineaments
rather than the NNE-SSW direction (D 3) represented by the dominant morphol-
ogy of the Andes.
All lithologic units display a corresponding microfabric and similar structural
patterns in the field, which suggests that the same tectonic regime was active dur-
ing ophiolite formation.
The Piren Alto massive sulfide occurrence has a pre-deformative origin indi-
cated by textural, mineralogic, and geochemical features. In addition, field evi-
dence shows that the orebodies are conformable with bedding, mostly parallel
with the regional main schistosity, and folded like the host rock according to
Fig. 10a. The corresponding deformation model (Fig. 10b) explains the main
structural relationships of the microfabric in host rock and ore.
The structure of the outcrop (Fig. 11) is marked by dominantly SE-dipping ore
contacts according to the attitude of the main schistosity. Minor fold axes (D2)
are south-directed. A joint system (D 5) with NW and NE dips is consistent with
regional fault trends. NW-dipping joints are reverse faults producing displace-
ments in the dm-range.
The scarcity of demonstrable fold hinges in the massive sulfide layers, despite
the obvious degree of deformation in the host rock, is attributed to transposition.
The combined characteristics of pervasive tectonic fabric and distinct metamor-
phic segregation of mobile minerals can be taken as arguments for the reorienta-
tion of folded layers along the related axial plane (Thlbot and Hobbs 1968).
Table 3. Structural features (D) related to alteration (A) and isochemical metamorphism (M) in the
Piren Alto area and the Coast Range ophiolite (without high-pressure belts, see text)
Ao Pre-depositional alteration of clastic rocks

s0 Sedimentary alternation with internal compositional layering
A1 Hydrothermal alteration
D1 Isoclinal folds [b 1 = NE-SW?]

Penetrative schistosity s1
M1 Prograde low grade to (almandine)-low grade metamorphism in the higher lithostratigraphic
parts
(syn-/post-s 1 almandine-rich garnet, pre-s2 feldspar, biotite 1 + muscovite 1 + chlorite 1 along s1)
Medium grade metamorphism in the lower lithostratigraphic parts
(andesine+ hornblende+ (clino)zoisite)
D2 Recumbent (cm-m) shear folds [b 2 = NW-SE]

Axial planar crenulation cleavage s2 and related transposition
(dismembering and imbrication, emplacement of ultramafic tectonites along sz)
Regional variation of metamorphic conditions:
M2 . 1 a, Retrograde low-grade metamorphism/albite-actinolite-chlorite zone
(chlorite2. 1 + muscovite2 along s2 , syn-s2 albite poikiloblasts)
b, syn-s2 poikiloblastic almandine
M2 .2 Retrograde chloritization
(chlorite2 .2 replacing syn-s2 almandine)
D3 Large-scale(> 10m) recumbent shear folds [b 3 =NNE-SSW]

Anastomosing shear zones/mylonitic macrocrenulation s3
First-stage ore cataclasis with subsequent healing
M3 Recrystallization
(annealed quartz, post-s2 albite growth, cross-cutting micas in contact aureoles of post-
ophiolitic intrusions)
D4 Gentle warping with local kink folds [b4 =ESE-WNW]

Incipient s4 with N-directed reverse faults
Second-stage ore cataclasis with subsequent healing
D5 Block faulting with associated strike-slip movements [NW-SE/NE-SW]

Coast Range uplift/Central Valley formation
A2 Beginning of secondary alteration (meteorization)
Recent Epirogenetic movements (terracing)

1960 Earthquake (subsiding low-lands, rock fractures, chasms in Andean volcanoes)
The deformation style implies a tectonic repetition of mantos due to isoclinal

folding (Fig. 10). The textural and mineralogical particularities of the respective
ore bodies (Sect. 3) exclude, however, this structural possibility for the outcrop
scale.
The metamorphic history (Table 3) of the Coast Range basement under consid-
eration is marked by a relict prograde mineral assemblage (M 1) of the low grade
to (almandine)-low grade metamorphism sensu Winkler (1979) in the higher
lithostratigraphic parts, followed by a two-stage retrograde metamorphism with
re-equilibration under lower greenschist facies conditions (M 2.1) and subsequent
chloritization (M2.2); recrystallized quartz ribbons and cross-cutting micas indi-
Fig. 10. a The textural pattern of deformed segregation quartz in the host rock is considered to repre-
sent the deformation style of the conformable massive sulfide layers. S-shaped or rootless folds, and
offset layers are suggestive of transposition (Bishop 1972). b Structural model of the microfabric in
rocks of the Chilean Coast Range ophiolite: a shear fold (cm-m range) with axial planar crenulation
cleavage (s2) and subhorizontal fold hinge is superimposed on isoclinal folds with related axial plane
foliation subparallel to compositional layering (s 1 11 so). s2 completely overprints s1 on the dominant
limbs of F2 , or intersects s1 at low angle forming a typical lenticular or flaser texture. The resulting
main schistosity is thus a combined structure (s 1 +sz) which parallels primary lithologic differences
(s0). The indicated fold hinges (F 1 +F2) may generally be obliterated by transposition
cate a concluding thermal impact (M 3). There is no evidence for low-grade high-
pressure minerals (M 1) such as crossite or lawsonite, which are mentioned for the
Pichilemu area (Herve et al. 1974) or for that part of Chiloe Island (Saliot 1968)
belonging to the Western Series (Fig. 1). However, regional p,T-variations seem to
be confirmed by the occasional lack of almandine, or its chloritic replacement,
also in rocks of the appropriate composition.
The Piren Alto host rock is free of almandine-rich garnet; the mafic rock suite
displays a uniform metamorphic grade corresponding to the albite-actinolite-
chlorite zone (M~ sensu Winkler (1979). Some biotite (M 1) partly replaced by
chlorite is preserved in the metaflyschoids.
The following constraints (after Winkler 1979) can be applied to delineate the
p,T-conditions of diagnostic silicate parageneses in the Piren Alto area:
M 1 first appearance of biotite+muscovite: T>430°C at p = 1 kbar

upper stability of muscovite+chlorite: T<520°C at p = 1kbar
no almandine: p < 4 kbar at T = 500 ° C
~ low-p/high-T range of low-grade metamorphism
M2 presence of clinozoisite and zoisite: T > 310 o C at p = 1 kbar

absence of biotite+ muscovite: T < 430 oc at p = 1 kbar
no crossite + (clino)zoisite:
~ low-p/low-T range of low-grade metamorphism
X-ray diffractograms of graphitic material are consistent with fully ordered

graphite (Schira 1990), which is first recognized in the albite-epidote amphibolite
facies (T>400°C) according to Landis (1971). It is generally agreed that the con-
trol of graphitization is primarily dependent upon metamorphic temperature (Fir-
sova et al. 1986); thus, also the graphite thermometer can exclude low-temperature
blueschist facies conditions for the metasediments.
..••••-.:•
•• Fig. H. Equal-area projection of fold axes (crosses),
poles to the main foliation (circles), and joints (squares)
in the Piren Alto outcrop
The relatively simple chemical composition of the Pin~n Alto ore, and the large
stability field of its main sulfide minerals resulted in a lack of sensitive indicators
of progressive metamorphism. Sphalerite as a geobarometer was applied by Col-
lao et al. (1986). The pressure range of 4.4 kbar to 9.0 kbar obtained for the Pin~n
Alto outcrop is in clear contrast to the results indicated by the silicate parageneses
(p < 4 kbar). This discrepancy can be explained by the erroneous use of ubiquitous
secondary inclusions or fracture fillings of sphalerite in metablastic pyrite (see
Fig. 8}, and reference can be made to healing or "necking down" of mineral
cracks as typical second-stage processes which are in disequilibrium to the host
mineral (Roedder 1984). Furthermore, the ZnS-FeS pairs in pyrite do not perform
the criteria of "simple equilibrium" suggested by Barton et al. (1963}, and are of-
ten in contact with chalcopyrite, which queries such results (Craig and Vaughan
1981).
Common deformational and metamorphic features of the Piren Alto ore are
listed in Thble 4.
Table 4. Summary of structural and metamorphic imprints on the Piren Alto ore (see also Fig. 8)
1. Ductile deformation and recrystallization evident from oriented grain growth and changes in
mineral morphology (porphyroblasts, partly with sigmoidal shape).
2. Folding of layers with evidence of rotational movements and inclusion of host rock fragments
(Durchbewegung). Manto thickening in fold hinges, with stretching along fold limbs.
3. Selective mobilization of main sulfide minerals (in order of decreasing mobility: cp-po-py).
4. Two stages of brittle deformation and matrix recrystallization evident from distinct generations
of fracture fillings.
A prograde ore metamorphism is evident from oriented growth and grain

coarsening of pyrite. Syntectonic recrystallization and local mobilization (M:z}
correspond to S-shaped folding of sulfide layers. Repeated brittle deformation
and annealing are proved by cataclastic fracturing of pyrite (D3 + D4) with sub-
sequent cementing by chalcopyrite (M3) and pyrrhotite cutting chalcopyrite (M4).
A post-deformational annealing (M 3+4) is also indicated by the static growth of

sphalerite in fissure fillings of chalcopyrite (Fig. Sf). The occurrence of
mackinawite in the Piren Alto sulfide assemblage probably stands for a retrograde
desulfurization process below temperatures of approximately 150 oc (Briggs et al.
1977). Clear supergene products are colloform pyrite and marcasite resulting from
pyrrhotite alteration, as well as chalcocite and covelline.
5 Conclusion
The Piren Alto Cu(-Zn) massive sulfides are stratabound to mafic intercalations
within an ophiolite-related volcano-sedimentary sequence. The combined features
of alkaline host rock geochemistry and flyschoid-andesitic rocks with calc-
alkaline intrusions indicate an ensialic mature marginal basin setting.
The pre-metamorphic ore is possibly synsedimentary, as deduced from the
structural and metamorphic conformity with the clastic host rock. The low-
pressure metamorphism of greenschist facies type was not intense enough to oblit-
erate primary features. The stratigraphic control by mafic metasediments, indica-
tions of hydrothermal activity, and geochemical signatures in host rock and ore
suggest a volcanogenic origin (Thble 5) of Piren Alto.
Table 5. Indications for the sedimentary-exhalative origin of the Piren Alto ore
1. Stratabound setting in a metasedimentary sequence.

2. Structural and metamorphic conformity with the metasedimentary host rock.
3. Hydrothermal activity indicated by
- stratiform concentration of Mg-rich tourmalines (according to Slack 1982; Slack et al. 1984;
Taylor and Slack 1984; Plimer 1986)
- Barium anomalies (according to BostrOm et al. 1973)
- Major and trace element alteration patterns (see also Van den Boom et al. 1980)
Massive sulfide deposits known for over 100 years (e.g., Von Groddeck 1879)
attracted increased interest in the late 1950's (see Franklin et al. 1981). Current
classification attempts are mainly based on ore composition, host lithology, and
tectonic setting. The volcano-sedimentary affiliation of the Piren Alto host rock
supports its attribution to the Besshi-type massive sulfides. Fox (1984) considers
this type to be related with epicratonic rift environments; he refers to the oceanic
and intraplate geochemistry of mafic host rocks intercalated in flyschoid se-
quences. Although diagnostic geochemical indices [Fe>Cu, Sawkins (1976);
Co> Ni, Cox (1986)] are consistent with the Besshi-type, there is a contrast in the
host rock composition by the dominance of mafics relative to epiclastics. In addi-
tion, some characteristic minor constituents of Besshi-type deposits, e. g.,
tetrahedrite (Cox 1986) and stannite (Fox 1984), are lacking in Piren Alto.
The clear ophiolite-hosted geologic setting of massive sulfides in south-central
Chile is indicative of Cyprus-type deposits, but objections arise in Piren Alto due
to missing stratigraphic links to pillow lavas and to the absence of stringer zones.
The Pin~n Alto Cu-(Zn) Massive Sulfide Occurrence in South-Central Chile 247
Table 6. Pin~n Alto massive sulfides featuring characteristics of
Cyprus-type Besshi-type
+ Ophiolitic setting + Sedimentary environment

+ Dominance of mafic rocks +flyschoid host rock portion with graphite
+Pyritic ore composition, almost without +Co-bearing sulfides, molybdenite (Cox 1986)
galena
+ cp > po (Singer 1986) +Co>Ni (Cox 1986)
- no stringer zones -no tetrahedrite (Cox 1986)
-no umbers -no stannite (Fox 1986)
Comparing the Pin!n Alto Cu(-Zn) massive sulfides with established classifica-
tion schemes, the ore mineralogy and the mixed association of mafic (-felsic) and
sedimentary host rocks in Pin!n Alto (Table 6) bring out a transitional aspect,
which is best covered by the term Kies/ager. This denotation is traditionally used
to emphasize intermediate characteristics (see also Hutchinson 1980), and applies
to metamorphosed and intrinsically deformed, stratiform volcanic-associated de-
posits bound to metasedimentary-greenstone sequences. Kies/ager deposits are of-
ten compared with Besshi-type massive sulfides (e. g., Vokes 1969; Hutchinson
1980), but there is also the opinion that Kieslager ores are a distal variety of the
Cyprus-type (Franklin et al. 1981). This interpretation is also supported by Piren
Alto with its close ophiolitic association and the dominantly pyritic ore composi-
tion.
Using the data from literature (e. g., Hutchinson 1980; Fox 1984), it becomes
evident that rift-related massive sulfides form a continuous metallogenic spec-
trum depending on the degree of oceanic crust development. In this model, Cy-
prus-type base metals stand for mature oceanic basins, whereas the end members
of sediment-hosted (e. g., Sullivan-type) massive sulfides are confined to the initial
stages of continental rifting.
The present example of Piren Alto suggests that comparable Kies/ager-type de-
posits within characteristic metaflyschoid-greenschist sequences are bound to en-
sialic mature marginal basins rather than to other settings.
Acknowledgments. This study is a part of the first author's doctoral thesis about the Chilean Coast
Range ophiolite. He appreciates grants from DAAD (Bonn), GraduiertenfOrderung Baden-Wiirt-
temberg, and Studienstiftung (Bonn). Thanks are also due to Stiftung Volkswagenwerk (Hannover)
for supporting this research project in cooperation with Universidad de Concepcion (Chile). The
authors are indebted to Dr. E. Pernicka (Max-Planck-Institut fiir Kernphysik, Heidelberg) for kindly
performing instrumental neutron activation analysis.
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Van den Boom G, Rehder S, Kottrup G (1980) Geochemical patterns in the rocks surrounding the
Woodlawn volcanogenic ore deposit, New South Wales, Australia. Geol Jb D40:169-200
Vergara L (1970) Prospecci6n de yacimientos de cromo y de hierro en La Cabana, Cautin. Mem de
Titulo, Univ Chile, Santiago, 118 p
Vokes FM (1969) A review of the metamorphism of sulphide deposits. Earth Sci Rev 5:99-143
Winchester JA, Floyd PA (1977) Geochemical discrimination of different magma series and their dif-
ferentiation products using immobile elements. Chern Geol 20:325- 343
Winkler HGF (1979) Petrogenesis of metamorphic rocks (5th edn). Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New
York Tokyo, 348 p
Wood DA (1980) The application of a Th-Hf-Th diagram to problems of tectonomagmatic classifica-
tion and to establishing the nature of crustal contamination of basaltic lavas of the British Tertiary
volcanic province. Earth Planet Sci Lett 50:11-30
Appendix 1. Range and median (x) of chemical compositions in the different Piren Alto host rock
types; complete XRF and INAA data in Schira (1990)
XRF Greenschists x Leptite Metapsammites x

[n=6] [n = 1] [n= 3]
wtOJo
Si02 47.6 -53.0 49.0 69.7 68.1 -73.6 71.6
Ti0 2 1.14-2.02 1.86 0.74 0.65-0.78 0.71
Al203 15.2 -19.3 19.0 14.4 12.7 -15.8 14.5
Fe203 total 10.3 -13.7 11.4 5.3 4.7 -5.9 5.2
MnO 0.16-0.26 0.17 0.04 0.02-0.03 0.03
MgO 3.63-4.96 4.27 1.06 1.10-1.82 1.69
CaO 4.17-11.21 8.01 0.27 0.18-0.31 0.31
Na20 1.48-3.34 2.71 4.31 0.01-1.20 0.53
K20 0.20-2.18 0.46 1.75 3.02-3.85 3.67
P20s 0.20-0.44 0.27 0.14 0.10-0.14 0.11
LOI 2.4 -4.2 3.1 2.3 2.8 -3.1 2.9
Statal <0.1 -1.5 0.5 1.3 0.1 -1.8 1.0
ppm
v 115 -255 155 35 40 -73 68
Cr 290 -670 439 23 55 -65 58
Co 38 -48 44 18 5 -7 6
Ni 50 -145 95 12 13 -15 15
Cu 50 -730 215 380 33 -320 48
Zn 155 -735 340 160 135 -185 165
Rb 10 -93 20 120 130 -195 195
Sr 95 -585 195 63 8 -15 13
y 15 -23 19 18 20 -30 30
Zr 80 -200 145 170 140 -240 215
Nb 10 -58 39 20 10 -20 13
Ba 20 -1850 233 7625 675 -1250 1100
La 10 -45 34 18 30 -60 53
Ce 25 -100 59 38 70 -125 115
Pb 9 -40 27 8 6 -9 9
Ratios
Si02/Alp 3 4.7 -5.4
K20/Nap >1
Ni/Co 1.3 -3.0
P/La 43 -87 34
La/Y 0.7 -2.0
Ti/Zr 61 -85
Zr/Y 5.3 -8.7
Ba/Zr 0.3 -9.3
INAA H10 H9 H2
ppm
Nd 29.00±5.00 13.50±0.50 33.75±4.00
Sm 5.60±0.20 4.00±0.10 6.20±0.10
Eu 2.07±0.07 0.76±0.03 1.22±0.03
Tb 1.13±0.07 0.43±0.03 0.78±0.02
Yb 3.20±0.20 2.30±0.20 3.10±0.20
Lu 0.48±0.04 0.38±0.04 0.44±0.04
Hf 3.65±0.20 9.26±0.15 4.79±0.50
Ta 1.45±0.06 1.45±0.06 1.36±0.03
Appendix 1 (continued)
INAA H10 H9 H2
ppm
Th < 1.00 2.70±0.30 16.00±0.20
u <1.00 11.30± 0.40 5.40±0.20
Ratios
(La/Sm)cn ""3.0 ""3.0 ""3.0
(La/Tb)cn .. 5.7 ""5.1 .. 6.9
La/Ta 17.2 12.4 22.1
Th/Hf <0.27 0.3 3.3
Th/Ta <0.69 1.9 11.8
Ta/Tb 1.3 3.4 1.7
en= Chondrite-normalizing values after Evensen et al. (1978) Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:1199-1212
Appendix 2. Chemical composition of the Piren Alto massive

sulfides. Non-specified analyses from Collao and Alfaro (1982)
2 3 4 5 6
S (OJo) 46.3 42.4 39.9 32.0 45.4

Fe(%) 57.3 42.1 41.0 37.0 41.7 43.6
Cu (%) 0.21 1.83 0.57 1.56 0.79 0.83
Zn (ppm) 27 414 525 1100 26 1100
Pb (ppm) 2 5 37 29 77 7
Co (ppm) 34 64 71 76 54 52
Ni (ppm) [x=41;n=6)
As (ppm) 5 30 38 17 5 5
Mo (ppm) 20 18 48 17 47 10
Sb (ppm) 5 5 5 5 5 5
Ag (ppm) 11 5.5 2.9 4.8 5.7 3.6
Au (ppb) 180 60 20 20 20 20
The average value of Ni is taken from Alfaro G (1986) Zbl Geol Palaont Teil
1:1649-1661
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Pucara Basin
An Overview
L. FONTBorE 1
1 The Pucani Basin

The Pucara basin (Norian-Toarcian) represents the first marine transgression of
the Andean Cycle over continental clastic sediments, volcanic and volcaniclastic
rocks of the Permian-Triassic Mitu Group and other Paleozoic rocks (Figs. 1, 2
and 3). It is an intracratonic platform which has unusual characteristics compared
to other Andean basins, specifically the large extent of shallow-water carbonate
sedimentation. Descriptions of regional aspects of the Pucara Group can be
found in Szekely and Grose (1972), Megard (1968, 1978), Palacios (1980),
Loughman and Hallam (1982) and Prinz (1985 a).
Up to the beginning of the Upper Triassic marine transgression, the Permo.:rti-
assic in Peru is characterized by continental sedimentation, important alkaline and
peralkaline volcanism, and horst and graben tectonics. This situation has been re-
lated in Peru to an aborted ensialic rifting process by Noble et al. (1978) and Kon-
tak et al. (1985). A thick continental molasse sequence with abundant volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks, the Mitu Group, characterizes the Permian (up to the Middle
Triassic?) in central Peru. The wide carbonate platform of the Pucara Group devel-
oped discordantly over the terrestrial sequences, under extensional conditions, on
the western margin of the Brazilian Shield in northern and central Peru. In some
parts of this platform volcanic activity is recognized, but no evidence exists that
this volcanism was related to a subduction-related volcanic arc. The paleogeo-
graphy of this stage does not show the main elements (magmatic arc-back-arc ba-
sin) which characterizes the metallogenetic stage II (Fontbote this Vol.).
Figure 1 shows that two groups of Pucara outcrops can be distinguished, those
located in the Altiplano region ("central or western Pucara") and those in the sub-
Andine region ("eastern Pucara"). Important differences exist between the facies
development in the central and in the eastern part of the basin.
The Pucara Group was first studied in the Altiplano, where it is subdivided in-
to three formations. They are, from base to top, the Chambara Formation, con-
sisting of shaly and cherty bituminous limestone (up to 1500 m thick, Norian to
Rhaetian); the Aramachay Formation, consisting of bituminous shale and sand-
stone, chert and phosphatic rocks (600 m thick, Hettangian to Sinemurian); and
the Condorsinga Formation, consisting mainly of bioclastic and cherty lime-
stones (in part shaly to sandy), and shales (up to 2900 m thick, Pliensbachian to
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches lnstitut, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRG

Present address: Dep. de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

254 L. Fontbote
,.
...
"
...
Fig. 1. Outcrop map of the
Pucara Group according to
Szekely and Grose (1972) for the
~Tr·J PUCARA
t Ia Zn·F'I>·(Cu·Agl vOICanoc· central and to J. I. C. A. (1979)
assocLatecl ore deposits
Un part maSsiVe sothdesl for the eastern part of the ba-
e lb MVT Zn·F'I> ~tiS at
F\teara 50QUOnOil
,,.., ...... of ,,.., sin. The location of the main
0 k: ~~Yt!n ~~~T~e stratabound ore deposits is indi-
• Town cated. (Modified from
Dalheimer 1985)
Toarcian) (Megard 1968; Szekely and Grose 1972; Prinz 1985 a). The three forma-
tions were deposited in neritic environments, which, according to Loughman and
Hallam (1982), represent early open marine carbonate sedimentation (Chambani
Formation) and later a deep estuarine-like setting with restricted circulation and
phosphate-rich sediments (Aramachay Formation). The Condorsinga Formation
is characterized by much shallower water facies and probably represents a regres-
sive episode coeval with the uplifting of the Maraii6n geoanticline. Shallow-water
facies and some gypsum horizons are found also at the base of the transgressive
sequence. Since the Pucara transgression took place over an irregular erosion sur-
face of the Paleozoic substratum (Kobe 1982), the basal sediments are represented
by different formations depending on the area. Synsedimentary block faulting re-
lated to extension may have influenced the basin morphology (Dalheimer this
Vol.). It is probable that the normal faults follow in part Paleozoic lineaments.
In the sub-Andine region, extensive outcrops of Pucara carbonates are also
known (Levin 1974; Palacios 1980). The information for this eastern area is in-
complete owing to the poor exposure because of the jungle vegetation. The base
of the carbonate sequence is of Norian age (Prinz 1985b) and not Ladinian as
previously stated (Levin 1974). The youngest sediments in the eastern Pucara, be-
Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Pucara Basin 255
55
BRAZIL
BRAZIL
' <-...
\
.,. ( - .... r
\.-~/) '.._- ..... ' '
(
PACIFIC
l - :__/-, T '- ' I
OCEAN
) \
\
\
'I
I
I
I PACIFIC 'I
I I
@) UPPEA TRIASSIC I OCEA
I ) /
Ht<OCG L( @ LIASSIC 1tiiCOCa~)
<=::) C(JnYnJNOOt.IOn bel<weon baSins

c:omr'I'U'IIOOtm With Poohc Oceon
.........&,~
-
=::;)
- ptoboDIO basin hm.t
!
C1c$hC {
·- - outcrop hmll sea.mon~s'
V synsedamentory voiContsm gocl'--' --'
A 9YilPOfi!Mi • I I
..... · cklst.c: SOdments
75W
Fig. 2. Paleogeographic schemes of the Pueara basin during a Upper Triassic; b Hettangian-Toarcian.
(Modified from Audebaud et al. 1973 and Megard 1978 with data cited in Fig. 3)
ing of Toarcian age (Palacios 1980), the age range is thus comparable to that in
the central Pucara (Fig. 3). The facies development shows, however, an important
difference compared to the central part of the basin. The eastern Pucara is charac-
terized by the presence of several thick peritidal dolomitic units with abundant
algal lamination and sulfate molds deposited in sabkha-like environments; they
are especially well developed in the Thmbo Maria Formation with a total thickness
of about 600 m.
This eastern belt represents the margin of the Pucara basin and it is generally
assumed that it interfingers to the east with clastic-evaporitic sediments deposited
at the western margin of the Brazilian Shield, which have been named by Megard
(1978) Lower Sarayaquillo Formation. For other authors, for instance V.
Benavides (pers. commun.), this clastic-evaporitic marginal facies should not be
named Lower Sarayaquillo to avoid confusion with the overlying (Upper) Saraya-
quillo Formation, and corresponds in part with the "Formation ENE" recognized
at the Ucayali river and the Shira uplift during exploration for oil. Despite the dif-
ferent lithologic development, the general trend of facies evolution recognized in
the central part can also be traced in the eastern part of the basin. The peritidal
carbonate sequence is overlain by bituminous shales to limestones of the
Ulcumano Formation (Sinemurian, 350m thick), which can be compared with
the euxinic basinal facies of the time-equivalent Aramachay Formation. The Ox-
apampa Formation (shallow-water dolomite and limestone, some gypsum and
sandstone layers, 800 m thick) and the Ulcumano Formation (sandstones, 150m
256 L. Fontbote
Western Pucara Eastern

equivalents Central J Eastern equivalents
Char coni
Fm. Motu
Mitu and
Excelsior Mitu Mitu Mitu Milu + +
~ stralabo..-.:1 Zn-Ptl ore dl!posot, §! @I] m

. ,_
shale rehc I of evaporitic 111neral no deposotoon
ore occurrf!nce. <:> V occurr
~ ,., D clastK sedments [ill YOlcaOICS
~ dolomote lAt\ AI 011aporotes 1,. -rl luff or pyrodastoc rock
Fig. 3. Schematic stratigraphic correlation of ore-bearing sequences in the Pucara basin compared to
western and eastern time equivalents. Sections according to the following authors: Southern Coast:
Benavides (1962), Vicente et al. (1982). Rio La Leche: Pardo and Sanz (1979) and Prinz (1985a).
Domo de Yauli: Kobe (1982) and Dalheimer (1985). Machcan: Hirdes and Amstutz (1978). Huancayo:
Szekely and Grose (1972). Shalipayco: Szekely and Grose (1972) and observations of the present au-
thor and co-workers. Ceja de Selva: Palacios (1980), Fontbote (1981), Fontbote and Gorzawski (in
press), Prinz (1985b); the so-called Formaci6n San Vicente of Palacios (1980) has been included in
the Thmbo Maria Formation because, according to Prinz (1985b), it has a Norian to Hettangian age.
Selva: Megard (1978).
The position of representative stratabound ore deposits and occurrences is indicated: CG Chaglla;
CH Chilpes; MS Machcan; PI Pichita Caluga; SH Shalipayco; SN Sincos (Vanadium); SR San Roque;
SV San Vicente; UL Ulcumayo; YA Yauli for Carahuacra, Huaripampa, Manto Katy, etc.
thick) can be correlated with the regressive Condorsinga Formation. By Toarcian

times the regression was complete and clastic sedimentation followed (Upper
Sarayaquillo Formation).
Outcrops of Pucara sediments are also known from localities in northern Peru
(near Pataz, Wilson and Reyes 1964; in the Utcubamba Valley, Prinz 1985a). In
the northern sub-Andine region, Pucara carbonate rocks have been found at sev-
eral kilometers depth in the oil wells Loreto 12-23 and Shanusi 12-29-2x (Reyes
1983, pers. commun.). Further north, in Ecuador and Colombia, similar carbon-
ate platform sediments occur, which, like the Pucara Group, are included in the
"Magnafacies II" by Geyer (1980).
w E
Machdm Shalipayco S. Vicente Selva

Mal paso
Ib Ic
,-, r---1
-SOkm
Fig. 4. Schematic W-E profile of the Pucara and its eastern and western time equivalents showing the
position of some stratabound ore deposits. (ML Malpaso and Machcan; SH Shalipayco; SR San Ro-
que; SV San Vicente, Chilpes, Th.mbo Maria and ChagHa; Yauli for Carahuacra, Huripampa, Manto
Katy, etc.). Compare with Fig. 3 for ages of formations and names of the units in the Eastern Pucara
Some uncertainties exist as to the paleogeographic reconstruction of the

Pucara basin. For the following metallogenetic discussion it should be remem-
bered that up to Hettangian times two different paleogeographic areas can be dis-
tinguished (Figs. 3 and 4). The first area is an eastern belt with a large develop-
ment of peritidal dolomites, in part bearing evaporitic minerals, which interfinger
with clastic and evaporitic sediments sourced by the emergent Brazilian Shield.
This eastern belt hosts important Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits. The central
Pucara is characterized by facies deposited in slightly deeper environments than
the time equivalents in the eastern Pucara and is characterized by volcanic-associ-
ated ore deposits. In Pliensbachian to Toarcian times shallow-water facies with in-
creasing clastic components advanced from east to west and finally dominated the
whole Pucara sedimentation. The western continuation of the Pucara basin con-
stitutes an open question because in the western Altiplano region possible Pucara
sediments in central Peru were eroded in pre-Cretaceous times. Loughman and
Hallam (1982) envisage the Pucara basin as a shelf unrestrictedly open to the
paleo-Pacific in the west, in contrast to Szekely and Grose (1972) and Megard
(1978) who, based upon isopach maps, assume the existence of a structural high
with possible emergent areas between the Pucara basin and the paleo-Pacific. A
communication with the paleo-Pacific can be documented in the Rio La Leche
Valley (near 6°S) where an Upper Triassic-Liassic carbonate sequence with facies
similar to those known in the Pucara has been described (Figs. 3 and 4; Pardo and
Sanz 1979; Pardo 1983; Prinz 1985a).
258 L. Fontbote
A point under discussion is the possibility that the Pucara was limited to the
west by a subduction-related volcanic arc (Audebaud et al. 1973). The earliest vol-
canic event linked to the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South Ameri-
can plate is seen in subaerial and marine calc-alkaline basalts and andesites asso-
ciated with marine clastic sediments and limestones of the Chocolate Formation,
southernmost Peru (near 18 °S) (James et al. 1975; Boily et al. 1984). Geochrono-
logical work indicates ages between 150-185 m.y., which are consistent with
lithostratigraphic correlations yielding Sinemurian age for the oldest volcanic
rocks (Vicente et al. 1982). A northern continuation of this volcanic belt is repre-
sented by the Rio Grande volcanic rocks (near 15 °S, Toarcian?-Bajocian, Ruegg
1957 in Megard, 1978, dated at 160 m.y. near the Marcona Mine, Injoque et al.
1988). In northern Peru (north of 8°S) Jurassic volcanic activity is recognized in
the Chicama, La Leche, and Chira valleys (Bellido 1969; Pardo and Sanz 1979).
In the Rio La Leche profile some tuffs and pyroclastic layers occur within Het-
tangian carbonates, becoming relatively abundant in the upper part of the
Mochimu Viejo unit, which is assigned to the Toarcian (Prinz 1985 a). In overlying
clastic sediments of Dogger age of the Colan Formation in the same profile the
volcanic influence is very intense probably indicating the existence of a magmatic
arc (Pardo and Sanz 1979). It can therefore be assumed that in Sinemurian to
Toarcian, i.e., essentially coeval with northern Chile, activity of a subduction-re-
lated calc-alkaline volcanic arc started along the present Peruvian shore.
This means that deposition of the Chambara Formation and also of at least
part of the Aramachay Formation was not influenced by a volcanic arc. The first
volcanic events related to a western subduction-related magmatic arc appear to be
no earlier than the Sinemurian-Toarcian. Deposition of the upper part of the
Aramachay Formation of the Condorsinga Formation appears to be coeval with
such a western volcanic belt.
Some volcanic material is also recognized in Pucara sediments. In the eastern
Pucara only few volcanic and subvolcanic rocks of basic composition, as well as
some tuffaceous material, are known intercalated in sediments of Norian to Het-
tangian age. In the central Pucara only scarce volcanic activity is recorded, mainly
as tuffaceous horizons in the Aramachay Formation (Szekely and Grose 1968;
Kobe 1977}, but, in certain areas volcanic material is relatively abundant. This is
the case in the Aramachay and Condorsinga Formations near the Domo de Yauli
and Morococha, where several ore-bearing sequences contain frequent in-
terstratified intermediate to acid tuffs and some basic lava flows (Kobe 1977). Vol-
canic activity is reported directly at the contact between the Mitu and the Pucara
Groups in several mines including Huaripampa, Manto Katy, and Machcan (see
below); also hypabyssal intermediate intrusives and evidence of hydrothermal ac-
tivity, which could be of Pucara age, are reported by Kobe (1982) in the Malpaso
and in the Domo de Yauli areas.
The rare basic volcanic rocks in the eastern Pucara could be associated with the
general tensional conditions prevailing during deposition (Megard 1978, suggests a
reactivation of the Permian aborted rifting process to explain the formation of the
Pucara basin). With respect to the magmatism in the central Pucara, several possi-
bilities can be considered: (1) it is related to extensional tectonic conditions, (2) it
represents a kind of back-arc volcanism coeval with the volcanic arc to the west
(this possibility could not be applied to the Machcan volcanic rocks, since they
occur apparently in the Chambara Formation), and/or (3) it is a posthumous
phase of the Permian magmatism (evidenced perhaps by the striking association
with the Mitu-Pucara contact?). This question cannot be solved without detailed
petrographic, geochemical, and isotopic work on the volcanic rocks.
The general style of the evolution of the Triassic-Liassic Pucara basin has more
similarities to basins in the Triassic of Alpinotype lithofacies (e.g., in the eastern
Alps) than to the Andean basins related to the pair magmatic arc-back-arc which
will characterize the metallogenetic stage II from Liassic to Lower Cretaceous
(Fontbote this Vol.). Some of the main similarities with Alpine basins are (1) the
high subsidence rates, probably favored by extensional block tectonics, (2) pre-
dominant carbonate sedimentation, including extensive peritidal depositional en-
vironments and dolomite formation, and (3) the paleogeographic situation at the
margin of an emerged continent. The special evolution of the Pucara basin is the
reason to individualize a metallogenetic stage I (Upper Triassic-Liassic) as "ore
deposits in a carbonate platform without apparent relation to a pair magmatic
arc-arc-back-arc basin" (Fontbote this Vol.).
2 Ore Deposits
Numerous stratabound ore deposits occur in sediments of the Pucara Group
(Dunin 1975; Kobe 1977, 1982, this Vol. a). They belong to different genetic types.
According to the paleogeographic position and lithology of the host sequence
three groups may be distinguished (Figs. 1, 3 and 4).
Ia) Zn-Pb(-Ag-Cu) deposits rich in Mn and Fe in part with massive sulfide
parageneses located near the base of the carbonate sequence spatially asso-
ciated to volcanic and/or volcanoclastic intercalations (e.g., Carahuacra-
Huaripampa).
Ib) Mississippi Valley-type deposits at the base of the carbonate sequence (e.g.,
Shalipayco, Zn-Pb).
lc) Mississippi Valley-type deposits within the carbonate sequence (e.g., San
Vicente, Zn-Pb).
In addition to these main groups there are numerous barite occurrences at the
Mitu-Pucara contact in the Altiplano region (Kobe 1982; Pool 1987). Barite oc-
currences are also known within the carbonate sequence in northern and eastern
areas of the Pucara basin. Vanadium showings occur in the Sincos Member of
the Aramachay Formation near the village of Sincos (south of Jauja, central Pe-
ru). Vanadium minerals, mainly sincosite [CaV(OHiP04)z·3H20, Schaller 1924,
formula according to Ramdohr and Strunz 1978], occur in an 18-m-thick horizon
of bituminous shales which contain thin layers of volcanic ash (Szekely and Grose
1972; Canepa, this Vol.). Phosphatic rocks are abundant in the Aramachay For-
mation with P 20 5 concentrations over 8o/o reported by Loughman and Hallam
(1982) near Huancayo.
260 L. Fontbote
2.1 Volcanic-Associated Deposits Located near the Base

of the 'Ihlnsgressive Pucara Sequence
In central Peru a number of stratiform Zn-Pb-Cu-(Ag) deposits occur near the con-
tact between the Permo-Triassic Mitu Group and the Pucara Group. Among the
most representative ore deposits are those around the Domo de Yauli (e.g.,
Carahuacra, Huaripampa, Tingocancha, Vera 1983; Dalheimer this Vol.); the Katy
manto near Morococha and, according to (Huaman 1983), parts of the Morococha
Mine itself; the Malpaso Mine (Kobe 1977, 1982), and perhaps part of the Machcan
Mine (Hirdes and Amstutz 1978; Hirdes this Vol.). All these deposits are spatially
related to the occurrence of tuffs and/or volcanic rocks interbedded within the
Pucara sequence. The ore occurs mainly as stratiform lenses (mantos) but subordi-
nate cross-cutting orebodies exist, too. The main ore minerals are sphalerite, galena,
and chalcopyrite, which occur in parageneses usually very rich in oxides and sul-
fides of Fe and Mn. The parageneses of several mines (e.g., Katy manto, parts of
Huaripampa and Carahuacra) correspond to clear massive sulfide types. Barite, an-
other mineral typical of volcanic-associated stratabound ore deposits, occurs in sev-
eral mines (Carahuacra, Huaripampa, Malpaso); in the Moises Mine massive barite
horizons appear intercalated with oxidized massive sulfide horizons. All these fea-
tures, in particular their association to volcanic activity and the parageneses, con-
trast with those of the Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits of groups I b and I c. The
trace element content (Soler 1986) and the isotopic signatures (Fontbote et al. this
Vol.) are also different.
The spatial coincidence in the Atacocha District, in the Domo de Yauli, and
in Morococha of Pucara-hosted stratiform ores and vein and skarn ores related
to Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic intrusives complicates the genetic discussion. Tra-
ditionally, the stratiform bodies were interpreted as the result of metasomatic re-
placement related to Cretaceous-Cenozoic intrusives (e.g., Petersen 1965; Lyons
1968). Alternatively, the association to volcanic activity at the base of the Pucara,
the stratiform geometry at the mine scale, and the parageneses, support ex-
halative/volcanic-sedimentary models which have been suggested by different au-
thors (Kobe 1977, 1982; Hirdes and Amstutz 1978; Vera 1983; Dalheimer 1985,
this Vol.).
The main ore deposits of this group Ia occur in the area around the Domo de
Yauli. They include the Huaripampa and Carahuacra mines, the genesis of which
has been discussed by Lyons (1968), Kobe (1977, 1982), Vera (1983) and
Dalheimer (this Vol.). Several superimposed stratiform bodies occur in-
terstratified with tuffs, volcanic rocks, and shallow-water carbonate rocks of the
Aramachay and Condorsinga Formations. The mantos consist mainly of massive
aggregates of pyrite, hematite, magnetite, sphalerite, and galena with different
amounts of quartz, calcite, dolomite, and Mn-rich siderite. Kaolinite and alunite
are also observed (Dalheimer this Vol.). Cross-cutting Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag and pyrite-
wolframite veins bound to post-Pucara intrusives occur in the Paleozoic rocks and
in part intersect the stratiform orebodies (e.g., San Cristobal and Andaychagua
veins). In addition, post-tectonic karstic enrichments are also found.
If the geometry of the deposits of this group around the Domo de Yauli at the
local and district scale is strictly stratiform, at the hand-specimen and microscope
scale, frequent recrystallization and replacement features including a conspicuous

banding at the mm scale are observed (e.g., Figs. 2h and 2i in Dalheimer this Vol.).
It should be noted that some of the arguments used favoring an exhalative/volca-
nic-sedimentary genesis are based on this rom-scale banding, which has been inter-
preted as depositional bedding with soft-sediment deformation (Vera 1983). How-
ever, this banding was produced, in the opinion of the present author, by post-
depositional crystallization as evidenced by its monomineralic composition and bi-
polar patterns. This hypothesis is in agreement with the lack of framboidal pyrite,
the relatively large grain size of the minerals, and the frequent replacement textures,
among the most typical of which the reduction of hematite to magnetite and the
inverse process should be mentioned. They represent a quick change in the oxida-
tion stage (Dalheimer 1985). All these observations indicate that an active hydro-
thermal system roughly contemporaneous with sedimentation was responsible for
the genesis of the ore deposits under discussion. This explains both the stratiform
geometry at the regional scale, and replacement features at smaller scales.
Lead isotope determinations of stratabound and vein ores in Machcan and in
Domo de Yauli have been carried out by Gunnesch and Baumann ( 1990). As dis-
cussed in Fontbote et al. (this Vol.) the lead appears to have been derived mainly
from the "orogene" reservoir. It appears, therefore, that the hydrothermal system
has leached underlying Paleozoic basement rocks.
Between the Domo de Yauli District and the Morococha Mine occurs the Man-
to Katy (Huaman 1983). This deposit consists of a stratiform massive pyrite body
located directly between volcanic rocks attributed to the Mitu and Pucara carbon-
ates, 2 km S of Morococha. The main ore mineral is chalcopyrite. Contents of sil-
ver, lead, and zinc have also been recovered. Quartz is the main gangue mineral.
The economic ores are located near the intersection of the stratiform body with
NEE to NE veins. Silicification of the underlying volcanic rocks, some tuff hori-
zons within the manto, and replacement textures of pyrite by chalcopyrite all ar-
gue for a volcanogenic genesis. This is also consistent with preliminary sulfur iso-
topic data yielding values close to zero (o34S between +0.7 and +2.0) in
stratiform ore samples and in cross-cutting veins (Huaman 1983).
Hirdes and Amstutz (1978) and Hirdes (this Vol.) propose an exhalative genesis
for stratiform, pyrite-rich parts of the Machcan deposit. Soler et al. (1986) main-
tain that the main part of this ore deposit occurs in veins and skarn bodies and
bears no relation to exhalative processes.
An open question in all ore deposits of this group is the nature of the
hydrothermal system and the kind of relation to the synsedimentary volcanic ac-
tivity. The geochemical characterization of the volcanic rocks spatially related to
the ore deposits is one of the most urgent objectives in order to understand their
genesis. It is also possible that volcanic rocks forming the footwall of some ore
deposits which presently are attributed to the Mitu Group actually belong to the
base of the Pucara Group.
262 L. Fontbote
2.2 Mississippi Valley-1.Ype Zn-Pb Deposits at the Base

of the Carbonate Pucara Sequence
The Shalipayco ore district comprises several stratiform Zn-Pb bodies located in
shallow-water dolomitic facies in the lower part of the Chambara Formation,
which in this area represents a transition between the facies of the central and
eastern Pucara. The lowest ore-bearing horizon is located at the contact with the
Mitu Group, here developed as a volcaniclastic conglomerate. This deposit is de-
scribed by Kobe (1977), Michaud 1977, and Merino (in prep.). Ore showings run
for about 20 km in a north-south direction having been mined in the past in
Shalipayco and Ulcumayo. The only ore minerals are sphalerite and galena, pyrite
occurring only very subordinately. Silver was an interesting by-product. All ores
are hosted in dolomitic rocks deposited in peritidal environments. Part of the
orebodies occur in horizons with clear evaporite pseudomorphs and well-devel-
oped algal mats. In contrast to San Vicente (see below), fine-grained ores are very
frequent. Lead isotope investigations indicate that metals were probably leached
from underlying Permian volcanic material (Fontbote et al. this Vol.) and precipi-
tated in sulfate-bearing dolomite horizons. The relatively high silver values sup-
port this hypothesis. Another Zn-Pb-(Ag) deposit located at the base of the
Pucara sequence is the Pichita Caluga Mine, 8 km northwest of San Ram6n.
Kobe (1977) describes chalcocite occurrences in Chambara bituminous car-
bonate rocks directly overlying the red-bed type Cu deposit of Negra Huanusha
(Amstutz 1956; Kobe this Vol. b). Kobe (1977) considers that they have been pro-
duced by erosion of the red-bed type copper deposits of Negra Huanusha and pre-
cipitation in euxinic Pucara sediments; direct precipitation of copper-rich brines
during diagenesis could also be envisaged.
2.3 Mississippi Valley-1.Ype Zn-Pb Deposits

Within the Pucara Carbonate Sequence
The eastern Pucara, as discussed above, is characterized up to Hettangian (mainly

in the Thmbo Maria Formation) by the occurrence of several thick dolomitic units
deposited in peritidal environments representing a transition between detri-
tal-evaporitic sediments at the margin of the Brazilian Shield and neritic open ma-
rine carbonates of the central Pucara to the west (Fig. 5). The important Zn-Pb
deposit of San Vicente (presently the main single zinc producer of Peru), as well
as a number of other ore deposits and occurrences occur in peritidal dolomitic
facies of the Tambo Maria Formation.
These features are consistent with the observation (Fontbote 1981; Amstutz
and Fontbote 1986) that carbonate-hosted ore deposits occurring near a transgres-
sion surface (e.g., Shalipayco) have a more complex paragenesis than those locat-
ed within a thick carbonate sequence (e.g., San Vicente), which are usually charac-
terized by extremely simple parageneses. This can be explained by selective precip-
itation during transport of the ore-bearing brines.
The San Vicente Mine has been extensively described by Fontbote and Gor-
zawski (1990) and Gorzawski et al. (this Vol.). Sphalerite and galena are the only
Pa l eogeograph i c Pos i t i on of Zn - Pb Deposits I n the

Puceni - Ba s in (Eastern Margin)
w E
Fig. 5. Schematic block dia-

gram showing the paleogeo-
graphic situation of the east-
ern part of the Pucara basin
in Norian-Hettangian times
and the position of the ore de-
posits Shalipayco (SH) and
San Vicente (SV) and the ore
-JOkm occurrences Chaglla (CG) and
+ + + + + + + + + +
....- Tambo Maria (TM)
ore minerals (12o/o Zn, 1% Pb, more than 15 mio. t production and reserves). The
ores occur chiefly as lens-shaped bodies generally parallel to the bedding. The
main part of the ore occurs as DCRs (diagenetic crystallization rhythmites, see
Gorzawski et al. this Vol.). The main ore horizons are bound to dolomitized tidal
flat and lagoon facies with cryptalgallamination and evaporite molds and to ad-
jacent oolithic grainstones of barrier facies. The San Vicente lead-zinc deposit ap-
pears to have formed during burial diagenesis. The temperatures indicated by sul-
fur isotope geothermometry (a range of temperature of 75 o to 92 oq would be
consistent with temperatures reached at a burial depth of about 2 to 3 km, which
would be attained by the end of the Jurassic. A model based on abiogenic reduc-
tion of sulfates at or near the ore site and introduction of a zinc and lead-bearing
basinal brine characterized by strontium isotopic ratios slightly higher than con-
temporaneous seawater and highly radiogenic lead isotopic ratios is favored. The
association of the orebodies with peritidal facies with abundant sulfate molds is
the main evidence favoring the existence of two separate reservoirs for sulfur and
metals. Leaching of detrital material derived from the Precambrian upper crust
from the Brazilian Shield would explain both strontium and lead isotopic ratios
(Fontbote et al. this Vol.).
The San Vicente Zn-Pb Mine is the most important Mississippi Valley-type de-
posit in the eastern Pucara, but additional Zn-Pb-(F-Ba) occurrences and pros-
pects are known along a belt striking north-south at least 200 km, mainly in the
Tambo Maria Formation. The Tambo Maria Formation has been recognized for
260 km in a north-south direction (between the Rio Huallaga, south of Tingo Ma-
ria and San Vicente, J.I.C.A. 1979). It is remarkable that the main lithologic char-
acteristics are quite constant along the known part of this facies belt. This in-
cludes the thickness (between 400 and 600 m), the distance over the base of the
carbonate sequence (between 400 and 700 m), the occurrence of DCRs, ore depos-
its, and ore showings. South of San Vicente the ore-bearing horizons are followed
for about 20 km to the end of the Pucara outcrops near Monobamba. Huayanay,
5 km south of Monobamba, is the southernmost known zinc-lead occurrence.
They have been mined only in Chilpes. North of San Vicente the J.I.C.A. (1979)
has studied ore occurrences in the Tambo Maria Formation in Tambo Maria (Zn-
Pb), 15 km south of Oxapampa, and in Chaglla (Pb-F) as far as 150 km north
264 L. Fontbote
of San Vicente. It is very possible that similar occurrences exist more to the north.
This is, for example, suggested by soil anomalies with over 1600 ppm Zn near
Tingo Maria (250 km north of San Vicente, J.I.C.A 1979). Although the main ore
deposits occur in the Thmbo Maria Formation, some Zn-Pb showings are also
known in dolomitic horizons of the Oxapampa Formation in the San Roque area.
It should be realized that the sub-Andine Region is relatively inaccessible and
thus poorly investigated. On the basis of the known ore deposits and occurrences
and the persistence of facies and diagenetic characteristics, it can be assumed that
a large Mississippi Valley-type province is located in the eastern Pucara. This shal-
low-water carbonate platform at the western margin of the Brazilian Shield thus
constitutes an interesting exploration target for the future.
Acknowledgments. This work summarizes investigations supported by the Deutsche Forschungsge-

meinschaft (German Research Foundation) in collaboration with the Universidad Nacional de In-
genieria, Lima, and different mining companies. The author wishes to thank V. Benavides (Madrid),
E. Cedillo (Guanajuato, Mexico), J. Merino (Lima), C. Muiioz and S. Rosas (Heidelberg) for fruitful
discussions. The illustrations were drafted by S. Hopf, S. Rosas, and H. SchOnfelder.
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Metallogenic Evolution of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru
A Summary
H.W. KOBE 1
1 Introduction
Among the Paleozoic inliers in the Mesozoic fold belt to the W of the coherent
Paleozoic in central Peru, the Yauli Dome is distinguished particularly for its
abundance of mineral deposits. In addition, due to its economic importance and
its favorable accessibility, it is the best studied among the comparable areas of
Cerro de Pasco, Chulpan, Malpaso, Yauli, and Lircay (Fig. 1).
For these reasons, it offers a unique opportunity to demonstrate the metallo-
genic evolution of a region from the Paleozoic up to our days.
With respect to the metallogeny, the analysis concerns the Paleozoic (Excelsior
and Mitu Groups) and the Lower Mesozoic (Pucara Group) formations as well
as the post-Pucara structures affecting them, as being the respective metallotects
in each period. Of importance is also the repeated igneous activity (plutonic and
volcanic) which contributes energy and/or mineralizing solutions to the environ-
ment of formation of the mineral deposits.
Structurally, the Yauli Dome Complex (Harrison 1943), extending over an area
of about 10x30km, consists of a series of subparallel regional folds in the An-
dean direction NW-SE, among which the major ones are the San Cristobal
(Chumpe)-Morococha and the Ultimatum anticlines, plunging gently to the NW
and SE (Fig. 2).
2 Stratigraphy (Sedimentary and Igneous Formations, Fig. 3)
2.1 Pre-Carboniferous Paleozoic
The oldest formations exposed in the Yauli Dome are of Lower to Middle Paleo-
zoic age (Excelsior Group) (McLaughlin 1924; Harrison 1943). They consist of a
monotonous series of blackish phyllites with rare quartzites (more abundant in
the lower portion), beds and thick lenses of white limestone (also breccias), and
irregular accumulations of dark green basic lavas and volcaniclastics. Pillow
structures can still be recognized in some lavas, and a subvolcanic plutonic dioritic
phase is observed at Ultimatum, representing one of the centers of this igneous
activity.
1 Geology Department, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

268 H.W. Kobe
GOYlLARIS?y::o~: :. : ·...
J/~::· ~=-·:
~
·~ · :~:.
·
~CERRO~D(p::
..Q
..
' .
.
. ..
'
<JJ\JNI/'1•• ••
VAULI
D PALEOZOIC
0~--------~5~0~--------10~0~
Fig. 1. Distribution of the Paleozoic in Central Peru. (After Megard 1979)
Such complexes are interpreted to represent a submarine environment of sea-

mounts, forming the bases of calcareous reefs. Associated with the subvolcanic
and volcanic phases is a deposit of Fe-Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag sulfides at Ultimatum and
stratabound concentrations of Ni-Co sulfides at Yuraccgaga-Trapiche and other
locations along the Ultimatum anticline (Kobe this Vol.).
Tectonic activity of post-Excelsior age, accompanied by a regional metamor-
phism, caused a tight folding of the phyllites, transforming the lavas into green-
schists and the highly fossiliferous limestones into marbles. A general uplift then
exposed these formations to a detrital erosion and/or lateritic alteration.
Metallogenic Evolution of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru 269
e7JO
10 ~m ----'t...'II
~--==--==--==--==--
Rn.pos t-Mitu ;minf!I"OI deposits of Pucara oge
Mitu Gp.; related subYolcamc intrusives
G . basic volcanics and m orbl"s
Ex. I!15 ' 0 ' p., r elotl!d mineral depos•ts
r
Fig. 2. Geologic sketch map of the Yauli Dome
2.2 Carboniferous-Permian Paleozoic
The base of this interval is represented by occasional intercalations and remnants

of clastic series lying in discordance (A in Fig. 3) on the mentioned erosion sur-
face. Breccias, conglomerates, sandstones to mudstones represent erosion prod-
ucts in a continental to coastal environment; marine influence is indicated by a
minor calcareous precipitation.
The lack of fossils does not yet allow a definite age to be assigned to these sedi-
ments, and according to Megard (1979), they could represent marginal facies of
any of the Carboniferous-Permian formations established in the Cordillera Orien-
tal (Newell et al. 1953).
In slight discordance (B in Fig. 3) follow products of igneous activity in irregu-
lar and thick sequences, including lavas, pyroclastic and volcaniclastic breccias
and tuffs of andesitic to rhyolitic composition, generally of purple color, assigned
to the Mitu Group of Permian age.
270 H . W. Kobe
Sedimentary /gnt>OUS Mt>lol

5trotigrophy
key formations formations concentrotions
(.J \!) L.-n~-5tCI'1e!l, bandl!d, • Boso!IS , p<w-Pucor6
~ ~o.~o~ocaoa
w•rh gyp•um
~ u~ 0 .. Limt!l tonf .s. sandy

Basalt (MJnttroJ
Stratabound
~
~a
;:) Erosion br«cios • Tufloceou:s b~ds ~ conctn trollon of
~~·~:o·.k;;:
{g 3 Zt>,Pb,Ft ,Cu,Bo.
Q.
~ <i: • and •ond•tones
~' ~
Mn
;:)
'g •I ~+::~~6~::
or+ • Votcorun, w;konic/0$1., D•$$NnmOt ion of
i' V 1 II V II
~• 4 o.6~~v purpi• F•.Cu.Zn,Pb
; ~ gft
\!) '
2 ~ +~6 4v~A
II "V V ly
d.
2
r
OiOn tf,QUortzdior'' '
~ + + +++
•::r:.·r :.r·'- kB1
--
(type Coronuocro)
(.J Hydrothermal :..
~4
~ oft -~.'\. ij>~· fgJ
a+ olrtrorion w11h Cl:
? v ~ + 'r}>(, ~ li.
Erosion brecc10s ond
sondstonfl, porrfy c r_.!..;:..--' vt~nmtn«dizction :c!
0 v of W,Sn,U,Bi, >-
colco,.ous ootY.:---
.-?
~
~
~ 0aC++ AA?_!J d
~ Cu,Zn ,Pb,Ag,
; !Ouortlmon:on•te
A :.lf r--
0 Al ,Sb •tc .._
(typ• Chumpt)
,. ._ r- - Phyllites
l~ ~· ~~ ?-;;!/""\..
L.., 0
.... Q:
a
0 • Stratabound
~ ( concrntrar1011 of
"{
~·- Marble5. foS5rllfero;~ I Ni .Co
~ ~ J 0 1,AAAA
~n C+.
0 + ,.._rv ( Stratabound
u X
C +.,...._
0 • Ba.s1c '10icontc3, com:enuor,on of
"'""
A A f\ A A
X 'cloicanicfo!lto Ft ,Cu,Zn ,PIJ
- Quartzi tes
~
x <Z?C
• Stratigraphic pos,tron rtOt fStotJiishttd
<> I - ~ MetaiiC<}•n•c •pochs
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic scheme, Yauli Dome (San Cristobal)
The dioritic-quartzdioritic stock at Carahuacra (Lyons 1968), the quartz-

dioritic-dacitic megadyke 1.5 km NE of Andaychagua Mine, and a small stock
5 km SE of San Cristobal have been recognized as centers of this effusive activity.
No metallic deposits have been found in these volcanic series, although a dissemi-
nation of pyrite is ubiquitous and small amounts of Zn and Pb sulfides are ob-
served locally. Sedimentary series proper (besides the products derived from the
volcanic activity) of Permian age have not been recognized in the region of the
Yauli Dome.
2.3 Lower Mesozoic
However, at the end of the Paleozoic epoch, the formations were again exposed
to erosion by a slight tectonic deformation. The resulting surface is overlain in
discordance (C in Fig. 3) by detrital series very similar to the post-Excelsior for-
mations in some areas (see Terrones 1949) and calcareous deposits in others. In
general, basal detrital sediments become progressively more calcareous higher up
in the profile. Another transition from a terrestrial to a marine environment is
therefore expressed in the Lower Mesozoic Pucara Group. Beds and lenses of
evaporites and tuffs are intercalated among the limestones, and a black basalt
sheet can be followed all around the Yauli Dome (with the exception of part of
the Western flank where - for tectonic reasons - it does not outcrop continu-
ously).
Intercalated in these series are stratabound deposits of Fe-Zn-Pb-Ag sulfides
with barite and Mn-Fe carbonates (Kobe 1977, 1982a; Rivera and Kobe 1983a, b).
2.4 Post-Pucara Mesozoic
The formations of Cretaceous age follow the Pucara Group in discordance with
detrital and calcareous deposits, but they occur already outside the Yauli Dome
proper and are of no metallogenic importance in the region. There are still some
basaltic flows intercalated among the sediments.
2.5 Tertiary
In the region of the Yauli Dome, sedimentary beds of this age do not occur; how-
ever, the Tertiary was an essential epoch for the formation of the do mal structures
at Morococha and San Cristobal with their fans of transversal faults (Rivera and
Kobe 1983 b).
The intrusion of igneous stocks and dykes of quartzmonzonitic composition
and the associated hydrothermal systems caused extensive alteration in the sur-
rounding Paleozoic country rocks and emplaced a polymetallic mineralization in
veins.
2.6 Quaternary
Among the Recent formations, consisting of glacial (moraines) and alluvial de-
posits, there are abundant calcareous sinter deposits formed by chemical precipi-
tation from cold and/or hot springs.
3 Metallogeny
The concentration of metals in the Yauli Dome in general and in the domal struc-
tures at Morococha and San Cristobal in particular was an intermittent process
from the Middle Paleozoic to the Tertiary (or Quaternary) intimately related to
the sedimentary environment, the magmatic influence, and the structural condi-
tions, respectively. Seen in this general way, the character of the deposits and the
conditions of formation progressed from essentially syn-diagenetic to epigenetic
concentrations (Rivera and Kobe 1983 b) (Fig. 3).
3.1 Pre-Carboniferous Paleozoic
Two types of metallic deposits can be distinguished in the formations of this age,
both stratabound and related to basic volcanic activity (see Fig. 3 in Kobe this
Vol.).
a) At Ultimatum, a dioritic subvolcanic stock and overlying lavas contain sul-
fides of Fe and Cu (pyrite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite) disseminated and in mas-
sive lenses towards their top. Laterally, an accumulation of massive sulfides of Fe,
272 H. W. Kobe
Phyflites, blackish
1
Shrinkage fr actures
(filled w1th quortz,cofcite)
Increasing M (fine-grained ) block
content of A
Ni,Co suffides , 1'--.--11-.....-J--\ R (medium-groined)brown
silica ,chlorite, -'-ll\r-L..-,\IU--,.-1\ B
hemotite ,Mn } (coorse - groined)white
Basic volcanics, green
Fig. 4. Schematic section through the stratabound Ni-Co mineral deposit, type Thraccgaga/Trapiche
Zn, Pb (As, Ag) (pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena) with quartz and carbonates forms
a manto, overlain by the blackish phyllites (see Fig. 4 in Kobe this Vol.).
The environment of formation is intimately related to a proximal, basic sub-
marine volcanic activity, i.e., the exhalation of hydrothermal fluids of relatively
high temperature, precipitating their metal content as sulfides while mixing with
seawater.
b) An enrichment of Ni, Co in the association of phyllites, limestones, and ba-
sic volcanics is unique in the Yauli Dome. The stratabound character is pro-
nounced, and the occurrences are restricted to this environment (see Kobe
1982b, 1984 and this Vol. for details). Deposits have been located in the S (Yurac-
cgaga/Trapiche) (see Fig. Sa, b in Kobe this Vol.) and N (Morro Blanco) of the
Ultimatum anticline. In spite of intense deformation, the coherence of the typical
association allows the derivation of a sequence (interpreted to be from top to
base) schematized in Fig. 4 and detailed in Table 1.
The formation of such syn-sedimentary/diagenetic concentrations of sulfides
is interpreted as follows:
Basic submarine volcanics were emplaced among and upon argillaceous sedi-
ments, accumulating with the build-up of seamounts, allowing organisms to con-
struct calcareous reefs on them. Derivatives of more distal volcanic activity, tuffs,
Table 1. Scheme of coherence of typical association
Top: Blackish phyllites Barren

Limestone (marble) Impure, fine-grained with Mn(Fe) carbonates, silica, chlorite, hematite,
richly fossiliferous Ti-oxyde (tuffaceous sediment); weathering color black; concentration of
disseminated sulfides of Ni, Co (Fe, As, Sb) (Cu, Zn)a
Medium-grained with Fe(Mn) carbonates; weathering color brown; sul-
fides more sparsely disseminated
Coarse-grained with calcite; weathering color white; barren
Base: Basic volcanics Upper part interlayered with limestone; lower part solid Java (with occa-
sional disseminated sulfides, magnetite, and ilmenite)
a The sulfides observed are (in order of decreasing abundance: millerite (NiS), violarite (Ni,Fe,Co) 3S4 ,
gersdorffite (2 types) (Co,Ni,Fe) 8As4S6, tucekite (Ni,Fe) 9Sb2S8 accompanied by pyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite.
and exhalations carrying silica and metals, mixed with the organogenic calcareous
deposit concentrating its precipitate of metallic sulfides and silica until all organic
activity was suffocated by the intoxication of the environment. The argillaceous
sedimentation continued, covering and preserving therefore the metalliferous de-
posits. The pre-Permian diagenesis and slight metamorphism resulted in the
recrystallization of the pre-existing assemblage without excessively altering the
original sedimentary fabrics.
3.2 Carboniferous-Permian Paleozoic
The volcanism of this epoch did not produce a notable concentration of metals,
although the subvolcanic masses and the lavas contain widespread disseminated
pyrite, with a slight local enrichment of disseminated sulfides like bornite, chalco-
pyrite, sphalerite, and galena (Abrade Chumpe, Tingo de Andaychagua etc.).
Although these characteristics could suggest the possible presence of a
metallogenic system of porphyry type, detailed studies have not yet been made.
3.3 Lower Mesozoic
The terrestrial, fluviomarine, lagoonal environmental conditions at the end of the

Paleozoic with the erosional decomposition of older formations, the precipitation
of evaporites, the intermittent transgression of the sea upon a well-modeled sur-
face, and the continuation of a contemporaneous volcanism were favorable for a
metalliferous concentration among the sediments of this epoch.
Around the Yauli Dome, a whole series of stratabound deposits (or mantos)
are present, including accumulations of sulfides of Fe, Zn, Pb, Ag, barite, gyp-
sum, and Mn-Fe carbonates (cf. Kobe 1977, 1982a; Rivera and Kobe 1983b). The
stratabound character of the metal concentrations is pronounced and the sulfides,
sulfates and carbonates participate in the sedimentary and diagenetic fabrics, in-
cluding coarse- and fine-grained layers, cross-bedding, sedimentary breccias, and
rhythmites.
Although a concentration of sulfides occurs often near the base of the Pucara
sediments, mantos are present also at higher levels, even close to the upper contact
with the sandstones of the overlying Cretaceous Goyllarisquizga Group.
Apart from the breccias, the banded character of the metalliferous precipitates
is pronounced and the paragenesis of the principal components (pyrite, marcasite,
sphalerite, galena, pyrargyrite, hematite, barite, Fe-Mn carbonates, calcite, and
little quartz) demonstrates its origin from meso- to epithermal solutions. In addi-
tion, the absence of hydrothermal alteration in the adjoining sediments indicates
a syn-sedimentary deposition.
It has not yet been possible to locate the centers of this hydrothermal activity,
but it appears that mantos of massive pyrite (occasionally interstratified with
sphalerite) such as at Morococha SE directly overlying the Mitu volcanics, are
proximal, while others with predominance of banded sphalerite, galena, carbo-
nates, and barite, as at Carahuacra-Huaripampa, are more distal.
274 H.W. Kobe
With the latter, one can count also the stalactitic formations of the same com-
ponents as products of diagenesis observed locally (Kobe in Rivera 1964;
Dalheimer 1985).
3.4 Tertiary
The emplacement of metalliferous mineralization in this epoch is intimately relat-
ed to the domal upwarping of the area with the generation of fan-shaped systems
of transversal faults, accompanied by the intrusion of quartzmonzonitic stocks
and dykes in the axial zones Chumpe-San Cristobal and San Francisco/Ger-
trudis-Morococha (Fig. 2); (Rivera and Kobe 1983 b).
Two types of deposits, partly related, were formed in this environment by the
interaction of hydrothermal solutions with the country rock:
a) A deposit of porphyry type has been recognized in the multiphase intrusive
of C0 Taro Macho at Morococha SW, with accumulations of disseminated py-
rite, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite in the quartzmonzonitic intrusive traversed by
veins with enargite and tetrahedrite.
b) The type of deposit most frequently exploited in the region is that of vein
fillings with multimetal sulfides. This mineralization resulted from the hydrother-
mal systems generated by the events mentioned above, which extended around the
igneous centers, precipitating their mineral content in the veins and producing al-
teration haloes in the adjacent country rock. A pronounced zonation of the alter-
ation and of the regional distribution of the principal minerals/metals in the veins
(the San Cristobal mineral district is given as an example in Fig. 5) resulted from
the interaction of hydrothermal solutions with the country rock by decrease of the
temperature and the change in composition from acid to alkaline (Petersen 1965;
Rivera and Kobe 1983 b; Kobe 1984).
Although the hydrothermal activity was intermittent, related to an episodic
tectonic fracturing, it is possible to generalize the result in a way originally ex-
pressed by Rivera (1964) in a list, completed with additional rarer phases (Fig. 6),
but note also Petersen and Campbell (1983) and Rivera (1985).
Regionally, the sequences (in centrifugal direction) of alteration zones and the
distribution of metals is as follows:
Alteration: silicification, sericitization, kaolinization, leaching with precipita-
tion of alunite, chloritization
Vein content (main metallic components):
Morococha: Mo (molybdenite)
Cu (W, Zn) (enargite, tetrahedrite, hubnerite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite)
Zn-Pb (sphalerite, galena)
Pb-Ag (galena, argentiferous tetrahedrite)
San Cristobal: W (Fe) (wolframite, pyrite)
Cu (bornite, chalcopyrite)
Zn-Pb (sphalerite, galena)
Pb-Ag (galena, pyrargyrite, polybasite)
Sb (stibnite).
ZONATION OF METALS AND HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

r:] Gabbro, doltrltt,bosolt (after N.Rivero ,1964 ; modif:ed by
II1IJIIl] Jilic/1/cation holo H. w.Kobe ,1981}
!:"
Sb
- --
SAN CRISTOBAL- ANDAYCHAGUA

~"· " ~x Carohuacro
x fl.Jartzdlorlt~
Chump•
MINERAL DISTRICT -GEOLOGY auortzmOIIlonit•
(after N.Rivero,1964
and HW Kobe,1964) [] ~~~~~~·dolorll•.
~ Gtoc/,.r
- - - F"outt, v•ln
'>-- Mint
~.,--,.~......,
=
.-
MACHAY GP. MIO CRETACEOUS
GOYLLAR.GP. LOW. CRETACEOUS
::;;:; PUCARA GP TRIAS. -JURA.
a""" MITU GP. PERJ.!f/AN
.::::::EXCELSIOR GP. PALEOZOIC
Fig. 5. Geology, alteration, and metal zonation in the Tertiary vein systems of the San Cristobal min-
ing district
About the origin of mineralizing substances in the Tertiary hydrothermal, epi-

genetic systems, it can be inferred that both, the country rocks (above all Paleozo-
ic) and the pre-existing syn-genetic metalliferous concentrations could have con-
tributed to the metasomatic processes (by way of circulating meteoric waters) in
addition to the possible magmatic supply. The geochemical and isotope investiga-
tions on the content of the San Cristobal vein (Campbell et al. 1984; Bartlett and
276 H.W. Kobe
Slz t~ of c:rysfa(!j : coorsr 10). One (e )
Fig. 6. Paragenesis of the San Cristobal vein system
Field 1984) resulted in the proposition of a major interaction of the acid magma
with meteoric waters.
However, their effect on the mantos (and their role in the formation of the
"cuerpos" - massive sulfide concentrations adjacent to veins and/or igneous
bodies - as well as the effects of the hydrothermal alteration of the enclosing
country rocks (for example with respect to the provenance of W and Sn regarding
their regional distribution) remains to be documented.
3.5 Quaternary
The formation of calcareous sinters is observed throughout the region. They re-
sult from precipitation of calcium carbonate by hot (Banos de Yauli) or cold (Cut
Off, Sta. Rosa de Saco) subterranean or surficial waters. Some deposits are ex-
ploited for the production of burnt lime, others for their use as flux in the metal-
lurgical furnaces at La Oroya.
4 Conclusions
A review of the information on mineral deposits in the Yauli Dome and its imme-
diate surrounding reveals that in most geologic epochs (from Low-Mid Paleozoic
to the Quaternary) represented here, metallogenic concentration processes were
operating (Fig. 3).
A definite evolutionary trend is realized in the mode of formation of such con-
centrations, with respect to the kind of metals, the possible source, and the condi-
tions of their precipitation. Metals were concentrated by contemporary processes
forming also their immediate environment (sedimentary or igneous) during ep-
ochs 1-3 (syn-diagenetic formations) while especially during epoch 4 (partly 5)
metal concentrations were realized by igneous activity and hydrothermal systems
developed along contemporary structures, affecting the pre-existing country rock
(Paleozoic) by intense metasomatism (epigenetic formations).
Because of this evolutionary trend throughout a considerable geologic time in-
terval in the geographically small area of the Yauli Dome alone, any proposal of
regional metal zonation across the Andes must also be formulated in terms of
metallogenic epochs in order to be meaningful.
References
Bartlett MW, Field CW (1984) Genesis of carbonate-hosted manto ores, San Cristobal district, Cor-
dillera Occidental, Central Peru. Geol Soc Am (Abstr) 16:6
Campbell A, Rye D, Petersen U (1984) A hydrogen and oxygen isotope study of the San Cristobal
Mine, Peru: Implications of the role of water to rock ratio for the genesis of wolframite deposits.
Econ Geol 79:1818-1832
Dalheimer M (1985) Geologische und metallogenetische Untersuchungen am Domo de Yauli, Zentral
Peru, am Beispiel des Lagerstilttendistrikts San Cristobal-Huaripampa-Carahuacra und seinen
Erzvorkommen in der Pucara Gruppe. Thesis, Univ Heidelberg
Harrison JV (1943) Geologia de los Andes Centrales en parte del Departamento de Junin, Peru. Bol
Kobe HW (1964) Andaychagua - San Cristobal exploration. Priv Rep
Kobe HW (1977) El Grupo Pucara y su mineralizaci6n en el Peru Central. Bol Soc Geol Peru
55-56:61-84
Kobe HW (1981) Geologia General y Metalogenia del Domo de Yauli. Priv Rep
Kobe HW (1982a) El ambiente de Ia mineralizaci6n estratoligada de Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba-Mn, Fe-Cu en los
Kobe HW (1982b) A strata-bound Ni-Co arsenide/sulphide mineralization in the Paleozoic of the
Yauli Dome, Central Peru. In: Amstutz GC eta!. (eds) Ore genesis - the state of the art. Springer,
Kobe HW (1984) Contribuci6n a Ia metalogenia del Paleozoico del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru
73:67-91
Kobe HW Stratabound sulfide occurrences in the Paleozoic of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru. This Vol,
pp 113-122
Lyons WA (1968) The geology of the Carahuacra Mine, Central Peru. Econ Geol 63:247-256
McLaughlin DH (1924) Notas sobre Ia geologia y fisiograffa de los Andes Peruanos en los Depar-
tamentos de Junin y Lima. Mineria, Aiio VII 28:185-202
Megard F (1979) Estudio geol6gico de los Andes del Peru Central. Inst Geol Min Met Bol 8, 227 p
Newell ND, Chronic J, Roberts T (1953) Upper Paleozoic of Peru. Geol Soc Am Mem 58, 276 p
Petersen U (1965) Regional geology and major ore deposits of Central Peru. Econ Geol60:407-476
278 H.W. Kobe
Petersen U, Campbell A (1983) Distribuci6n y zoneamiento del mineral en el distrito minero de San
Cristobal, Yauli (resumen). Soc Oeol Peru Res V Congr Peru Oeol
Rivera ON (1964) 1l:n-year program for the San Cristobal Division (1965 -1975). Private Report Cerro
de Pasco Corp
Rivera ON (1985) Cocientes metalogeneticos y el zoneamiento mineral andino. Bol Soc Oeol Peru
74:61-71
Rivera ON, Kobe HW (1983 a) Evoluci6n geol6gica del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Oeol Peru
72:159-175
Rivera ON, Kobe HW (1983b) Metalogenfa del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Oeol Peru 72:177-193
Terrones AJ (1949) Estratigrafia del distrito minero de Morococha. Sol Oeol Peru, Vol Jubilar, Pte II,
Fasc 8:1-15
The Zn-Pb-(Ag) Deposits Huaripampa and Carahuacra
in the Mining District of San Cristobal, Central Peru
M. DALHEIMER 1
1 Introduction
In Central Peru there are several stratiform Zn-Pb-Cu-(Ag) deposits within the
Pucara Group close to its contact to the Permian Mitu Group in the footwall. The
main features have been summarized by Kobe (1977, 1982). Among the most rep-
resentative ore deposits are those around the Domo de Yauli (e. g., Huaripampa,
Carahuacra, Tingocancha; Vera 1983; Dalheimer 1985), the Katy Manto near
Morococha and parts of the Morococha Mine (Huaman 1983), the Mal paso Mine
(Kobe 1977, 1982), and perhaps parts of the Machcan Mine (Hirdes and Amstutz
1978). All these ore deposits are spatially related to the occurrence of tuffs and/or
volcanic rocks. The main ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite,
which occur in parageneses usually very rich in carbonates, oxides, and sulfides
of Fe and Mn. In some cases (e.g., Katy Manto, parts of Huaripampa and
Carahuacra) the ores occur as massive sulfides. Barite is also paragenetically im-
portant in several mines (Huaripampa, Carahuacra, Malpaso).
All these features, in particular their association to volcanic activity and
paragenesis, but also the trace element (Soler 1987) and isotopic signatures (Gun-
nesch and Baumann 1986), contrast with those of the carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb de-
posits in the eastern part of the Pucara Group (e.g., San Vicente; Fontbote this
Vol.).
The spatial coincidence at the Domo de Yauli and in Morococha of Pucara-
hosted stratiform ores and vein and skarn ores related to Upper Creta-
ceous-Cenozoic intrusives has complicated the genetic discussion, and tradition-
ally the stratiform bodies round the Domo de Yauli were interpreted as the result
of metasomatic replacement (e. g., Petersen 1965; Lyons 1968). In recent years,
based mainly on geometric and mineralogic evidence, different authors have pro-
posed exhalative/volcano-sedimentary models (Kobe 1977, 1982; Dalheimer
1985).
2 Geology
The deposits discussed in this paper lie on the western flank of the Domo de Yauli
in the Central Andes. They include the mines of Huaripampa and Carahuacra.
In both deposits Zn-Pb-(Ag) ores are exploited which occur in the same ore hori-
1 Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Stilleweg 2, D-3000 Hannover 51, FRO

280 M. Dalheimer
Pochochoco
e
(!710
il~'
oCJ 5
+
K~ 6
K CD
+ I'AUL r
rr-J ~ ; ~ M INE
VILLAGE
P Bra
0> LAKE
~II12
0
13
0 GLACIER 0 2 3 L (kml
95 MD
Fig. 1. Geologic map of the southern part of the Domo de Yauli, Central Peru. 1 Gabbro diorite;
2 gabbro/basalt; 3 quartz monzonite (type Chumpe, Thrtiary); 4 diorite (type Carahuacra, Permian);
5 Quarternary; 6 Machay carbonates; 7 Goyllarisquizga sandstone; 8 Pucara carbonates; 9 Pucara ba-
salt/sill; 10 Mitu volcanites; 11 Excelsior phyllites; 12 Excelsior volcanites; 13 Excelsior carbonates.
(After Rivera and Kobe 1983a)
The Zn-Pb-(Ag) Deposits Huaripampa and Carahuacra in the Mining District of San Crist6bal 281
zan traceable over 2.5 km along the base of the Pucara Group. The zone of
deposits, which also includes the well-known vein ore deposit of San Cristobal,
is located 100 km east of Lima in Central Peru at an altitude of 4600 m to 5200 m.
As mentioned above, the regional geology is determined by the structure of the
Domo de Yauli (Harrison 1943), which forms the most westerly elevation of pre-
Carboniferous basement rocks in Central Peru. This dome is mainly the result of
the "Incaic folding phase" (Steinmann 1929) in the Upper Eocene (Fig. 1).
In its center occur the rocks of the Devonian Excelsior Group followed up-
wards unconformably by the Permian Mitu Group. These are unconformably
overlain by the Liassic carbonates of the Pucara Group consisting of the
Aramachay and Condorsinga Formations. These again are overlain by the Lower
Cretaceous Goyllarisquizga Group (Fig. 2a) followed conformably by the Upper
Cretaceous Machay Group. The Tertiary Casapalca Red Beds are the youngest
unit in the area. Several intrusions and extrusions of various composition and age
occur. The major structures are formed by the NW-SE-running Chumpe and
Yauli-Ultimatum Anticlines. For a detailed review, see Kobe (this Vol.).
During the deposition of the Pucara, shallow marine sediments prevailed. In
places, subtidal and intertidal zones are rich in organic matter and bacterial activ-
ity and some evaporitic sediments are recognized. The Pucara Sea transgressed
over volcanic lavas and terrigenous sediments of the Mitu Group and partially
covered the Excelsior Group. The sedimentary influx of the fault-bounded basins
was controlled by tectonic uplift of the source area and subsidence of basins. Lava
flows (or sills) and tuffs interstratified with carbonaceous sediments and the
orebodies indicate contemporaneous volcanic activity.
Comparative studies such as those of Loughman and Hallam (1982) show the
existence of the formations Aramachay with 310m and Condorsinga with 198m
at the western flank of the dome (region of Huaripampa) and support the divi-
sion north of Carahuacra given by Szekely and Grose (1972).
Four stratigraphic profiles (Fig. 3) worked out along the western flank cannot
be directly correlated (Dalheimer 1985). These and also other measurements prove
differences in thickness between 120m and 508 m, as indicated in Fig. 4, which
shows the evolution of the fracture tectonics, erosion, and sedimentation before,
during, and after the deposition of the Pucara. Step faults and unconformably
thinning out carbonates and ore horizons can be observed at the base of the
Pucara, both in Huaripampa and near Moises further south (Fig. 2b).
3 Ore Deposits
In the Huaripampa and Carahuacra Deposits, mainly mantas are exploited in the
sediments of the Pucara Group. They run concordantly with the bedding of the
country rock, following it to the unconformable contact with the Mitu Group
(Fig. 2 b, c). A second ore type is represented by relatively few unconformable
veins, veinlets, and fissures containing ore minerals and occurring almost perpen-
dicular to the strike of the Pucara and to the orebodies. A third type of ore are
karst fillings, which can be observed as both stalactites and banded depositions
that occur together mainly with siderite.
282 M. Dalheimer
Two kinds of breccia which show transitions occur, partly together, in Huari-
pampa and Carahuacra. These are breccias containing mainly carbonate (dolo-
mite) and also quartz and breccias with massive ore (mainly sphalerite). The brec-
ciated limestone horizons in Huaripampa, which can be found near the contact
with Mitu, have irregular but undeformed contacts in the footwall and the hang-
ing wall (Fig. 2 f). The fragments reach 10 em in size, are often angular, but also
rounded. At their margins the rock is also only broken and the cement consists
of fine-grained quartz, carbonate, and pyrite. The breccias containing massive ore
are less deformed. Often the former bedding ore-country rock can be reconstruct-
ed. Also sliding structures between ore and country rock can be observed
(Fig. 2e).
Thff horizons with a thickness of 30 to 50 em are interbedded with the carbon-
ates and ores. Macroscopically they can hardly be identified as tuffs, since they
are very similar to marls or mudstones. Their color is often gray to light gray and
green to dark green, and banding always can be observed (Fig. 2g). Thin beds of
ore minerals occur (parallel with the interbedding in the mm range) which contain
mainly specularite and pyrite; galena was also observed (Fig. 2 g).
In the ore deposits of Huaripampa and Carahuacra Zn (6-So/o), Pb (1-2%),
and Ag (1-3 oz/t) are mined. In Huariparnpa two major mantos (Cuerpos) must
be mentioned which are the best exposed and the most important in volume. In
addition, several small mantos occur. At Cuerpo 570 these ores are situated direct-
ly at the contact with Mitu and at Cuerpo 423 about 50 m away from the contact
(see Fig. 5). The dotted areas in the figure represent only the part which is
Fig. 2. Regional geology of the district. a In the center are located the housing area and the office of
the San Crist6bal Division at an altitude of 4800 m. The Excelsior, Mitu, Pucara, and Goyllarisquizga
Groups are marked in the background. Directly adjacent to the left margin follows the Chumpe Intru-
sion. Viewed to the southeast. b Contact Mitu-Pucara near Moises with small-scale dislocations and
step faults and an angular unconformity remaining clearly visible. This is supported not only by car-
bonate banks bordering unconformably the contact, but also by a chert breccia (H) which can be fol-
lowed over several hundred meters and thins out here unconformably. The same holds for the horizon
with manto outcrops which is exposed at several places (E). The distance to the contact is 5 m for the
outcrop most distant in the figure (center) and 60 m for the nearest ifront right). c In the open pit
of Huaripampa (Thjo Abierto), a small manto (Cuerpo 2) outcrops with large-scale stratification of
ore (mainly sphalerite), carbonate, and tuffite (center). The manto is perfectly concordant with the
bedding and thins out unconformably to the left against the contact with Mitu. Viewed to the south-
east. d Stratification concordant with the bedding of banked dolomite (light area below) with ore ho-
rizons (dark mainly sphalerite) and tuffaceous layers (light gray). Huaripampa, Cuerpo 570, Level
730, Galeria 445 Sur. e Sliding structure between ore (mainly sphalerite) and carbonates with tuffs
(light gray) changing laterally into breccias. Huaripampa, Cuerpo 570, Level 730, Galeria 445 Sur,
Camera 9. f Carbonate breccia in Huaripampa. The fragments reach 10 em in size and are partly
rounded and partly angular. The cement consists of fine-grained carbonate and quartz. The contact
with the underlying rock (dolomite) is irregular (dark areas below) but undeformed, Level 680,
Crucero 390. g Hand specimen of tuff from Carahuacra with distinct stratification of gray (quartz,
siderite, sericite) and green parts (mainly chlorite). The arrow (top right) marks a layer with pyrite,
specularite, and galena. h Hand specimen with fine stratification mainly of pyrite, sphalerite,
hematite, magnetite, quartz, and calcite. Kaolinite and alunite occur sporadically in small narrow cavi-
ties (see i). i Polished section from h with alternating magnetite (pseudomorphs after specularite), py-
rite (py), and calcite (calc). In thin fractures in calcite, small crystals of alunite (alu) and some kaolinite
(kaol) are observed sporadically (//N)
284 M. Dalheimer
MOISES TOLDORRUMI Q) VIRGINIA ® HUARIPAMPA 0

Zn Pb Ag fmJ
(%} /%/ (oz ltJ
as s at as at
D SAND5rONE
1
J PUCARA
~ LIMESTONE
E5§j DOL OM/ TE, ~ ~~~~;ITEIC11ERTYJ

~ LIMESTONE BRECC I A
~
~ CHER T BRECCIA
P MITU
m TUFF ~ VOLCANICSIANDESITE.DACITE I
8 B ASALT/SILL/ (:YlY5I OR E MINERALS (DISSEMINATED/
B DIKE ~ BRECCIA
ORE MINERALS (OUTCROP }
~ ORE MINERALS /UND ER GROUND/ ~ COVER ED

The Zn-Pb-(Ag) Deposits Huaripampa and Carahuacra in the Mining District of San Cristobal 285
economically interesting and therefore are defined as Cuerpos. Figure 5 shows the
dip of the two Cuerpos in an idealized section. Moreover the parallel running
bands of tuffs and the above-mentioned siderite are plotted. The Thjo Abierto
(open pit working) is on the top at the contact with Mitu. The position of the
Cuerpos is parallel with the bedding of the surrounding carbonates. They dip with
50° to 60° to SW and strike NNW.
In Carahuacra, where the mantos occur in the same horizon, two orebodies
must be mentioned in the northern part which occur in a breccia zone. These are
the Manto Principal and at its footwall, directly at the contact with Mitu, the
Manto Viejecita. Despite the weak brecciation, their position is only slightly dis-
turbed, revealing clearly their concordance with the country rock. Combining the
subeconomic areas, the small and the large Cuerpos, a single ore zone appears,
in a horizon running from north of Carahuacra (in the NW) to the contact with
Mitu at Virginia (in the SE).
The intensity of orebodies in Huaripampa is variable, being especially high in
the Cuerpos, thinning out laterally and forming an interbedding with carbonates
and tuffs (Fig. 2 c, d). A change of mineral contents and ratios and thus a zonation
can be observed from the upper working level (open pit working and Level 570)
through the different levels to the Level 820. The richest occurrences of Zn and
Pb occur in the upper range (Levels 730 to 540), further downwards they decrease
(Fig. 5). The content of Fe, which mainly is represented by siderite, pyrite, and
hematite (specularite), shows an inverse behavior and increases downwards.
The mineralogic composition of the orebodies is relatively simple, the
paragenesis, however, is complex. Economically mined are sphalerite, galena, and
silver minerals. The latter are enriched near small veinlets. Additionally, pyrite,
hematite (always in the form of specularite), magnetite, and chalcopyrite are pre-
sent. Gangue minerals are dolomite, calcite, Mn-bearing siderite, quartz, chert,
barite, gypsum, kaolinite, and alunite.
Besides their interbedding with layers of tuffs and carbonates, the orebodies
are characterized by a banding parallel to the bedding, which occurs erratically
and ranges from the mm to the dm scale. In the mantos this banding is visible
particularly in the Cuerpo 570, Level 730, Galeria 445 Sur of Huaripampa
(Fig. 2d). The alternating layers consist mainly of pyrite, hematite, magnetite,
sphalerite, and carbonate. Partly small syn-diagenetical folds can be observed in
hand specimen and also in polished section.
The above-described banding grades often turn into massive ore which consists
of pyrite, specularite, sphalerite, galena, quartz, and carbonates (calcite, dolomite,
Mn-bearing siderite; Fig. 2h). The silver minerals are enriched in small veinlets
and include argentite, pyrargyrite, and stromeyerite.
Fig. 3. Four profiles worked out in the area between the Lago Llacsacocha and Carahuacra. Their po-
sitions in Figs. 4 and 5 is indicated by the Nos. 1-4. They show the sediments of the Pucara Group
and those parts of the Mitu Group exposed in the footwall. The contact with the Goyllarisquizga
Group forms the upper boundary. In addition, the metal contents of Zn, Pb (in wtOJo), and of Ag (in
oz/t) are plotted
286 M. Dalheimer
! 0 LLAC5AC0CH.A MOISES TOLDORRUMI SAN CRISTOeA! HUARIPAM PA

VIRGINIA CARAI«JACRA
JURASSIC (LIAS) SE (j) @) Q NW
yv v
JURASSI C (LIASJ
JURASSIC{LIAS}
~~v~v~v~v~v~v~'~1~v~',v~ ',·~-o~o~-~~~~~~~~-,,~v~v~v~/~V~v~v~v~v~;r..v~•~~~~~~~~~~~~!!~~
CONOORS ING A
' " v' v v

1 , , \v
\ \ \ VY 1v v v7 v v vY ,'J ,' ,' \~Y\v', v•· '"'v vvv
' \ \ t I I 1 I\ ...-, ""I
'\\ \ / ,'/ I \\\:
\ \ 1 I
\ \:
JURASSIC (LIA 5)
~v~v~v~v-v__v_\_v··, v~v~:~o~,~~~~8f:~~~~
-~:=rvlv~v;:fvv\v~v~v~v~1vv~~~~~~~~~~
\v'v
ARAMACHAY
\ \ \v ,vvv 1 vvvv/''/vv / ,' vv
, ~'. ~ / ;': / : t \ \v\ VV ' v : vvv
\'.',' / •/ / : \\~\;:
\ 1 t I I
' \' ,I ,I
LATE PERMIA N-
TRIASSIC
vv
LATE PE RMIAN
(m J
J PUCARA UMESTONE
B.ASA !T (S ILLJ
FAUI.. T (oc/iy f )
Jool
200
p MITU VOLCA Nl CS FAUI.T(p tus i~ r } 100
BRECCIA (j) WCATION OF PROFIL ES
' - -1000
--- 2000/mJ
Fig. 4. Model of the tectonic, erosional, and sedimentary evolution before, during, and after the depo-
sition of the Pucara sediments (schematic sections of the Pucara in SE-NW direction between the L0
Llacsacocha and Carahuacra)
sw NE:
NIVEL 540
PUCARA NIVEL580
'500m JURASSIC I LIAS/
NIVEL 630
NIVEL 580
L4 00 m
Nl H 7 0
M ITU
PE RM/AN
NIVEL 820
TUFF
ORE SAMPLES
0~----~5~
0 ----~IOO(m/
MD
Fig. 5. Idealized section with the contact Mitu/Pucani and the position of the two largest ore mantos
(Cuerpo 570 and Cuerpo 423) in the region of the ore deposit of Huaripampa. In addition, the ratio
Zn:Fe for the different working levels and occurrences of the banded siderite are plotted
At the base of the orebodies barite and gypsum occur in the ore-bearing layers
(Level 730) in Huaripampa, and also in Carahuacra (Lyons 1968). Both may have
formed from evaporation as well as from hydrothermal supply; however, their
presence is typical in this facies range.
Thin bands of kaolinite, also with alunite, are found parallel to the orebodies.
Alunite is a woodhouseite/crandallite. Kaolinite is interbedded with pyrite, hema-
tite, and calcite. It also occurs together with alunite in fine bands and small ge-
odes (Fig. 2 h, i).
The stratiform orebodies are clearly stratigraphically controlled, whereas the
control of the unconformable occurrences is determined by fissures and fractures.
288 M. Dalheimer
Another unconformable type is bound to post-tectonic karst fillings. Regarding

the mineralogic composition, the conformable orebodies differ from the other
two types mainly in the massive occurrence of banded hematite and magnetite to-
gether with sulfides and carbonates (banded ironstones) and in the absence of
marcasite and tetrahedrite.
Based on the foregoing observations, the sequence of mineral formation can
be given as follows:
I. Deposition and formation of the orebodies parallel to the bedding.
II. Brecciation of the mantos and their country rock ( ± simultaneously with 1).
III. Formation of the cross-cutting fissures and fractures.
IV. Ore-mineral enrichment along these fissures and fractures.
V. Post-tectonic ore-mineral formation in karst phenomena.
VI. Oxidation and enrichment in the surficial zone.
Massive orebodies stratigraphically higher than the main orebodies of
Huaripampa-Carahuacra (Fig. 3, 6) can be observed as striking points in the field
(Fig. 2 b). The mineralogy of the manto surface outcrops is determined by the oxi-
dation and enrichment of Fe (20o/o to 30%) and Mn (10% to 15%). However, the
concentration of Zn, Pb, and Ag is important in the outcrops (see Fig. 3) and can
reach several percent of Zn and Pb, as well as several ounces of Ag.
The position of the manto outcrops, their brecciated parts, and the unusually
massive occurrences in Huaripampa and Carahuacra are plotted in Fig. 6 which
represents a schematic section in SE-NW direction between Lago Llacsacocha
and Carahuacra. Also included in Fig. 6 are the relief of the Mitu surface (see
NW
L0 LLACSIJCOCHIJ MOIS~S
0
~~'7.
s ••••
6 ••
PUCARA GROUP
P 9 ~ MITU GROUP
MO
Fig. 6. Schematic section of the Pucara indicating in SE-NW direction (between the Lago Llacsacocha
and Carahuacra) the observed and reconstructed rock and ore-mineral portions as well as their se-
quence or position. 1 Goyllarisquizga Group: sandstone, quartzite, breccias; 2-8 Pucara Group
(Aramachay, Condorsinga): 2 limestone/dolomite; 3 siliceous limestone/dolomite with slate; 4 three
basalt layers or sills parallel to each other and the country rock; 5 intraformational carbonate breccias;
6 chert breccias with carbonate (basal breccias); 7 Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba-Mn-Fe containing manto outcrops,
partly brecciated; 8 massive ore-mineral enrichments (Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba-Mn-Fe) at the contact with the
Mitu, weathering products of the Mitu, and breccias in the region of the ore deposits of Huaripampa
and Carahuacra; 9 Mitu Group: strpngly altered andesite and dacite; 10 position of the profiles of
Fig. 3
Fig. 4), the boundary between the Aramachay and Condorsinga Formations, the
siliceous carbonate layers with slate intercalations, the basalt layers (or sills) at
Moises, and carbonate and chert breccias.
At least three different horizons containing orebodies parallel to the bedding
occur in the study area (Fig. 6).
4 Conclusions
Regarding the genesis of orebodies occurring in the Pucara Group (region
Huaripampa-Carahuacra) it may be observed that the geologic, sedimentologic,
facial, tectonic, and paleogeographic data, which are provided for the formation
of stratabound, volcanic-associated Pb-Zn deposits (Stanton 1972 a; Callahan
1977; Gustafson and Williams 1981), were ideal during the time of deposition.
The relief and thus also the small nearshore basins were controlled by the frac-
ture tectonics and influenced by erosion (Fig. 4). Lavas and/or sills, tuffs, which
occur interbedded with the sediments and also with the orebodies, prove contem-
poraneous volcanic influence. For the stratabound orebodies a hydrothermal sys-
tem associated with the volcanic activity at the base of the country rock sequences
of the Pucara Group is suggested with the following criteria, in addition to the
above requirements, as follows:
1. The perfectly stratabound occurrence of the orebodies which can be traced up
to 2 km in strike and up to 300 m in dip.
2. The concordant interbedding of ores, carbonates, tuffs, and tuffites.
3. Common syndiagenetic brecciation of orebodies and country rock.
4. Occurrence of a mineral paragenesis typical for volcanic-associated strata-
bound Pb-Zn deposits (Gustafson and Williams 1981).
5. The presence of banded ironstones as they also occur in other stratiform Pb-Zn
deposits (Anhaeuser and Button 1976; Stanton 1972b; Stanton and Vaughan
1979; Derry et al. 1965; Saif 1980).
6. Measurements on Pb isotopes in samples of galena from Huaripampa and
Carahuacra show Ph-isotopic ratios which are close to those of the orogenic
growth curve (Gunnesch and Baumann 1986; Fontbote et al., this Vol.). Similar
observations were also made on Ph-isotopic measurements on other stratiform
Pb-Zn deposits (Stanton 1972a; Large 1980; Gustafson and Williams 1981).
7. A lateral zonation of the orebodies ranging from Zn (Pb) in the upper part
through Zn, Fe to Fe (Ba), as is described for submarine volcano-sedimentary
Pb-Zn deposits (Large 1980; Gustafson and Williams 1981).
8. Different mineral parageneses in the orebodies and the unconformable ore oc-
currences.
9. The concentrations of ore and thus of metals of the orebodies are outside the
range of values for the ore veins connected with the Chumpe Intrusion, which
occurs in the Excelsior and the Mitu Groups (Rivera and Kobe 1983 b; Kobe
this Vol.).
As already mentioned, some vein deposits occur in the center of the Domo de
Yauli in the Paleozoic Excelsior and Mitu Groups, where they are mined, mainly
in the San Cristobal and Andaychagua Deposits. These vein deposits can be relat-
290 M. Dalheimer
ed to the emplacement of the probably Tertiary Chumpe Intrusion. The metal

content shows distribution patterns consistent with the Chumpe Intrusion and its
alteration zones in the center. From inside outwardly these are the zones with W-
Cu-Cu/Pb-Zn-Zn/Pb-Pb/Ag. This zonation was established for the first time by
Rivera (1964). Further studies followed by Pastor (1970), Bronkhorst (1970),
Campbell et al. (1984), and others.
Smaller ore and rock veins affected also parts of the Pucara. Enrichments of
sphalerite, galena, and silver minerals are observed at their contacts with the
Pucara carbonates. The alteration minerals kaolinite and alunite are also connect-
ed with these zones.
A final phase of ore minerals is observed in post-tectonic karst with low-tem-
perature deposition. It is not evident whether a temporal or genetic relation exists
with the ore veins.
References
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in time and space. In: Wolf KH (ed) Handbook of stratabound and stratiform ore deposits 5.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 257- 319
Bronkhorst D (1970) Geology of the San Cristobal Division of the Cerro de Pasco Corp., Central
Peru. Int Rep Cerro de Pasco Corp Lima- La Oroya, 33 p
Callahan WH (1977) Some thoughts regarding premises and procedures for prospecting for base metal
ores in carbonate rocks in the North American Cordillere. Econ Geol 72:71-81
Campbell A, Rye D, Petersen U (1984) A hydrogen and oxygen isotope study of the San Cristobal
mine, Peru: Implications of the role of water to rock ratio for the genesis of wolframite deposits.
Econ Geol 79:1818-1832
Peru, am Beispiel des Lagerstltttendistrikts San Cristobal-Huaripampa-Carahuacra und seinen
Erzvorkommen in der Pucara Gruppe. Thesis, Univ Heidelberg, 189 p
Derry DR, Clark OR, Gillat N (1965) The Northgate base metal deposit at Tynagh, County Galway,
Ireland. Econ Geol60:1218-1237
Fontbote L Stratabound ore deposits in the Pucara basin. An overview. This Vol, pp 253-266
Fontbote L, Gunnesch KA, Baumann A Metal sources in stratabound ore deposits in the Andes (An-
dean Cycle): Lead isotopic constraints. This Vol, pp 759-773
Gunnesch K, Baumann A (1986) Bleiisotope in Zentralperu. Berliner Geowiss Abh A Sonderbd (Geo-
wiss Lateinamerika-Kolloq, Berlin (Abstracts), pp 136-137
Gustafson LB, Williams N (1981) Sediment-hosted stratiform deposits of copper, lead, and zinc. Econ
Geol 75th Anniv Vol, pp 139-178
Harrison JV (1943) Geologia de los Andes Centrales en Parte del Departamento de Junin, Peru. Bol
Soc Geol Peru 16:97
Hirdes W, Amstutz GC (1978) Geologische und metallogenetische Untersuchungen im nordlichen
Atacocha Distrikt - Zentral-Peru, am Beispiel der Pb-Zn-Grube Machcan. Geol Jb D28:55
Huaman MA (1983) Caracteres vulcano-sedimentaires dans le contact Mitu-Pucara du gisement de
Morococha (Perou) et son extension Sud. Rapport fin cycle CESEV, Ecol Geol Appl, Nancy,
38 p
Kobe HW (1977) El grupo Pucara y su mineralizacion en el Peru Central. Bol Soc Geol Peru
55-56:61-84
Kobe HW (1982) El ambiente de Ia mineralizacion estratoligado de Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba-Mn-Fe-Cu en los
Kobe HW Stratabound sulfide occurrences in the Paleozoic of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru. This Vol,
pp 113-122
Kobe HW Metallogenic evolution of the Yauli Dome, Central Peru - a summary. This Vol, pp
267-278
Large DE (1980) Geological parameters associated with sediment-hosted submarine exhalative Pb-Zn
deposits: an empirical model for mineral exploration. Geol Jb D40:59-129
Loughman DL, Hallam A (1982) A facies analysis of the Pucara Group (Norian to Toarcian carbon-
ates, organic-rich shale and phosphate) of central and northern Peru. Sediment Geol 32:161-194
Lyons WA (1968) The geology of the Carahuacra mine, Peru. Econ Geol 63:347-356
Pastor JA (1970) The mineralization in the San Cristobal mine. Master Thesis, Univ Tucson, 117 p
Petersen U (1965) Regional geology and mayor ore deposits of central Peru. Econ Geol60:407-476
Rivera N (1964) Ten year program for the San Cristobal Division (1965-1975). Int Rep Cerro de Pasco
Corp, Lima-La Oroya
Rivera N, Kobe HW (1983a) Evolucion geologica del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru 72:159-175
Rivera N, Kobe HW (1983 b) Metalogenia del Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru 72:177- 193
Saif SI (1980) Petrographic and geochemical investigation of iron formation and other iron-rich rocks
in Bathurst District, New Brunswick. Can Geol Surv Pap 80-1A:309- 317
Soler P (1987) Variations des teneurs en elements mineurs (Cd, In, Ge, Ga, Ag, Bi, Se, Hg, Sn) de
minerals de Pb-Zn de Ia province polymetallique des Andes du Perou Central. Min Deposita
22:135-143
Stanton RL (1972a) Ore petrology. McGraw-Hill, New York, 713 p
Stanton RL (1972b) A preliminary account of chemical relationships between sulfide lode and "band-
ed iron formation" at Broken Hill, New South Wales. Econ Geol 67:1128-1145
Stanton RL, Vaughan JP (1979) Facies of ore formation: a preliminary account of the Pegmont
deposit as example of potential relation between small "iron formations" and stratiform sulphide
ores. Austr Inst Min Metal 270:25-38
Steinmann G (1929) Geologie von Peru. Winter, Heidelberg, 448 p
Szekely TS, Grose LT (1972) Stratigraphy of the carbonate, black shale, and phosphate of the Pucara
Group (Upper ll'iassic-Lower Jurassic), Central Andes. Bull Geol Soc Am 83:407-428
Vera F (1983) Reinterpretacion genetica de Ia mineralizacion en el Domo de Yauli. Bol Soc Geol Peru
71:407-428
Machcan Mine: A Pb-Zn Ore Deposit in Pucara
Sediments of the Atacocha District, Central Peru
W. HIRDES 1
1 Introduction
The Pb-Zn deposit Machcan is situated on the western slope of the Cordillera Ori-
ental, 24 km north of Cerro de Pasco town (Fig. 1). The Machcan Mine belongs
to the Atacocha mining district; the bigger and better-known skarn ore deposits
Atacocha and Milpo occur to the immediate south of Machcan. Mining in
Machcan takes place at altitudes between 4080 and 4180 m. The mine was
operated by the Compania Minprosa S.A., Lima. During the mid-1970's, between
120 and 160 tons of lead and zinc concentrate were produced per month; at that
time the average ore grade amounted roughly to 5o/o Pb and 5o/o-7% Zn.
Due to insignificant production, the amount of geologic work undertaken in
the Machcan mine was very limited previous to the author's study, which was un-
dertaken during 1974175. An unpublished report by F.C. Kruger (1947) lists three
mineralization types in Machcan: veins striking 120-145 °, irregular mantos in
carbonates, and an orebody along the Mitu-Pucara contact. First detailed work
relating to the Machcan Mine stems from Johnson et al. (1955). These authors
maintained that the Machcan orebodies (all types) were formed by ascen-
dent-hydrothermal, epigenetic processes of Tertiary age; for the formation of
mantos selective replacement was invoked.
Detailed investigations in the Machcan Mine and its vicinity by Hirdes (1975)
and Hirdes and Amstutz (1978) led to the recognition of contemporaneity of for-
mation of some of the orebodies and their Pucara host rocks. This was facilitated
by the fact that at Machcan epigenetic overprint had only in parts obliterated pri-
mary ore/hostrock relationships.
Lead-isotope ratio investigations on galena from various ore types in the min-
ing district by Gunnesch and Baumann (1984) indicated no significant differences
in the isotopic composition of galena from stratabound ores, vein-type ores, and
replacement orebodies.
2 The Geologic Frame Work of the Mine

Rocks in the Atacocha district range from lower Paleozoic to lower Thrtiary in age.
Relevant for the present study are the Mitu Group (Permian) and the Pucara
1 Bundesanstalt fUr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Postfach 510153, D-3000 Hannover, FRO

294 W. Hirdes
>OOOM
E3 Conglomerate C=::J Mitu Red Bed (!) Don hipi Vein

~ Upper Lime tone Ore Bodies: \i) Lizandro Vein
£:Y) Ba all 2 0 Manto Churlo @ Mantos Prccaucion
I - I Chicrin Lime tone 0 Manto Uli @ Manto Lizandro
~ Ba all I CD Manto Olga @ Manto Ricardo
E!:!) Goyllari quizga Sand tone 0 Balconcillo Vein @ Copper Vein
c=J Pucara Lime tone ® Manto Angelica @ Carmen Vein and Manto 1
GJ Mitu Volcanic ® Cooperative Vein @) Chamaco Vein
0 Manto Palmira @ Milagros Vein
Fig. 1. Geologic map of the northern Atacocha District (including locality map)
Group (Triassic-Jurassic). The former is dominant in the Rio Tingo valley (Fig. 1),
whereas the latter prevails in the Atacocha mining district sensu stricto. West of
the Atacocha fault (Fig. 1) Pucara sediments are folded, on its eastern side they
show a consistent dip of 70°-80 o to the E.
Machcan Mine: A Pb-Zn Ore Deposit in Pucara Sediments of the Atacocha District 295
2.1 Mitu Group
Mitu sediments within the Atacocha district are present as two lithologic units:
(1) a lower one consisting of typical continental red beds and {2) an upper
pyroclastic one with a maximum thickness of around 300 m.
Minimum thickness of the Mitu red bed unit near Machcan is approximately
400 m (base not exposed). Characteristic features are cross-bedding, ripple marks,
mud cracks, and rain drop imprints.
The transition red bed unit/pyroclastic unit is gradational. The thickness of
the latter is highly variable, this probably being a function of distance from a
paleovolcanic vent: Such a vent possibly existed during Mitu times in the
Machcan area, as suggested by the observation that the maximum thickness of
the pyroclastic unit, as well as its coarsest components, are present in the vicinity
of the mine. Five km NW of Machcan near Cochas village the pyroclastic unit
occurs in the form of tuffitic beds of a few meters thickness. The pyroclastic unit
shows rhyolithic to quartzdacitic compositions.
2.2 Pucara Group
Near Machcan, there exists no pronounced unconformity between Mitu group

and Pucara group rocks. Minor differences in strike or dip of the lithologic com-
plexes may be attributed to relief encountered by the transgressing Pucara sea.
Figure 2 shows a composite stratigraphic column of Pucara rocks from the vi-
cinity of the Machcan Mine (top tectonically truncated). Altogether, 560 m of
Pucara at the most are exposed W of the Atacocha fault. Lithologically, the con-
tact between Chambara (Norian/Rhaetian) and Aramachay (Hettangian/
Sinemurian) is not visible. Fossiliferous beds at meter 225 of the section have
Norian age (Spiriferina sp. ex gr. abichi Oppel), those encountered at meter 348
are of middle Liassic age (Actinastrea lissoni Tilmann).
Chambara sediments possess characteristics pointing to a shallow-water, marine
depositional environment (less than 50 m water depth), possibly a semi-stagnant la-
goon with local euxinic conditions which was lifted occasionally above sea level.
The little lateral persistence of individual strata indicates a morphologically well
differentiated sea bottom. In Aramachay times, a small reef complex developed
around the Machcan area, i.e., a higher-energy depositional environment prevailed.
Noteworthy are layers and lenses of basic and quartzdacitic altered flow rocks,
volcaniclastics, and tuffs within Pucara carbonates. Their rapid weathering makes
their recognition in the field difficult. They occur particularly frequently around
the Machcan mine. This relates well to evidence for pronounced volcanic activity
around Machcan during Mitu times.
2.3 Tectonics
Machcan mining operations take place along the western flank of a slightly asym-
metric syncline (cf. Fig. 3), the B-axis of which strikes N-S and plunges with 20 o
296 W. Hirdes
o ... lava flow

lava flow
0 ...
tuff
fossiltfer<lus
limestone •
limes tone t chert concretions
chert
cone ret 1ons
rloytmlte
tuff
tuff
420 tuff
lava f1 ow
lava flow
bit. I IMS.S ilie

tuff 1 imestone +
fossils
arenitic
ll..,stone
fossillf. bed
fossil If. bed
siliceous
lirestone +
chert concretions
bituminous
1imestone
lava flow
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of Pucara sediments in the northern Atacocha district (vicinity of
Machcan mine)
to the south. Generally, open folds up to the kilometer scale are predominant.
Orientation of faults and shears is as follows:
110 ° to 145 °; 850Jo of all measured faults show this direction. It is frequently
mineralized.
170° to 180°; these faults are younger than those above; rarely they are miner-
al-bearing.
85 o to 95 o; age relationships with both other directions were not determined;
in one case this type is mineralized (Veta Chamaco, Fig. 1).
.,
Nontoa ,...Havc.lon e .. 111 Manto f' iCGfdO
[
uoo
uoo
----
',-,,
a r::::!!9 b
....
~
EH:l c I!I!I d ... 100
Fig. 3. Section through Machcan mine. a Dacitic stocks, b orebodies, c Pucara carbonates and minor
stratiform volcanics, d Mitu volcanic agglomerate
The dip of faults is variable, but generally steep. Mylonitization in shear zones
is common; some are silicified. Faults tend to pinch out towards the incompetent
Mitu sediments.
In parts, the development of faulting seems to be controlled by older zones of
weakness which appear to have existed before Pucara times.
2.4 Intrusions
Major intrusions occur in the southern portion of the Atacocha District, whereas
in Machcan intrusive activity has played only a very limited role. In the southwest-
ern tract of the deposit a few subvolcanic stocks are exposed: the largest one has
a diameter of 30 m. The distribution of the stocks is controlled by NW-SE-trend-
ing fault zones, and the stocks are elongated in this direction. In general, the com-
position of the subvolcanic stocks is dacitic.
3 Mineralizations
The Machcan Pb-Zn-deposit consists of stratiform and vein-type mineralizations.
This study concentrates on the stratiform ones. These may be subdivided into five
types (refer to Fig. 1 for localities).
1. Sulfide bodies consisting predominantly of pyrite, in pyroclastics, and tuffitic

rocks at the Mitu/Pucara contact (Manto Angelica, Manto Precauci6n, Manto
Uli, Manto Churlo).
2. A chalcopyrite-bearing horizon in finely laminated carbonates at meter 62 of
the stratigraphic column (Manto Precauci6n II).
3. Lenses of galena, sphalerite, and pyrite in carbonates between meters 140 and
170 of the stratigraphic column (Manto Carmen, Manto San Judas, Manto Ol-
ga, Manto Palmira).
298 W. Hirdes
4. Lenses of galena, sphalerite, and pyrite which occur in the hanging wall or
foot-wall of stratiform volcanics (Manto Carmen II, Manto Lizandro, Manto
Ricardo).
5. A diffuse sulfide content of low intensity; predominantly in bituminous lime-
stones and carbonate portions with an elevated dolomite content.
The discordantly disposed mineralizations are:

1. NW-SE-trending galena-, sphalerite- and pyrite-bearing veins in Pucara car-
bonates (Veta Carmen, Veta Purissima, Veta Flecha, Veta Lizandro, Veta Don
Chipi, Veta Comedor, Veta Balconcillo, Veta Milagros, Veta Cooperativa); E-
W-trending (Veta Chamaco).
2. Chalcosite-bearing veinlets in Mitu red beds (Veta Cobre).
3.1 Sulfide Bodies at the Mitu-Pucara Contact
Around Machcan village, where Mitu pyroclastics attain their maximum thick-
ness, a 600-m-long and up to 24-m-thick, stratiform pyrite orebody accompanied
by chalcedony is encountered in the stratigraphically uppermost horizons of the
pyroclastics. To a minor extent sulfides are also present in hanging wall Pucara
carbonates.
This particular area presumably represents a center of eruptive volcanic activi-
ty, i.e., a volcanic vent. With increasing distance from the volcanic vent, the miner-
al composition of the sulfide ore changes - concomitantly with a decrease in
grain size and thickness of the pyroclastics. Chalcedony diminishes, whereas
galena and sphalerite content increases. At the Churlo Mine, some 4.5 km away,
the pyroclastics are present as a 2-m-thick tuffitic layer which contains bedding-
parallel galena schlieren with traces of sphalerite. A synsedimentary formation of
these galena schlieren is strongly suggested by the observation that settling
volcaniclastic particles caused impression marks in the galena schlieren, thus im-
plying that the latter were still in a plastic stage upon deposition of the particles.
Minor sulfide orebodies in the vicinity of the Mitu-Pucara contact are common
in the northern Atacocha District, and may be traced in a northwesterly direction
up to the Vinchos area (ca. 20 km).
3.2 A Chalcopyrite-Bearing Horizon at Meter 62 of the Stratigraphic Column
In the vicinity of the Precauci6n adit, a pyrite lens occurs on top of heavily altered
volcanics, which grades laterally into chalcopyrite-bearing laminated carbonates
within a distance of a few meters. Chalcopyrite is present as numerous up to
0.5-mm-thick bedding-concordant layers within the 80-120-cm-thick laminite
horizon. Laminites and chalcopyrite bands were subjected to synsedimentary de-
formation. Mobilization of sulfides took place on a mm-to-cm-scale at inflection
points of flexures of the deformed sediments. Besides chalcopyrite, pyrite (includ-
ing framboids), as well as traces of chalcocite, are present.
3.3 Lenses of Galena, Sphalerite and Pyrite in Carbonates
Sediments between meter 140 and meter 170 of the stratigraphic column carry
several stratiform sulfide lenses, consisting of galena, sphalerite, and pyrite (some
framboids) in varying proportions. Quartz and chalcedony gangue and traces of
fahlore may be present. Long axes of the lensoid orebodies are orientated parallel
and strike in a NW-SE direction. The lenses reach lengths of up to 50 m, widths
up to 15 m, and thicknesses up to 1.5 m. Towards their edges the lenses are thin-
ning out, grade into disseminated ore, and finally into barren carbonates. The
orebodies have been folded and are displaced along faults, i.e., their formation
predates these events.
3.4 Lenses of Galena, Sphalerite, and Pyrite Associated

with Stratiform Volcanics ·
Such ores are encountered between meters 205 and 215 of the stratigraphic profile.
A quartzdacitic to rhyolithic crystal tuff at meter 205 contains disseminated py-
rite, including sulfidized silicates and framboids. Furthermore, galena aggregates
and idiomorphic sphalerite are present. In the Carmen adit a stratiform 1.2 m-
thick galena-sphalerite lens is present in carbonate in the immediate hanging of
the crystal tuff; this lens is overlain by a pyrite-bearing quartzdacitic lava flow of
up to 5 m thickness and several meters length. In its hanging wall and footwall
sulfide lenses of up to 1 m thickness are developed. The vertical distance between
these and the flow may attain up to 2m. These sulfide ores - consisting of gale-
na, sphalerite and pyrite, and traces of fahlore, bournonite, and chalcopyrite -
possess a layered fabric; the layers become repeatedly finer towards the hanging
wall. Mobilization of ore on the mm-to-cm-scale is common. In general, sulfides
with the exception of pyrite crystallized late. The described flow and associated
mineralization occur at the eastern flank of the Machcan syncline (Fig. 3) as well;
the relevant outcrop measures 110 m along strike. The sulfide ore occurs in a dis-
seminated form or as stratiform schlieren within siliceous carbonate.
3.5 Low-Intensity Mineralization in Sediments
Diffuse low-intensity mineralization is omnipresent in parts of the sedimentary

pile at Machcan, particularly in bituminous carbonates, synsedimentary breccias,
and portions with an elevated dolomite content. Pyrite is partly present as fram-
boids; it is particularly frequent along the concave side of mollusc shells in the
bituminous horizon at meter 135 of the stratigraphic column. In addition,
allotriomorphous aggregates of sphalerite of up to 35 1.1 diameter occur, prefera-
bly in a dolomitic layer at meter 160 of the profile and within a cut-and-fill chan-
nel with elevated dolomite content. No galena was observed. Barite and fluorite
were not detected by means of X-ray diffraction analyses. The diffusely distribut-
ed sulfides tend to concentrate at grain boundaries of carbonates, i.e., sulfide
diagenesis took place at a comparatively late stage.
300 W. Hirdes
Sulfides are also encountered in bedding-parallel stylolite seams. Apparent-

ly they accumulated as insoluble residue during pressure solution of the car-
bonates.
3.6 Vein-'JYpe Mineralizations
Veins of the Machcan deposit are arranged in a parallel pattern; in general their
strike is between 11 oo and 140 °. The dip of the veins varies between 55 WSW and
60 NE. Maximum length reaches 200m, maximum width 1.10 m. A spatial associ-
ation between the maximum thickness of veins and stratiform ore lenses exists in
some cases (Carmen vein and Lizandro vein). The extension of the veins towards
depth is unknown, but they were nowhere observed to continue into underlying
Mitu sediments.
Veins in Machcan did not form as fracture fillings; rather the ore was emplaced
within mylonitized and brecciated carbonates which formed due to tectonization
in shear zones. Ore emplacement post-dates the emplacement of the subvolcanic
stocks present in the southwestern tract of Machcan.
Lehne (1975) has investigated the paragenesis of the Machcan vein-type miner-
alizations by means of polished section microscopy. He concluded that they repre-
sent low-temperature hydrothermal veins of subvolcanic affiliation. Besides py-
rite, galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite, and secondary minerals of the oxidation
zone, he noted the presence of luzonite/stibioluzonite, bournonite, sulfosalts,
fahlore, as well as melnikovite pyrite and marcasite. Very minor auripigment is
also present. Gangue minerals are calcite, chalcedony, quartz, and locally
rhodochrosite. The ore paragenesis of the veins resembles that of the stratiform
mineralizations, indicating that at least a part of the sulfides and gangue minerals
present in Machcan veins could result from a mobilization of the content of
stratiform ore lenses.
In Mitu red beds, NW-SE-striking chalcocite-bearing veinlets of a few millime-
ters thickness occur which might have formed by lateral secretion.
4 Geochemical Investigations
Atomic absorption analyses of a limited pyrite sample suite (N = 17) obtained

from Machcan orebodies of various stratigraphic levels have been presented by
Hirdes (1975) and Hirdes and Amstutz (1978). These authors noted that the con-
centration of such elements in pyrites which are not incorporated in the crystal
lattice of pyrites (Cu, Pb, Zn) shows a tendency to augment with increasing strati-
graphic height at Machcan. Furthermore, a limited number of Machcan volcanics
(N = 18) and carbonatic sediments (N = 17) was analyzed. Pb- and Zn-concentra-
tions in Machcan volcanics (x Pb = 119 ppm; x Zn = 187 ppm) are considerably
higher than published Clarke values.
The stratigraphically highest volcanics, which are also associated with Pb-Zn
ore lenses, carry the highest concentrations of these elements. A similar tendency
holds true for carbonate rocks. The above findings could indicate an increasingly
anomalous supply of Pb- and Zn-ions and/or changing T- and pH/Eh-conditions

during a specific period of Chambara sedimentation in the Machcan area.
5 Comments on the Genesis of the Ores

A synthesis of the findings outlined above allows the construction of the follow-
ing model of the genesis of the Machcan deposit: The first stratiform sulfide bod-
ies formed during the transition from continental (Mitu) to peritidal-marine
(Chambara) depositional conditions when rhyolithic to quartzdacitic volcani-
clastics were erupted from a vent of a paleovolcano in the Machcan area. Its cen-
tral facies - characterized by comparatively thick and coarse agglomerates -
was hydrothermally impregnated with pyrite and Si02 towards the end of erup-
tive activity; at an even more progressed stage massive pyritic beds formed. In
more distal portions of the paleovolcano - several km away from the vent - tuf-
fitic sediments were deposited; these beds attained only a few meters in thickness.
Vertical zoning regarding the paragenesis of syngenetically deposited sulfides may
be observed: Pyrite and Si02 diminish at the expense of sphalerite and galena,
the latter dominate in more distal portions. After deposition of the volcaniclastic
series, shallow-water marine conditions prevailed in Machcan. Volcanic activity
persisted in the area, and occasional lava flows and volcaniclastic beds were laid
down. The sea floor was morphologically differentiated: NW-striking depressions
developed in the area of the presentday mining lease, in which volcanics and sul-
fides were preferably deposited. The close spatial relationship between volcanics
and some ore lenses, as well as anomalous Pb- and Zn-contents in volcanics, sug-
gests that the bulk of metal ions was supplied by submarine volcanic activity. Be-
sides horizontal zoning, vertical zoning regarding sulfide orebody parageneses oc-
curs in Machcan (Fig. 4): With increasing stratigraphic distance from the Mitu-
Pucara contact, orebody parageneses change from impregnations and massive
lenses of pyrite+ Si02 to chalcopyrite- and pyrite-bearing horizons, and finally
galena and sphalerite-rich, but Cu-poor ore lenses.
Such a largely identical horizontal and vertical zoning pattern within the
Machcan deposit, which reflects comparable systematic changes in space and
time, could have resulted from Eh/pH-changes in connection with progressing re-
duction/oxidation interfaces. In addition, in space and time, decreasing tempera-
tures of submarine-hydrothermal solutions possibly played a role.
Apart from volcanogenic factors, biochemical processes could have been of lo-
cal importance for the formation of Machcan sulfide mineralization. In sediment
portions which were occasionally lifted above sea level and in which evaporitic
conditions were then attained, formation of dolomite and evaporitic sulfates took
place. Their reduction by means of sulfate-reducing bacteria provided hydrogen
sulfide, which reacted with available metal ions to form elevated sulfide concen-
trations in such areas. Furthermore H 2S was produced by decaying organisms,
this probably being the reason for elevated sulfide contents in bituminous layers
and along concave sides of mollusc shells.
Approximately at the Thias/Jura time boundary, submarine volcanic activity
as well as synsedimentary sulfide-ore formation ceased. Instead of the up to then
302 W. Hirdes
..D.
0 c
--
~ "
.
(J~
~ ~
..,.mttl !II ill IIll rtmxr...
"c
~ ·e
Galena and spha 1erite wilh minor pyrite
Pyrite with minor sphalerite and galena
Pyrite with minor cha 1copy rite
Pyrite
Pyrite with Si0 2
Pyrite veinlets with minor Si0 2
Volcanic agglomerate
1:: :·.-":;·:I Tuffi te
E2J Red Beds
~ Carbonates and minor volcanics
Fig. 4. Schematic cross-section of the Machcan deposit: horizontal and vertical zoning
prevailing peritidal facies, temporarily a reef complex and concommitantly a

"high-energy environment" developed.
During E-W/ESE-WNW-compression taking place in the late Eocene or early
Oligocene (lncaic folding phase), volcanics, sediments, and sulfide orebodies were
folded and displaced along fault and shear zones. Seemingly, some of the latter
developed in the realm of NW-SE-trending submarine depression zones of Pucara
age, this being the reason for the advanced obliteration of primary ore textures
in these particular sulfide bodies. The fault zones facilitated the aligned emplace-
ment of small dacitic stocks, which was followed by the formation of vein-type
sulfide mineralization. Largely identical parageneses of stratiform and vein-type
orebodies, as well as their spatial association, could suggest a mobilization origin
for the latter. Such mobilization was possibly facilitated by energy and fluids de-
rived from the intruding dacitic stocks. However, an independent genesis of the
vein-type ore as suggested by Soler (1986) is also possible.
In conclusion, the Machcan ore deposit constitutes a small example of ore for-
mation associated with the volcanism at the Mitu/Pucara time-boundary. Larger
deposits formed in a very similar environment are those of Carahuacra and Huari-
pampa in the Domo de Yauli District (Dalheimer this Vol.). It should be pointed
out that intense obliteration of parts of Machcan by Tertiary intrusive activity and
tectonics exists, but the recognition of the primary features is still possible.
References
Dalheimer M (1990) The Zn-Pb-(Ag) deposits Huaripampa and Carahuacra in the mining district of
San Cristobal, Central Peru. This Vol, pp 279-291
Gunnesch KA, Baumann A (1984) The Atacocha District, Central Peru: Some metallogenetic aspects.
In: Wauschkuhn A, Kluth C, Zimmermann RA (eds) Syngenesis and epigenesis in the formation
of mineral deposits. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo
Hirdes W (1975) Schichtgebundene Vererzungen und Glinge der Blei-Zink-Grube Machcan im nordli-
chen Zentralperu und ihr geologischer Rahmen. Diplomarbeit, Univ Heidelberg (unpublished)
Hirdes W, Amstutz GC (1978) Geologische und metallogenetische Untersuchungen im nordlichen
Atacocha-Distrikt (Zentralperu) am Beispiel der Blei-Zink-Grube Machcan. Geol Jb D28:3-55
Kruger FC (1947) Estudio de Ia mina Proaiio. Intern rep Cerro de Pasco Co
Johnson RF, Lewis RW, Abele G (1955) Geology and ore deposits of the Atacocha District, Depar-
tamento de Pasco, Peru. US Geol Surv Bull 975:336-387
Lehne RW (1975) Erzmikroskopische Untersuchungen an Gangvererzungen der Mine Machcan im
nordlichen Zentralperu. Diplomarbeit, Univ Heidelberg (unpublished)
Soler P (1986) La province polymetallique des Andes du Perou central: synthe5e gitologique. Chron
Rech Min 482:39-54
Sulfur Isotope Studies in the Zinc-Lead Mine
San Vicente, Central Peru
H. GORZAWSKI 1•2 , L. FONTBOTE 2 , C. W. FIELD 3 and R. TEJADA 4
1 Introduction
The stratabound Zn-Pb deposit of San Vicente, presently the largest zinc producer
of Peru, is located about 300 km east of Lima in the tropical rain forest of Central
Peru (Schulz 1971; Levin and Amstutz 1973; Fontbote and Gorzawski 1990). The
San Vicente deposit appears to be associated with certain dolomitic facies within
a transgressive carbonate sequence (up to 2000 m thick) in the eastern part of the
Upper Triassic-Liassic Pucara Group. The ore-bearing dolomites belong to a
peritidal facies belt that forms a transition between detrital-evaporitic sediments
at the margin of the Brazilian Shield to the east, and open marine carbonates of
the central Pucara to the west. Along this facies belt, that is recognized over a dis-
tance of at least 200 km from north to south, are a number of nonexploited ore
deposits and occurrences. These collectively belong to a Mississippi Valley-type
province in the eastern Pucara, whose economic significance at present is not well
known (Fontbote this Vol.).
The ores of San Vicente occur as lenticular bodies that are conformable with
bedding at the scale of the deposit. Paragenesis is very simple, with sphalerite and
galena as the only commercial minerals, and the Zn: Pb ratio is 10: 1 on the aver-
age. The ore lenses display a remarkable facies control whereby the metal-rich ho-
rizons are mainly bound to (1) layers of dolomitized mudstones and pel-
let-grainstones with abundant cryptalgallaminations and sulfate pseudomorphs
deposited in lagoonal and tidal flat subenvironments, and (2) to barrier
calcarenites in the vicinity of intercalations of the former facies. Barrier
calcarenites are the predominant ore-bearing facies. Both reflectivity measure-
ments and Rock Eval analyses of organic matter indicate a high stage of maturity
largely beyond that of oil and gas generation. Exact burial depth is unknown be-
cause of tectonics and erosion, but it exceeds 2-3 km.
The ore-forming process appears to have started in late diagenetic stages under
burial of about 2-3 km (Fontbote and Gorzawski in press). Petrographic,
geochemical, and isotopic (Sr, C, 0, Pb) evidence (Gorzawski 1989; Gorzawski
et al. 1989; Fontbote and Gorzawski 1990) indicate the introduction of a metal-
1 Max-Planck-Institut ftir Chemie, Postfach 3060, D-6500 Mainz, FRG

2 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitat Heidelberg, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg,
FRG
3 Department of Geology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, USA
4 San Ignacio de Morococha S.A., San Vicente, Peru

306 H. Gorzawski et a!.
B34 S [ 0/oo, COT]
10.4
9.7
9.4
Smm 1
Fig. I. Thin section photograph of sample FSV-007. The results of sulfur isotope analyses in three con-
secutive sphalerite generations (SL/, SL//a, SL//b) are indicated
rich basinal brine that circulated through sediments rich in detrital material de-
rived from old crust (Brazilian Shield).
This chapter reports the results of sulfur isotope studies carried out on samples
from San Vicente. The aim was to constrain the sulfur sources and the precipita-
tion conditions at the ore deposit.
2 Analytical Methods and Results
Complex textures and structures present in the ores and host rocks are one of the
most striking features of the San Vicente Mine. A significant part of the ore oc-
curs as diagenetic crystallization rhythmites (DCRs, Fontbote and Amstutz 1983).
These DCRs have been preferentially investigated with respect to the sulfur iso-
tope analyses, because successive generations of diagenetic crystallization are
megascopically visible and capable of being isolated as paragenetically distinct
samples.
Such characteristic textures are illustrated in Fig. 1 that shows a thin section
of an ore-bearing OCR (sample FSV-007). Here, as in other samples, it is possible
to distinguish three different sphalerite generations within a typical crystallization
sequence, which is as follows:
Sulfur Isotope Studies in the Zinc-Lead Mine San Vicente, Central Peru 307
Generation I consisting of fine-grained xenomorphic sphalerite I (inter-

grown with dolomite I).
Generation Ila consisting of subhedral, bipolar, brownish sphalerite Ila.
Generation lib consisting of subhedral, bipolar, yellowish sphalerite lib.
Generation III consisting of sparry white dolomite.
Analyses reported in this study are based on those of 20 individual sulfide con-
centrates that were extracted from five samples. Where feasible, up to three gener-
ations of sulfide were separated from a single sample, usually by means of a den-
tal drill and with the aid of a binocular microscope. Although most sulfide frac-
tions were pure, having been extracted from relatively massive and coarsely crys-
talline aggregates, those associated with Generation I were finely crystalline dis-
seminations abundantly contaminated with carbonate. These latter impure sulfide
fractions were additionally concentrated by means of differential settling in
bromoform heavy liquid. Sulfide-sulfur in each concentrate was converted to
so2 gas for mass spectrometric analysis of the sulfur isotope ratio according to
the method described by Ohmoto and Rye (1979). The S02 gas was formed un-
der vacuum at 1025 oc by oxidation of the sulfide in the presence of CuO. Water
and other noncondensable gases were removed from the S02 prior to isotopic
analysis by Global Geochemistry Corporation of Canoga Park, California. The
sulfur isotope data are given in conventional <5 34S per mil values, where the posi-
tive or negative sign represents deviations (<5) in parts per thousand (%o) of 34 S in
the sample relative to the Canon Diablo meteorite standard. Analytical precision
Table 1. Sulfur isotope-results on sulfide samples from the San Vincente

Mine
Field no. Analysis no. Manto Min Gen o34S/CDT

FSV-007 HGA-075 3t sl 10.4
HGA-076 sl II a 9.7
HGA-077 sl lib 9.4
FSV-041 HGA-078 3p sl I 13.0
HGA-079 sl II 12.8
HGA-080 ga III 6.9
FSV-079 HGA-124 Ayala sl 10.6
HGA-152 sl II 9.9
FSV-039 HGA-092 2 sl 12.1
HGA-149 sl 12.2
HGA-153 ga 6.8
FSV-044 HGA-081 3t sl 10.1
HGA-082 sl 11.0
HGA-083 sl 11.0
HGA-084 sl 9.9
HGA-085 sl 11.5
HGA-086 sl 10.8
HGA-087 sl 10.0
HGA-088 sl 10.8
HGA-089 sl 10.2
308 H. Gorzawski et al.
(> 34 $ (%o]
78
+13
~ 19 149
~
I
+ 12 I
a
I
I
91
I 68S
+ 11 124 AB6.88.83 . 82 A sphalerite I
75 4 na
~ spha lerit e
~ I
~89 £fl. nb
+10
f6
I
81 87 sphaleri t e
4
152 84 \I galena m
11
v l:l, sphalerite (subsequent
generations not specifil!!d)
.6. results of NIELSEN
v V in SCHULZ 119711
..:; \I v
80 153
+6
FSV-7 FSV-41 FSV - 79 FSV-39 FSV-44 sample no .
Fig. 2. Results of sulfur isotope studies in sphalerite and galena samples from the San Vicente Mine.
Dashed lines connect the results of consecutive sulfide generations in one given hand specimen. The
numbers indicated correspond to Table 1 (analysis no. HGA-). The results obtained by Nielsen (in
Schulz 1971) are also indicated
is calculated to be better than ±0.2%o. The data are listed in Table 1 and are
graphically displayed in Fig. 2 that also includes the earlier results of Nielsen (in
Schulz 1971) for comparison.
Results indicate that sulfides from the San Vicente Mine are remarkably
isotopically homogeneous, significantly enriched in 34S, and exhibit a nearly
consistent weak isotopic trend with paragenesis. Many of these features are char-
acteristic of Mississippi Valley-type deposits elsewhere, as summarized by Heyl et
al. (1974) and Ohmoto and Rye (1979). The o34S values of 18 sphalerite concen-
trates range narrowly from +9.4 to + 13.0%o, and those of two galena concen-
trates from + 6.8 to + 6.9%o. All sulfides are enriched in 34S relative to most of
those of presumed magmatic or magmatic hydrothermal origin (O%o± 3%o), which
implies an isotopically heavy source of sulfur derived from sulfate in oceanic
and/or connate waters, or marine evaporites. Small enrichments of 34 S in
sphalerite with respect to associated galena are consistent with fractionation ef-
fects imposed by isotope exchange equilibria. The isotopic uniformity of sulfur
in sulfides from San Vicente was previously noted by Schulz (1971), who attribut-
ed this to a later homogenization process. However, such a process is considered
unlikely, based on the results of the present investigation and in the absence of
a metamorphic imprint on host rocks and ores at San Vicente.
3 Discussion
One of the more interesting aspects of this investigation is the presence of isotopic
trends related to the paragenetic position of sulfides. These are manifest as small
differences in the isotopic compositions of paragenetically sequential sphalerites
that exhibit a general trend of progressive, but slight, 34S depletion in the deposi-
tional order from I through Ila to lib generations. This trend towards lighter
<534S values during sequential sulfide formation may result from fractionation
and mass-balance effects that accompany changing physico-chemical parameters
of the system, and/or from changing and/or compositionally different sources of
sulfur in the evolving ore-forming process. Moreover, it is associated with analo-
gous trends from early and heavy to late and light per mil values for 13 C and 180
in the dolomitic DCRs as described by Fontbote and Gorzawski (1988, 1990) and
Gorzawski (1989). This heavy to light trend is explained in terms of a slightly but
continuously changing ore fluid composition during ore formation, probably re-
lated to increasing temperatures with advancing diagenesis. The similar trend for
34S could be attributed to decreasing fractionation between ZnS and H 2S with
increasing temperature as the host carbonate sediments underwent progressive
compaction and burial throughout the paragenetic deposition of the several
sphalerite generations. However, the high temperature differences calculated
(> 100°C) for subsequent sphalerite generations appear to be quite unrealistic.
Other mechanisms to produce the 34S trend observed might include the addition
of 34S-depleted organic sulfur or the increase in oxygen fugacity over the
paragenetic interval of ore formation, but there is little evidence at present to sup-
port either speculation.
A major objective of this investigation was to determine or set constraints on
the source of sulfur contained in sulfides of the San Vicente deposit. For Zn-Pb
deposits hosted by unmetamorphosed sedimentary carbonate rocks there are es-
sentially three geologically feasible means by which to generate H 2S for the fixa-
tion of metals as sulfides. These are by (1) the biogenic reductions of marine sul-
fates by bacteria, (2) release of organically bound reduced sulfur by alteration-
maturation of hydrocarbons, and (3) abiogenic reduction of marine sulfates by
organic carbon or ferrous iron. Our data suggest that the latter mechanism best
applies at San Vicente.
According to Claypool et al. (1980), the sulfur isotopic compositions of marine
sulfate have varied throughout geologic time, and have ranged from about + 12
to + 15%o during Middle to Late Triassic and from about + 13 to + 18%o during
Liassic time. In addition, Field et al. (1983) have reported <534S values of + 13.1
and + 13.8%o for evaporitic anhydrite within the western part of the Pucara Group
from the nearby Morococha district. Because the sphalerites of San Vicente are
isotopically heavy (mostly + 10 to+ 12%o) and compositionally similar to the ma-
rine sulfates described above, it may be inferred that the source for much or all
of this sulfide-sulfur was a reduced form of seawater or evaporite sulfate of Trias-
sic-Liassic age. This assumption is supported by the fact that at San Vicente there
is abundant evidence of sulfate replacement by carbonates. As pointed out by An-
derson and Garven (1987), this may be indicative of sulfate reduction, because
sulfate minerals can only be replaced by carbonates if there is a sink for the hydro-
gen ions generated in this process. In the absence of other reactions, such as, for
example, silicate alteration, this sink should be the result of sulfate reduction to
H 2S or S.
The isotopically heavy and uniform o34 S values of the sphalerites are largely
inconsistent with a biogenic mechanism for the reduction of sulfate to reduced
forms of sulfur. Although it is theoretically possible to obtain similar isotopic
characteristics from H 2S derived by sulfate-reducing bacteria, assuming the
quantitative (1000J'o) reduction of a finite reservoir of sulfate sulfur, such results
would be fortuitous, as the necessary assumptions are not likely to prevail in a
system as large and geologically complex as the San Vicente deposit.
The thermal degradation of organic sulfur-bearing hydrocarbons at elevated
temperatures might readily supply H 2S without fractionation. According to
Hunt (1979), H 2S is easily released during the diagenesis of organic-rich sedi-
ments at temperatures higher than 100°C, and this reduced sulfur may become
an important component of natural gas. Large amounts of gas and organic matter
would be required to form this large Zn-sulfide deposit. Although the ore-bearing
dolomite units contain some organic material, mass balance considerations do
not favor the application of this mechanism at San Vicente. In addition, data pre-
sented and reviewed by Vredenburgh and Cheney (1971) indicate that composi-
tions of sulfur in petroleum and organic matter range largely from between -7
and + 7%o and generally show a 34S-depleted trend parallel to that of marine sul-
fates over geologic time. Accordingly, these forms of organic sulfur do not seem
to represent isotopically reasonable sources of H 2S for the fixation of metals at
San Vicente.
Abiogenic processes of sulfate reduction by reaction with organic carbon, fer-
rous iron, or H 2 may generate H 2S that is only slightly to moderately fractionat-
ed relative to the source. Barton (1967) proposed that the precipitation of Missis-
sippi Valley-type ores was caused by H 2S formed with the chemical reduction of
sulfate by methane or organic matter. According to Orr (1974, 1977), hydrocar-
bons in combination with H 2S may reduce sulfates at temperatures above 75 oc.
Investigations in organic geochemistry by Macqueen and Powell (1983) and Pow-
ell and Macqueen (1984) have suggested that the thermochemical reduction of
sulfate by bitumen may have formed sulfide ores of the Pine Point deposit at tem-
peratures of about 100 oc. This reaction, according to these authors, would in-
volve two steps: (1) the reduction of sulfate to elemental sulfur by hydrogen sul-
fide, and (2) production of hydrogen sulfide by reaction of elemental sulfur with
organic matter. The latter reaction is rapid (Nielsen 1985) and therefore the rate-
controlling step may be the sulfate release from evaporites. It should be noted that
the abiogenic reduction of sulfate in laboratory experiments has only been clearly
attained above 250°C and thus some authors question its significance as an ore-
forming process (see discussion in Trudinger et al. 1985). However, other investi-
gators such as Orr (1974) and Powell and Macqueen (1984) have suggested that
extrapolation of the kinetic data indicate the feasibility of this process at tempera-
tures as low as 80° to 120 °C in geologic systems. Moreover, the likelihood and
speed of this abiogenic reduction may be enhanced by the presence of partly oxi-
dized intermediate sulfur species (Spirakis 1986).
4 Conclusion
Thus, for reasons previously mentioned, the sulfur isotope distributions observed
in sulfides of San Vicente together with other geologic and geochemical data are
interpreted to have originated from H 2S produced by the abiogenic reduction of
evaporitic sulfate during diagenesis of the Pucara host sediments. The c534S val-
ues of sphalerites are isotopically heavy, narrowly spread, and compositionally
similar to evaporitic sulfates of Liassic age from Peru and elsewhere. Isotopic tem-
perature estimates of 75° and 92 oc, which assume equilibrium between the sul-
fides of generations II and Ill, have been calculated for two sphalerite-galena
mineral pairs (samples FSV-041 and FSV-039; Table 1) using the fractionation
equations given by Ohmoto and Rye (1979). These calculated temperatures partly
overlap those at which the thermochemical reduction of sulfate is considered to
be possible, and they are consistent with scarce fluid inclusion data in dolomites
(J.I. C. A. 1976) indicating a temperature range from 70° to 140 °C. The ore-bear-
ing units of the dolomitic Pucara host are clearly associated with certain
evaporite-bearing facies, indicating the possibility that the sulfur has been re-
duced from anhydrite and gypsum present in and in the vicinity of the deposition
site as evidenced by abundant molds of evaporite salts. Considering the evaporite-
bearing facies at the basin scale and taking into account that sulfate pseudo-
morphs are also abundant in non-ore-bearing parts of the sequence, the available
amount of sulfur should have been sufficient for ore formation. Dispersed organ-
ic matter occurs within the dolomitic rocks and in addition, bitumen aggregates
up to 15 em in thickness and a few meters in lateral extent are considerably abun-
dant. The unit Bituminous Silty Limestone is also characterized by a high content
of organic carbon that consists mainly of altered bitumen. This organic matter,
as previously mentioned, exhibits a high stage of evolution (RMoil = 4.607o ),
which is interpreted as having been attained in post-ore stages.
A basinal brine rich in Zn and Pb migrating into the host carbonate rocks may
have dissolved at least part of the evaporitic sulfate. Organic matter at the site of
ore formation might have served to reduce the so~- at temperatures around
80°-120 oc. The H 2S necessary to initiate this reaction might have been pro-
duced either by bacterial activity or by cracking of organic matter (bitumen).
In summary, the existence of abiogenic reduction of sulfate by organic matter
seems to constitute an attractive model which could account for the sulfur in sul-
fides at the San Vicente Mine. In particular, it is consistent with the homogeneous
c534 S values and with the striking similarity of the ratios of the main sulfide
phase sphalerite with the sulfur isotopic range for Liassic marine sulfates. Al-
though the geochemical significance of abiogenic reduction is still uncertain, such
a process best explains the sulfur isotopic patterns observed and is perfectly con-
sistent with the paleogeographic context of the San Vicente deposit.
Acknowledgments. This investigation has been supported by the European Communities (Contract
No. MSM-010-D) and by the Compafiia Minera San Ignacio de Morococha, Lima.
References
Anderson GM, Garven G (1987) Sulfate-sulfide-carbonate associations in Mississippi Valley-type
lead-zinc deposits. Econ Geol 82:482-488
Barton PB (1967) Possible role of organic matter in the precipitation of Mississippi Valley ores. In:
Brown J (ed) Genesis of stratiform Pb-Zn-Ba deposits in carbonate rocks. Econ Geol Mon
3:371-377
Claypool GE, Holser WT, Kaplan IR, Sakai H, Zak I (1980) The age curves of sulfur and oxygen iso-
topes in marine sulfate and their mutual interpretations. Chern Geol 28:199-260
Field CW, Rye RO, Dymond JR, Whelan JF, Senechal RG (1983) Metalliferous sediments of the East
Pacific. In: Shanks WC (ed) III Cameron volume on unconvential mineral deposits. Soc Minnig
engineers, New York, pp 133-156
Fontbote L Stratabound ore deposits in the Pucara Basin - An overview. This Vol, pp 253-266
Fontbote L, Amstutz GC (1983) Facies and sequence analyses of diagenetic crystallization rhythmites
in strata-bound Pb-Zn-(Ba-F) deposits in the lriassic of Central and Southern Europe. In:
Schneider HG (ed) Mineral deposits of the Alps and of the Alpine Epoch in Europe. Springer,
Fontbote L, Gorzawski H (1988) Isotope (Sr, C, 0, and S) tracing of diagenetic ore formation in car-
bonate-hosted ore deposits illustrated on the F-(Pb-Zn) deposits in the Alpujarrides, Spain and
the San Vicente Zn-Pb Mine, Peru. In: Boissonas J, Omenetto P (eds) Mineral deposits in the Eu-
ropean Community. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York Thkyo, pp 465 -484
central Peru: Geological and isotopic (Sr, 0, C, S) evidences. Econ Geol 85:5
Gorzawski H (1989) Isotopic, geochemical and petrographic characterization of the diagenetic evolu-
tion in carbonate-hosted stratabound Zn-Pb-(F-Ba) deposits (With a comparison of Croix de
Pallieres/France, San Vicente/Peru, and other localities). Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 28, 250 p
Gorzawski H, Fontbote L, Sureau JF, Calvez JY (1989) Strontium isotope trends during diagenesis
in ore-bearing carbonate basins. Geol Rundsch 78, 1:269-291
Heyl AV, Landis GP, Zartman RE (1974) Isotopic evidence for the origin of Mississippi Valley-type
mineral deposits. Econ Geol 69:992-1006
Hunt JM (1979) Petroleum geochemistry and geology. Freeman, San Francisco, 617 p
JICA (1976) Report on geological survey of the Cordillera Oriental, central Peru. Jpn Int Coop Agen-
cy, Jpn Mining Agency 2, 44 p, 27 app
Levin P, Amstutz GC (1973) Neue Untersuchungen iiber schichtgebundene Lagerstatten im zentralen
Ostperu. Miinster Forsch Geol Palik>nt 31/32:233- 259
Macqueen RW, Powell TG (1983) Organic geochemistry of the Pine Point lead-zinc ore field and re-
gion, Northwest Thrritories, Canada. Econ Geol 78:1-25
Nielsen H (1985) Sulfur isotope ratios in strata-bound mineralizations in Central Europe. Geol Jb
070:225-262
Ohmoto H, Rye RO (1979) Isotopes of sulfur and carbon. In: Barnes HL (ed) Geochemistry of
hydrothermal ore deposits. Wiley, New York, pp 509-567
Orr WL (1974) Changes in sulfur content and isotopic ratios of sulfur during petroleum maturation-
study of Big Horn Basin Paleozoic oils. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 58:2295-2318
Orr WL (1977) Geologic and geochemical controls on the distribution of hydrogen sulfide in natural
gas. In: Campos R, Goni J (eds) Advances in organic geochemistry. Enadisma, Madrid Spain, pp
571-597
Powell TG, Macqueen RW (1984) Precipitation of sulfide ores and organic matter: Sulfate reactions
at Pine Point, Canada. Science 224:63- 66
Schulz GG (1971) Die schichtgebundene Zinkblendelagerstatte San Vicente in Ost-Peru und ihr geolo-
gischer Rahmen. Diss, Univ Aachen, 165 p
Spirakis CS (1986) The valence of sulfur in disulfides - an overlooked clue to the genesis of Mississip-
pi Valey-type lead-zinc deposits. Econ Geol 81:1544-1545
lrudinger PA, Chambers LA, Smith JW (1985) Low-temperature sulphate reduction: biological versus
abiological. Can J Earth Sci 22:1910-1918
Vredenburgh LD, Cheney ES (1971) Sulfur and carbon isotopic investigation of petroleum. Wind Riv-
er Basin, Wyoming. Bull Am Assoc Petrol Geol 55:1954-1975
Geology of the Buena Esperanza Copper-Silver Deposit,
Northern Chile
C. M. PALACIOS 1
1 Introduction
The continental margin of western South America is a currently active oceanic-
continental plate boundary: subduction of the oceanic Nazca plate is thought by
most proponents of the plate theory to have generated magmatic activity in the
Andean belt. In the southern part of the Central Andes active volcanism has been
episodic since Jurassic time, taking place in parallel belts in each period, and mi-
grating steadily eastward.
The Jurassic history in the southern part of the Central Andes speaks for the
existence of a magmatic arc with an initial center of volcanic activity located near
the present coastline of northern Chile (Palacios 1984).
The subvolcanic copper deposit (the Buena Esperanza orebody) occurs within
a Jurassic volcanic sequence in the Coastal Range of northern Chile (Fig. 1). The
relationship between the Jurassic volcanic activity and the ore deposit is a result
of field geologic observations about the shape and distribution of the mineralized
body, and related volcanic and subvolcanic rock. Based on the observations of the
author, there are numerous other subvolcanic copper deposits located at the
Coastal Range of northern Chile with characteristics similar to Buena Esperanza
(e.g., Susana, Santo Domingo, Mantos Blancos).
Considering the increased interest in this type of deposits, it is desirable to pro-
vide an examination of their principal geologic, mineralogic, and geochemical fea-
tures.
2 Geologic Setting
The only stratigraphic unit outcropping in the area of Buena Esperanza mine is
a volcanic series of Jurassic age built up by alternating sequences of basalts and
andesites with minor intercalations of volcano-sedimentary material (Fig. 1). The
volcanic rocks are mainly porphyritic, containing phenocrysts of plagioclase
(An40 _ 60), augite, and occasionally olivine within a groundmass (650Jo-800Jo) of
plagioclase microlites (An38 _ 55), clinopyroxenes and minor magnetite, sphene,
and quartz (Palacios 1982). The field-geologic data indicate that in the environs
of the deposit the volcanism developed under terrestrial conditions.
1 Depto. Geologia, Univ. de Chile, P.O. Box 13518, Correo 21, Santiago, Chile

314 C. M. Palacios
0 5 10 km
[ill]1 ~2
Fig. 1. Geologic sketch map of the surroundings of the Buena Esperanza copper-silver deposit. 1 Cre-
taceous dioritic to granodioritic plutonic complex; 2 Jurassic basaltic to andesitic volcanic rocks
The ore deposit is closely connected with subvolcanic activity (Palacios 1986;
Palacios et al. 1986):
1. Ring and radial dyke structures are common in the district (Fig. 2);
2. A mineralized basic volcanic neck cross cuts the orebody (Fig. 3);
3. The bottom of the orebody overlies the top of a shallow magmatic chamber
(Fig. 3);
4. Due to field-geologic aspects and petrochemical comparison, these sub-
volcanic structures can be conceived as feeder-channels of the Jurassic volcanic
rocks deposited in the environs of the orebody and constructed during central
vent eruptions.
3 Geology of the Orebody

The mineralized system is characterized by a central breccia pipe, which does not
reach the surface and forms the feeder to the flat-lying peripheral stratiform min-
eralization (Fig. 3). The ore minerals occur in the matrix of the breccia pipe, in
the porous levels of the volcanics (upper- and lower-most portions of the flows),
and in the intercalated volcano-sedimentary rocks.
The matrix of the pipe consists of rock-flour together with ore and alteration
minerals. The fragments are altered shatters of the volcanic wall rocks, that range
in shape from sharp and angular to rounded. They are poorly sorted and range
in size from 1 to 50 em, but blocks several meters in diameter are not uncommon
(Palacios 1986).
Geology of the Buena Esperanza Copper-Silver Deposit, Northern Chile 315
o 2km
Fig. 2. Geologic map in the area of the Buena
Esperanza orebody. 1 Jurassic volcanics; 2 ring
§11 ~2 ~3 and radial dykes; 3 volcanic neck related to the
mineralized body
, ' ,
~ f.7."=l
~~
2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 3. Vertical cross-sections of the Buena Esperanza ore deposit showing a geologic profile (left) and
the distribution of alteration zones (right). 1 Volcanic neck; 2 mineralized breccia pipe; 3 stratiform
mineralization; 4 Jurassic lavas; 5 late stage of alteration; 6 early and middle stages of alteration (after
Palacios et al. 1986)
In the stratiform bodies (mantas) the typical textures of alteration mineraliza-

tion are stockwork, impregnation, dissemination, and amygdule filling (Losert
1973).
The orebody is typically circular to oval in horizontal section, and the radial
dimensions reach about 130 m. The full vertical extent range from 250 to 300 m.
The ore grade varies between 20Jo and 3.5% Cu.
316 C. M. Palacios
4 Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization

Multiple ore-forming processes occurred during three different stages of hydro-
thermal alteration mineralization (Fig. 3).
An early stage was connected with the development of a breccia pipe, where
the rock presents an alteration assemblage of stable pyrite, chlorite (produced by
breakdown of clinopyroxene and olivine), albite (pseudomorphs after calcic
plagioclase), sericite, quartz, calcite, and anatase.
The middle stage of hydrothermal activity represented the principal pulse of
ore deposition. It must have occurred immediately after the early stage, probably
before the breccia consolidated. During these stages large amounts of silver-rich
bornite and chalcocite were deposited, cementing the breccia pipe and forming
the mantos. The rocks are constituted almost exclusively of cloudy albite of the
early stage, sericite (produced mainly by breakdown of albite), quartz, calcite, and
anatase. Chlorite crystals are almost entirely replaced by sericite. The middle stage
overprints almost completely the early alteration patterns. However, occasionally
small patches, located mainly in the core of the volcanic fragments of the breccia
pipe, remain as relics of the early stage.
The distribution of the alteration and ore minerals shows a vertical zonality:
1. The breakdown of albite to produce sericite is commonly more intensive at the
top of the pipe: the ratio albite/sericite decreases progressively from the bot-
tom (- 4) towards the top (- 2);
2. Bornite is the main mineral in the deeper part of the breccia pipe, overlain by
a central region in which similar amounts of bornite and chalcocite can be ob-
served. At the top of the chimney and in the area of stratiform mineralization,
bornite is generally the less important of the two chief copper sulfides and is
commonly replaced by chalcocite, which is the most abundant.
The late stage of alteration occurred contemporaneously with the intrusion of
a gabbroic volcanic neck, affecting mainly these subvolcanic rocks. Pyrite, bor-
nite, and chalcopyrite were deposited in thin veinlets and disseminated into the
subvolcanic plug. Clinopyroxenes, olivines, and plagioclases of the host rock were
always entirely decomposed and replaced by chlorite, epidote, albite, sericite, and
quartz. Tourmaline, calcite, and anatase complete the alteration assemblage
(Palacios 1986; Palacios et al. 1986).
The extension of the altered body is well defined. It is columnar, reaching verti-
cally about 300m (Fig. 3).
The boundaries of the altered column are irregular and diffuse with a
20- 50-m-wide transition zone.
5 Geochemistry
Detailed geochemical studies (Palacios 1986; Palacios et al. 1986) evidence the fol-
lowing behavior of major, trace, and rare earth elements during alteration:
1. During the early and middle stages of hydrothermal alteration a remarkable
remotion of Ca, Sr, Cr, Ni, Zn, La, Ce, Sm, Eu, and Tb from the rocks occur-
red, while Na, Co, Si, Yb, and Lu were redistributed into the hydrothermal sys-
tem. Rb, K, Cu, and Ag show enrichment patterns.
Geology of the Buena Esperanza Copper-Silver Deposit, Northern Chile 317
Table 1. Results of three-phase fluid inclusion measurements in quartz

a Th (0 C) Salinityb pc
Middle stage Top (4) 440-460 52-54 280-290

of alteration Middle (4) 460-492 53-56 290-310
Bottom (4) 470-495 53-56 295-310
Late stage of Top (2) 460-465 54 300
alteration Bottom (8) 455-500 55-59 290-320
a Location of the samples and number of samples measured (in brackets) in the alteration zones.
b WtOJo NaCl equivalent.
c Estimated vapor pressures in the saturated NaCl-H 20 system.
2. During the late phase of hydrothermal activity Ca, Sr, Cr, Ni, Mg, Fe, and Zn
were expelled from the rocks. Co and Si remained relatively constant. A remark-
able enrichment of Rb, K, Na, Cu, Ag, La, Ce, Sm, Eu, Tb, Yb, and Lu occurred
in the rocks, suggesting an addition of these elements during alteration.
Results of a thermobarometric study (Table 1) indicate a variation in the ther-
modynamic conditions during the trapping of the hydrothermal fluids between the
top and the bottom of the alteration zones at the Buena Esperanza ore deposit.
Temperature, pressure, and salinity of the solutions steadily decrease from the bot-
tom towards the top of the altered pipes. Minimum pressures during crystallization
of quartz were close to 280-320 bar. This equates with a minimum depth of about
1 to 1.3 km beneath their summit regions, assuming lithostatic pressure.
6 Conclusions
The Jurassic stratovolcanoes and/or composite cones at the Coastal Range of
northern Chile were constructed during central vent eruptions of lava and subor-
dinate agglomerates, with compositions dominated by basaltic andesites, but
ranging from basalts to andesites. Relics of such edifices are isolated between
dense swarms of mafic dykes that represent the principal feeder-channels of the
Jurassic volcanics in the southern part of the Central Andes (Pichowiak and
Breitkreuz 1984). The Buena Esperanza deposit was formed in the deeper central
part of a stratovolcano (Fig. 4) and the orebody was formed probably late in the
constructional history of this complex.
Available geologic data support an intimate genetic relation between the
hydrothermal and the extrusive magmatic activity represented by the exposed vol-
canic and subvolcanic rocks. The gabbroic volcanic neck cross-cuts the orebody,
and the bottom of the mineralized pipe overlies the top of a shallow magmatic
chamber. The breccia pipe has not reached the contemporary land surface at the
Buena Esperanza region, that has not undergone an advanced erosion of the vol-
canic pile.
However, field evidence has shown that the high central part of the edifice,
which originally covered the orebody, has been rapidly eroded and the stratovolca-
no was no longer preserved.
318 C. M. Palacios
Fig. 4. Idealized model of the ore deposit related to a Jurassic stratovolcano. 1 Breccia pipe and
stratiform mineralization; 2 volcanic neck; 3 magmatic chamber; 4 ring dykes; 5 present level of ero-
sion in the area of Buena Esperanza
According to •he results of the thermo barometric study, the minimum em-
placement depth of the mineralized pipe probably was about 1 km beneath the
summit region.
The genesis of the deposit can be explained by the separation of an aqueous
phase from the basaltic melt through isothermal decompression (Palacios 1986).
The gas phase saturation in this relatively dry magma may have been reached only
at shallow levels, and probably a considerable amount of Cu-Ag-S-rich fluid was
concentrated at the top of the magmatic chamber. The fragmentation of the vol-
canic wall rocks and the formation of the breccia pipe were probably caused by
thrusting of the fluids accumulated in the upper part of the underlying melt
chamber. This aqueous phase could be represented by the hot and hypersaline flu-
ids trapped in quartz during the middle stage of alteration, which probably intro-
duced the mineralization.
References
Losert J (1973) Genesis of copper mineralizations and associated alterations in the Jurassic volcanic
rocks of the Buena Esperanza mining area, Antofagasta Province, northern Chile. Dep Geol Univ
Chile 40:1-52
Palacios CM (1982) Volcanismo Junisico en el sector Sur de los Andes Centrales (22°-26° S), Chile.
5th Latinoam Geol Congr Bahia Blanca, Argentina 2:83-96
Palacios CM (1984) Considerations about the plate tectonic models, volcanism, and continental crust
in the southern part of the Central Andes. Tectonophysics 106:205-214
Palacios CM (1986) Subvolcanic copper deposits in the Coastal Range of northern Chile. Zbl Geol
Palaont Teil 1 (9/10):1605-1615
Palacios CM, Hein UF, Dulski P (1986) Behaviour of rare earth elements during hydrothermal altera-
tion at the Buena Esperanza copper-silver deposit, northern Chile. Earth Planet Sci Lett
80:208-216
Pickowiak S, Breitkreuz C (1984) Volcanic dykes in the North Chilean Range. Geol Rundsch
73:853-868
The Susana Copper (-Silver) Deposit in Northern Chile
Hydrothermal Mineralization Associated
with a Jurassic Volcanic Arc
F.B. WOLF 1 , L. FONTB0f1~ 1 • 2 and G.C. AMSTUTZ 1
1 Introduction
The Susana copper deposit is located at an elevation of 860 m above sea level in
the coastal Cordillera of northern Chile (Carolina de Michilla district), 110 km
north of Antofagasta at 70°10'W and 22°40'S. Initial mining began in 1981 by
surface mining methods with production coming from one open bit. Due to sub-
sequent geologic reconnaissance that resulted in the discovery of a mineralized
breccia pipe structure, underground mining started in 1983. By 1983, 36000 m of
drilling had shown the presence of 8 million metric tons of oxide/sulfide ore aver-
aging 20Jo copper at 0.5% cutoff (Valdebenito 1983) with probable reserves several
million tonnes greater. Mine production in 1985 was 1700 mt/day with Cu > 3%
and 20 g/mt Ag.
2 Geology
2.1 Regional Geology
The interaction of the converging oceanic lithosphere and the continental plate
since Upper Triassic(?) time at the western margin of central South America was
accompanied by intensive tectonic and magmatic activities. Volcanism in the Ear-
ly to Late Jurassic resulted in thick volcanosedimentary piles which are intruded
by an elongate Jurassic batholith of largely dioritic composition (Rodgers 1985).
The volcanics grade towards the east into marine sediments. This geologic setting
has been attributed to an ensialic magmatic arc-back-arc basin pair (e.g., Coira
et al. 1982).
A predominantly calc-alkaline to HK-calc-alkaline sequence of basalts, basal-
tic andesites, andesites, and minor dacites up to 10.6 km thickness (Buchelt and
Zeil 1986 b) crops out between 22 ° and 26 o S in the coastal Cordillera of northern
Chile. The Jurassic volcanics are called the La Negra Formation (Garcia 1967) be-
ing host to numerous copper occurrences, some of which form small- to medium-
sized copper deposits (e.g., Buena Esperanza, Santo Domingo, Susana, and Man-
tos Blancos).
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches lnstitut der Universitat Heidelberg, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg,

FRG
2 Present address: Dep. de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

320 F. B. Wolf et a!.
The La Negra Formation consists mainly of thin-bedded porphyritic sheet

flows, frequently exhibiting amygdaloidal and flow-breccia tops interbedded with
thin pyroclastic and epiclastic layers (lithic arenites). Dikes and small-sized stocks
of basic to intermediate composition cross-cut the volcanic pile, being interpreted
as feeder channels of the effusives. The Jurassic volcanism appears to be predomi-
nantly subaerial, but locally exposed pillow lavas and thin intercalations of fossili-
ferous limestones indicate that Jurassic volcanism was in part submarine in nature
(Buchelt and Tellez 1988).
2.2 Geology of the Mine Area
The Susana copper deposit is related to a partly mineralized hydrothermal breccia

pipe with an associated set of lense-like to tabular orebodies ("mantos"). The
mineralized system is hosted by a sequence of basaltic to andesitic flows and
D
EJ 2
0 3
~ 4
!TIIll s
[J s
7
[] a
0 75m D s
[J 10
Fig.l. Geologic surface map of the Susana deposit (modified after Soto and Dreyer 1985). 1 La Negra
Formation; 2 volcaniclastic layers; 3 stratiform orebodies; 4 Ore breccia; 5 Susana breccia; 6 dolerite
dike; 7 basaltic dike; 8 gabbroic stock; 9 mylonitized dike; 10 dacitic dike
The Susana Copper (-Silver) Deposit in Northern Chile 321
NNW SSE
Fig. 2. Section A-A', trending NNW through the Susana mine (stratiform mineralization, schematical-
ly only; after Soto and Dreyer 1985). Legend as for Fig. I
volcaniclastic layers (N70 °E/35 °NW) of the Jurassic La Negra Formation (Figs.
1 and 2). Dikes and stocks, in the majority posterior to mineralization, intrude
the mine area. K-Ar radiometric dating of a dolerite dike cross-cutting the volca-
nic pile (Astudillo 1983) shows that the Susana volcanic sequence is at least Upper
Jurassic in age (154±8 Ma).
The breccia pipe is roughly circular to ovoid in cross-section ( 150 x 170 m at
the surface) with minimum vertical dimensions of 300m as indicated by diamond
drilling (Fig. 3). Emplacement has been nearly perpendicular to the bedding of
the volcanic pile. Breccia boundaries are commonly abrupt.
Clasts are mainly basaltic to andesitic volcanics with occasional dolerite frag-
ments corresponding to a 10 to 15-m-wide dike outcropping directly south of the
pipe. Dc!~rite fragments from a few em up to 5 m across are locally clustered near
the contact between pipe and dike rock.
The pipe-like body is subdivided into a barren major part containing only ac-
cessory amounts of sulfide minerals (Susana Breccia of Soto and Dreyer 1985)
and a western arcuate flank carrying ore-grade mineralization in its matrix (Ore
Breccia). Apart from mineralization the Susana Breccia and the Ore Breccia are
distinguished by their texture, matrix composition, and alteration mineralogy.
2.2.1 Susana Breccia
Angular to subangular fragments are generally very poorly sorted ranging in size
from below 1 mm up to 5 m (Fig. 4a). Rounded fragments are subordinate and
scattered throughout the column. A modal size is difficult to assign, but the ma-
jority of fragments are in the range from 5 to 30 em.
WSW ENE
o 50m
Fig. 3. Cross-section of the breccia pipe at the Susana deposit (after Soto and Dreyer 1985). Legend
as for Fig. 1
Open space prior to partial or complete cementation by hydrothermal gangue

is estimated at 10 to 15 vol OJo. The matrix consists of finer-grained fragmental ma-
terial including local patches of rock flour, open-space filling minerals, and scat-
tered, small masses of a gray porphyritic-vesicular igneous matrix of intermediate
compesition. Chemical analyses of the rock show low CaO and very low K20
but high Na20, suggesting that no unaltered material was encountered (Wolf
1990). Based on average contents of Si02 and petrographic analysis, the igneous
matrix may be classified as of andesitic composition. It contains abundant, milli-
meter-sized phenocrysts of pink to orange-colored plagioclase which is complete-
ly albitized. Euhedral plagioclase may be bent and sheared and often shows corro-
sion by a fine-grained groundmass consisting of albite microlites, sphene, titano-
magnetite, and fine veinlets and patches of chlorite. No primary mafic minerals
are observed, but part of the chlorite may have been derived by the alteration of
such phases. The andesite is hard to distinguish from wall-rock fragments within
the pipe, hence values for its proportion of the structure can only be estimated
at about a few percent. The andesitic matrix frequently contains subrounded frag-
ments of volcanic wall rock, but also occurs in disaggregated masses. Such an
occurrence, coupled with the bent and sheared structure of plagioclase, provides
evidence that the magma was plastic during brecciation and upward when move-
ment of breccia material took place.
The Susana Breccia is commonly clast-supported and may be locally porous,
exhibiting vugs a few millimeters up to 10 em across, which may be lined by
specularite, chlorite, and calcite.
A slight vertical gradation in fragment size, matrix volume, and porosity is
characteristic of this breccia. Towards the top of the pipe an increase of matrix
volume accompanied by less average clast size occurs. Accumulation of blocks ex-
ceeding 1 m in diameter and higher amounts of igneous matrix at the bottom and
towards the interior of the pipe are internal features of this breccia. Decrease of
fragment size towards the interior of the pipe has not been observed and inward-
dipping tabular slabs are only relictic, but may be largely destroyed by the intru-
sion of a microgabbro.
Soto and Dreyer (1985) suggest both collapse of marginal megaclasts and cen-
tral ascent of fine-grained material (including scoria) and volatiles released from
a high-level magma as the breccia formation mechanism. The angular shape of
fragments, mixing of rock types, local occurrence of rock flour, open vugs, and
synbreccia igneous matrix point to an explosive nature of the system.
2.2.2 Ore Breccia

The Ore Breccia constitutes the most important orebody of the Susana deposit
with respect to ore grade and tonnage. It is generally clast-supported with frag-
ments ranging in size from below 1 mm up to 5 m. Compared with the Susana
Breccia the Ore Breccia exhibits a marked increase of fragments in the range from
0.5 to 5 em. Rock flour is commonly absent within the upper 200m of the col-
umn. At the bottom of the pipe patches of rock flour occur in the pro tore. Breccia
fragments were separated by 5 to 20 volOJo open space prior to complete cementa-
tion by gangue and sulfide minerals.
The shape of the fragments varies from subangular to rounded. Jigsaw texture
(close-fitting fragment boundaries) is a widespread phenomenon (Fig. 4 b) but al-
ternates with more turbid parts. Transitional stages between jigsaw and chaotic
breccia are visible. Relative transport of fragmental material of the Ore Breccia
is evidenced by mixing of clasts with different lithologies and shapes and down-
ward displacement of fragments is estimated at some tens of meters by the distri-
bution of dolerite clasts derived from a dike which is in fault-controlled contact
with the breccia at its southern margin. Igneous matrix (i.e., an intrusive rock) is
virtually absent along the upper 250m of the breccia column; however, a por-
phyritic basaltic rock of presumably intrusive nature containing breccia fragments
has been found in a drill core below the 600-m level (Fig. 4c). The drill core bot-
toms within the protore zone of the deposit show Ore Breccia parts alternating
with the porphyritic rock. The intrusive rock forms both a nonbrecciated and dis-
rupted matrix with phenocrysts of chloritized mafics and fluidally arranged pla-
gioclase around lava fragments, suggesting a temporal association with the brec-
ciation process. Both the breccia and the porphyritic basalt are hydrothermally
altered to albite, chlorite, and sericite.
324 F. B. Wolf et a.
I
Little can be said about the role of the porphyritic unit on subsurface breccia-
tion and mineralization without further geologic information from stratigraphi-
cally deeper levels of the deposit. However, the existence of a hydrothermally al-
tered and mineralized igneous matrix within the breccia pipe is a newly described
feature of this deposit.
Detailed underground mapping in late 1985 down to the 640-m level (above sea
level) did not reveal fragments of Ore Breccia within Susana Breccia, or vice versa,
except in clearly tectonized areas. Contacts between the breccias are generally
nongradational and small interfingerings of Ore Breccia with Susana Breccia, as
well as minor faults interpreted as sheet fractures (Soto and Dreyer 1985) at the
contact between both breccias, may indicate that Ore Breccia emplacement closely
followed Susana Breccia formation. Further evidence is given both by the appear-
ance within the Susana Breccia rim of both reddish-pale, rounded clasts which
are affected by strong albitization characteristic of the Ore Breccia and a
specularitic halo that presumably represents a fringe of hydrothermal alteration
connected with the mineralization processes in the Ore Breccia. Ore-forming flu-
ids spread along marginal zones of the pipe, where open-space breccia due to col-
lapse developed.
2.2.3 Volcanics and Stratiform Orebodies
As mentioned above basaltic to andesitic flows and intercalated volcaniclastics

(70 °E/35 °NW} constitute the wall rock of the stratiform mineralization con-
tained in the Susana deposit (In this chapter, "stratiform" refers to lensoid, rela-
tively thin orebodies which are emplaced at outcrop scale essentially conformably
with the stratification of their volcanic wall rock. No syn-genetic connotation is
implicit herein.) Flow thicknesses range from 2 to 15m with the volcaniclastics
reaching thicknesses up to 4 m. Flow morphology is characterized by sharp, lower
contacts, often marked by a chilled base that contains thin bands of flattened
amygdules grading upwards into compact, porphyritic lava. The upper parts of
the flows are commonly vesicular to amygdaloidal and locally flow-brecciated.
Amygdules vary in size from a few mm to 5 em and may be composed of chlorite,
quartz, calcite, epidote, and various combinations of these minerals. Upper con-
Fig. 4a-h. a Subangular clasts derived from volcanic wall rock. Susana Breccia, 675-m level. b Pro-
tore of the Ore Breccia. Albitized basaltic fragments display "jigsaw texture" Note also dark, rounded
clast and white gypsum in the matrix. Sawed slab of drill core, 600-m level. c Porphyritic basalt as
matrix of the Ore Breccia. Note strong hydrothermal alteration (bleached areas) of matrix and clasts.
Sawed slab of drill core, 550-m level. d Hypogene replacement of pyrite (py, stage I) by chalcopyrite
(cp, stage II). Ore Breccia, 600-m level. Polished section, air, one nicol, width of field 1 mm. e Relictic
pyrite (py) replaced by chalcocite (cc). Ore Breccia, 715-m level. Polished section, air, one nicol, width
of field 0.2 mm. f Bornite (bn) replaced by digenite (dg) and djurleite (dJ). Stratiform orebody, 655-m
level. Polished section, air, one nicol, width of field 0.5 mm. g Lamellar chalcocite originated by
paramorphic conversion of high.:r into low-T chalcocite. V-shaped lamellae are pressure twins. Ore
Breccia, 655-m level. Polished section, air, crossed nicols, width of field 0.5 mm. h Specular hematite
(hm) intergrown with chalcocite (cc). Ore Breccia, 655-m level. Polished section, air, crossed nicols,
width of field 1 mm
326 F. B. Wolf et al.
1:500
Fig. 5. Underground geologic map of the 715-m (elevation) level stratiform mineralization. Based on
mapping by the author (I 985). Legend as for Fig. 1
tacts of the flows are frequently gradational, passing vertically and laterally into
poorly bedded pyroclastic layers (volcanic ash, crystal-lithic tuffs). The porphyritic
flows contain phenocrysts of plagioclase (An70 - An40) up to 8 mrn in length in-
serted in a pilotaxitic or trachytic groundmass composed of plagioclase microlites
and interstitial pyroxene. Phenocrysts of augite and altered olivine are quantitative-
ly next to plagioclase. Accessory microphenocrysts of titanomagnetite are common.
Continuous subaerial volcanism presumably piled up the Susana volcanic se-
quence. This assessment is supported by the lack of pillow structures and poor
sorting and grading of the volcaniclastic horizons.
The stratiform mineralization forms numerous lense-like, elongated orebodies
occurring in the upper porous levels of the flows and interlayered volcaniclastics
(Fig. 5). Average thickness of the mantos is around 4 m, with a maxima of 8 m.
The upper contacts of the ore bodies are sharp, while the lower boundaries are gra-
dational. Lateral extension reaches several 100 m along the strike and dip of the
volcanics, but individual orebodies are limited and displaced by numerous steep
inclining faults, which are frequently occupied by barren dike rocks.
2.2.4 Intrusive Rocks
On the basis of morphology, texture, composition, and relative age relations, at

least seven varieties of intrusive rocks forming individual dikes, dike swarms,
small stocks, and igneous matrix in the breccia pipe can be distinguished. With
the exception of an amphibole-bearing dacitic dike all of the intrusive rocks are
calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline basalts and basaltic andesites (Wolf 1990).
Dikes are preferentially related to NE- to EW-striking and southward-dipping
faults, whereas stocks are bound to the more permeable breccia pipe structure.
Emplacement of the intrusives has been nearly perpendicular to the bedding of
the volcanic strata. Later tectonic displacement resulted in tilting of both the vol-
canic pile and the subvolcanic bodies, and some of the dikes remained completely
sheared.
Relative ages of the i"ntrusive rock types are derived from geologic observations
such as cross-cutting relations and from two whole-rock K-Ar ages (Astudillo
1983). Problems in the stratigraphic interpretation of some of the dikes arise from
lack of exposed contacts with other intrusives, and from the fact that most drill-
ing at the time supplied only cuttings, making assessment of contact relations dif-
ficult. However, two broad but important categories could be defined for the vari-
ety of intrusive rocks at Susana:
1. Intrusive rocks that occur as breccia pipe material (whether igneous matrix or
clasts), hence are interpreted to be pre-mineral or contemporaneous with the
mineralization;
2. Intrusives that cut through orebodies and are therefore clearly post-mineral in
age.
According to this scheme, individual intrusive bodies, except igneous matrices
(see section on pipe rocks) will be described below.
Dolerite Dike. An individual basaltic dike of 15m thickness is assumed to form

the oldest intrusive rock in the mine area, since it contributes to the fragmental
material of the breccia pipe in barren clasts a few centimeters to 5 m across. The
dike yielded the oldest radiometric age available for intrusives at Susana
(154+8 Ma; Astudillo 1983), which is also a maximum age for the copper miner-
alization. The dolerite dike mainly consists of randomly arranged, lath-shaped
plagioclase up to 3 mm in size and porphyritic to subophitic-intergranular
clinopyroxene (Wo 36 En43 Fs21 ). Plagioclase is strongly zoned with a core of
labradorite and rims of andesine. A second generation of small greenish
clinopyroxene lines plagioclase crystals, which may enclose a very fine-grained
mesostasis of albite and hematite. Alteration is expressed by moderate to ad-
vanced sericitization of plagioclase cores and complete chloritization of early fer-
romagnesian minerals. Clinopyroxene is only incipiently chloritized along the
grain boundaries. Veinlets of magnetite-hematite bordered by sodic plagioclase
(Soto and Dreyer 1985) and interstices filled by albite and spines of hematite are
characteristic of the dike near the orebodies. Apparently no introduction of cop-
per minerals occurred, which is corroborated by the barren nature of dolerite
clasts set in the strongly mineralized matrix of the Ore Breccia.
Basaltic Dikes. A group of porphyritic basaltic dikes ranging in thickness from

0.1 to 4 m cross-cut the breccia pipe complex and the volcanic pile. The dikes
strike usually NE to EW and dip 60 o to 80 os, but may be also NS-oriented and
apparently cross-cut each other. The dikes contain augite phenocrysts (Wo42 _39
En50 _ 46 Fs 12 _ 1o) up to 4 mm and mm-sized plagioclase phenocrysts randomly to
subparallel arranged in a groundmass of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and chlorite.
Augite is only incipiently chloritized at the grain boundaries but plagioclase is
strongly albitized (Ano_ 2), with essentially no remnants of calcic plagioclase re-
maining in some thin sections analyzed. Locally, amygdules filled with chlorite,
titanite, albite, epidote, and calcite occur. This type of alteration differs from the
advanced sericitization of the early dolerite and from the alteration of late, stock-
like intrusions by lack of strong albitization of the latter, and more closely resem-
bles alteration assemblages associated with the breccia pipe rocks. Age relations
of these dikes with other post-mineral intrusions at Susana are not clear, but the
degree and type of alteration of these dikes, which are particularly abundant in
the pipe area, point to an early post-mineral emplacement, probably in the waning
stages of hydrothermal activity related with the breccia pipe.
Dacite Dike. A cream-colored dacite is the most felsic rock type known at the
Susana deposit. The 12- to 15-m-wide tabular intrusion strikes NE (dip 60 °SE)
and contacts with wall rock are sharp, but may be brecciated. It is composed of
lath-shaped, strongly zoned hornblende up to 6 mm in length, abundant tabular
plagioclase, and minor, corroded quartz set in a matrix of stubby feldspar and dis-
seminated iron oxide minerals. Hornblende is essentially unaltered, except for
rims of iron oxide. Plagioclase shows incipient to moderate sericitization and high
sodium contents of the dacite (Wolf 1990) suggest albitic replacement of much
of the feldspar. The dike cuts stratiform orebodies south to the breccia pipe, and
is in turn offset and laterally displaced for 200 m by a completely sheared, pre-
sumably mafic dike, which parallels a major fault of the deposit.
Microgabbro. A stock-like microgabbro being emplaced at the center of the brec-

cia pipe is the volumetrically most important intrusive rock. The stock is about
90 x 60 m across from the surface down to the 640-m level. Considerable thicken-
ing towards depth is indicated by diamond drilling (Soto and Dreyer 1985). Zoned
plagioclase laths of 1 to 3 mm length (An62 _44), augite (Wo4t- 38En4s-47Fst4-tt),
and amphibole in subophitic-intergranular texture are the major constituents.
Pseudomorphs of what might have been orthopyroxene or olivine are rare. Opa-
ques are Fe-Ti oxide minerals. Contacts with the breccia pipe rocks are sharp and
marked by a 2-m-wide rim within the microgabbro exhibiting porphyritic plagio-
clase and em-wide pink feldspar-pyroxene-quartz-iron oxide veinlets. Alteration
is expressed by incipient to moderate sericitization of calcic plagioclase cores and
chloritization of primary mafics with clinopyroxene only weakly altered. K-Ar
radiometric dating (Astudillo 1983) of the microgabbro (149±4 Ma) gave a mini-
mum age for the copper mineralization at Susana. The microgabbro is cut by a
late basaltic plug which ranges in thickness from below 1 m at the surface up to
20m across at the 640-m level. The texture is strongly porphyritic with partly
sericitized labradorite (An60 _ 50) and augite (Wo 41 _37 En43 _42 Fs21 _ 16) set in a
The Susana Copper (-Silver} Deposit in Northern Chile 329
groundmass of essentially plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and skeletal titanomag-

netite.
Basaltic dikes and stocks at the Susana deposit are fine- to medium-grained
rocks commonly displaying porphyritic and, to a lesser extent, subophitic-in-
tergranular texture. Calcic plagioclase and augite are the dominant phenocryst
minerals with altered orthopyroxene or olivine being subordinate. With the excep-
tion of the hydrothermally altered basaltic matrix of the Ore Breccia (see Sect.
2.2.2) no sulfide minerals have been found in all of the intrusive rocks at the
Susana Mine. Emplacement of the intrusives has occurred at shallow levels, as in-
dicated by textural comparison with the volcanic wall rock. Intrusive rocks show
little compositional variation and are similar to the enclosing volcanics. Hence,
they may be conceived as subvolcanic equivalents or feeder channels of the ex-
trusives. Concentration of various shallow-level intrusions indicates the existence
of a Jurassic (sub)volcanic center beneath the Susana deposit.
3 Ore Mineral Occurrences

3.1 Hypogene Mineralization
3.1.1 Ore Fabrics

Matrix infilling is the dominant structural type of the discordant sulfide mineral-
ization within the Ore Breccia. Breccia fragments are generally barren of sulfides
but may be mineralized by infilling of external amygdules or fine impregnations
within hydrothermally altered clast rims, indicating an introduction of the ore
minerals from the matrix. Within the stratiform orebodies, sulfides are found as
amygdule infillings, impregnations, and short veinlets locally displaying "stock-
work" structures. Replacement textures due to hypogene enrichment of copper-
rich sulfides on earlier formed copper-iron sulfides and pyrite are abundant in the
lowermost stratiform orebodies at 200 m depth and are distinct in drill cores from
the 600-m level of the Ore Breccia, where chalcopyrite replaces pyrite. Although
only relictically preserved above the bottom of strong supergene enrichment at
260m depth, it is stated that hypogene enrichment was an important and wide-
spread process in the ore-forming events at Susana.
The four basic structural types of mineralization described above are identical
to those described by Losert (1974) for the stratiform mineralization of the Buena
Esperanza deposit, with the exception that vein-type mineralization cross-cutting
several flows is lacking at Susana. Although locally each of the structural types
may occur alone at Susana mine, combinations are more common.
3.1.2 Paragenetic Sequence
The hypogene sulfide assemblage of both the discordant and concordant mineral-
ization is represented by pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite, and chalcocite. No
silver minerals of hypogene origin have been found to date and silver is apparently
associated with bornite-digenite and chalcocite.
Pyrite has been found to be an early sulfide constituent of the Ore Breccia ma-
trix within the protore zone. Subidiomorphic to idiomorphic pyrite crystals up to
4 mm occur lining vesicles and rock fragments in the breccia pipe and in
volcaniclastic strata. Pyrite is associated with albite, early quartz, chlorite, and
gypsum that probably formed at the expense of hypogene anhydrite. Pyrite dis-
seminations also appear within a porphyritic basaltic matrix of the lower Ore
Breccia. Within the concordant mineralization pyrite forms subidiomorphic im-
pregnations, veinlets, and amygdule infilling structures intergrown with quartz,
albite, and gypsum in remnant zones of weak supergene alteration and/or
hypogene replacement. Pyrite is free of mineral inclusions and has only been ob-
served as replaced by hypogene and, more rarely, by supergene sulfides. Thus, it
is considered to represent the oldest sulfide mineral within the Susana deposit. Py-
rite is replaced by variable amounts of xenomorphic chalcopyrite (Fig. 4d) along
grain boundaries and fracture surfaces. Above the 600-m level pyrite is nearly
completely replaced within the Ore Breccia, being found only as minute inclusions
(remnant pyrite) in chalcocite- (and related phases)-hematite associations (Fig.
4e). Chalcopyrite is rarely preserved, occurring as a replacement mineral of pyrite
in the lowermost manto horizons and at the base of the Ore Breccia. It does not
contain phases other than remnant pyrite, and occurs together with sericite, py-
rite, quartz, and chlorite at the base of the deposit; hence, chalcopyrite is thought
to represent an early stage of hypogene copper enrichment at Susana.
Pink bornite is a minor constituent of the economic copper sections in the
Susana deposit; however, traces of bornite in rich atacamite-chalcocite mineraliza-
tion (CIMM 1984) and in sulfide concentrates (Chavez in Astudillo 1983) indicate
an originally more widespread occurrence. Bornite forms impregnations and
amygdule infillings in flow tops and volcanic breccias from the lower stratiform
orebodies. Blue, slightly anisotropic digenite replaces bornite along grain bound-
aries and occurs in lancet-shaped aggregates which may represent replacement or
oriented exsolution textures (Fig. 4f). Further evidence for the exsolution of iron-
rich blue digenite form bornite comes from rare subgraphic textures, displaying
myrmeketic digenite intergrown with bornite. Blue digenite is always intermediate
between bornite and chalcocite and has not been observed in contact with pyrite
or chalcopyrite. Remnants of bornite, which is replaced by blue digenite and/or
chalcocite-djurleite-specular hematite, are interconnected by thin chalcocite
veinlets, resembling "knotted" textures described by Losert (1974) on hypogene
replacement of pyrite by bornite-digenite-chalcocite-hematite assemblages
within the Buena Esperanza Mine. According to its texture, paragenetic position,
and chemical composition, blue digenite from the Susana deposit is considered
to be a hypogene mineral which formed penecontemporaneously with pink bor-
nite.
Whitish-gray anisotropic chalcocite is the dominant copper sulfide mineral in
both the concordant and discordant mineralization of the Susana deposit. It oc-
curs in competent aggregates which are commonly coarse-grained, with individu-
al grains exhibiting distinct cleavage fractures. Microscope examination indicates
that chalcocite may show twinning textures, ranging from broad, partly lancet-
shaped to fine-lamellar (Fig. 49). This texture presumably represents transforma-
tion lamellae originated by the paramorphic conversion of hexagonal chalcocite
(stable up to 452 oc at 1 bar; Grace and Cohen 1979) into its low-T polymorph
at 103 oc (Ramdohr 1969).
The occurrence of specular hematite intergrown with chalcocite is a wide-
spread phenomenon throughout the economic copper mineralization (Fig. 4h). It
is suggested that much of this hematite is not supergene in origin but stems from
iron released during multistage hypogene replacement of copper-iron sulfides.
This assessment is based on the occurrence of abundant hematite intergrown with
chalcocite which replaces bornite-digenite aggregates.
It may be concluded that the original distribution of copper-iron sulfides and
pyrite was considerably greater than that now observed. Hence, the Susana sulfide
paragenetic sequence is characterized by a progressive hypogene copper enrich-
ment. Early pyrite has been subsequently replaced by chalcopyrite, bornite, minor
digenite, and finally chalcocite. Hematite growth accompanied these processes.
3.1.3 Zoning
The assessment of a mineral zoning pattern for hypogene sulfides is difficult since
hypogene ore minerals at Susana are largely obscured by strong supergene enrich-
ment and subsequent oxidation of the orebodies. Hypogene sulfides are only well
preserved below the 600-m level, where rich chalcocite mineralization abruptly
changes into a pyrite-chalcopyrite assemblage, and in relictic zones within the Ore
Breccia and the lower stratiform orebodies. Hypogene pyrite-chalcopyrite are
clearly visible in a few drill cores from the base of the pipe, but do not attain ore
grade (0.1-0.3 wtOJo Cu) and are considered here to represent the protore zone of
the deposit. Astudillo (1983) and Soto and Dreyer (1985) report sporadic bornite
within this zone. Pyrite and chalcopyrite are present only as relics above the main
enrichment level, where chalcocite is the chief sulfide mineral. Remnant bornite
and minor digenite from the bottom of the manto pile may indicate a stratigraph-
ically intermediate position for the copper-iron sulfides with both phases almost
completely replaced by chalcocite (and related phases) within the Ore Breccia. At
the top of the mineralizing system chalcocite is first in abundance.
Vertical zoning is characterized by increasing amounts of copper sulfides
towards the top of the pipe (hypogene enrichment). A similar ore distribution
pattern has been described by Palacios (1986) for the Buena Esperanza de-
posit.
3.2 Supergene Mineralization
Intense supergene alteration led to the formation of considerable amounts of

both copper oxide and secondary copper sulfide ore down to depths of 220 m be-
low the present erosion surface.
The green copper oxychloride, atacamite, is the chief ore mineral in the zone
of oxidation comprising about 90% of the oxide ore (Astudillo 1983), the remain-
der being chrysocolla with traces of supergene copper sulfates. Atacamite repre-
sents a secondary mineral produced through the weathering of sulfides precipitat-
Table 1. Average compositions of copper sulfides (Susana deposit) 3
Sample Unitb Level nc WtOJo Cu Wt% Fe Wt% S Totals Cu:S Sulfided
MS-91 Bx 735 5 78.23 20.70 98.93 1.90 cc

3 77.83 20.57 98.40 1.90 cc
3 78.28 20.60 98.88 1.91 cc
MS-116 Bx 715 4 79.03 20.67 99.70 1.93 cc
4 78.84 20.94 99.78 1.90 cc
2 78.78 20.60 99.38 1.93 cc
MS-122 Bx 715 8 79.15 20.72 99.87 1.93 cc
MS-27 Bx 675 8 79.08 20.82 99.81 1.97 cc
MS-200 Bx 655 5 78.25 0.14 21.36 100.02 1.83 cc
4 78.28 21.29 99.97 1.82 cc
4 78.14 0.28 21.70 100.12 1.82 cc
MS-277 Bx 640 4 79.08 0.20 20.20 99.48 1.99 cc
5 79.51 20.07 99.58 2.00 cc
4 79.44 20.79 100.23 1.93 cc
4 80.20 20.66 100.86 1.96 cc
MS-328 Bx 640 3 78.96 0.15 20.92 100.03 1.91 cc
3 79.02 21.18 100.02 1.88 cc
3 79.41 21.41 100.82 1.89 cc
MS-234 Mt 702 4 77.36 0.12 21.41 98.89 1.83 cc
MS-326 Mt 655 5 76.72 0.94 22.21 99.87 1.77 dg
2 76.86 1.27 21.92 100.05 1.80 dg
2 77.48 0.35 21.63 99.46 1.82 cc
a All analyses by electron microprobe (ARL-SEMQ) using synthetic copper and copper-iron sulfides
as standards. Average statistical error: Cu: S = ± 0.03.
b Bx, Ore Breccia; Mt, Manto ore.
c n, Number of analyses/grain.
d cc, White "chalcocite" (includes chalcocite, djurleite, and anilite); dg, digenite.
ed under conditions of high chloride ion activity, high Eh, and neutral to low pH
at low temperatures (Rose 1976).
Most copper oxides are bound to areas where sulfide mineralization at one
time existed or still exists ("indigenous" oxide copper mineralization) indicated
by remaining chalcocite-covellite-hematite spots (remnant enrichment). Oxide ore
is characteristic of the upper 80 m of the pile (average oxide/sulfide ratios around
10; Martinez 1982), grading into "mixed ore" (average oxide/sulfide ratio down
to the 675-m level around 5), which is developed down to 230m depth (600-m lev-
el). "Mixed ore" passes into a subjacent 5- to 15-m-thick chalcocite blanket that
changes abruptly into pyrite-chalcopyrite mineralization of unknown vertical ex-
tent.
Results from electron microprobe analyses (Th.ble 1) show that much of the
whitish-gray anisotropic chalcocite has compositions that are copper-deficient
with respect to the ideal stoichiometric composition of chalcocite (Cu2S) and are
similar to djurleite (Cu1. 93 _1.96S) and anilite (Cu1.75S; chemical compositions
from Potter 1977). Analyses that are intermediate to these Cu/S ratios are consid-
ered to represent finely intergrown, variable mixtures of the low-T copper sulfides,
as observed in natural samples elsewhere (e.g., Morimoto et al. 1969; Ripley et al.
1980; Goble 1981). Djurleite was also detected by way of microprobe and X-ray
diffraction analysis in samples from the 770- to 735-m level (CIMM 1984).
Given the possibilities of chalcocite formation by hypogene replacement of
earlier formed sulfides or by direct precipitation of the two modifications,
hypogene chalcocite of various origins may be present within the Susana deposit.
Additional chalcocite, djurleite, and anilite formed by supergene alteration must
be taken into account when explaining the rich chalcocite mineralization of the
Susana Mine. Such processes contributed to the fairly high copper grade ( > 5 OJo
Cult between the 735- and 655-m level; Soto and Dreyer 1985) of the Ore Breccia
and associated manto horizons.
4 Hydrothermal Alteration
Hypogene sulfide mineralization is confined to zones of distinct hydrothermal al-
teration. Textural and petrochemical evidence indicate that the volcanic sequence,
as well as some of the intrusive rocks occurring in the mine area, have been affect-
ed by hydrothermal alteration processes, causing mainly albitization, chloritiza-
tion, sericitization, and calc-silicate alteration of the wall rocks.
Hypogene ore minerals cementing open space of the Ore Breccia are invariably
accompanied by wall-rock alteration halos developed both as bleached rims
around breccia fragments and paralleling sulfide veinlets which penetrate into the
clasts. Hypogene wall-rock alteration and ore mineral assemblages of the Ore
Breccia and the stratiform orebodies are identical both in mineralogy and
paragenetic order, suggesting the contemporaneous formation of discordant and
concordant alteration-mineralization assemblages. This conclusion is substantiat-
ed by geologic evidence such as lack of fragmental material undoubtedly stem-
ming from stratiform orebodies among the breccia pipe rocks down to 310m
depth, and the temporal relation of ore deposition to post-mineral intrusive rocks,
which is identical for both discordant and stratiform orebodies.
Alteration processes occurred in at least four stages (Wolf 1990}, and sulfide
deposition took place from the early to the main stage of alteration. The altera-
tion stages are characterized by the assemblages:
(1) Early stage I albite-pyrite-quartz-sericite-chlorite
II : albite-magnetite-sphene-chlorite-epidote
III : albite-andradite-augite-sphene-quartz-magnetite
(2) Transitional stage : chalcopyrite-sericite-chlorite
(3) Main stage : bornite-digenite-chalcocite-specularite-chlorite-cal-
cite
(4) Late stage : albite-sericite-chlorite-sphene.
The early stage closely followed the development of the breccia pipe structure,
which acted as a feeder conduit for hydrothermal fluids, infiltrating also perme-
able tops of wall-rock lava flows and volcaniclastic interlayers. The early stage I
assemblage is characteristic of the Ore Breccia below the 600-m level and within
isolated bodies of rocks contained in the lowermost stratiform orebodies at ap-
proximately 200 m depth. The transitional stage is characterized by the occurrence
of chalcopyrite that replaces pyrite (see Sect. 3.1.2). Chalcopyrite is accompanied

by sericite, which overlaps and slightly post-dates early, pervasive albitization.
The formation of fine-grained, white mica (sericite) is closely connected with the
early stage I (ab-ser-py-qtz-chl) and transitional stage (ser-cp-chl) alteration as-
semblages, but is not enhanced during the deposition of main stage bornite and
chalcocite, which are more frequently observed within albitized and chloritized
wall rock.
Hydrothermal alteration of the low-grade to barren Susana Breccia (early stage
II) is characterized by (in paragenetic order) albite-magnetite-?pyrite/chalcopy-
rite-sphene-chlorite and very minor epidote. The porphyritic igneous matrix of
this pipe is also strongly albitized but trace element analyses (Wolf 1990) indicate
a calc-alkaline andesitic composition for this rock type. The early stage II
paragenesis is similar to the early stage I alteration assemblage developed within
the Ore Breccia and stratiform orebodies, though sericite is rare and sulfides have
not been detected in polished sections from the Susana Breccia during this study.
However, Soto and Dreyer (1985) report sporadic pyrite-chalcopyrite and magne-
tite from the matrix of this breccia pipe. Geologic evidence indicates penecontem-
poraneous formation of both breccia lithologies within a single pipe. Hydrother-
mal alteration of the Susana Breccia is thought to represent a penecontem-
poraneous, temperature-dependent lateral mineral zonation related to the early
stage I alteration developed along the Ore Breccia. Early stage II assemblages of
the Susana Breccia have been only slightly modified by specularite and calcite de-
position in the course of sulfide deposition (early and main stage) within the Ore
Breccia. Albitization, chloritization, and formation of calc-silicate minerals is in-
dicative of the uneconomic, though intensely altered part of the pipe. In this re-
spect, Susana Breccia alteration is comparable to calc-silicatic alteration assem-
blages observed around stratiform orebodies (early stage III).
Calc-silicatie alteration runs parallel to and within the same stratigraphic hori-
zons as stratiform mineralization, which exhibit early stage I assemblages, but
may lack intensive replacement by main stage copper-iron sulfides; hence, calc-sil-
icates are assumed to have formed contemporaneously with early pyrite and prob-
ably chalcopyrite deposition. Limits between the early stages I and III are sharp
in outcrop and calc-silicatic alteration is developed up to at least 50 m outwards
from stratiform orebodies; however, the outer limits of the calc-silicate zone were
not exposed, and are presumably gradational. Calc-silicate minerals present in-
clude idioblastic garnet (andradite-melanite), acicular calcium-rich clinopyroxene
and sphene. This early mineral assemblage occurs together with early quartz,
martitized magnetite, and late chlorite and calcite filling voids in the matrix of
strongly albitized volcaniclastic layers and small veinlets and vesicles in scoria-
ceous clasts.
No remnants of calc-silicate alteration typical of the volcaniclastics or the
Susana Breccia matrix have been observed in fragments of the Ore Breccia pipe,
and early stage III gar-cpx-qtz assemblages are absent in the Susana-Breccia clasts
or matrix, suggesting the contemporaneous formation of the three early stages of
hypogene alteration at Susana.
Calc-silicate minerals like the above are rock-forming minerals in many active
geothermal systems worldwide (Bird et al. 1984). Within such geothermal fields
the distribution of calc-silicate minerals is characterized by a temperature-depth

related zonation and represents the progressive dehydration of calc-silicate phases
with increasing temperature (Brown 1978). Garnets and clinopyroxenes are pre-
dominantly found at temperatures > 300 °C and may occur in the highest temper-
ature portions of active geothermal systems at >350°C. Epidote is, besides
zeolites, the most common mineral in many geothermal fields. Epidote is usu-
ally found in geothermal systems in which measured present temperatures or cal-
culated paleotemperatures exceed 200° to 250°C (Bird et al. 1984), and occur fre-
quently in the range from 240° to 260°C; however, in some fields epidote oc-
curs down to temperatures less than 100 oc (Tomasson and Kristmansdottir
1972, in Cole and Ravinsky 1984), and Cole and Ravinsky (1984) report epi-
dote from the Beowawe geothermal system, Nevada, at temperatures between
150° and 175°C.
Epidote is not found in the calc-silicate assemblages observed in wall rock of
the stratiform mineralization and is also lacking within early and main stage alter-
ation-mineralization assemblages; however, epidote is widespread in amygdules of
the flows subjacent to stratiform orebodies and is abundant also on a districtwide
scale. This epidote is well crystallized and is generally attached to chloritic rims
that line amygdules, which are frequently filled by calcite or quartz.
Chlorite is a minor matrix phase in the lower temperature portion at 230 ° to
300 oc of the calc-silicate zone at the Cerro Prieto field, Baja California (Bird et
al. 1984), and is present at temperatures less than 150°C at Beowawe (Cole and
Ravinsky 1984). Thus, chlorite-epidote-calcite and/or quartz assemblages (in
paragenetic order) within amygdules of the flows and of some post-mineral dikes
at Susana are tentatively ascribed to a lower temperature alteration event probably
representing regional metamorphism of the burial type.
5 Genesis
After an early volcanic-syn-genetic model (Ruiz et al. 1971), now widely discard-
ed, epigenetic models have been developed to explain the origin of the volcanic-
hosted copper deposits within the La Negra Formation. According to Losert
(1974), low-temperature hydrothermal alteration on a regional scale (specifically
epidotization of basaltic volcanics), related to fluids derived from connate or cir-
culating meteoric waters, led to the mobilization of primary trace copper contents
from the volcanic series. Subsequent upward migration of copper to favorable po-
rous horizons of the flows, accompanied by local-scale hydrothermal alteration
would have formed the ore within the Buena Esperanza deposit. Intrusive activity
of the underlying granitoid complexes and associated minor intrusives ("remote
contact" control) would have provided heat and additional fluids. It should be
pointed out that during Losert's (1974) investigations geologic reconnaissance of
the Buena Esperanza Mine was limited to a part of the stratiform mineralization.
Considerable amounts of discordant mineralization (within the matrix of a
hydrothermal breccia pipe) were not exposed at that time.
Sato (1984) in his review of the Chilean "manto-type" copper deposits took
up Losert's ideas by postulating a burial metamorphic or diagenetic-hydrother-
mal origin for a variety of copper deposits, including the Susana and Buena
Esperanza Mines.
Low-grade metamorphism of the burial hydrothermal type in the Andes was
first recognized by Levi (1969) in early Cretaceous volcanics from central Chile.
Low-grade metamorphism of the zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite or even greenschist
facies have been reported by Losert (1974) from the vicinity of the Buena Esperan-
za Mine. Palacios (1978) divided the volcanics of the La Negra Formation, ac-
cording to their mineral assemblages into four low-grade metamorphic zones oc-
curring in north-south-trending parallel belts. However, regional metamorphic al-
teration of the Jurassic volcanic sequences is still being debated. Other workers
yielded results indicating lack of low-grade metamorphism on a regional scale for
the La Negra Formation (Buchelt and Zeil 1986a; Buchelt and Tellez 1988). Al-
though part of the alteration effects of the volcanics containing the Susana cop-
per deposit resemble regional low-grade metamorphic alteration, burial metamor-
phism seems to have played a negligible role in hydrothermal alteration-mineral-
ization processes at Susana. This assessment is based on the following observa-
tions:
1. Post-breccia dikes and stocks barren of sulfide mineralization exhibit only
weak hydrothermal alteration (late stage), displaying relatively fresh primary
Ca-rich plagioclase and clinopyroxene or amphibole phenocrysts (Wolf 1986).
2. The only subvolcanic intrusive rocks exhibiting strong hydrothermal alteration
(albitization, chloritization, sericitization) are a prebreccia dolerite dike and
porphyritic basaltic to andesitic matrices of the breccia pipe complex. Basaltic
matrix has been found in intimate relation with early pyrite-chalcopyrite min-
eralization at the deeper levels of the Ore Breccia.
3. Calc-silicate alteration of volcanic wall rocks at Susana is similar to relatively
bigh-T mineral assemblages described from many active geothermal systems,
and is presumably formed at temperatures exceeding those of the relatively
highest-grade metamorphic facies (epidote) of the La Negra Formation.
Thus, intense but spatially restricted hydrothermal alteration assemblages
strongly suggest a relationship with localized magmatic sources. A close spatial
and temporal relationship between the ore-forming and alteration processes,
and associated subvolcanic intrusives, being emplaced as pre- and post-mineral
dikes and stocks in the mine area, is indicated by geologic mapping of both
the discordant and concordant orebodies and radiometric dating (Astudillo
1983) of the subvolcanic intrusives.
A genetic relationship between the copper mineralization and Jurassic sub-
volcanic-hydrothermal activity is favored. This hypothesis is supported by fluid
inclusion data from hydrothermal quartz associated with the principal miner-
alization pulse within the similar Buena Esperanza deposit (Palacios this Vol.),
which indicate hypersaline compositions of the fluids (52-59 wtOJo NaCl
equivalent) ranging in temperatures from 440°-500 °C.
Acknowledgments. This chapter is based on part of the first author's Ph. D. thesis at the Universi-
ty of Heidelberg. The authors wish to thank Compaftia Minera Carolina de Michilla S. A. for ac-
cess to the Michilla district and generous logistical support. Particular thanks are due to the geol-
ogists at the Susana Mine for cooperation during field investigation. This study was financially sup-
ported by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD, fellowship to the first author) and
the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG project Am 23/63).
References
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II Region, Chile. Mem de Titulo, Univ Norte Antofagasta, 131 p (unpublished)
Bird DK, Schiffman P, Elders WA, Williams AE, McDowell SD (1984) Calc-silicate mineralization in
active geothermal systems. Econ Geol 79:671-695
Buchelt M, Thllez C (1988) The Jurassic La Negra Formation in the area of Antofagasta, northern
Chile (lithology, petrology, geochemistry). In: Bahlburg H, Breitkreuz C, Giese P (eds) The south-
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Buchelt M, Zeil W (1986a) Der Jurassische Vulkanismus in der Klistenkordillere Nord-Chiles. Berliner
Geowiss Abh A Sonderbd (X Geowiss Lateinamerika Kolloq, Berlin), pp 114-115
Buchelt M, Zeil W (1986b) Petrographische und geochemische Untersuchungen an jurassischen Vul-
kaniten der Porphyrit-Formation in der Kiistenkordillere Nord-Chiles. Berliner Geowiss Abh
66:191-204
CIMM (1984) Estudio mineral6gico en muestras provenientes de Cia. Minera Carolina de Michilla.
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na de Michilla, 18 p (internal report)
Morimoto N, Koto K, Shimazaki Y (1969) Anilite, Cu7S5 , a new mineral. Am Min 54:1256-1268
Palacios C (1986) Subvolcanic copper deposits in the coastal range of northern Chile. Zbl Geol
Palltont I, 1985, 9/10:1605-1615
Palacios C (1978) The Jurassic paleovolcanism in northern Chile. Thesis, Univ Tiibingen, 98 p (unpub-
lished)
Palacios C The Buena Esperanza copper-silver deposit. This Vol, p 313-318
Potter RW (1977) An electrochemical investigation of the system copper-sulfur. Econ Geol
72:1524-1542
Ramdohr P (1969) The ore minerals and their intergrowths. Pergamon, Oxford, 1174 p
Ripley EM, Lambert MW, Berendsen P (1980) Mineralogy and paragenesis of red-bed copper mineral-
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deposits. Econ Geol 71:1036-1048
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Geowiss Abh (in press)
The Conglomerate-Hosted Copper Deposits
at Caleta Coloso, Chile
S. FLINT 1 and P. TURNER 2
1 Introduction
The Caleta Coloso copper deposits are situated at sea level on the coast of north-
ern Chile, some 10 km south of the provincial capital city of Antofagasta (Fig. 1).
The Coloso basin is a half-graben structure. It is fault-bounded to the south
by a Jurassic diorite intrusion (Halpern 1978; Espinoza 1983) and the layered in-
termediate/basic plutonic complex of Cerro Coloso (Fig. 2), while to the north it
is faulted against Jurassic lavas of the coastal Cordillera. The eastern basin mar-
gin is obscured by recent alluvial sediments and the Atacama fault zone. The sedi-
ments of the Coloso basin comprise a 2500-m-thick continental clastic sequence,
overlain by Lower Cretaceous (Hauterivian, Jurgan 1974) marine limestones. The
stratigraphy of the basin fill (Table 1) has recently been revised (Turner et al.
1984), based on genetic tectonosedimentary constituents.
The 1500-m-thick Coloso Formation unconformably overlies Middle-Upper
Jurassic andesites of the La Negra Formation, which is thought to represent the
products of an island arc (Coira et al. 1982; Berget al. 1983). The Coloso Forma-
tion is conformably overlain by the Lombriz Formation, which consists of a great-
er variety of continental and marginal marine sediments than the Coloso (Fig. 3)
and has been interpreted as a fan-delta sequence (Flint et al. 1986a; Flint and
Turner 1987).
The Coloso basin is the only known Lower Cretaceous basin in the coastal
Cordillera of northern Chile; moreover, it contains the only documented marine
Lower Cretaceous strata in the Antofagasta province. The origin of the basin may
be related to forearc extension resulting from trench pull on the overlying plate
(Charrier 1973; Jarrard 1986). However, further work is required to elucidate the
relative timing of this extension relative to thrusting in the Cordillera Domeyko,
some 80 km to the east (Coira et al. 1982). The sedimentary sequence of the Col-
oso basin dips gently at 10-15°SE, but later normal faulting complicates the
stratigraphy.
1 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
2 School of Earth Sciences, University of Birmingham, P.O. Box 363, Birmingham BI5, UK

340 S. Flint and P. Thrner
PACFIC
OCEAN
Fig. 1. Simplified geologic map of the

&Rocent Sediment.
Antofagasta area, northern Chile,
ILJ<:<,ot.e...- e.a~na showing the location of the Coloso
I ~.:..o~··- lr!lruolor-. basin within the Coastal Cordillera.
Inset shows the location of the area
within the Central Andes (after Fer-
..1.2....km raris and Di Biase 1978; Flint and
Turner 1987)
2 Description of the Coloso Deposits
2.1 Mining Methods and History
The copper deposits at Caleta Coloso include up to ten small mines, none of
which is currently being worked (Espinoza 1983). It is not known when mining
operations were initiated, but extraction continued on an intermittent basis until
the 1960's. Estimates of the copper production to date are about 35000t, with
a possible further potential of some 150000 t of ore at 30Jo Cu (Quezada 1970).
Owing to the gently dip of the cupriferous strata into the southern basin bound-
ary faults, deep workings have not been required. Mining methods in the strata-
bound deposits concentrated on room and pillar operations, removing almost
complete mineralized beds. Occasional pits were dug into surface exposures but
few shafts or adits were developed.
2.2 Field Relations
Two main types of copper deposit are found in the Coloso area. The most impor-
tant type compries stratabound occurrences within coarse-grained conglomerates
The Conglomerate-Hosted Copper Deposits at Caleta Coloso, Chile 341
N 0 lOOOm
t PACIFIC OC!AN
~a.--y
E3LoP'ortodafm
l
[JI.ombrl. fm
[8Jcolooofm
Qoiorioo/G......dlorito
G]La Negra fm J.....OC
c::Jeo~ooo Plu!OnK eo..plox
Fig. 2. Geologic map of the western part of the Coloso basin, showing the complex southern margin
and location of the major mines (after Espinoza 1983)
and sandstones. These deposits are restricted to the upper 150 m of the Coloso
Formation, and extend along a strike length of some 2 km, concordant with bed-
ding which dips at 15-18° SE. The major and lowermost ore horizon occupies
a stratigraphic thickness of 20-25 m and is marked by the larger mines. This ho-
rizon crops out on the cliff to the north of Quebrada El Way, some 100 m inland
from and 150m above the coast road (Figs. 2, 4A). Thinner mineralized zones
occur higher in the sequence; the uppermost mineralization lies within a few
meters of the overlying, barren playa sandstones and mudstones of the Lombriz
Formation. The Coloso conglomerates and sandstones are red-colored, but min-
eralized beds can be recognized at a distance by their gray/green color. This
localized "bleaching" of ore horizons has been described from other red bed cop-
per deposits (Entwistle and Gouin 1955; Woodward et al. 1974; Gustafson and
Williams 1981; Flint 1985 a, 1986, 1987).
342 S. Flint and P. Turner
Table 1. Stratigraphy of the Colosa area
Inferred age Lithostratigraphic unit Thickness Characteristics

(m)
Group Formation Member
Pliocene La Portada >30 Cream, shelly, poorly con-

solidated limestone
Unconformity
Hauteriverian Tableado >500 Cream, well-bedded, mud-
dy, fossiliferous limestones
L. Cretaceous
- U. Jurassic Way Lombriz >400 Red conglomerates, sand-
stones, mudstones shales
and rare evaporites
Coloso 1400 Red/gray coarse conglomer-
ates with thin sandstones,
Copper mineralization
Unconformity
M-U. La Negra > 10000 Purple andesitic lavas and
Jurassic breccias
w
Tobleodo Fm (marine carbonates )
A
T
v
v v v v v v v v
LoNegrofm
Fig. 3. Restored and simplified cross-section through the Coloso basin showing lithologic variation in
the Coloso and Lombriz Formations (after Flint et al. 1986a)
Field observations show a progressive change in clast composition upwards

through the Coloso Formation, from dominantly purple andesite in the lower
500 m to mainly diorite/granodiorite in the upper Coloso Formation (Fig. 5).
Some of the granodioritic clasts show evidence of copper mineralization (Turner
et al. 1984; Flint et al. 1986 b). This compositional change is consistent with the
reversal of stratigraphy expected during unroofing of a calc-alkaline, volcano-plu-
tonic complex. Ore deposits are confined to the granodioritic conglomerate.
The second, less important group of deposits, typified by Minas Damonet and
Colosito, are hosted by a diorite intrusion but are genetically associated with the
southern Coloso basin margin fault system (Figs. 2, 4B). This fault system is dom-
inated by a listric-normal fault which strikes N40°W (Espinoza 1983) and has
produced roll-over folds in the down-faulted Coloso and Lombriz Formations to
the NE. Concentrations of ore were mined at the intersection of the main fault
with small fracture systems in the diorite.
2.3 Sedimentology of the Coloso Formation
The Coloso Formation is composed of alluvial fanglomerates and thin, interbed-

ded sandstones. The 1500-m-thick sequence shows a crude coarsening upwards
trend. The lower Coloso Formation, exposed along the coast to the north of
Caleta Coloso, consists of conglomerate beds which represent longitudinal bars,
interbedded with aqueous sheetflows and rare grain flow deposits. Sheet sand-
stones represent bar-top, low flow stage deposits, while lenticular, cross-bedded
sandstones with echinoderm fragments represent aeolian material (Flint et al.
1986a; Flint and Turner 1987). This lower sequence represents a medial alluvial
fan environment.
The upper Coloso Formation (referred to hereafter as the Minas conglomerate)
represents the most proximal sediments found in the basin. Typical sequences are
dominated by density-modified grain flows and coarse, aqueous sheetflows
(Figs. 4C, 6). High viscosity (matrix-rich) debris flows are rare. Palaeocurrent
measurements, based on clast imbrication in waterlain conglomerates, indicate a
source area to the west, a region now occupied by the Peru-Chile trench. The Col-
oso Formation is unusual in the absence of cross-bedding or channel-like bed ge-
ometries in the conglomerates. Thin sandstone beds which overlie conglomerates
represent the late stage of ephemeral flood events when flow strength was only
sufficient to carry sand grade material. A full description of bed characteristics
is given by Flint et al. (1986a) and Flint and Turner (1987). The Coloso Formation
thus represents the progradation of a single, large alluvial fan system from the
west into a narrow, elongate trough within the Cretaceous Andean forearc.
Copper does not occur in the matrix-rich debris-flow deposits, being confined
to the more permeable, clast-supported beds (Fig. 6).
2.4 Ore Mineralogy and Texture
a) Sediment-Hosted Deposits. The main ore minerals in order of abundance are

atacamite, chalcocite-group minerals, covellite, bornite, and chalcopyrite. Subor-
dinate minerals include galena, chalcantite, cuprite, malachite, and chrysocolla.
Native copper is absent. Ore minerals occur as a matrix cement to detrital and
early diagenetic components of the host clastic rocks. Atacamite gives the miner-
alized beds their characteristic green color. It occurs both as a paragenetically ear-
ly (pre-sulfide) matrix, as veinlets through brecciated grains, and as late pore-fill-
ings associated with gypsum and anhydrite (Flint 1985b; Table 2, Fig. 4D).
/ • u
u
...,
,__.;
I E
:r
/
The earliest sulfides to be precipitated were chalcopyrite and bornite (Fig. 4E).
These minerals are usually completely replaced (oxidation) by djurleite and
digenite (Fig. 4E, F). Electron microprobe analyses (Thble 3; Flint et al. 1986b)
show the bornites to be stoichiometric Cu5FeS4, in contrast to many red bed cop-
per occurrences in which the bornites are usually sulfur-rich (Ripley et al. 1980;
Flint 1986). The copper sulfides show a marked enrichment in silver compared
to the primary copper-iron sulfides (Thble 3). Continued oxidation of the sulfide
assemblage has resulted in the widespread formation of both blaubleibender and
normal covellite.
b) Vein Deposits in Dioritic Intrusion/Fault Zone. The dominant ore mineral in

these deposits is true chalcocite, in contrast to the nonstoichiometric, low temper-
ature copper sulfides in the sediment-hosted ores. In some samples, chalcocite is
seen to be a replacement of early pyrite (Fig. 4G), and is itself partially replaced
by hematite. Copper-iron sulfides are nowhere found. Covellite occurs as rims and
intergrowths with chalcocite. Atacamite is present as a late-stage alteration miner-
al, imparting a green coloration to the fault zones.
3 Ore Genesis
3.1 Source of the Copper
The presence of clasts of plutonic rocks containing weathered chalcocite in the

ore-bearing zone of the Coloso Formation provides support for a model involving
the unroofing of low-grade bedrock mineralization in the calc-alkaline igneous
provenance area of the Coloso conglomerates and explains the localization of de-
posits in the subvolcanic part of the unroofing sequence. Lead isotopic signatures
of copper sulfides (Flint et al. 1986b; Fig. 7) also support an island arc source for
the lead and, by implication, the copper.
Fig. 4A-H. A View looking north along Quebrada Damonet from the southern basin margin. Arrow
marks Mina Esmeralda (Fig. 2). Note the concordant contact between the mineralized upper Coloso
Formation (CF) and the relatively impermeable playa sediments of the Lombriz Formation (LF). B
View looking SE along Quebrada Colosito, showing the southern Coloso basin margin fault.
LF = Lombriz Formation; DI = Diorite/granodiorite intrusion (Jurassic) and arrow marks Mina Col-
osito. The Lombriz Formation is locally overlain by a Quaternary gravel. C Density-modified grain
flow deposits of the Minas conglomerate showing bleached, mineralized zone above hammer. Note
the coarse clast size and absence of cross-bedding. Hammer is 60 em long. D Mineralized arkosic
sandstone, upper Coloso Formation, showing atacamite veinlets through brecciated detrital grains.
Plane polarized light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm. E Pore-filling bornite (Bn) partially replaced around edges
and along fractures by digenite (Dg). Reflected light. Scale bar = 0.5 mm. F Pore-filling digenite in
Coloso Formation sandstone. Note the strong orthorhombic cleavage and corroded edges of earlier
cementing minerals (arrowed). Reflected light. Scale bar = 0.3 mm. G Backscattered electron image
of vein mineralization within Jurassic diorite, Mina Damonet. Chalcocite (Cc) encloses remnant of
earlier pyrite (Py) and is itself partially replaced by hematite (Hm). Scale bar = 0.3 mm. H Highly
altered plagioclase grain (center, dark) with large albite overgrowth (Og) which has been fractured.
The fractures are infilled by atacamite (Cu2 [0HhCl)
lOMBR I Z FORMAT ION
\I
.-.
I
·····--- - . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .,-..L-- - - 1
Cu
Min.as
Conglomerate
z
~
....
~
0...._
0
0"'
...J
~
0
u
v v v v
···- . ... .. ·· ·· ·· ·· ······
laN~ora
'"" "v
Formation
Fig. 5. Schematic log showing the upward change in clast composition within the alluvial fan sedi-
ments of the Coloso Formation. Note the stratigraphic seal of Lombriz playa mudstones over the min-
eralized Minas conglomerate
3.2 Intrastratal Chemistry and Timing of Mineralization
The 10-40-cm-thick mineralized sandstone beds associated with the Minas con-
glomerate are texturally immature, first-cycle arkosic wackes, consisting of poorly
sorted quartz and plagioclase feldspar of oligoclase-andesine composition, with
subsidiary alkali feldspar. A major characteristic of these sandstones is the pres-
ence of lithic fragments which make up 400Jo to 50% of the mode. They include
both volcanic and plutonic material of calc-alkaline affinity. The infiltrated sandy
matrix in conglomerates, when present, has a mineralogy similar to that of the
sandstones.
The unmineralized lower Coloso Formation contains authigenic hematite, cal-
cite, and analcime. Clay minerals are absent. The analcime occurs as patches of
INTERPRETATION
Fig. 6. Log through part of the Minas conglom-

erate, showing the dominance of sheetflow and
modified gravity flow deposits and the restriction
of mineralization to clast-supported, low matrix
content beds (after Flint et al. 1986a)
pore-filling cement, frequently with euhedral inclusions of paragenetically earlier

calcite. Authigenic albite and K feldspar are minor components, being earlier than
the analcime, and usually fill compaction-related fractures in volcanic rock frag-
ments. There is no evidence that the albite is a replacement of analcime. This ob-
servation is significant because the analcime -+ albite reaction is temperature-de-
pendent (138 °C; Aoyaki and Asakawa 1984) and has frequently been used as a
temperature indicator in diagenetic studies (Surdam and Boles 1979).
The mineralized upper Coloso Formation shows more advanced diagenesis
and contains, in addition to the minerals discussed above, significant dolomite
and abundant K feldspar. Flint et al. (1986b) have shown that extensive oxidative
diagenesis took place before precipitation of the ore mineral assemblage. Evi-
dence includes hematite rims to detrital grains, partial dissolution of plagioclase
feldspar and magnetite, the precipitation of feldspar overgrowths (Fig. 4 H) and
pore-filling quartz, analcime, and carbonate minerals. Dolomite has a vein-like
habit and appears to be genetically linked to the mineralizing event. The
diagenetic mineral assemblage in the mineralized upper Coloso Formation sug-
gests more extensive alteration than in the lower part of the sequence. Since the
more extensive diagenesis occurs in less deeply buried rocks, these alterations can-
Table 2. Electron microprobe analyses of sulfides from the sediment-hosted deposits
Mineral Wt% Cu WtDJo Fe WtDJo Ag WtDJo Au WtDJo S Total Formula
Cp 34.295 29.611 0.003 35.358 99.940 Cuo.97Feo.96S2

Cp 34.060 30.562 0.019 35.656 100.919 Cu0.96Fe0 .98 S2
Cp 34.277 30.358 0.026 35.224 100.064 Cuo.~eo.9sS2
Bn 63.606 11.458 0.057 26.082 102.152 Cu4.92Fei.Ot S4
Bn 62.414 11.118 0.086 25.360 99.715 Cu4 •96Fe1.00S4
Bn 61.858 11.047 24.933 98.174 Cu 5.00Fet. 00S4
Dj 80.073 0.189 21.113 101.375 Cut. 96S
Dj 78.289 0.463 0.236 20.196 99.184 Cut. 96S
Dj 79.790 0.64 0.304 20.539 101.260 Cut. 97 S
Dj 79.632 0.354 0.081 0.691 20.567 101.325 Cut. 96S
Dj 79.570 0.792 0.148 20.589 101.099 cu~. 95 S
Dg 78.021 0.053 0.537 21.562 100.813 Cut. 81 S
Dg 79.044 0.253 0.169 0.211 21.508 101.180 Cu1. 82S
Dg 78.637 0.310 21.766 100.713 Cut. 82S
Cv 65.278 0.108 33.730 99.008 Cu1. 00S
Cv 66.219 0.411 34.026 100.869 Cut. 04S
Cv 65.518 0.104 0.410 33.327 99.359 Cu1. 00S
Cv 67.761 0.231 0.104 31.720 99.998 Cu1. 00S
Cv 65.518 0.104 0.329 33.662 99.613 cu~. 00 s
Cv 66.348 0.331 0.225 33.042 99.946 Cut.ooS
Cp, chalcopyrite; Bn, bornite; Dj, djurleite; Dg, digenite; Cv, covellite
Table 3. Paragenetic relationships of diagenetic events in the upper Coloso Formation
Mineral/event Early oxidative diagenesis Mineralization Late oxidative diagenesis
Hematite
Clay minerals
Albite
Quartz
Analcine
Calcite
K Feldspar
Atacamite
Porosity generation
? Hydrothermal fluid
Chalcopyrite
Galena
Bornite
Djurleite
Covellite
Gypsum
Time
not be solely related to burial depth/temperature, a fact which suggests that

hydrothermal fluids may be involved.
Sulfur isotopic signatures of Cu sulfides (Thble 4) lie between o34S O%o to
-10%o). These values are too heavy for open-system biogenic sulfate reduction
(Gustafson and Williams 1981). Closed-system biogenic processes are unlikely to
350 S. Flint and P. Turner
385
208eb
204PI)
•
'~~ +
380
375~------------------------------------~
15.7r------------------------r-~----r----.
207 15.6
204Pb
Pb
15.5
+
15.4L.......,="'=-- ~--=---~=-----:-::'--:-----:'--:-----:'--:---"7.!'-:=-'
17. 8 18.0 18.2 18.4 18.6 18.8 19.0
206f11
204pb
Fig. 7. Lead isotopic compositions of copper sulfides from the sediment-hosted deposits. The field
of Nazca plate basalts (npb Barreiro and Clark 1984) and worldwide island arc volcanics (Doe and
Stacey 1974) are shown for comparison (Flint et al. 1986b)
have been operative owing to the absence of any organic energy source for sulfides
reducing bacteria. The sulfides are considered not to have formed by reductiOn
of evaporite sulfate as there are no evaporites in the Coloso Formation. Moreovc1,
the rare gypsum in the stratigraphically higher Lombriz playa mudstones has
lighter J 34 S values than the sulfides (Flint et al. 1986b). Thus, there appears to
be no source within the basin for the sulfide sulfur or the reducing agent neces-
sary for sulfide precipitation.

The presence of atacamite in equilibrium with early diagenetic carbonate cements
and infilling dissolution voids in feldspars (Fig. 4H) has been cited as evidence
for the presence of Cu-bearing, chloride-rich porewaters of alkaline, oxidizing na-
ture during early diagenesis (Flint 1985b; Flint 1986; Flint et al. 1986b). Theoreti-
cal and observational studies of red bed-hosted copper deposits attest to the ge-
netic importance of chloride-rich sulfate brines for mobilizing and transporting
copper within the basin (Davidson 1966; Rose 1976; Gustafson and Williams
1981; Flint 1987). Such solutions, however, require the presence of a reductant to
allow the precipitation of copper as native metal or, in the presence of a sulfur
source, as sulfides. In many deposits, concentrations of plant fragments may pro-
Table 4. Sulfur isotopic signatures of sulfide and sulfate minerals from the
Coloso ore deposits. (Flint et al. 1986b)
Sample no. Mineral Lithology
a) Sediment-hosted deposits
41975 Djurleite Clast-supported conglomerate -7.54
41962 Djurleite Clast-supported conglomerate -3.58
4354 Bornite Clast-supported conglomerate -6.48
4351 Digenite Clast-supported conglomerate -5.08
4348 Chalcocite Clast-supported conglomerate -6.81
4350 Djurleite Lithic arkosic sandstone -13.87
44498 Covellite Lithic arkosic sandstone -10.78
4 349 Covellite Lithic arkosic sandstone -11.36
41976 Anhydrite Bedded in Lombriz Fm. -10.93
41977 Gypsum Veinlet in sandstone -5.12
b) Igneous-hosted, fault-related deposits
44614 Chalcocite Vein in granodiorite -3.13
44696 Chalcocite Vein in granodiorite -3.21
vide locally reduced areas of host rocks (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964; Woodward
et al. 1974) but mobile reductants (dissolved organic acids, etc.) are important in
deposits without syngenetic organic material (Flint 1987). There is no evidence for
either of these mechanisms of reduction at Coloso, a fact recognized by Espinoza
(1983}, who attributed the precipitation of sulfides to a late diagenetic event, with
an unknown reducing agent.
Flint et al. (1986b) postulated that extrabasinal hydrothermal solutions, possi-
bly derived from the cooling upper Jurassic intrusive complex to the south of the
basin, circulated through the Coloso conglomerates. Concentration of these flu-
ids in the upper part of the formation was due to the overlying playa mudstones
of the Lombriz Formation acting as a cap-rock. The hydrothermal solutions were
acidic, carried reduced sulfur and caused the dissolution of early carbonate ce-
ments in the Coloso sandstones and conglomerates. The stratigraphic trapping of
the hydrothermal fluids in the upper Coloso Formation may also explain the high-
er temperature diagenetic mineral assemblage in the upper Coloso Formation
compared with the more deeply buried lower Coloso Formation conglomerates.
Copper sulfides were precipitated in the secondary pore spaces following reac-
tion between oxidized cupriferous solutions and the reducing sulfur-bearing
fluids.
Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge useful discussions with H. Clemmey and S. Espinoza
on the genesis of the Coloso copper deposits. Fieldwork was supported by NERC grant GR3/4493
and a NERC Ph. D. studentship to the first author at the University of Leeds. Lead isotope analyses
were carried out at Leeds while sulfur isotope measurements were undertaken at the British Geological
Survey laboratory, Grays Inn Road, London.
References
Aoyagi K, Asakawa T (1984) Paleotemperature analysis by authigenic minerals and its application to
petroleum exploration. Bull Am Assoc Petrol Geol 68:903-913
Barriero BA, Clark AH (1984) Lead isotopic evidence for evolutionary changes in magma-crust inter-
action, central Andes, southern Peru. Earth Planet Sci Lett 69:430-442
Berg K, Breitkreuz C, Damm KW, Pichowiak S, Zeil W (1983) The north Chilean coast range - an
example for the development of an active continental margin. Geol Rundsch 72:715-731
Charrier R (1973) Interruption of spreading and the compressive tectonic phases of the meridional
Andes. Earth Planet Sci Lett 20:242-249
Davidson CF (1966) A possible mode of origin of strata-bound copper ores. Econ Geol 60:942-954
Doe BR, Stacey JS (1974) The application of lead isotopes to the problems of ore genesis and ore pros-
pect evaluation: a review. Econ Geol 69:757-776
Entwistle LP, Gouin LO (1955) The chalcocite ore deposits at Corocoro, Bolivia. Econ Geol
50:555-570
Espinoza SR (1983) Geologia y genesis de la mineralizacion cuprifera del sector de Caleta Coloso, al
sur de Antofagasta. Rev Geol Chile 20:81-91
Ferraris F, DiBiase F (1978) Hoja Antofagasta. Carta Geologica de Chile, Escala 1:250000. Inst Geol
Min, Santiago, Chile
FlintS (1985a) The sedimentology, diagenesis and copper mineralisation of continental sediments in
the Central Andes. Ph. D. thesis, Univ Leeds, UK, 403 p
FlintS (1985b) On the paragenetic position of atacamite in low temperature red bed copper deposits
of northern Chile. Zbl Geol Palaont Teil I, 9/10:1617-1628
FlintS (1986) Sedimentary and diagenetic controls on red bed ore genesis: the Middle Thrtiary San
Bartolo copper deposit, Antofagasta Province, Chile. Econ Geol 81:761-778
FlintS (1989) Sediment-hosted stratabound copper deposits of the Central Andes. Geol Assoc Can
Spec Paper 36:371-398
FlintS, Thrner P (1988) Alluvial fan and fan-delta sedimentation in a forearc extensional setting: the
Cretaceous Coloso basin of northern Chile. In: Nemec W, Steel RJ (eds) Fan-Deltas. Blackie, Glas-
gow 387-399
FlintS, Clemmey H, Thrner P (1986a) The Lower Cretaceous Way Group of northern Chile: an alluvi-
al fan-fan delta complex. Sediment Geol 46:1-22
FlintS, Clemmey H, Thrner P (1986b) Conglomerate-hosted copper mineralization in Cretaceous An-
dean molasse: the Coloso Formation of northern Chile. Geol Mag 123:525-536
Geol 75th Aniv Vol, pp 179-213
Halpern M (1978) Geological significance of Rb-Sr isotopic data of northern Chile crystalline rocks
of the Andean orogen between latitudes 23° and 27° South. Bull Geol Soc Am 89:522-532
Jarrard RD (1986) Causes of compression and extension behind trenches. Tectonophysics 132:89-102
Jurgan VH (1974) Die marine Kalkfolge der Unterkreide in der Quebrada El Way-Antofagasta, Chile.
Geol Rundsch 63:490-516
Ljunggren P, Meyer HC (1964) The copper mineralization in the Corocoro basin, Bolivia. Econ Geol
59:110-125
Quezada R (1970) Yacimientos sedimentarios singeneticos de cobre en la Formaci6n Caleta Coloso,
Antofagasta. Inst Invest Geol, Santiago, Chile (unpublished)
Ripley EM, Lambert MW, Berendsen P (1980) Mineralogy and paragenesis of red bed copper
mineralisation in the Lower Permian of South Central Kansas. Econ Geol 75:722-729
Rose AW (1976) The effect of cuprous chloride complexes in the origin of red bed copper and related
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Aspects of diagenesis. Soc Econ Pal Min Spec Publ 26:227-242
Thrner P, Clemmey H, FlintS (1984) Palaeomagnetic studies of a Cretaceous molasse sequence in the
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Triassic sandstone of Sierra Nacimiento, New Mexico. Econ Geol 69:108-120
The Atacama-Coquimbo Ferriferous Belt, Northern Chile
S. ESPINOZA 1
1 Introduction
In the north of Chile, strewn along the Atacama and Coquimbo provinces, there
are about 40 iron ore deposits, the largest of which reach 150 million tons of high
grade ore, plus a similar amount of disseminated ore.
These ore deposits are located within a metallogenic province called the fer-
riferous belt, which occurs on the eastern slopes of the Coastal Range and parallel
to them from 26° to 31 °S latitude for 600 km (Fig. 1). They consist of irregular
bodies, veinlets, disseminations and pseudo-breccia of magnetite, actinolite, and
apathite, and are emplaced in andesitic lavas of the Bandurrias Formation (Lower
Cretaceous), mainly at the contact aureoles with Lower Cretaceous batholitic
plutons. There also exist veins and fusiform bodies in the same plutons, and
stratiform deposits emplaced in sedimentary rocks of the Chafiarcillo Group
(Valanginian-Barremian).
These distinct forms of occurrence lead researchers of this subject to consider
three metallotecs as fundamental to the genesis of the deposits; they are the devel-
opment of the system formed by the Bandurrias volcanic arc and the back arc
"Neocomian basin" (Chaftarcillo basin), the emplacement of the Lower Creta-
ceous batholith, and a crustal weakness zone striking north-south. For example,
Espinoza (1979) proposed that most of the iron mineralization of this
metallogenic belt is genetically related to the development of the volcanic Bandu-
rrias arc and the Chaiiarcillo basin. Other authors (Ruiz et al. 1965; Ruiz et al.
1968; Montecinos 1983; Oyarzun and Frutos 1986) support a hypothesis which
considers mineralization as related to the emplacement of the Cretaceous
batholiths; all these authors attribute an important, and sometimes essential role
in their hypothesis to the structures of the mentioned crustal weakness zone, al-
though in a rather speculative manner.
Park (1972) suggested a fourth metallotect, consisting of an iron enrichment
in the substrate of the Chaiiarcillo basin; however, lack of evidence to support this
idea and a high content of transition elements in the ores make it implausible, at
least in the Atacama-Coquimbo iron belt, with the presently available informa-
tion.
The volcanic island arc, which developed probably from the end of Jurassic
times until Aptian or Albian times in the southern part of the Central Andes, is
1 Dept. Geociencias, Univ. del Norte, Casilla 1280, Antofagasta, Chile

354 S. Espinoza
L E G E N D
2
D
D
0
TT v
A
B
..
0
3 I,/,, I TT
§
Gr c •
*
4 K s D
5 ~ K Gr E I
6 ~jJ~hiJ K v ,s City •
7 ITIIIIJ J Gr,v ,s
8 Brr
9 8 Pz
10 .!
"
Fig. 1. Deposit location and generalized geology of the Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt. 1 Plio-
Pleistocene sediments; 2 Tertiary acid volcanic rocks; 3 Tertiary plutonic rocks; 4 Upper Cretaceous
volcanic and continental sedimentary rocks; 5 Neocomian diorites, monzonites and granodiorites
(coastal batholith); 6 Neocomian andesites (Bandurrias Fm.) and shales (Chaiiarcillo group); 7 volca-
nic, intrusive and sedimentary rocks of the Jurassic; 8 Triassic continental sedimentary rocks; 9 Paleo-
zoic metamorphic rocks; 10 Mylonitic Belt. A Volcanogenic iron deposits (Carmen type); B sedimenta-
ry iron deposits (Bandurrias type); C El Algarrobo type iron deposits; D La Suerte type iron deposits;
E Quaternary iron deposits (Desvio Norte type)
at present represented by the andesitic volcanic rocks of the Bandurrias Forma-

tion (Segerstrom 1968).
The Chaiiarcillo basin, located in the back arc portion of the Bandurrias arc,
hosted several series of calcareous strata within back-arc and intra-arc basins. The
The Atacama-Coquimbo Ferriferous Belt, Northern Chile 355
Table 1. Typology of the Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt iron ore deposits (Espinoza 1979)a
A Carmen type: Lenticular bodies and dissemination in lavas without visible relationship to plutons,
e.g., Carmen, Boquer6n Chaii.ar, Charaii.a (Los Colorados, Sositas, Huanteme, Chaii.ar
Quemado).
B Bandurrias type: Ferriferous strata intercalated in sedimentary rocks e.g., Bandurrias, Manolete.
C El Algarrobo type: Sets of lenticular bodies and abundant dissemination in contact metamorphic
zones e.g., El Algarrobo, El Romeral (Pleito, Cristales, Cerro Negro Norte, C. Iman, Adrianitas).
D La Suerte type: Tabular or fusiform bodies within intrusive rocks e.g., La Suerte, Bella Ester,
Pirula, Teresita, Bolaco.
E Desvio Norte type: Quaternary alluvium with magnetite float from the erosion of pre-existing de-
posits e.g., Desvio Norte, Bot6n de Oro, Ovido.
a Modified in agreement with the possible chronological order. See also Fig. 1.
most representative and best-exposed stratigraphic section is the Chaiiarcillo

Group (Segerstrom and Parker 1959; Cisternas and Diaz this Vol.).
When the paleogeography of the Bandurrias arc-Chaiiarcillo basin system is
analyzed, if the time of deposition of the host rocks of the iron ore deposits
(Hauterivian), and their location within the paleogeography is also considered, it
can be observed that they are aligned in surprising coincidence with some
paleogeographic elements (Espinoza 1986a). Thus, for example, the iron ore de-
posits of the Carmen and El Algarrobo type (Table 1) are aligned with the likely
location of the Bandurrias volcanic arc axis, whereas the Bandurrias-type depos-
its, emplaced within the marine domain, occur in the vicinity of the probable lo-
cation of the ancient coastline.
The Cretaceous batholith includes a series of plutons of intermediate composi-
tion which intrude Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks (including the Bandurrias Fm.
and the Chaiiarcillo Group).
According to stratigraphic relationships and some radiometric datings, this
batholith has been assigned an Aptian to Cenomanian age; however, radiometric
dating by various authors (Bookstrom 1977; Berg and Breitkreuz 1983; Pichon
1981; Montecinos 1983) has indicated older ages, which reach as far as the
Hauterivian and even the Valanginian.
On the basis of initial Sr isotopic ratios data (0.7053-0.7033) and the coinci-
dence of Rb-Sr and U-Pb ages, low crust or mantle-derived magmas have been
suggested for these plutons (Berg and Breitkreuz 1983).
In the neighborhood of several of the most important iron deposits, foliated
rocks with a schist-like appearance occur, whose elongated outcrops and foliation
both strike north-south. These rocks, which show intermittently through the mod-
ern sediments as isolated outcrops, constitute the Mylonitic Belt (Espinoza
1984b) and have variable widths ranging from tens of meters up to 2 km or more;
this belt is recognized from approximately the latitude of Thltal (25 °25'S) to La
Serena (30°S) (Fig. 1).
It is likely that these mylonitic rocks are the expression of a deep megafault
which could have played a very important role in the petrogenetic evolution of the
Bandurrias arc magmas, and perhaps in the possible segregation of the iron.
In fact, these NS structures controlled the emplacement of the plutons (Ruiz
et al. 1965; Tilling 1976; Berg and Breitkreuz 1983), and in all probability the de-
356 S. Espinoza
velopment of the Neocomian volcanism. Younger, similar structures controlled

the sinking of "roof pendants", which contain many of the iron ore deposits.
2 The Deposits
On the basis of the morphologic, lithologic, and mineralogic characteristics of the
iron deposits, a typology has been established (Figs. 1, 2; Table 1), which reflects
CARMEN
N
s
BANDURRIAS
SE
EL ALGARROBO
LA SUERTE
s N
w E
I.COO + +_ __
...
0 so ..
0 200m
Legend
rn 5 t2Z1
2 ~ 6 ~
OESVIO NORTE
3 ~ 7 B
4 8 B
Fig. 2. Sections through the holotypical deposits of the Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt. Litholo-
gy: 1 Neocomian volcanic and metavolcanic andesites (Bandurrias Fm.); 2 Neocomian shales and sedi-
mentary breccias (Chaiiarcillo group); 3low-grade mineralization pseudobreccia; 4 high-grade miner-
alization (massive bodies); 5 Neocomian diorites of the Coastal Batholith with andesitic dikes;
6 Dioritic stocks and apophyses; 7 Plio-Pleistocene alluvium with magnetite float; 8 Plio-Pleistocene
alluvium
the distinct environments in which the deposits were formed. This classification
will be utilized to describe briefly the most important deposits.
2.1 Deposits Emplaced in Lavas: Carmen 'IYpe
They consist of magnetite masses, approximately lenticular or of varied forms

and attitudes, with variable contents of actinolite and apatite, generally included
in andesitic lavas. An important feature of these deposits is that they are not near
plutonic rocks; however, they can be associated to microdiorites and subvolcanic
porphyritic rocks. Andesitic dikes similar to the lavas cut through both rocks and
mineralization, and often bear disseminated magnetite.
At Carmen, a deposit now exhausted, the andesitic lavas contain phenocrystals
of plagioclase and augite and, in the vicinity of the magnetite bodies, grade to
amphibolitized rocks with hornblende and veinlets of orthoclase, oligoclase, and
quartz with disseminated magnetite.
The massive magnetite mineralization, partially martitized through supergenic
processes, contains disseminated actinolite, apatite, and scapolite. The magnetite
appears to have been formed in several generations, since it occurs sometimes cut-
ting or surrounding apatite.
The Boquer6n Chafiar deposit (Moraga et al. 1969), discovered in 1963 by air-
borne and ground magnetometry and still undeveloped, is emplaced at a mean
depth of about 600 m, of which a fifth is formed by Tertiary and Quaternary allu-
vial gravels and contains an estimated 150 x 106 tons of massive ore ( > 600Jo Fe)
and some 120x 106 tons of disseminated ore. The enveloping surface of the de-
posit enclosing the massive bodies and disseminated mineralization has a horse-
shoe shape.
The iron mineralization occurs in andesitic lavas characterized by andesine pla-
gioclase and augite, and which are partially metamorphized and/or altered.
Microdioritic intrusive rocks, intersected by drilling, which outcrop north and
south of the deposit, have been interpreted as shallow intrusions or as the roots
of the Boquer6n Chafiar Volcanic Complex (Abad 1977).
The host rock, chloritized andesite (commonly called meta-andesite), in the
neighborhood of the massive magnetite bodies, grades to rocks with actinolite
and magnetite, both disseminated and as veinlets; in a more advanced stage of
mineralization, actinolite, scapolite, and magnetite may even constitute the matrix
of a pseudobreccia.
The massive magnetite-actinolite bodies would be an extreme case of invasion
of the host rock by magnetite and actinolite (Moraga et al. 1969).
2.2 Iron Beds in Stratified Rocks: Bandurrias 'IYPe
These deposits consist of ferriferous strata intercalated between sandy shales,

marls, and limestones laid down in shallow water environments not far from the
coastline. The ferriferous strata include magnetite, hematite (supergene), chert,
and calcite; occasionally chlorite and pyrite also occur. These deposits have rela-
358 S. Espinoza
tively low iron contents (40o/o-50"7o Fe) and they have little economic impor-
tance; however, they have not been well explored laterally.
The Bandurrias deposit (Pichon 1981; Cisternas 1982, 1986, this Vol.), located
55 km south of Copiap6, consists of a bed of 10m mean thickness which out-
crops for approximately 1.7 km; it includes magnetite lenses with intercalated
garnet-bearing metamarls which are themselves intercalated within limestones in
the upper part of the Nantoco Fm. This series is intruded by two discrete dioritic
stocks which caused contact metamorphism, as shown by calcite recrystallization,
formation of garnet (andradite) and scapolite, and possibly the reduction of
hematite and limonites to magnetite (Cisternas, this Vol.). The paleogeographic
location of the deposits and the stratigraphic facies, which includes clastic brec-
cias, shales, limestones, ferriferous strata, and chert, suggest that the iron was pre-
cipitated together with silica at the same time as the deposition of the calcareous
muds. Their features, which in Bandurrias are somewhat obliterated by the con-
tact metamorphism, are observed more clearly at the Manolete iron beds
(Espinoza 1986 b) located 20 km south of Copiap6. In this district there is a series
of small mines which includes Congelaci6n, the Manolete Group, Escondida and
others, which apparently intersect the same set of mineralized beds.
The iron beds are rhythmically alternated, in several series, with sandy shales
and chert; in each series the shales become gradually richer in silica toward the
top of the sequence, becoming cherts; further up the sequence, the chert contains
magnetite, whose concentration increases gradually until the ferriferous chert be-
comes an iron-bearing stratum. The transition from clastic sediment, with
angulous feldspar fragments, to silica and magnetite chemical sediment, is ob-
served in thin sections as totally gradual. Each cycle of sediments is interpreted
as the sporadic silica and iron oxide precipitation in a shallow water environment
where sandy shales were being deposited. The silica and iron may have been sup-
plied by proximal volcanic activity, either submarine or subaerial.
2.3 Contact Deposits: El Algarrobo '!Ype
These deposits, which can hold from 20 to 150 million tons of high grade ore
(60% -65% Fe) and comparable amounts of disseminated mineralization, have
characteristics similar to those of the Carmen type; like them, they are emplaced
in lavas and the magnetite ore is accompanied by abundant actinolite and minor
apatite and scapolite. The fundamental difference is that the El Algarrobo type
deposits are emplaced in the contact zones of plutonic intrusions.
These deposits are emplaced in elongated roof pendants some kilometers long,
which contain several deposits; their shape is in places strongly controlled by ma-
jor north-south faults.
The mineralization, consisting of magnetite partially martitized and actinolite,
is hosted only by lavas; other rocks, such as tuffs and sedimentary microbreccias
present in the area of the deposits, are not mineralized. The lavas, generally
andesites, are chloritized and in the vicinity of the iron bodies contain veinlets of
magnetite, actinolite, apatite, scapolite, and sodic plagioclase; in places where
these veinlets are very abundant and there may exist also titanite, pyrite, quartz,
biotite, microcline, tourmaline, and calcite, they form rocks with a typical aspect
which were termed "algarrobitas" (Espinoza 1979).
The ore occurs disseminated, in veinlets, in pseudobreccias and as massive
bodies. The distinct forms of ore occurrence could correspond to more than one
stage of mineralization, and they have suggested to the different authors distinct
mechanisms of mineralization. Thus, it could be conceived that the dissemina-
tion, as crystals and crystal cummulates of magnetite, is syngenetic-magmatic.
The veinlets and breccia-like mineralization probably inspired the idea of
metasomatic replacement sustained by Ruiz et al. (1965), whereas the fissure fill-
ing, and specially the emplacement of massive bodies with sharp boundaries sug-
gested to Geijer (1931) a mechanism of magmatic injections.
The hydrothermal alteration and the metamorphism, which in places are
misidentified (e.g., propylitic alteration and albite-epidote facies), have also been
studied by several authors (Bookstrom 1977; Galatzan and Henriquez 1979;
Saldias 1979; Pichon 1981), who found distinct associations in each deposit. Most
authors appear to assume that the alteration and metamorphism are caused by
the emplacement of the Cretaceous batholith. However, there is no reason to dis-
card an alteration episode related to the volcanic activity which originated the
host rocks.
At El Algarrobo, one of the most intensely studied deposits (Geijer 1931;
Brtiggen 1934; Ruiz et al. 1965, 1968; Espinoza 1971; Montecinos 1983), the Cre-
taceous plutons adjacent to the deposit were described by Montecinos (1983) as
a pseudostratified dioritic lacolith which was intruded by a granodioritic-granitic
pluton; like Ruiz et al. (1965) (Ruiz 1968), she supports the hypothesis that the
latter pluton was forcefully intruded and developed a phase enriched in water and
sodium which would have transformed the diorites into episyenites and deposited
iron and actinolite in the host rocks.
2.4 Deposits Emplaced in Intrusive Rocks: La Suerte '!Ype
These deposits are veins and small bodies of massive magnetite (650Jo -700Jo Fe)
which occur in diorites and granitoids of the Cretaceous batholiths; although
their grades are high, the deposits are smaller than 4 million tons of ore. They
have lenticular or fusiform shapes, are generally larger in the upper part, and are
either vertical or strongly inclined.
The contacts with the host rocks are sharp but there can be disseminated min-
eralization in the wall rocks which varies in width in different deposits. The mag-
netite bodies can also contain variable quantities of apatite and pyrite.
The most important deposits, including La Suerte, Resguardo, Dichosa, Bella
Ester, and others, are found at the northern end of the ferriferous belt (Chanaral).
They are emplaced in hypabyssal and subvolcanic rocks which intrude volcanic
rocks of the Bandurrias Fm. and with which they appear to have a close parental
relationship.
The La Suerte vein, sited northeast of Chanaral, strikes E-W with a variable
thickness ranging from 5 to 10m and can be followed for about 2 km; it is dis-
placed by transverse faults and is cut by dioritic dykes. It is emplaced in a
360 S. Espinoza
medium-grained diorite and contains magnetite with some apatite. Although this
deposit has an obvious structural control, other deposits, which are emplaced
within intrusive rock masses, seem to be magnetite enclaves within the batholith.
3 Geochemistry of the Ores

A study of the transition element contents of the ores (Espinoza 1985) showed
that these elements, especially V, Mn, Co, and Ni, have a distinctive behavior ac-
cording to the type of deposit, thus confirming the genetic meaning of the classi-
fication proposed in Table 1.
In the graphs of Fig. 3 A and B, these contents are compared with those of oth-
er Chilean deposits from outside the Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt, such
as El Laco (see Frutos et al. this Vol.), which is related to the plio-Pleistocene
volcanism of the high Andes of Antofagasta (24 °S); Mahuilque-Rehin (see
Collao et al. this Vol.) consisting of stratiform mineralization in Paleozoic schists
south of Los Angeles (38 °S); and the Swedish deposit at Kiruna, which has been
considered a volcanogenic deposit (Parak 1975).
It can be observed that Ni is abundant in the ores of volcanogenic deposits
(597 ppm on average), whereas Vis enriched in those deposits located in contact
zones (1797 ppm on average). Manganese, on the other hand, has a variable con-
tent and can be concentrated in the ores of sedimentary deposits (971 ppm on av-
erage). The Ni!Co and V/Mn ratios are higher in the deposits of magmatic origin
....v I
• El Alg1nobo ~ POMIO C•-
rro lm•"n , Plelto , Crist• le a.
C~trto Negro Noru
....
v
,ooo •
• f7\
\..!.! 1I • o C•uo N•ofo Su, , c.,o
luf"'lr , Adrl•nlla• 3000
/ ®
l •
• M1hu ilque
. ,/
0 Bandurr111, Manolete,
.
• l• Chat\., Quemldo Norl•
•
• • I // .A. 8oquero'n Ch.w'll•r.Carmen
-9- La
Suerte, T•rnill
2000 . . . . ,.
•/ /
+EI L•co
+ Khun• 2000
• I /
~. /
:
l.q. +•
• I
/
/
-·-·--··
. +
/ ++ • + +.).'~_ ......... - . .. +
-·-·•
, ++ •____ .....,.
1000 ~ .... - .'
• 1000
•
. • • •
+
0 0
0 100
0 I 000 ::zooo 3000 ppm 200 300 ppm
Mn Ni
A B
Fig. 3. A Vanadium and manganese contents in iron-ore deposits magnetites. 1 El Algarrobo type de-
posits; 2 volcanogenic deposits; 3 sedimentary-metamorphic deposits; 4 sedimentary deposits. The
magmatic deposits (1, 2) show high vanadium contents, probably controlled by the depth of formation
of magnetite. On the other hand, the Mn can be abundant in magnetite formed in a sedimentary envi-
ronment. B V vs. Ni contents in iron-ore deposit magnetites. Note the separation between the pluton-
related deposits (1) and volcanogenic deposits without relation to plutons (2), which could be due to
contact metamorphism effect on the Algarrobo-type deposits. (1) to (4) as in A
(or of magmatic-metamorphic origin) than in the sedimentary deposits and sedi-

mentary-metamorphic deposits.
It can also be inferred that the contact metamorphism could be responsible for
the apparent increase in the Co/Ni and V/Mn ratios and the observed decrease
in the Ni/V ratio.
4 Genesis
Diverse evidence, including radiometric dating of post-mineralization andesitic
dykes, presence of magnetite clasts (rounded boulders) embedded in lavas and
breccias, and absence of mineralization in sedimentary rocks intercalated among
lavas which host mineralization, indicate that the iron mineralization (or most of
it) was deposited almost contemporaneously with the lavas that host it. The facts
exposed above are compatible with the model shown in Fig. 4, which implies that
during the development of the Bandurrias volcanic arc, volcanogenic deposits of
magnetite, actinolite, and apatite were formed (Carmen and El Algarrobo types),
whereas in marine coastal environments farther away, volcano-sedimentary de-
posits of ferriferous chert and magnetite beds (Bandurrias type) were formed;
subsequent intrusion of parental plutons (Cretaceous batholith) could have remo-
GENETIC MODEL OF THE ATACAMA COQUIMBO

FEAAIFEAOUS BELT
I PROFILE IN NEOCOMIAN TIME
II PRESENT DAY GENERALIZED PROFILE
Fig. 4. I Volcanic, subvolcanic and sedimentary iron.deposits (types Carmen (A) and Bandurrias (B))
were formed in Neocomian times. II Intrusions penetrated the same volcanic pile assimilating parts
of it and leaving some roof-pendants with iron deposits; later, these fell, controlled by structures (El
Algarrobo type, C). Some iron remained within the plutonic mass as an inmiscible fraction (La Suerte
type deposits, D). Finally, the erosion of the iron deposits during the Plio-Pleistocene formed the
Desvio Norte type deposits (£)
362 S. Espinoza
bilized part of this mineralization, which, transported by fluids, transformed and

enriched pre-existing volcanogenic deposits (e.g., El Algarrobo-type deposits); the
possibility of the contribution of a limited amount of iron from the plutons has
not been discarded. A small quantity of iron would have remained as inclusions
or inmiscible fractions within the igneous mass of the plutons, which could possi-
bly form the deposits of La Suerte type. Finally, the posthumous hydrothermal
activity derived from the emplacement of the plutons generated some iron veins
emplaced in intrusive rocks.
5 Discussion
In the magmatic and the supposedly metasomatic contact deposits, the mecha-
nisms of segregation, transport, and deposition of the iron are not well estab-
lished. However, the experiments of Martin and Piwinskii (1969) and Helz (1971)
indicate that the most effective transport mechanism would be the migration of
hydrated iron in the vapor phase and not as a ionic iron, as had been suggested
previously by some authors. The deposition of magnetite from a vapor phase at
temperatures up to 500 oc is compatible with the paragenetic associations present
in the magmatogenic deposits of the Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt.
After Philpott's paper (1967), magnetite-apatite magmas which can remain in
the liquid state at temperatures sufficiently low, even for them to be extruded like
magnetite flows, can be conceived; the origin of this ore magma would be related
to the andesitic magma generation (Henriquez 1981) as a geochemical comple-
ment, both derived from the tholeitic magma. However, the titanium content in
the magmatic iron ores, much lower than those expected, is an objection to this
hypothesis, which remains unanswered.
Radiometric datings (Bookstrom 1977; Pichon 1981; Montecinos 1983) show
that the plutonic and volcanic events were contemporaneous. This fact tends to
conciliate the controversy between volcanic and plutonic origin of the deposits in
terms of age and magmatic consanguinity; however, the implications of each hy-
pothesis on the type of segregation and transportation of the iron are important,
in the sense that it is different collecting the iron from an already consolidated
plutonic rock and separating it in the magmatic stage.
It is likely that the iron-depleted plutonic facies (episyenitic and aplitic plutons,
Bookstrom 1977; Montecinos 1983) could have originated at depth by hydration
of the dioritic magma; Oyarzun and Frutos (1986) supposed that an important
amount of water could have been incorporated into the magma through deep
structures. In this way a ferriferous hydrothermal phase would have been pro-
duced which accompanied the Neocomian volcanism, forming the magnetite, ac-
tinolite, and apatite concentrations and leaving behind a portion of magma de-
pleted in iron, which was later emplaced as syenitic-granodioritic plutons.
Acknowledgments. Most of my research on iron deposits has been carried out within the Economic
Geology Program of the Department of Geosciences at the Universidad del Norte, Antofagasta. An-
other part was done as a doctor's degree thesis at the Paris VI University, under the supervision of
Dr. Pierre' Routhier.
I was assisted in the translation of this paper by Dr. Jaime Arias of the Universidad del Norte,
Antofagasta. Finally, I wish to mention also the continued support of the Compaii.ia Minera del
Pacifico, through communications with their geologists and access to the deposits.
The author is indebted to the persons and institutions mentioned.
References
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Geol Arg XXXII 1:24-33
Berg K, Breitkreuz C (1983) Mesozoische Plutone in der nordchilenischen Kiistenkordillere; Petroge-
nese, Geochronologie, Geochemie und Geodynamik mantelbetonter Magmatite. Geotekt Forsch
66I-11:1-107
Bookstrom A (1977) The magnetite deposits of El Romeral, Chile. Econ Geol 72:1101-1130
Briiggen J (1934) Grundziige der Geologie und Lagerstattenkunde Chiles. Tiibingen, Math Nat Kl
Heidelberger Akad Wiss, 362 p, 70 figs
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Cisternas ME (1986) Stratigraphische, fazielle und lithogeochemische Untersuchungen in der Unter-
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Cisternas ME The Bandurrias iron ore deposit, Atacama Region, northern Chile. This Vol., pp
505-512
Cisternas ME, Diaz L Geologic evolution of the Atacama Basin during the Lower Cretaceous. This
Vol, pp 495 - 504
Collao S, Alfaro G, Hayashi K Banded iron formation and massive sulfide orebodies, south central
Chile: geologic and isotopic aspects. This Vol, pp 209-219
Espinoza S (1971) Origen y distribucion de P, S y Si0 2 en el yacimiento de hierro "El Algarrobo"
provincia de Atacama, Chile. Mem de Titulo, Univ Chile, 150 p
Espinoza S (1979) Una hipotesis sobre Ia Metalogenesis de Ia Franja Ferrifera chilena. II Congr Geol
Chile, Arica 2:C1-C21
Espinoza S (1984a) Le role du volcanisme du Cretace Inferieur dans Ia metallogenese de Ia Ceinture
Ferrifere d'Atacama Coquimbo, Chili. Thesis, Univ Paris VI, 153 p
Espinoza S (1984b) Dos perfiles porIa franja milonitica de Atacama-Coquimbo y un alcance sobre
Ia metalogenesis del hierro. Rev Comunicaciones Dept Geol Geof Univ Chile, Santiago 34:75-81
Espinoza S (1985) Distribucion de los elementos de transicion en magnetitas de yacimientos de hierro
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Antofagasta 4(3):836- 853
Espinoza S (1986a) Ellegado metalogenico de Ia cuenca del Neocomiano entre los 26° y 31 o sur en
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Espinoza S (1986b) Sobre el origen volcanico-sedimentario de los mantos ferruginosos Bandurrias y
Manolete, a! sur de Copiapo. Rev Geol Chile 27:33-40
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364 S. Espinoza
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(Chili). Doctor thesis, Univ Paris Sud, 191 p
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Rev Geol Chile 3:1-24
La Negra-Coquimbana Manganiferous District,
Southern Atacama Desert, Chile
M. PINCHEIRA 1•2 and L. FONTBOT:E 2• 3
1 Introduction
The La Negra-Coquimbana (Mn-Fe) district is located in the Coastal Range of
the southern Atacama desert, about 20 km northwest of Vallenar (28 o 22'S. lat
and 70° 31'W. lat; Fig. 1).
The deposits are mainly stratiform (locally called mantos) and appear in three
main levels on the top of a volcano-sedimentary sequence of Lower Cretaceous
age (Bandurrias Formation; Segerstrom 1960a). This formation has a wide exten-
sion in the Coastal Range of north Chile (27 o_ 30 °S.), and consists mainly of
andesitic rocks with intercalations of sedimentary rocks of upper Valanginian to
upper Barremian ages (Biese 1942; Corvalan 1955).
The mines in this area (La Negra, Porvenir, Coquimbana, and Venus), were ex-
ploited in this century at successive times especially during the first and second
world war due to the high price of manganese. The ore extracted had a maximum
Mn-grade of 46-480Jo.
2 Geologic Setting
In the La Negra-Coquimbana district (Coastal Range) rocks of the Bandurrias
Formation and plutonic rocks of a batholitic complex of dioritic-tonalitic compo-
sition crop out. These units form a well-developed north-south-trending belt,
which represents the remains of a magmatic arc of Lower Cretaceous age. Toward
the east, in the Andean Range, a parallel belt of contemporaneous sedimentary
rocks appears (Chafiarcillo Group, Biese 1942; Corvalan 1955). All transitional
environments between volcanic facies toward the west and marine sedimentary
facies toward the east can be recognized. These units, as a whole, are interpreted
as a magmatic arc-back-arc basin developed over continental crust (Abad 1977;
Mercado 1979; Coira et al. 1982).
Stratabound ore deposits occur in different geotectonic positions of this pair
as shown by Fontbote (this Vol.). A west-east zonation pattern of the stratabound
ore deposits correlates well with geotectonic environments trending north-south,
which are largely determined by the subduction mechanism in the west margin of
1 Departamento de Geociencias Universidad de Concepcion, Chile

2 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches lnstitut der Universitiit, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRG
3 Present address: Departement de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

366 M. Pincheira and L. Fontbote
~
l'unlll del Cobro (Cu, Fe)
I
l••,inoadas (Cu. Fe)
OandurriaJ (Fe)
2a· I
~~-------------------t---lr-~;:~r-~~~~~~l amina (D•l --------~~~~~--------~
I
I a Negra (Mn) o._<==_<==_.50km
Coquimbana (Mo)
(
\
~2
l.!..::cl ~3 EJ. 4
. ~5
t::i.J
Lo• Iantosfe)
Vall
+.
Los TimbiC$ (Mn)
I
d<l Pacifico II (Cu. Fe)
r
~ l anoo ·
29"
T···""(o~
P•nulcillo (Cu. l'b, 7n)
I
A B
Fig. 1. A Stratabound ore deposits in the Lower Cretaceous units of the Atacama region (see also
Cisternas this Vol.; Diaz this Vol.). 1 Coastal batholith; 2 volcanic facies; 4 transitional facies (volcanic
rocks with intercalation of sedimentary rocks) of the Bandurrias Formation; 3 marine sedimentary
facies (Chaiiarcillo Group); 5 red sandstones. B Geologic map of the district. 1 La Negra mine;
2 Porvenir mine; 3 Coquimbana mine; 4 Venus mine; * = tabular subvertical magnetite-ore-bodies
a Dioritic-tonalitic rocks; b Andesitic rocks; c calcareous sedimentary rocks of the Bandurrias Forma-
tion; d modern sediments and terraces
La Negra-Coquimbana Manganiferous District, Southern Atacama Desert, Chile 367
the South American plate. In the La Negra-Coquimbana district, the hosting

rocks were formed in a NNE-SSW-trending intra-arc basin, which extended paral-
lel to the outcrops of the Lower Cretaceous magmatic arc (Pincheira and Thiele
1982). The Bandurrias Formation in this area is composed of andesitic lava flows,
tuffs, and breccias, with some intercalations of sandstones, limestones, and chert.
The Mn-Fe-rich layers are intercalated in chert and limestones, in the upper part
of the sequence closely associated with tuffs and breccias. The sequence in the
district is folded, dipping west, 60-80 o with a NNE strike. Mining works com-
prise open pits and underground works, as for example at the Coquimbana Mine,
where they reach a depth of 130m (Behncke 1944). On the surface these mantos
extend continuously for 9 km. To the north, they are covered by Tertiary terraces;
to the south and west, they are intruded by tonalitic rocks.
3 General Stratigraphy of the District

The Cretaceous sequence that appears in the La Negra-Coquimbana district can
be subdivided into the following two sequences:
• A volcanic base (b-1, b-2), 1400 to 2500 m thick, consisting of andesitic rocks
with a minor amount of rhyolitic intercalations. This sequence includes less than
1OO?o of sedimentary rocks.
e An upper volcano-sedimentary sequence (a-1 to a-8), 700m thick, composed
of andesitic lava flows, tuffs, and breccias, with more than 30% of sedimentary
intercalations consisting of calcareous sandstones, limestones and chert.
11"1
II II
II
I
l II
I .....
y _v_v_v~
I r v r vr
v rv r J.b c cl e
II II
V '7V Vy
vvvvv La Ne<Jr<l
v v_v_yJ,
v v v
I __
II rrrrrrrt
---
..r r r -r'
I
I
I
~ ~ ~ ~ ~\
::::::::::·-~ ,,
... ... . ..... IlOOm
VVVVf Q
1 2 34 SG 7 8 9~C
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the district. 1 Rhyolites; 2 andesites; 3 andesitic breccias; 4 andesitic-
dacitic tuffs; 5 volcanic sandstones; 6 calcarenite; 7 sandy-limestones; 8 limestones; 9 ferruginous
chert; 10 calcilutites; a andesitic breccias; b dark gray limestones; c ferruginous chert; d limestones
with Fe-rich nodules; e Mn-mantos
The general stratigraphic column shows the following units from top to bottom
(Fig. 2):
a-1) 200 m of limestones with intercalations of greenish and reddish chert. Some hematitic layers
(5 to 20 em thick) are intercalated in the cherty strata;
a-2) 70 m of greenish andesitic-dacitic tuffs and breccias, composed of fragments of andesites,
fragments of Fe-rich sandstones, quartz and feldspar grains;
a-3) 20m of dark gray to red Mn-Fe-rich limestones with intercalations of ferruginous chert. This
section contains the two main Mn-mantos in the district;
a-4) 150m of brownish dark gray limestones;
a-5) 80 m of andesitic volcanic rocks, at the bottom with a minor intercalation of sandy tuffs;
a-6) 60 m of grayish limestones. Towards the bottom this section grades to sandy limestones;
a-7) 90 m of greenish sandy-tuffs, composed of andesitic fragments and lenses of fine-grained
hematite in a micritic matrix;
a-8) 50 m of gray calcarenite, in beds 20 to 60 em thick. They consist of intraclasts of micrite, ce-
mented by microsparite. The detritic fraction is composed of fragments of andesites, tuffs, feldspar,
and quartz;
b-1) 1000 to 1800 m of andesitic lava flows, tuffs, and breccias with minor intercalations of lime-
stones and volcanogenic sandstones in beds 20 em to 1 m thick;
b-2) 400 to 700 m of andesitic lava flows, tuffs, and breccias with a minor amount of rhyolitic in-
tercalations.
4 Manganese Deposits
Several Mn-Fe-rich mantos can be recognized in the La Negra-Coquimbana dis-
trict, but only two have been exploited. At the mines, the mantos dip almost verti-
cally, with a NNE strike, and are concordant with the stratification. They general-
ly contain several thin bands (5 to 20 em) of manganese minerals, alternating with
thin bands (2 to 5 em) of red chert or limestones. The Mn-rich mantos have a mas-
sive texture composed of a fine-grained assemblage of oxide minerals. They are
fractured, faulted, and cross-cut by quartz-hematite-bearing veinlets.
Hematite occurs always associated with the Mn-rich layers as fine laminae or
nodules. The iron-rich layers contain generally only subordinate manganese ox-
ides, possibly indicating a segregation between manganese and iron. A probable
segregation mechanism will be discussed below.
The mantos and the hosting volcano-sedimentary sequence are folded and af-
fected by low-medium grade contact metamorphism.
5 Mineralogy of the Manganese Deposits
Samples from the La Negra, Porvenir, and Coquimbana mines were studied by
optical reflection, X-ray diffraction methods, and electron microprobe analysis.
The results of the analyses are summarized in Thbles 1, 2, 3, and 4. A few samples
consist of alternating layers of red chert and hematite or limonite bands. The
limonitic bands contain frequently hematitic nodules (Fig. 3).
Braunite 3(Mn3 +, Fe3+h03.Mn2 + Si03 is the main ore mineral of the La
Negra and Coquimbana Mines. 1\vo chief fabrics are recognized: (a) layered gran-
ular aggregates (most common), where individual equant grains are packed tight-
ly with only traces of gangue or secondary minerals along the grain boundaries
Table 1. Mineralogy of selected samples of the district (see also Table 5)
Sample Description Mineralogy
Porvenir mine:
P-7 Limonitic-hematitic layers Hematite-andradite-goethite-chert.
Hematite-quartz-goethite (veinlets)
Coquimbana mine:
P-1 Massive banded Mn-ore Hausmannite-a-vredenburgite-pyrolusite-
tephroite. Calcite (veins)
La Negra mine:
P-2 Massive banded Mn-ore Franklinite-a-vredenburgite-pyrolusite-cryp-
tomelane-coronadite-manjiroite
P-3 Massive banded Mn-ore Braunite-hausmannite-man-
jiroite-pyrolusite-cryptomelane-spessartine
P-5 Massive banded Mn-ore with lamination of Braunite-hausmannite-pyrolusite-birnessite.
chert Calcite-quartz (veins)
P-17 Pe-rich nodules in laminated chert Hematite-goethite-chert. Quartz-hematite
(veinlets)
0 hau~mannite (1)
0 vredenl)urgite ( 1)
\7 vreden i)Ur!J it e ( 2)
a ma')netite
Fe 3o4 <--~~~~~~r+~.....l--JL..ll.-' M n 3 04 b: Jacobsite
I A 8 c: vredenl,urgite
a--J,t--- b ~:r--c--~d
d: hau!; mannite
0 10 54 91 100°/o
MOL •1. M n 30 4
~- A
~~ ~ ~ ~~ :~
s:o, .
8
"'"· """··
' ..,""' "
i \\
I .\ ~
~~
0
i
~~~~X
A
X X
I
B
X
Mn 3o4
Fig. 3. The system Fe30 4-Mn 30 4-ZnMn20 4-ZnFe20 4 • Equilibrium diagram for the Zn-Mn-Fe spinels
(Mason 1947), and composition of hausmannites from the Coquimbana mine. Electron microprobe
analyses of La Coquimbana (1) and (2) of the La Negra mine. As the temperature rises the field of
solid immiscibility (ABCD at room temperature) contracts and finally disappears between 900 and
1000°C
Table 2. Electron microprobe analyses of braunite and hausmannitea
2 3 4 5 6
Mn20 3 73.07 79.00 79.21 67.24 65.81 61.93

MnO 10.49 9.62 9.39 29.05 31.59 32.51
CuO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ZnO 0.07 0.01 0.03 2.43 0.48 0.31
MgO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
CaO 1.89 1.70 0.90 0.17 0.05 0.15
Nap n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
K20 0.08 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
BaO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
PbO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.62 n.d.
Al203 1.83 0.43 0.89 0.92 1.04 1.05
Fe20 3 2.76 n.d. n.d. 0.17 0.52 1.51
As20 3 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
V203 0.01 0.04 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Cr20 3 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Si02 10.60 10.01 9.16 0.19 0.70 1.52
Ti02 0.22 n.d. O.D7 n.d. 0.05 0.09
803 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Total 101.03 100.83 99.65 100.16 100.87 99.06
1, 2, and 3 number of cations on the basis of 12.000 oxygens and 4, 5, 6 on the
basis of 4.000 oxygens:
Mn3+ 5.552 5.950 5.896 1.939 1.883 1.789
Mn2+ 0.887 0.806 0.777 0.932 1.006 1.045
Zn 0.005 0.001 0.002 0.068 0.013 0.008
Pb 0.006
Ca 0.206 0.179 0.090 0.006 0.001 0.006
Fe3+ 0.211 0.004 0.014 0.043
AI 0.219 0.049 0.098 0.041 0.046 0.047
Si 1.082 0.987 0.865 0.007 0.026 0.057
Ti 0.016 0.005 0.001 0.002
Total iron as Fe20 3. The relative amounts of MnO and Mn20 3 were recalculated
from total manganese assuming that the sum of the R 3 + elements and Ti equals
6000 for braunite and equals 3000 for hausmannite.
a (1), (2) and (3) braunite of the La Negra mine: (1) massive banded ore; (2) and
(3) core of isolated euhedral grains in a carbonated matrix. (4), (5) and (6) haus-
mannite of the La Coquimbana mine: (4) micro veinlet of hausmannite; (5) mas-
sive banded ore; (6) nodule.
and (b) isolated and well-crystallized braunite grains dispersed in a matrix of car-
bonates (sample P-3) or included in secondary manganese oxides (sample P-5).
Between both fabric types a complete gradation is observed.
Hausmannite (Mn2 +, Mn3 +h04 is abundant and widespread at the La Co-
quimbana Mine. It occurs mainly as granular and massive aggregates forming well
stratified bands, and also as nodular and lenticular structures surrounded by rims
of silicates. Hausmannite is usually intergrown with a-vredenburgite (Mason
1943) and is associated with silicates (largely tephroite) which fill the interstitial
Table 3. Electron microprobe analyses of alpha-vredenburgitea
2 3 4 5
Mn20 3 11.90 20.44 24.60 20.36 18.26

Fe20 3 42.89 40.75 40.78 42.96 44.55
MnO 35.90 33.02 30.00 31.45 32.67
CuO n.d. 0.02 n.d. n.d. n.d.
ZnO 0.38 0.45 0.27 0.57 0.45
MgO 0.37 0.05 n.d. 0.49 0.28
CaO 0.32 0.75 0.31 0.14 0.12
Na20 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.08
K20 0.06 n.d. 0.05 n.d. n.d.
BaO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
PbO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Al203 3.01 1.52 0.73 2.03 1.46
As20 3 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
V203 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Cr20 3 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Si02 4.33 2.23 1.09 n.d. 0.49
Ti02 0.33 0.47 0.53 1.89 1.99
803 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Total 99.50 99.68 98.36 99.90 100.38
Number of cations on the basis of 4.000 oxygens:
Mn3+ 0.355 0.585 0.723 0.584 0.523
Fe3+ 1.195 1.153 1.185 1.218 1.262
Mn2 + 1.125 1.052 0.981 1.004 1.041
Ca 0.013 0.030 0.012 0.005 0.004
Mg 0.020 0.002 0.027 0.015
Zn 0.010 0.012 0.007 0.016 0.012
AI 0.131 0.067 0.033 0.090 0.065
Si 0.160 0.083 0.042 0.018
Ti 0.009 0.013 0.015 0.053 0.056
Total iron as Fe20 3. The relative amount of Mn20 3 was recalculated from
total manganese assuming that the sum of the cations equals 3.000.
a Laminated layers of a-vredenburgite: (1), (2), (3) from La Coquimbana
Mine and (4), (5), from La Negra Mine.
space between grains. In the sample P-1 from the La Coquimbana Mine, a thin
veinlet of hausmannite cuts the microlayers of hausmannite, a-vredenburgite, and
Mn-bearing silicates.
Alpha-vredenburgite (Mn2 +, Fe2+, Mg, Zn)(Fe3+, Mn3 +h0 4 a metastable
phase within the two exsolved phases region of the system Fe30 4-Mn30 4 (Mason
1947; Van Hook and Keith 1958) occurs at the La Coquimbana and La Negra
Mines as fine-layered 0.1-3 mm thick aggregates with only minor interstitial sili-
cates or secondary manganese oxides. Under the microscope appears one phase
with weak bireflection, low to medium anisotropy, and reflectivity similar to
braunite. At the Coquimbana Mine alternating bands of hausmannite +tephroite
and a-vredenburgite were observed.
Franklinite (Zn, Fe2+, Mn2 +)(Fe3 +, Mn3 +h04 was indentified only by X-ray
diffraction methods and occurs probably intergrown with a-vredenburgite, both
minerals having similar optical properties.
Table 4. Electron microprobe analyses of secondary Mn-oxides of the La Negra mine a
2 3 4 5 6 7
Mn0 2 87.68 89.40 89.88 96.53 94,75 85.78 70.40

MnO n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 3.45 3.27
CuO n.d. 0.06 0.03 n.d. n.d. 0.04 n.d.
ZnO 0.33 0.11 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.09
MgO 1.40 0.37 0.47 0.10 n.d. n.d. n.d.
CaO 1.67 1.14 1.75 0.27 0.29 1.19 0.21
Na20 2.41 2.54 1.49 0.24 n.d. 1.45 n.d.
K20 0.12 0.64 0.32 0.68 0.48 5.14 n.d.
BaO 0.56 0.50 0.08 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
PbO 0.04 0.34 0.06 n.d. n.d. n.d. 12.58
Al203 0.41 1.11 1.02 0.64 0.71 0.79 0.56
Fe20 3 0.09 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
As20 3 n.d. n.d. 0.13 n.d. 0.17 n.d. 0.90
V203 0.06 n.d. 0.01 n.d. n.d. 0.03 0.09
Cr20 3 n.d. 0.63 0.04 0.04 n.d. 0.02 n.d.
Si02 0.80 1.09 0.37 0.38 0.55 0.33 0.80
Ti02 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.05 n.d. n.d. n.d.
so 3 n.d. 0.14 n.d. O.o? n.d. 0.36 n.d.
H 20# (4.42) (1.93) (4.33) (0.99) (3.05) (1.39) (11.11)
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Number of cations on the basis of 16.000 oxygens except for pyrolusite (4) and (5) calculated on the
basis of 2.000 oxygens:
*Mn4 + 7.336 7.415 7.497 0.957 0.966 7.321 7.320
*Mn2+ 0.064 0.361 0.416
•cu 0.006 0.002
*Zn 0.029 0.009 0.010
Pb 0.001 0.011 0.002 0.509
*Mg 0.253 0.066 0.085 0.002
*Ca 0.216 0.146 0.225 0.004 0.004 0.157 0.033
Ba 0.026 0.023 0.004
Na 0.566 0.591 0.349 0.006 0.348
K 0.019 0.098 0.049 0.012 0.009 0.811
*AI 0.058 0.156 0.145 0.010 0.012 0.115 0.099
*Fe3+ 0.008
*Si 0.097 0.130 0.044 0.005 0.008 0.040 0.120
*Ti
Total iron as Fe20 3. The total amounts of MnO and Mn0 2 were recalculated from total manganese
assuming that the sum of the cations (*) equals 8.000, except for pyrolusite, where it equals 1.000.
(#) H 20 calculated from difference to 10011Jo.
a Massive banded manjiroite (1), (2) and (3); (4), (5) pyrolusite and (6) cryptomelane filling a cavity;
(7) coronadite intergrowths with pyrolusite in nodules.
Manjiroite (Na, K) 1_ 2 (Mn+ 2 , Mn+ 4)s0 16.xH20 was observed only at the La
Negra Mine. It shows three predominant fabrics: fine cryptocrystalline mono-
mineralic aggregates forming well-defined layers ( 1-5 mm thick), a matrix of iso-
lated euhedral crystals of braunite, and disseminated in the matrix associated with
pyrolusite and gangue silicates. Manjiroite is also cross-cut by veinlets of pyrolusite-
cryptomelane and occurs also subordinated in pyrolusite-coronadite-rich nodules.
Pyrolusite (MnO~ occurs in pores as microcrystalline aggregates within

braunite, hausmannite, and a-vredenburgite, or associated with manjiroite and
cryptomelane in the matrix or as veinlets. Braunite and hausmannite are replaced
by pyrolusite, cryptomelane, and birnessite along fractures and cleavage, while a-
vredenburgite exhibits no supergene alteration. Some of the fractures and veinlets
are filled with calcite.
6 Discussion
Hausmannite, jacobsite/vredenburgite, and braunite occur widely as metamor-
phic ore (de Villiers 1960; Huebner 1967; Watanabe et al. 1970; Roy 1973; Frenzel
1980). In addition, hausmannite, vredenburgite, and braunite had been synthe-
sized in the laboratory at a relatively high temperature (Mason 1947; Van Hook
and Keith 1958; Muan 1959a, b; in Bonatti et al. 1976), and are commonly found
in deposits affected by green schist-facies metamorphism. The presence of a-
vredenburgite in samples of the two mines indicates, according to the equilibrium
diagram for the system Fe30 4-Mn30 4-ZnMn20 4-ZnFe20 4 (Mason 1947), a maxi-
mum temperature of formation of about 600 °C (Fig. 3).
The natural occurrences suggest the following sequence of stability of phases
in the Mn-Si system with increasing temperature (Roy 1973):
Hariya (1961) found that todorokite samples heated in air at a temperature of
560 oc for 1 h produced an X-ray pattern containing lines of hausmannite.
Birnessite also changed to hausmannite at 560 oc. The Hariya test with manga-
nite, MnO(OH), resulted in the production of pyrolusite at 300 to 360 °C, bixbyite
at 580 oc, but hausmannite was not produced when the sample was heated to
1050 °C. Groutite, MnO(OH), produced also bixbyite and hausmannite at compa-
rable temperatures.
The lack of braunite, jacobsite, and hausmannite in modern nodules and
metalliferous sediments from ocean basins and shallow seas (e.g., Barents Sea,
Gulf of Maine, Kara Sea; Roy 1981) suggests that the natural conditions on the
Psilomelane (in air) - - - - - - Bixbyite - - - - - - + Hausmannite

or (a-Mn20 3) (Mn304)
Cryptomelane
Birnessite - - - - - - Braunite or Rhodonite

(3 Mn20 3 • MnSi0 3) (MnSi0 3)
Pyrolusite at higher f0 2 at lower f0 2
I
.___N_su_ti_te--'+ Fe oxides I - - - - + Bixbyite - - - • Jacobsite/Vredenburgite
+Fe20 3 MnFe20 4 MnFe20 4 +Mn 30 4
solid solution
Rhodochrosite - - - - (in air) ---- Manganosite - - - - Hausmannite

.....__ _ ____, - - - - Rhodonite or Thphroite or Braunite
if Mn: Si if Mn: Si at higher f0 2
=1:1 >1:1
sea floor are not favorable to the formation of these minerals in sedimentary envi-
ronments (Sorem and Gunn 1967; Bonatti et al. 1976; Rona 1978; Toth 1980).
Modern studies of metalliferous sediments from the ocean basins indicate that the
common iron and manganese compounds that occur as nodules or crusts on ac-
tive spreading centers and seamounts consist of poorly crystallized oxides and hy-
droxide phases. These may be manganites, birnessite, todorokite, and rhodo-
chrosite in the Mn-rich crust (Bonatti et al. 1976), or goethite and nontronite in
iron-rich crusts (Toth 1980).
Lithology, textural features, and form of the orebodies are consistent with a
synsedimentary formation within an intra-arc basin (Pincheira and Thiele 1982).
In this environment volcanic-exhalative influence is very likely and could explain
the stratiform geometry of the deposits, textural features as lamination of chert,
and carbonates alternating with Mn-Fe-rich layers.
It is reasonable to assume that recrystallization during diagenesis and subse-
quent contact metamorphism of primary, poorly crystallized Mn-Fe phases could
result in conversion to a braunite-hausmannite-a-vredenburgite-tephroite-spessar-
tine assemblage with relict sedimentary textures, such as those occurring in the
La Negra-Coquimbana district.
The separation of manganese from iron probably resulted from the following
process:
a) oxidation and precipitation of iron in subsurface hydrothermal conduits of
Mn-Fe-bearing solutions due to the lower solubility of Fe 3 +. The resultant Fe-de-
pleted-Mn-rich solution may precipitate at the surface close to the exhalative
zone.
This hypothesis agrees with the geologic frame of the district (see Fig. 1), where
important subvertical tabular magnetite orebodies (Menard 1988) occur along a
north-south-trending fault zone close to the stratiform ore deposits.
b) after deposition, segregation by diagenetic processes could take place by se-
lective mobilization and concentration of manganese by low Eh pore-space waters
(Strakhov 1966; Krauskopf 1957). Thus, first Mn4 + and Mn 3 +, and then Fe3 +
are reduced. Under these condition iron will be the last element to be reduced
(and rendered mobile) and the first one to be oxidized (and rendered immobile).
Manganese tends to move ahead all the time. It remains in solution and precipi-
tates later. Thus, a progressive segregation of the two elements takes place. Per-
haps this process is responsible of the formation of hematite layers from Mn-Fe
rich sediments.
Fig. 4. Microplates of the La Negra-Coquimbana district. a) Andradite garnet cemented by fine grains
of hematite, cross-cut by a quartz-hematite (hm) veinlet (P-7, Porvenir mine, reflected light, parallel
Nic.); b) a-vredenburgite (vre) and pyrolusite (pyro)-manjiroite (man)-rich nodules surrounded by a
rim of silicates (P-2, Ia Negra mine, reflected light, parallel Nic.); c) a-vredenburgite (vre), hausman-
nite (haus) and tephroite (tph) microbands (P-1, La Coquimbana mine, reflected light, parallel NIC);
d) microbands of braunite (brau) and manjiroite (man) (P-5, La Negra mine, reflected light, parallel
Nic.); e) euhedral crystals of braunite (brau) partially replaced by pyrolusite in a matrix of carbonates
(P-3, La Negra mine, reflected light, parallel Nic.); f) detail of an euhedral crystal of braunite (P-3,
La Negra mine, reflected light, parallel Nic.)
Table S. Paragenetic position of the mineral assemblages
Deposition Diagenesis Metamorphism Sup. Alt.
Hematite I ················· ------

Hematite II
Goethite ·················
Chert
Hausmannite
Tephroite
a-vredenburgite
Pyrolusite · ·· · · ·· · ·· · · ·· · ·· · ·· · ·· · ·· · ·· · ·· · · ·
Cryptomelane · ·· · · · ·· · ·· · ·· · · ·· ·· · · ·· · ·· ·· · · ·· · ·
Manjiroite ···································
Franklinite
Braunite
Birnessite
Coronadite
Andradite
Spessartin
Calcite ------··················
Braunite, a-vredenburgite, and hausmannite probably are formed because of

post-depositional reactions, as a result of lower-medium contact metamorphism
affecting the host sequence of the mantos. The metamorphism was produced by
intrusion of Lower Cretaceous tonalitic rocks of the magmatic-arc in the volcano-
sedimentary cover.
The occurrence of pyrolusite, cryptomelane, manjiroite, and birnessite replac-
ing trivalent or divalent manganese-oxides, is related to supergene alteration pro-
cesses (Thble 5).
7 Conclusions
A genetic model considering exhalative and diagenetic processes is postulated for

the formation of the La Negra-Coquimbana district. The model can be summa-
rized as follows:
1. Discharge of hydrothermal solutions through the sea floor may provide silica
and amorphous Mn and Fe hydroxide phases, which precipitate as hydrated
colloids to form Mn-Fe-rich sediments.
2. Fractionation at several geologic environments of iron and manganese due to
the lower solubility of iron compounds led to Fe-rich and Mn-rich bodies.
3. Metamorphism related to Lower Cretaceous intrusions caused recrystallization
and formation of braunite-hausmannite-a-vredenburgite-tephroite-franklinite-
spessartin assemblages.
4. Supergene alteration processes after the decreasing temperature of the system
provided conditions for partial replacement of hausmannite and braunite by
pyrolusite, manjiroite, cryptomelane, and birnessite.
The metal-bearing hydrothermal solutions were probably related to contempo-

raneous volcanic activity, perhaps producing mobilization of metals from tuffs
and andesitic lava flows by circulation of sub-sea floor hydrothermal convection
systems close to the exhalative centers, in a way similar to that proposed among
others by Bonatti et al. (1976) and Rona (1978) in modern deposits from oceanic
spreading zones.
Acknowledgments. This work was completed while the first author held an academic exchange schol-
arship from the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) at the Mineralogical-Petrological
Institute, University of Heidelberg. We are also grateful to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
(DFG) which support this project, in collaboration with the Universidad de Concepcion in Chile. The
manuscript has benefited from critical reading by G. Frenzel (Heidelberg); R.A. Zimmerman correct-
ed the English text.
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Massive Sulfides in Colombia
F. ORTIZ B. 1
1 Introduction
Geologic conditions for the existence of stratabound massive sulfides in Colom-
bia are very favorable. The varied lithologic environments permit, for example:
Cu-Pb-Zn sulfide deposits in some Paleozoic marine volcanic rocks of felsic com-
position of the central and eastern Cordilleras; or Pb-Zn deposits associated with
Cretaceous marine sediments of the eastern Cordillera. However, given the low
level of mineral explorations and the lack of a mining tradition it is not rare to
find a great contrast in the degree of mining activity between the highly mineraliz-
ed Central Andes and the Colombian Andes. Furthermore, metallogenetic studies
in the Colombian Andes are few in number and in general do not mention massive
sulfide type deposits as an important genetic class.
Papers with general ideas on Colombian metallogenesis are those of Radelli
(1962), Goossens (1976), Sillitoe et al. (1982), Oyarzun (1985), and metallogenic
maps at 1:5000000 scale presented by Barrero (1976) and Oyarzun (1980). Other
papers give general descriptions, or emphasize locations of individual occur-
rences, such as those by Hall et al. (1970); Angulo (1978); Mutis (1983).
Carrol et al. (1984) summarized the existing information on ore deposits of
Colombia on two mineral resource maps, at a scale of 1:2000000, and gave
general descriptions of the domains in which the geologic environment is per-
missive for specific mineral deposit types. They indicated western Colombia as an
important domain favorable for Cyprus-type deposits. At present, known strata-
bound massive sulfide prospects associated with the Mesozoic ophiolitic environ-
ment in western Colombia are few, but they are significant; this chapter presents
a synthesis of the author's personal studies and information not yet published on
these bodies as proof of their existence in this part of the Andes. Emphasis is
placed on the El Roble deposit, the best known deposit until now.
2 The Geology of the Colombian Andes

The Colombian Andes comprise three main ranges (eastern Cordillera, central
Cordillera, western Cordillera), a small coastal range (La Serrania de Baudo) and
an isolated mountain block (Ia Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta). These great
1 Departamento de Ciencias de Ia Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias. Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

Apartado Aereo 3840, Medellin, Colombia

380 F. Ortiz B.
78° 78° 74° 72" 70" •••

, .. ••
oo•
VENEZUELA
.
.. 0 IOOKILOMETERS
Fig. 1. Morphologic provinces of Colombia
geographic features, together with the intermontane depressions separating them,

form the major geomorphologic provinces of Colombia (Fig. 1). A very general
summary of western Colombian geology follows, but syntheses and more detailed
information about specific zones of Colombia can be found in Nelson (1957);
Botero (1963); Barrero et al. (1969); Irving (1971); Hallet al. (1972); Feininger et
al. (1972); Barrero (1977); Restrepo et al. (1979); Alvarez (1983), and also on the
geologic map of Colombia by Arango et al. (1976).
2.1 Central Cordillera
The central Cordillera, which may extend as far as the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, is mainly composed of low grade Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, mica
Massive Sulfides in Colombia 381
schists, gneisses, amphibolites, and locally granulites of assumed Precambrian

age. They form the nucleus of the central Cordillera. Carbonate and red beds of
the Triassic-Jurassic interval outcrop in some places along the eastern edge of the
Cordillera. Magmatic activity also occurred during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
eras. Also during this period a shallow marine transgression occurred over the
major part of the range, leaving thick sequences of sediments and mafic volcanic
rocks. In the northern part remnants of sedimentary marine rocks (San Pablo
Formation) were deposited over tholeiitic basalts associated with the Yarumal
ophiolite sequence (Estrada 1967).
2.2 Western Cordillera and Serrania de Baudo
Geographically the western Cordillera runs parallel to the Pacific coast. It rises
abruptly from a wide coastal plane which is filled with Quaternary-Tertiary
marine and continental sediments. North of latitude 5 °N approximately until the
Panamanian border the Serrania de Baudo forms an additional barrier to the west
and is separated from the western Cordillera by the Atrato-San Juan valley. Com-
paratively little is known about this coastal range. Case et al. (1971) described
altered pillow basalt and flow basalts as the most abundant rocks in seacliff ex-
posures. Gabbro, diabase, and serpentinized gabbro are common. All these
tholeiitic rocks are considered to be of late Cretaceous age. Siliceous tuffaceous
sediments and basalts apparently enclosing middle Eocene white limestone, as
well as shales, are mentioned by Gansser (1973). These features suggested that
tholeiitic volcanism developed in the Serrania de Baudo, which correlates accord-
ing to Goossens et al. (1977) with the basic igneous complex of the western coast
of Costa Rica, Panama, and Ecuador.
It is believed that the Western Cordillera is constructed of an enormous se-
quence of marine volcanic rocks and related sills of tholeiitic basaltic composi-
tion, probably overlain by deep sea sediments, which probably began no later
than the Jurassic and continued until the Paleocene. In the northern part of this
Cordillera, as of latitude 4°80'N, the volcanic and sedimentary sequence denom-
inating the Caflasgordas Group (Restrepo et al. 1979) is divided into two units:
a) the Barroso Formation, mainly containing early Cretaceous basic volcanic
rocks;
b) the Penderisco Formation, a thick unit of late Cretaceous marine sedimen-
tary rocks, which blankets the mafic flows of the volcanic unit.
According to major element abundances of the volcanic rocks, Ortiz (1979)
suggested that at least two mafic sequences of volcanic origin are present in this
Cordillera. These volcanic rocks originated from oceanic tholeiitic magmas and
they represent a segment of an oceanic crust. Perhaps the volcanic rocks that crop
out on the western side of the Cordillera are remnants of an island arc volcanism
that occurred in the early Tertiary. Tonalitic-dioritic plutons cut the rocks de-
scribed above. Radiometric dating of these bodies yields ages of 36 to 11 m.y., in
contrast to the Mesozoic granitic bodies of the central Cordillera.
382 F. Ortiz B.
3 The Massive Sulfide Occurrences in Western Colombia

Having briefly outlined the geology of western Colombia, the main known occur-
rences will be mentioned, their most important features, and their geologic envi-
ronment. Today, only a few massive sulfide bodies are known in Colombia, and
all of them are associated with the Mesozoic oceanic crust terrains of western Co-
lombia. In order of economic importance they are, El Roble Mine, the only one
which is being actively worked; Micogrande and El Dovio prospects in the western
Cordillera; and the El Azufral prospect in the central Cordillera (Fig. 2), which
are mineralizations without any detailed studies.
3.1 The El Roble Mine
The El Roble orebody is a small high-grade copper-gold deposit associated with

ophiolitic rocks outcropping near the crest of the western Cordillera. The first
operation there was the Santa Anita Mine, starting in 1968. Later in 1972, the El
Roble body was found in an area northwest of Santa Anita. At present, the El
Roble deposit supports a small underground mining and milling operation pro-
ducing a high-grade copper-gold concentrate exported to Japan. From 1981 to
1983, Kennecott Minerals Co. conducted an exploration program consisting of
geologic, geochemical, and geophysical surveys with 1000 m of exploration cross-
cut and drifts and approximately 2100 m of diamond drilling. The ore reserves
delineated were 1100000 t of proven and probable ore containing 4.90Jo copper
and 3.7 g of gold pert. At the end of this exploration program, Kennecott decided
not to conduct further exploration in the area, and in 1987, a Japanese-Colom-
bian group (ERESA S. A.) began a project with the aim of a 300 t/day production.
The El Roble deposit, as well as the Santa Anita body, is found within rock
units of the Caiiasgordas Group. The El Roble body is hosted by carbonaceous
chert beds which occur at the contact between tholeiitic basalts and a thick se-
quence of younger clastic sediments (Fig. 3). The oldest units are volcanic and
sedimentary rocks of middle to upper Cretaceous age. A small diorite stock of
probably Miocene age intrudes the Cafiasgordas Group immediately south of the
El Roble Mine and dikes associated with this stock cross-cut the orebody.
The tholeiitic rocks of this deposit are tectonized and exhibit almost complete
alteration of primary mafics to amphiboles and a later alteration of mafic and
felsic components to chlorite and calcite. There is a typical stringer zone in the
Santa Anita body showing abundant quartz and chlorite and some calcite. The
cherts overlying the volcanic rocks are distinctly bedded; they consist of a black
carbonaceous horizon, up to 90 m thick, enclosing the massive sulfide body, and
a white to dark gray chert, sometimes interbedded with black chert and locally
dolomites. All of them are strongly folded, evidenced by tight isoclinal metric
folds. The clastic unit overlying the cherts consists of shales, graywackes, sand-
stones, and conglomerates.
TheEl Roble orebody is a steeply dipping lens-shaped body 200m long, 100m
deep and up to 45 m thick. It is sandwiched conformably within the black chert
unit. The orebody consists mainly of massive sulfide ore and of low-grade
...
0 IOOKILO .. lTt:ltl
....------1 /
,.; !
) '
I
i
I
i
/ vENEZUELA
{'l.
\
\.
'\
,:,
(
i ...... ,
·,·-·- ·-·- I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0 0 I
u I
u:: I
I
0 I
cr
0.. I
I
I
oBoootO I
0
z
•• cr
w
u
0
Moulvt tulfld• pro1 pac.ll
Fig. 2. Massive sulfide bodies associated with Mesozoic ophiolites of Colombia
siliceous breccia ore. The siliceous breccia ore occurs roughly parallel to the dip
of the enclosing rocks. At one location only, near the center of the body, a half-
meter-wide band of a very fine alternating lamination of sulfides and chert was
found. This is an important genetic sedimentary feature.
Mineralogic studies made at the Phillips Universitat of Marburg (West Ger-
many) permitted the precise definition of the paragenesis of the orebody. It con-
sists mostly of pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, along with subordinate sphalerite,
electrum, marcasite, and graphite in a gangue which varies locally from quartz to
dolomite. Detailed observations of hand specimens and polished sections indicate
the sulfide minerals brecciated on all scales.
Pyrite occurs very fine- to coarser-grained. It can be subdivided into euhedral
larger pyrite crystals up to 1.5 em across, spherical and subspherical pyrite grains,
384 F. Ortiz B.
EXPLANATION
( I ] Fel• lc:d!M t (Td)
IOmL
0 10m
0 Sondltoneandah9(Kt t)
[;Z2l White on4Qro,CIIof!O<on:)
IEmJ ~:;c~:':~c)
D =~.'e~:!:':r:sm~,
§ VoiC(Infe ro~:k(Kv)
,.- F... l
·:::: 'Kms:::: ·.:

:·:~:~~~~~::.:}~
. .. ' ' . . .. . ' .. . '
Fig. 3. Geologic cross-section of the El Roble deposit
and framboidal pyrite. In some cases it can be observed in fascinating zonal ar-
rangements with sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Chalcopyrite is a high temperature
mineral, showing typical "oleander-leaf" twin lamellae.
The mineralogic composition, the textural relationships observed, and par-
ticularly the high temperature chalcopyrite found, define a high temperature
origin for the El Roble deposit. Furthermore, the presence of graphite clearly in-
dicates that an important thermal event affected the orebody.
The El Roble deposit seems to be formed in a starved euxinic marine basin,
in which sulfides and mineralizing solutions of hydrothermal origin associated
with submarine volcanism were expelled. The deposit can be considered of
volcanogenic-exhalative origin showing geologic, mineralogic and chemical
similarities with those of other ophiolitic ("Cyprus type") Cu-Au deposits.
3.2 Micogrande Prospect
Ths occurrence is located NW of Medellin (Fig. 2) in a region characterized by

dense tropical rainforest. Ground access to this prospect is via the Medellin-
Nutibara road (200 km) and the last part (approximately 60 km) on horseback
and foot. The difficult access, climatic conditions, and vegetative cover have
=
rD Vllin1 of Su~ • and
Ouom lo~leonk Brocdo
Fig. 4. Sketch showing massive sulfide bands in an outcrop of Micogrande prospect
restricted exploration in the area. The Micogrande prospect is a copper occur-

rence found within rock units which form the westernmost flank of the western
Cordillera. The host rocks are volcaniclastic units which may be equivalent to the
upper part of the Barroso Formation. They include basalts, volcanic breccia,
tuffs, and some volcaniclastic sediments.
These mineralizations are in close relationship to the volcanic rocks. Sulfides
occur within layers of volcanic breccia outcropping for approximately 500 m in
a small creek. Several massive bands up to 1.5 m thick occur in an outcrop 10m
high and 20m long (Fig. 4). Between these layers, sulfides fill veins in a stockwork
or stringer zone. Chalcopyrite is the most abundant mineral, together with minor
amounts of pyrite; sphalerite is rare. Secondary minerals are covellite, malachite,
and iron oxides. Quartz is abundant in veins.
3.3 The El Dovio Prospect
Like the other orebodies already mentioned, the El Dovio prospect is located in
the central part of the western Cordillera west of Bogota (Fig. 2) in a region
covered by heavy vegetation and dominated by a strong tropical climate which has
inhibited geologic exploration. At present, only preliminary exploration on creeks
and some trenching have been done in the area.
Mineralizations occur within basic volcanic and sedimentary rocks, which are
highly tectonized . They seem to be correlated with units of the Caftasgordas
Group and could be of Cretaceous age. Several massive sulfide bodies occur
within a fault zone of approximately 500 m of extension in which altered and tec-
tonized pillow lavas are in contact with black cherts. Individual bodies are lens-
386 F. Ortiz B.
shaped with variable thickness from 0.5 m to 10m. They show brecciated ore and
stockwork zones which roughly parallel the dip of the enclosing rocks. The
mineralogy of these bodies is very simple: pyrite and chalcopyrite occur, along
with subordinate sphalerite in a gangue of quartz and carbonate. No other
sulfides or gangue minerals have been identified.
3.4 Other Occurrences
Similar ore mineral occurrences are recognized in two other localities in western
Colombia which seem to belong to the types of deposits mentioned above, but
they have not yet been explored. One is located north of Medellin, named the El
Azufral prospect (Fig. 2), associated with ophiolite remnants in the central Cor-
dillera; the other is located between the El Roble deposit and the El Dovio pro-
spect (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusions
Relative to the total extension of the Colombian Andes, the abundance of mineral
deposits economically mined today seems to be remarkably low compared with
other known ore deposit provinces of the Andes.
One should not overlook the great potential of the Colombian Andes, since the
scarcity of economic deposits is not due to an absence of mineralization, but rather
to very low exploration activity (particularly of western Colombia) of a densely
forested tropical zone. Prospection activities must be oriented to take a syngenetic
origin of the massive sulfide bodies into consideration, so that new mineralizations
similar to those mentioned in the western Cordillera can be found.
Acknowledgements. The author wishes to express sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. W. Thfar (Phillips
Universitiit, Marburg) for advice on mineralogic studies of the El Roble mine and the DAAD (German
Academic Exchange Service) for financial support during a study visit to the Phillips Universitiit. The
critical review of the English manuscript by Michael James (INGEOMINAS) is kindly appreciated.
References
Alvarez J (1983) Geologia de Ia Cordillera Central y el Occidente Colombiano y petroquirnica de los
intrusivos Meso-Cen6zoicos. Bol Geolo Ing 2(2):1-75
Angulo R (1978) Recursos rninerales de Colombia. Pub! Geol Esp lng 1:1-544
Arango J, Kassem T, Duque H (1976) Mapa geol6gico de Colombia 1: 1500000. Bogota Inst Nac In-
vest Geol-Min
Barrero D (1976) Mapa metalogenico de Colombia 1:5000000. Bogota Inst Nac Invest Geol-Min
Barrero D (1977) Geology of the Central Western Cordillera west of Buga and Roldanillo. PhD Thesis
Colorado School of mines
Barrero D, Alvarez J, Kassem T (1969) Actividad ignea y tect6nica en Ia Cordillera Central durante
el Meso-Cen6zoico. Bol Geol17:145-173
Botero G (1963) Contribuci6n a! conocirniento de Ia geologia de Ia zona central de Antioquia. Anales
Fac Min 57:1-101
Burgi H (1967) The orogenisis in the Andean System of Colombia. Tectonophysics 4/4-6:429-444
Carrol A, Dennis P et al. (1984) Mineral resource assessment of Colombia (unpublished)

Case J, Duran L, Lopez A, Moore W (1971) Thctonic investigations in western Colombia and eastern
Panama. Geol Soc Am Bull 82(10):2685-2712
Estrada A (1967) Asociaci6n magmatica basica del Nechi. Thsis, Fac Minas Medellin
Feininger T, Barrero D, Castro N (1972) Geologia de Antioquia y Caldas (subzona II-B). Bol Geol
lng 20(2): 173
Gansser A (1973) Facts and theories on the Andes. Geol Soc Lond 129:93-131
Goossens P (1976) Lithologic geochemical and metallogenic belts in the northern Andes, and their
structural relationships. Soc Min Eng AIME Tr 260:60-67
Goossens P, Rose W, Flores D (1977) Geochemistry of tholeiitics of the basic igneous complex of
northwestern South America. Geol Soc Am Bull 88:1711-1720
Hall R, Feininger T, Barrero D, Rico H, Alvarez A (1970) Recursos Minerales de parte de los depar-
tamentos de Antioquia y Caldas. Bol Geol lng 18(3):1-99
Hall R, Alvarez J, Rico H (1972) Geologia de los departamentos de Antioquia y Caldas(subzona II-
A). Bol Geol lng 20(1):1-85
Irving E (1971) La evoluci6n estructural de los Andes mas septentrionales de Colombia. Bol Geol lng
19(2):1-89
Mutis J (1983) Catalogo de los yacimientos, prospectos y manifestaciones minerales de Colombia.
Pub! Geol Esp lng 13:1-462
Nelson W (1957) Contribution to the geology of the .Central and Western Cordillera of Colombia in
the sector between Ibague and Cali. Leidse Geol Meded, Leiden 22:1-75
Ortiz F (1979) Petroquimica del volcanismo basico de Ia Cordillera Occidental. Bol Ciencias Tierra
4:29-44
Oyarzlin J (1980) Carte des gisements rnineraux des pays Andins. Echelle 1:5000000
Oyarzlin J (1985) La Metallogenie Andine: cadre geologique, petrologique et geochimique et essais
d'interpretation. These, Univ Paris-Sud, 864 p
Radelli L (1962) Epocas magmaticas y metalogeneticas en los Andes colombianos, un cuadro
preliminar. Bol Geol 9( 1 - 3):5- 22
Restrepo J, Toussaint J, Zuluaga J, Hoyos P (1979) Algunas consideraciones sobre Ia geologia de Ia
Cordillera Occidental. Univ Nal Pub! Esp Geol 20:26
Sillitoe R, Jaramillo L, Damon P, Shafiqullah M, Escobar R (1982) Setting, characteristics, and age
of the Andean Porphyric copper belt in Colombia. Econ Geol 77:1837-1850
The Cu-Zn-Au-Ag Deposit of La Plata (Toachi), Ecuador
R.W. Lehne 1
The La Plata deposit is situated at 78°56'W longitude and 00°23'S latitude on

the Pacific slope of the western Cordillera. It lies at an altitude of some 1450 m
in rugged mountainous terrain, that belongs to the Ecuadorian province of
Pichincha. Most of the area is covered by dense vegetation characteristic of the
tropical rainforest.
Access to La Plata is comparatively good. The highway from Quito via Santo
Domingo de los Colorados to Esmeraldas leads to the junction of the rivers
Toachi and Pilat6n, where a small and winding gravel road of some 15 km in
length branches off to the ore deposit. The total distance from Quito to La Plata
is about 120 km.
The La Plata deposit lies within the Cretaceous Macuchi Formation (Bristow
and Hoffstetter 1977), a sequence of pyroclastic rocks and lavas that can be sub-
divided in the mine area into an upper (Grupo Superior) and a lower unit (Grupo
Inferior) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). The two units are distinguished by their lithologies,
color, and competence. The lower unit, which hosts the orebodies, consists of
strongly altered rather incompetent rocks that most probably are derived from
rhyolithic to rhyodacitic lavas and tuffs. In the footwall of the ore these rocks are
often strongly pyritized and close to the ore a substantial sodium depletion is in-
dicated. The study of thin sections reveals an extremely fine-grained sericitized
matrix in which quartz fragments are embedded (Figs. 4, 5).
The competent upper unit follows after a sharp conformable contact to the
lower one. It is characterized by andesitic lavas that in some parts suffered a
strong propylitization and albitization. The albitization caused the formation of
albitites, i.e., porphyritic igneous rocks with phenocrysts of albite in a matrix
chiefly consisting of albite (Figs. 6, 7). Electron microprobe data of the
phenocrysts as well as of the groundmass crystallites are given in Table 1. In the
vicinity of the ores the rocks are often silicified and stained by ferruginous chert.
The rocks of the lower and the upper unit as well as the orebodies have been
cross-cut by felsic dikes. The whole rock series was folded to an anticlinal struc-
ture that plunges to the south. Later tectonic events caused local faulting that also
affected some of the orebodies by producing horizontal and vertical displace-
ments of up to several meters.
The lens-shaped orebodies always occur within the lower unit close to the con-
tact with the upper one (Figs. 2, 3). The orebodies consist of massive sulfides.
Their thickness varies from several decimeters to a few meters and their lateral ex-
1 Metal!gesellschaft AG, Reuterweg 14, D-6000 Frankfurt, FRG

390 R.W. Lehne
5 100
5100
t-.
5300
,. •:
fA· '
LeGEND
: l
',I
D' UPPER UNir
5 <00
l
.-··; ··.
.., .
I
L
'
,'
:
.,
\1
D' LOWER UNtr
' : . ~
ORE BODY
·)'
/ FAUU
I '
.·. ·,.,/" :-1

5500
·---
' , .. ~ w
100m
.
'.·,:i·
Fig. 1. Geologic sketch map of
I
the La Plata deposit, 1445 m
level
.. ~. y
,·.
;c : v
~~~ 5 m
w v :
E
.'
Fig. 2. Geologic cross-section
S505
The Cu-Zn-Au-Ag Deposit of La Plata (Toachi), Ecuador 391
• • y
l '·.
lt45 m
o__;_c
w l
• y
'. E
<:>
<:> g
":;r: "'s Fig. 3. Geologic cross-section S 305
Table 1. Electron microprobe analyses (in WtOJo) of plagioclases 1
Pheno XX Matrix XX
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Si0 2 68.79 68.28 69.04 69.52 68.89 Si0 2 69.32 68.93 68.13 67.49 67.08
Ti0 2 0.00 0.11 0.03 O.o2 0.02 Ti0 2 0.00 0.00 O.o7 0.00 0.00
Al 20 3 19.36 19.50 18.71 18.49 18.79 Al 20 3 18.41 18.66 19.42 19.45 20.19
FeO 0.14 0.15 0.01 0.10 0.01 FeO 0.00 0.88 0.34 0.21 0.41
MnO 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 MnO 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.04
MgO 0.00 O.o7 0.00 0.04 0.00 MgO O.o7 0.74 0.00 0.12 0.09
CaO 0.11 0.41 0.24 0.21 0.64 CaO 0.37 0.51 0.42 0.47 0.70
Na 20 11.76 11.10 11.80 11.62 11.55 Na20 11.62 11.10 11.76 11.34 11.02
Kp O.o3 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.00 Kp 0.02 0.12 0.19 0.00 0.00
P20s 0.17 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 PPs 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.13 0.11
Total 100.38 99.86 99.98 100.16 99.90 Total 99.81 100.99 100.61 99.22 99.64
AB 99.3 97.0 98.1 98.1 97.0 AB 98.2 96.2 97.1 97.8 96.6
AN 0.5 2.0 1.1 1.0 3.0 AN 1.7 2.5 1.9 2.2 3.4
OR 0.2 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.0 OR 0.1 0.7 1.0 0.0 0.0
1 Analyses: S. Th. Schmidt, University of Heidelberg
tension can reach 100m. From the bottom to the top, some of the sulfide bodies
display a rudimentary metal zoning: copper-rich footwall ore grades into zinc-rich
hanging wall ore.
A comprehensive mineral inventory of the La Plata ores was given by Bamba
(1964). Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and pyrite are the main constituents of the ores,
accompanied by subordinate bornite and tennantite. Galena appears only in ac-
cessory amounts. Native gold as a trace mineral is often locked to the sulfides.
Quartz and barite are the typical gangue minerals, of which the latter also forms
smaller lenses and nodules in some parts of the hanging wall of the ore. The ores
are generally fine-grained and often show layered textures (Figs. 8, 9).
Farrell (1978) compared the ore textures of La Plata with those of the Ram-
melsberg deposit in Western Germany to which they bear great visual resemblance
although their geologic setting is different. He also emphasizes La Plata's marked
analogies to Kuroko-type deposits and suggests a similar genesis. His theory is
392 R. W. Lehne
4 5
6 7
Fig. 4. Grupo Inferior. Strongly sericitized and partly silicified rhyolithic tuff; opaque mineral is
pyrite. (II N)
Fig. 5. See Fig. 4. (x N)
Fig. 6. Grupo Superior. Albitized andesite with phenocrysts as well as matrix crystallites of albite;
opaque mineral is pyrite. (II N)
Fig. 7. See Fig. 6. (x N)
Fig. 8. Cu-Zn-ore. Chalcopyrite forms layered textures within sphalerite matrix
Fig. 9. Zn-ore. Concentration of pyrite crystallites in the form of layers within sphalerite ore
The Cu-Zn-Au-Ag Deposit of La Plata (Toachi), Ecuador 393
taken over by Vidal (1987), who mentions La Plata as the northernmost of a series
of Andean Kuroko deposits.
References
Bamba T (1964) Los yacimientos en Ia mina La Plata. Dir Gen Geol Minas, Quito (unpublished)
Bristow CR, Hofstetter R (1977) Lexique Stratigraphique International, vol V. Cent Nat! Rech Sci,
Paris
Farrell CW (1978) Report on the examination of the La Plata Mine, Ecuador (unpublished)
Vidal CE (1987) Kuroko-type deposits in the Middle-Cretaceous marginal basin of Central Peru. Econ
Geol 82:6
The Copara Metallotect in Central Peru:
Geologic Evolution and Ore Formation
M. CARDOZ0 1
1 Introduction
A very extensive time-, facies- and stratabound ore formation took place in the
central Andean marginal basin during the Lower Cretaceous, the base metal de-
posits of the Santa, Copara and Casma metallotects being the most important
and better-known occurrences.
Detailed descriptions of the Copara ores (mainly the locus typicus Raul-Con-
destable deposit) were provided by Cardozo (1983) and Cardozo and Wauschkuhn
(1984). Stratabound ore deposits in the Casma Formation are dealt with in Vidal
(1987) and Steinmiiller and Wauschkuhn (this Vol.) The present chapter em-
phasizes the connection between the metallogenic evolution and the geolog-
ic-paleogeographical development of the whole basin, but attention has been fo-
cussed on the regional setting during the Copara sedimentation.
2 Geologic Evolution of the Area

2.1 Regional Considerations
Together with subduction processes of the Pacific slab beneath the South Ameri-
can plate, the Mesozoic regional evolution of the Central Andes was characterized
by extensional periods controlled by spreading-subsidence mechanisms taking
place within the margin of the continental plate. This geotectonic evolution led
to thinning, but not opening, of the continental crust and the formation of an
ensialic "aborted" marginal basin, as suggested by Levi and Aguirre (1981) and
Atherton et al. (1983, 1985) for Chile and Peru respectively.
This interpretation is supported in Central Peru by the modeling of gravity
anomalies beneath the volcanic troughs, which reveals an arc-like structure of
high density and low velocity material beneath the western side of central Peru
(Bussell and Wilson 1985), by the burial metamorphism related to high geother-
mal gradients (Aguirre et al. 1978), and by the geochemical characterization of
the volcanic rocks north of Lima (Atherton et al. 1983, 1985).
1 Universidad Nacional de lngenieria, Geologia, and Newmont Peru Limited, Av. Jose Galvez
Barrenechea 218, Urb. Corpac, Lima, Peru

396 M. Cardozo
SALTO OEL FRAILE FM (HIMU FM
• PtOJtdtd pa.leo<atoQraj:lhlca1 posJtion of the ora

oec:urtil'IQ tn the I\Otfhem Santo bosin..
MARCAVILCA FM. CARHUAl- FARRAT FMS.
COPARA FM. FARRAT FM.
PARIAHUANCA - CHULEC FM .
FM CHULEC-PARIATAM80 FM.
The Copara Metallotect in Central Peru: Geologic Evolution and Ore Formation 397
ANDEAN DEFORMATI ON
MOCHICA PHASE
JUMASHA FM
IZllJ emerqe<lzones
• yolcante centers
Q YOICOrNt and YOicanOCIOS.fiC" fotmahOM
D mannr and hfOI'Ot SC'ncts.
~ mor1nr do) dft)OSits
~ ptofform COfbonOIH
1:!:!1 Po rap rcuty bas•c plutons o4 I he Coastal Batholith
- '''orabaund ore det)OSifl.
Y ort 'tlt•ns
Fig. 1. Schematic paleogeographical maps and SW-NE profiles for the Lower Cretaceous in the Rio
Caiiete basin. (Based on Hillebrandt 1970; Rivera eta!. 1975; Megard 1978; Cobbing 1978; Cardozo
1983; Ostermann eta!. 1983a).
1 Emerged zones; 2 volcanic centers; 3 volcanic and volcanoclastic formations; 4 marine and litoral
sands; 5 marine clay deposits; 6 platform carbonates; 7 Patap-early basic plutons of the Coastal
Batholith; 8 stratabound ore deposits; 9 ore veins
Within the Lower Cretaceous deposits of this marginal basin, a well-defined

facies change is recognized. A western volcanic sequence grades eastwards to the
foreland into terrigenous and platform carbonate sediments. Both domains ap-
pear to be partially separated by a subpositive zone along the whole length of the
central Andean basin: the "miogeoanticline" of Cobbing (1976).
According to Cobbing (1978), the volcanosedimentary sequence was deposited
into five individual but interconnected basins, two of them corresponding to the
volcanic ("eugeosyncline") domain, the Huarmey basin between Lima and Tru-
jillo, and the Rio Caftete basin south of Lima. This chapter is concerned only
with the volcano-sedimentary sequences of the Rio Caftete basin, which in con-
trast to the northern Huarmey basin also includes volcanic and sedimentary rocks
of pre-Albian age.
In order to illustrate the Lower Cretaceous evolution in the Rio Caftete basin,
a series of schematic paleogeographic maps and profiles are presented in Fig. 1.
The Lower Cretaceous sedimentation in the "eugeosynclinal" zone between Lima
and lea begins with the deposition of a thick sequence of volcanics and
fossiliferous sediments (Puente Piedra Formation) during the Berriasian (Rivera
1951). As shown in Table 1, south of Lima local names have been used to desig-
nate this rock sequence. The basalts and basaltic andesites of this formation show
within-plate and island-arc geochemical signatures and could have been deposited
during an initial stage of back-arc spreading (Atherton et al. 1985).
The connection of this basin to the paleo-Pacific ocean was interrupted at the
end of the Berriasian. This interruption is demonstrated by the sedimentation of
mainly clastic rocks of the Morro Solar Group, which comprises the formations
Table 1. Overview of the Cretaceous sequences in the Western Peruvian Basin of north and central Peru. (After Ostermann et al. 1983a)
Chav{n Huarmey 1Rio Santa Central Mala lea

Bas i n Basin Basin Peru Lima Lima - Callete Cos ta Sierra
N s N s w E
MYERS . t974 RIVERA et al .• 1975 BOSC. t963
I This work INGEMMET. 1980
AlBIAN
APTIAN
? '
0 clas ti cs ~ carbona t es ~ volcan i cs

Saito del Fraile, La Herradura, Morro Solar, and Marcavilca, and contains only
indigenous fossils without correlation possibilities on the regional scale (Rivera
et al. 1975). The deposition took place in deltaic environments within an isolated
intra-plate basin without connection to the ocean. Plant remains on the western-
most outcrops indicate the existence of emerged land to the west.
The clastic sequence as a whole in the lea region is represented by the Yauca
Formation (lngemmet 1980) which shows at the top red-colored shales and sand-
stones intercalated with white quartzites. They could be correlated with the Mar-
cavilca Formation at the top of the Morro Solar Group.
It must be emphasized that the formation of this isolated furrow along the Rio
Caftete basin and the simultaneous cessation of the volcanic activity have to be
connected with a regional geotectonic event which causes at the same time the ris-
ing of a landmass to the west and perhaps the emersion of the Huarmey basin
to the north.
This emerged landmass to the west could be the northern extension of the Are-
quipa Massif (2000 to 600 m.y. old after Cobbing et al. 1977; Dalmayrac et al. 1977;
Shackleton et al. 1979). Crystalline metamorphic rock cores have been registered
from offshore at Salaverry (550 km north of Lima). Kulm et al. (1981) also report
recovering similar crystalline rocks from the offshore island of Hormigas, west of
Lima. A continuous connection of the Arequipa Massif via a structure named the
"outer shelf high" to crystalline rocks in the Bayovar region of the Amotape Hills
of northern Peru has been proposed (Thornburg and Kulm 1981; Cobbing 1985).
This epeirogenetic uplifting could be a short interruption of the extensional
tectonics and was perhaps related to a doming process preceding the formation
of a new marginal basin, as already proposed by Aberg et al. (1984) for the end
of the Jurassic in Chile.
It has not yet been investigated how this doming event has affected the contact
between the Berriasian Puente Piedra Formation with the overlying clastic se-
quence. However, the fact that the doming was immediately followed by new exten-
sional processes is possibly reflected in the Valanginian transgression leading to the
deposition of the near-shore La Herradura Formation on the west and the car-
bonatic Santa Formation to the east (Benavides 1956; Wilson 1963; Hillebrandt
1970). This Valanginian marine transgression has also recently been recognized by
Moulin (1986) in the easternmost area of the "miogeosynclinal" domain by means
of sequential analysis of the Goyllarisquizga Group east of La Oroya. The coeval
volcanic activity reported, for example, in the Huanzala area (Carrascal et al. 1983;
Carrascal and Saez, this Vol.) could also be related to an intensification of the ex-
tensional tectonics. Ore deposition accompanied regionally this event.
The clastic sedimentation was transitionally followed by the deposition of a
carbonate sequence which was investigated in detail in the area between Lima and
Mala (Bose 1963; Vallejo 1975; Rivera et al. 1975; Rivera 1979). At the base of
the carbonate rocks, a 1000-m-thick sequence occurs. Thinly bedded shales alter-
nate with marls and limestones (Pamplona Formation). They are followed by a
200-m series of thick, dark limestones (Atocongo Formation). Rivera et al. (1975)
verify that the fossil assemblages contained in both formations show an indige-
nous character devoiding Tethyan key fossils in a manner similar to the Morro So-
lar Group, and therefore propose including the clastic and carbonatic sequences
400 M. Cardozo
in the Piso Lima as a period equivalent to the time interval from the Valanginian
to the Aptian.
To the south the carbonate sedimentation is strongly influenced by the simulta-
neous growth of a volcanic arc (Copara Formation). This volcano-sedimentary se-
quence represents the beginning of an intensification of the extensional tectonic
conducting to the (re)connection of the Rio Cafiete basin to the paleo-Pacific
ocean at the lower Albian, and also to the caldera subsidence at the volcanic cen-
ters, to which the deposition of the stratabound Cu and Zn(-Ba) ores of the
Copara metallotect are related. Finally, the extensional processes led to the
fissural extrusion of regionally extended basaltic volcanics, which are correlatable
with the Casma Group of the Huarmey basin. This volcanic event represents the
climax of the extensional tectonic activity coeval with the worldwide Albian trans-
gression. From late Albian time a series of compressional phases starts, to which
the intrusion of the early basic plutons (Patap-Superunit) of the Coastal
Batholith and the uplift and deformation of the marginal basin are related.
2.2 The Carbonate-Volcanic Sequence in the Area between Lima and Caiiete
- The Copara Formation
The equivalent volcano-sedimentary sequence above the clastic series in the lea
region, 200 km south of Lima, is known as the Copara Formation. It is made up
of coarse clastic sediments and tuffs in the lower part, followed by bituminous
limestones with chert nodules and echinoids, shales, and quartzites; brecciated la-
va and pyroclastic intercalations increase notably toward the upper part of the se-
quence (lngemmet 1980; Caldas 1978). The lower Albian fossils in the upper sedi-
mentary horizons of the Copara Formation indicate that this volcano-carbonatic
sequence reaches higher stratigraphic levels than the sediments of the Lima area.
The stratigraphic units recorded in the region between Lima and Cafiete
(Ostermann et al. 1983 a) reveal the presence of volcanic centers and the local de-
velopment of platform and biostrome facies. The profiles 1 (at Lima), 6, 7, and
8 (between Rio Omas and Cafiete) of Fig. 2 show sedimentary sequences with lo-
cal development of narrow bedded reefs. In the profiles 2, 3, 4, and 5, lava and
pyroclastic rocks are predominant above the clastic sequence. The influence of the
volcanic activity on the sedimentary facies is here also remarkable, since the rapid
growth of the central volcanoes provided the terrigenous material for the accumu-
lation of turbidite-like graywackes and sandstones.
Summarizing, the deposition of the Copara Formation took place in marine
neritic environment, being tectonically very unstable and showing frequent and
abrupt facies changes. Therefore, the formational subdivision postulated for the
Fig. 2. Correlation of the Marcavilca Formation, the carbonatic sequence (Pamplona, Atocongo, and
Copara Formations) and the Casma Formation in the region between Lima and Caiiete. (After Oster-
mann et al. 1983a). I Limestone; 2 oolitic limestone; 3 dolomite; 4 marls; S oolitic marl; 6 shale and
siltstone; 7 lumachelle; 8 sandstone; 9 tuff and agglomerate; 10 lava; 11 cross-bedding; 12 irregular
Echinoidea; 13 Lamellibranchiata; 14 Ammonoidea; 15 Gastropoda; 16 corals; 17 fishes; 18 Bryozoa;
19 tigillites; 20 Foraminifera; 21 plant remains
--l
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~ROmas ...
N Loma ()
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AI boon I lt uu l ol P L• • lll
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402 M. Cardozo
Lima area cannot be used on the regional scale. Consequently, the Pamplona and
Atocongo Formations could be correlated only in time with the lower, pre-Albian
part of the Copara Formation.
As shown in Fig. 2, a transitional volcanic cover occurs above the Copara For-
mation. It consists mainly of reddish violet lavas and subordinated pyroclastic
and sedimentary horizons. Only locally at Caiiete was a pillow lava sequence rec-
ognized. This volcanic succession was nonuniformly named the Chilca or
Quilmana Formation, but in order to draw attention to the regional extension of
the volcanic activity during the middle Albian, it has been proposed to give it the
same name as the coeval sequence in the Huarmey basin, i.e., the Casma Forma-
tion (Ostermann et al. 1983 a).
2.3 West-East Lithofacies Correlation of the Lower Cretaceous Sequences

in the Rio Caflete Basin
The Lower Cretaceous sequences of the region between Lima and Caiiete were
correlated with the sedimentary series of the "miogeosynclinal" zone, referring
to their similar lithofacies (Ostermann et al. 1983a). A chrono-paleontologic cor-
relation is not possible because of the lack of Tethyan fossils in the strata corre-
sponding to the Piso Lima Formations (Fig. 3).
On the whole, despite the lithologic differences, a parallelism in the evolution
of the western and eastern parts of the basin can be recognized. In both cases car-
bonate deposition prevails over clastic sediments. The deltaic orthoquartzites of
the Chimu and Saito del Fraile Formations are covered by transgressive sediments
of the Santa and La Herradura Formations respectively. Hillebrandt (1970) postu-
lates a subsequent regression of the Santa sea to the west, which could explain
the greater thickness of the La Herradura Formation.
The brackish-limnic fauna of the Carhuaz Formation and the tigillites of the
Morro Solar Member (Marcavilca Formation) indicate similar near-shore sedi-
mentation environments with temporary partial basin emersions. The upper limit
of the clastic series in both profiles is represented by the white, cross-bedded or-
thoquartzites of the Farrat and Marcavilca Formations.
The Farrat-Pariahuanca transition is interpreted by Hillebrandt (1970) as a
transgression coming from the west, which can explain the predominance of ma-
rine conditions earlier on the west than on the eastern domains. It can be deduced
that the facies boundaries cross time limits on their way to the east.
As also shown by Wilson (1963) in North Peru, the profiles of Hillebrandt
(1970) in a zone north of Yauyos also show no remarkable influence of volcanism
on the eastern sedimentary environments. It is concluded that the west-east,
"eugeosynclinal-miogeosynclinal" couple of Cobbing (1976) also reaches there-
gion south of Lima and does not disappear as postulated by Cobbing (1978). In
the upper part of the Mala river, an incomplete sedimentary succession is de-
scribed by Salazar (1968), which consists of carbonatic strata with lenses of gyp-
sum and coal, and which could be correlated with the Pamplona Formation
(Salazar 1968). A comparison of this sequence with the profiles of Ostermann et
al. (1983 a) on the west, and the stmtigraphic column of Hillebrandt ( 1970) on the
JUMASHA
CHULEC
PARIAHUANCA
CARHUAZ
MORRO SOLAR
toc •~s boundary \.;'\.1'\.1\.r

[OOm.
t:l c0 s R
I ~IVERA •I ol. '75 (D t ~rnf' limit - - -
E ~ v.
G
A
R
e•
el
I o
I Et
Ro
FERNANOEZ·CONCHA '58 0
0 NL M
A
AL
OSTERMA N ' 82 Q)u@ ~1 m2 ~3 ~4 ~5 ~6
'78 G '75
' 81 N CARDOZO '83
N
'29 ~7 [Z]a ~ 9 .10 ~,, ® 12
"'
~ 13 ® 14 $ 15 f! 16 I 17 "!!'-' I 19 q; 20 21
Fig. 3. West-east lithofacies correlation referred to the Lower Creataceous sequences in the Rio Caiiete
basin. (After Ostermann et al. 1983a). Legend see Fig. 2
east, lead to the conclusion that an elevation has to exist between the "eugeo-
synclinal" and "miogeosynclinal" domains, corresponding to the subpositive
"miogeanticline" of Cobbing (1976). Based on these facts, the existence of indepen-
dent, partly interconnected basins could also be postulated for the region south of
Lima instead a single basin (Rio Cafi.ete) as suggested by Cobbing (1978).
404 M. Cardozo
3 The Copa:ra Metallotect

The investigation of the Raul-Condestable deposit and the comparison with other
ore occurrences in the Rio Caii.ete basin make it possible to propose the Copara
metallotect, which can be well defined on the regional scale both geologically and
paleogeographically (Cardozo 1983; Cardozo and Wauschkuhn 1984).
Most of the ores of this metallotect belong to the stratabound type of the am-
phibole-pyrite-chalcopyrite paragenesis (Cardozo and Vidal 1981, 1983), but mi-
nor Zn(-Ba) occurrences are also observed. They are interpreted as volcanogenic
ores formed contemporaneously with volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the
Copara Formation. Volcanic-exhalative, submarine processes in late to post-
volcanic stages are considered to have played the major role during the formation
of the ores and most of the accompanying hydrothermal minerals.
The ore occurrences are limited to paleozones, where thick accumulations of
basaltic-andesitic volcanics and abrupt changes in the sedimentary facies point to
the existence of local, very active, subsiding volcanic centers during the Copara
sedimentation.
3.1 The Raul-Condestable Deposit, a Locus '!Ypicus

for the Copara Metallotect
The Raul and Condestable Mines are located in the vicinity of the town of Mala,
90 km south_of Lima, at a distance of about 4 km from the Pacific coast, at alti-
tudes between 120 and 300m (Fig. 4).
Both mines form a geologic-metallogenetic unit containing more than 1 mio
t of copper.
A detailed description of the geology and ore occurrences of the Raul-Con-
destable deposit is presented by Cardozo (1983) and Cardozo and Wauschkuhn
(1984). The Copara Formation consists here of from 600 to more than 1000 m of
volcanic rocks and volcanogenic and biogenic shallow marine sediments. The
volcanics are basaltic-andesites which occur as tuffs, pyroclastic breccias and ag-
glomerates, and in the Raul area also as lenticular lava flows. This series lies con-
cordantly between orthoquartzites of the Marcavilca Formation at the bottom
and lavas of the Casma Formation on the top. The paleogeographic evolution of
the area during the Copara sedimentation was characterized by the birth, growth,
and tectonic subsidence of a stratovolcano (Cardozo and Wauschkuhn 1984). In
the mining area, three intrusive types of intermediate to basic composition are rec-
ognized, all of them post-dating the stratabound ores.
The ore accumulations in Raul and Condestable are found both in volcanic
and sedimentary strata and occur concordantly as well as discordantly with the
host rocks, the last type being only locally important in the Raul Mine.
Stratiform concentrations of pyrite and chalcopyrite, and in some horizons
subordinate pyrrhotite, marcasite, and magnetite, occur mainly in amphibolitic
beds within the sedimentary units. In the volcanic rocks, lenticular bodies are pre-
dominant. The ore minerals mainly occur disseminated in the pyroclastic strata
together with tremolite, Fe-Mg chlorite, and prehnite, and in the lava flows as ir-
D Qua terna ry
sediments
Fig. 4. Geologic setting and

localization of the main ore
deposits of the Copara
Metallotect. (After
1:5000000 geologic map of
Bellido 1969)
regular aggregates associated with pale green actinolite, clinozoisite, and prehnite.
The ore geometry on all scales corresponds almost perfectly to the primary struc-
ture of the host rocks.
Relatively important ore veins occur only in the Raul Mine. They appear in two
systems; the NE-trending veins are mineralogically very similar to the mantos,
whereas the E-W veins contain major amounts of quartz, calcite, and sphalerite.
The genesis of the Raul-Condestable deposit has been a matter of controversy
since the beginning of the 1970's. Both syngenetic and epigenetic models have
been proposed, especially for the Raul Mine (Thbles 2, 3). An important point in
the genetic discussion of the Raul and Condestable deposits is the question about
the type and grade of "metamorphism" which is responsible for the mineral asso-
ciation accompanying the ore minerals (Table 4).
According to, Cardozo (1983), Ostermann et al. (1983 b), and Cardozo and
Wauschkuhn (1984) a syngenetic, volcano-exhalative origin of the stratabound ore
accumulations is advocated; the role of the ore veins as channel way for the exha-
lations must be pointed out. Exhalative processes related to the subsiding volcanic
centers played a major role in the formation of the green schist-like paragenesis.
The authors also conclude on a magmatic origin of the ore solutions with possible
minor sea water contaminations at or near the sea floor prior to and during ore
formation. In addition, a superimposed very low-grade regional metamorphism
in agreement with the results of the investigations of Aguirre et al. (1978) and
Offler et al. (1980) cannot be excluded.
406 M. Cardozo
Table 2. Genetic interpretations of the stratabound ore deposits in the Raul Mine
Reference Origin and transport of the ore solutions Origin of the ore metals
Epigenetic models
De Montreuil (1971) Magmatic, related to the dacitic porphyry
Bellido and De Montreuil
(1972)
lnjoque et al. (1982) Combination of both magmatic and Not discussed
volcanic pore waters. Originated and/or
mobilized by the dacitic intrusion
Ohmoto and Ripley (1974) Sea water heated and mobilized by the Leaching of the
dacitic intrusion volcanic host rocks
Syngenetic models
Ripley and Ohmoto (1977) Sea water heated and mobilized by the Leaching of the
volcanic activity volcanic host rocks
Ripley and Ohmoto (1979) Convective circulation of hot sea water
induced by the Coastal Batholith
Wauschkuhn (1978, 1979a, b) Volcanic exhalations Magmatic and leaching
Cardozo (1978, 1980a, 1981) of the volcanosedimen-
Prutek (1979) tary host rocks
Ohnsmann et al. (1978)
Wauschkuhn and Ohnsmann
(1980)
Ostermann et al. (1983b)
Cardozo (1983) Volcanic exhalations with minor sea
water contamination
Cardozo and Wauschkuhn
(1984)
Table 3. Genetic interpretation of the ore veins in the RaUl Mine
References NE-trending veins EW-trending veins Calcite-sulfides

ore veinlets
Ohmoto and Ripley (1974) Channel ways for the hydrothermal solutions
Ripley and Ohmoto (1977) Simultaneous Without specific
with the strata- explanation
bound ores
Post-metamor-
Ripley and Ohmoto (1979) Simultaneous with the stratabound ores phic
Ohnsmann (1978) Remobilized from the stratabound ores
Wauschkuhn (1979a, b) Syndiagenetic
Wauschkuhn and Ohnsmann (1980)
Cardozo (1980a) Remobilized from the stratabound ores
Cardozo (1983) Channel way for Late hydrothermal phase related to
Cardozo and Wauschkuhn (1984) the exhalations the dacitic intrusion
Table 4. Interpretations of the origin of the gangue minerals related to the ores
References When? How?/What?
Bellido and De Montreuil Before ore formation Thermal contact metamor-

(1972) phism
Ohmoto and Ripley (1974) Metasomatic replacement
lnjoque et al. (1982)
Ripley and Ohmoto (1977) Thermal Upper
contact green -schist
metamor- to lower
phism amphibolite
facies
Ripley and Ohmoto (1979) Hydro-
thermal
meta-
morphism
Ohnsmann (1978) After ore formation Low grade, Transitional
Prutek (1979) Barrow-type prehnite-
Wauschkuhn (1978, metamor- pumpellyite
1979a, b) phism to green-
Wauschkuhn and Ohnsmann schist facies
(1980)
Cardozo (1980a, b) (1) Simultaneous with ore Vole. exhal.
(2) After ore formation Thermal low
grade
metamor-
Wfc'Rruc ex-
Cardozo (1981, 1983) (1)+-most of (2) simulta- halations
Cardozo and Wauschkuhn neous with ore formation
(1984) (3)After ore formation Thermal very low grade
metamorphism
Ostermann et al. (1983b) Simultaneous with ore Volcanic exhalations
(1) Mineral associations accompanying the ore minerals.

(2) Mineral associations in ore-poor horizons.
(3) Among others: prehnite, zeolites, calcite.
3.2 Other Ore Deposits of the Copara Metallotect
Besides the Raul and Condestable Mines, the Manto San Martin deposit, Los leas
prospect, and some little-known ore occurrences in the region between Chilca and
Pisco belong to the Copara metallotect.
The San Martin manto lies in the Rio Seco district, approximately 50 km east
of the town of Pisco, at about 1200 m above sea level. A restricted number of pub-
lications about this mining district are available (Hudson 1967; Fodale 1972;
Canepa and Fodale 1972; Vidal 1980; Agar 1981; Ponzoni and Vidal 1982).
The geologic setting of the area (Fig. 5) is characterized by a gently folded
sequence of volcano-sedimentary rocks corresponding to the Copara and
408 M. Cardozo
lVY'0.1
~1
Fig. 5. Geologic setting of the Manto San

Martin deposit in the Rio Seco area.
I Copara and Casma Formations;
2 Patap gabbrodiorites; 3 monzonites
(Linga super unit)
Casma Formations, which are intruded by basic to acidic plutons of the Coastal
Batholith.
The San Martin manto constitutes a 2-to 12-m-thick lenticular ore structure
averaging more than 2.5o/o Cu. The manto extends more than 500 m along the
strike concordantly with the stratification. Its mineral content is very similar to
that of Raul and Condestable (Canepa and Fodale 1972), the main ores being pyr-
rhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, marcasite, and magnetite.
Besides the notable mineralogic similarities between the San Martin manto and
the Raul-Condestable deposit, an additional coincidence concerning the geologic-
paleogeographic setting of the deposits exists. The rock sequences of both regions
are ascribed to the Copara Formation. In both mining areas, thick accumulations
of basaltic-andesitic lavas outcrop and the sedimentary facies changes abruptly,
which indicates the existence of active volcanic centers during this period.
Cardozo (1983) and Cardozo and Wauschkuhn (1984) reject an epigenetic
hydrothermal origin of the San Martin manto, considering the gabbro-diorite as
heat and metal source in the way proposed by Vidal (1980) and Ponzoni and Vidal
(1982). They conclude that the ores were formed syngenetically by exhalative pro-
cesses related to a volcanic center, as already interpreted for the ore deposits in
the Raul-Condestable area. The gabbro-diorite intruded later and introduced
metamorphic changes in the ore and host rocks.
The prospect Los leas is situated 41 km southeast of the town of lea. The geo-
logic setting and stratigraphic position of this ore occurrence are comparable with
those of the other deposits of the Copara metallotect.
Small barite occurrences also occur in the Mala region to the north of the
Raul-Condestable region. Among them Vidal (1980) mentioned the Chutana and
Cantera occurrences belonging to his "tuffisitic-exhalative facies". The Cantera
occurrence, 8 km northeast of Mala, is described by Vidal (1987) as a small
stratiform, barite-pyrite-(calcite) mass, hosted by limy shales and sandstones that
are intercalated within lava flows and volcanoclastics "toward the base of the
Casma Group". Actually, the ores are hosted by the Copara Formation which is
not yet considered by many authors as a formational name in the studied area,
and ist included therefore in the Casma Group, together with the overlying middle
Albian volcanics.
4 Concluding Remarks
a) The Lower Cretaceous tectonic evolution of the Central Andes was dominated
by an extensional regime controlled by spreading-subsidence mechanisms tak-
ing place within the margin of the continental plate.
b) The Rio Caiiete basin evolved from an "aborted" marginal basin with intense
volcanic activity (Puente Piedra Formation) during the Berriasian to an isolat-
ed intraplate trough dominated by clastic sediments near shore sedimentation
(Morro Solar Group) during the lower Piso Lima epoch. A subsequent intensi-
fication of the extensional processes in the upper Piso Lima time lead to the
development of a new volcanic arc and platform carbonatic sedimentary envi-
ronments between the volcanic centers (Copara Formation). In the lower Al-
bian, the opening of the Rio Caiiete basin to the paleo-Pacific ocean follows.
At the same time, the volcanic centers subside. Finally, at the climax of the ex-
tensional event during the middle Albian, a fissural volcanic activity took place
on the regional scale (Casma Formation) comprising both the Huarmey and
Rio Caiiete basins. Afterwards, in the upper Albian, the uplift and deforma-
tion of the marginal basin began, and the early gabbro-diorites of the Coastal
Batholith were emplaced.
c) The metallogenetic evolution of the basins follows the geologic-petrologic de-
velopment of the area (Fig. 1). During the pericratonic platform carbonate sed-
imentation in the Valanginian, partly and locally accompanied by volcanic ac-
tivity, the formation of the Pb-Zn(-Cu-Ag) stratabound deposits of the Santa
metallotect took place in the northern Rio Santa and Chavin basins. At the
subsiding volcanic center in the lower Albian, the deposition of the Cu and
Zn(-Ba) stratabound deposits of the Copara Metallotect occurred. Related to
the eastern volcano-sedimentary facies of the Casma Group of middle Albian
age, the Ba-Zn(-Pb-Ag) stratabound ores of the Casma metallotect are formed.
At the end of the Lower Cretaceous, hydrothermal Cu veins were formed by
the basic intrusions during their final emplacement into the volcano-sedimen-
tary cover.
d) The ore deposits of the Copara metallotect occur in paleozones of the marginal
basin where very active volcanic centers existed during the upper Piso Lima-
lower Albian, narrow submarine sedimentation. They are interpreted as syn-
genetic, volcanogenic ores. Exhalative processes related to the subsiding volca-
nic centers played a major role in the formation of the ore and alteration min-
erals. The role of the ore veins as channel way for the exhalations has also been
advocated. A magmatic origin of the ore solutions was also concluded and
possible minor sea water contamination at or near the sea floor prior to and
during ore formation.
410 M. Cardozo
Acknowledgments. The present chapter is based mainly on research carried out in the early 1980's
in the Mineralogical-Petrographical Institute of the Heidelberg University. I wish to express my appre-
ciation to Dr. A. Wauschkuhn and Prof. G. C. Amstutz for their careful supervision and for contribut-
ing many useful suggestions.
The research was supported by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst and the "Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft". The Pativilca, Austria Duvas, and Centromin Peru mining companies gave
support during field trips in Peru. To these organizations I owe sincere thanks for their continuous
interest and help.
I am also especially grateful to S. Schmidt, L. Fontbote, J. Saez, and E. Cedillo for the critical
reading of the manuscript.
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Palma: A Nonmetamorphic Stratabound Massive
Zn-Ba Occurrence in the Eastern Casma Group
of Central Peru
K. STEINMDLLER1• 2 and A. WAUSCHKUHN 1
1 Introduction
Massive Zn-Ba deposits are found in the Mesozoic coastal belt of central Peru
(Steinmiiller 1987; Steinmiiller and Wauschkuhn 1987; Vidal1987). The deposits
are hosted by the volcano-sedimentary Casma Group, which was deposited during
the mid-Cretaceous in an aborted ensialic marginal basin (Atherton et al. 1983).
The deposits occur to the west as well as to the east of the coastal batholith. This
chapter deals with Palma, one of the eastern stratabound massive Zn-Ba occur-
rences, located 55 km SE of Lima in the Rio Lurin valley (Fig. 1). Here are mainly
described the geological, mineralogical and geochemical features of the deposit.
A detailed genetic discussion is presented in Steinmiiller (1987).
2 Local Geology
Palma is found in a volcano-sedimentary series belonging to the eastern Casma
Group. The rocks are intruded by granitoids of the Coastal Batholith to the north
and to the west. The plutons belong to the Santa Rosa Supergroup. They are of
Upper Cretaceous age (Pitcher 1985). The Casma rocks are unconformably over-
lain by the Tertiary Calipuy Group to the south and to the east. Because of the
absence of intrusives in the immediate working area, the Zn-Ba deposit and its
host rocks show no influence of contact-metamorphic overprint, like the other
eastern stratabound Zn-Ba deposits in central Peru (Vidal 1987).
The stratigraphic sequence in the Palma area can be subdivided into three
parts: a lower and an upper volcano-sedimentary or volcanic segment (I and III),
and an argillaceous-calcareous part (II) in the middle (Fig. 2A). The thickness of
the whole strata is about 800 m. The segments I and III consist of shales,
volcaniclastics and lavas. Part II is composed of shales and micritic limestones
showing intercalations of bioclastic layers with oyster fragments and worm tubes.
Table 1 shows the composition of the lavas in the Palma area. In Fig. 3 the lavas
are plotted in a Zr/TiOrNb/Y diagram after Winchester and Floyd (1977). It is
seen that the volcanics are mainly basalts and basaltic andesites of the subalkaline
suite. Because of the strong alteration of these rocks, plots including mobile alkali
elements like potassium and sodium are of limited worth (Steinmiiller 1987).
1 Mineralogisch-Petrologisches lnstitut der Universitiit Heidelberg INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRG
2 Present address: P.O. Box 9948, Windhoek 9000, Namibia

414 K. Steinmiiller and A. Wauschkuhn
77"')0' 76")0'
'
-o
-
0
~· N
~·
("'
0 25km
Fig. 1. Sketch map of the western part of central Peru showing the location of the Palma Zn-Ba
deposit
A
0 Alterat ion
- Barite-sulfideore
D Massive sulfide ore
II B
~:--------~
\
1 \
\ ~---_
\ --~
\ - - - ""''ilHiBiBil
\
\ Sl,Py,Gn
B
~ Volcaniclastics
Volcanics , \ JIIIIIPy,{Po)
Po,Py
v..., 'W y
~Shales \ vvv vvv v
\
~ Li mesto nes \ ['"'
~ Black shales
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Palma area A and a detailed section through the Palma orebody B.
Gn galena; Py pyrite; Po pyrrhotite; Sl sphalerite
Palma: A Nonmetamorphic Stratabound Massive Zn-Ba Occurrence 415
Table I. Chemical composition of the lavas in the region of the Palma orebody (XRF analyses)
S. no. wtOJo ppm
Si02 Ti02 Al203 Fe20 3 MnO MgO CaO Na20 K20 P20s LOI Nb y Zr
P4 60.58 1.30 15.46 9.15 0.12 2.20 5.83 3.19 0.80 0.27 2.80 5 24 87
P5 57.48 1.64 14.79 12.29 0.12 2.88 4.98 4.01 0.46 0.20 1.08 10 47 179
P7 52.38 1.07 17.35 7.71 0.18 3.07 11.58 3.28 0.13 0.10 2.55 4 21 71
P9 48.87 0.75 20.72 2.21 0.17 4.62 9.65 2.21 1.92 0.05 1.17 3 14 34
P10 49.45 1.92 16.24 12.36 0.21 5.79 7.98 2.23 1.25 0.41 2.32 8 24 105
P11 51.27 1.62 17.07 12.09 0.22 3.96 7.72 3.35 0.34 0.32 2.71 4 22 102
P22 45.55 0.78 19.09 8.81 0.15 6.90 11.25 1.36 0.31 0.07 2.63 4 13 27
P23 54.53 1.43 16.13 9.02 0.15 2.55 7.73 2.90 0.50 0.22 1.17 8 26 96
P24 47.70 0.92 18.29 7.67 0.13 3.15 10.92 2.29 1.61 0.10 1.35 4 34 52
P25 48.48 0.75 19.62 9.88 0.18 5.77 9.65 0.90 2.14 0.02 1.20 3 9 20
P26 50.32 1.32 18.29 10.26 0.19 3.01 8.31 2.68 0.86 0.13 1.15 3 16 63
P27 52.85 1.36 15.83 13.56 0.19 3.31 6.47 2.38 1.06 0.12 1.21 4 16 68
P28 53.01 1.03 18.89 8.59 0.15 4.33 8.38 2.93 1.05 0.09 1.69 4 35 53
P29 52.76 0.88 20.82 6.99 0.18 3.41 9.54 3.35 0.63 0.08 0.83 5 15 45
P30 52.20 0.74 18.25 9.20 0.22 4.66 8.92 3.51 0.43 0.05 0.80 5 30 101
P32 48.69 0.70 19.86 9.40 0.24 6.22 8.91 1.90 2.20 0.02 1.19 3 12 21
P33 54.92 1.35 15.78 6.67 0.23 4.44 6.47 3.28 2.10 0.15 1.21 5 24 83
P34 50.27 1.14 18.09 11.69 0.29 4.70 8.35 1.87 0.66 0.09 2.15 3 11 31
Subalkaline Alkaline
Zr/TiOz 0.10
Dacite
-----/
Andesite
---- •
0.01 /
Andesite/ //
.•f/ •.
--------------.·
Basalt
••
•
Alkali-Basalt
Subalkaline Basalt
0.1 l.O Nb/Y

Fig. 3. Zr/TiOrNb/Y diagram after Winchester and Floyd (1977) showing the composition of the
volcanic rocks in the area of the Palma orebody
The rocks were regionally folded during the Mochica Phase in the mid-Creta-
ceous (Megard 1983). Because of the coexistence of rocks with brittle and ductile
behaviors, the folds are very irregular in regard to their wavelengths and ampli-
tudes. The fold axes strike 150-170° and plunge to theSE. No major fault struc-
tures can be observed close to the Palma deposit.
3 Depositional Environment of the Host Rocks

The environment of the stratigraphic sequence I was strongly influenced by volca-
nic activity. The rocks consist predominantly of volcanic material. On account of
the absence of pillow lavas and the lack of fossils in the shales and volcaniclastis,
a mainly subaerial volcanism is postulated. During the sedimentation of part II
the subaerial volcanic regime was partly interrupted by marine conditions, which
deposited the shallow water argillaceous rocks and limestones with bioclastic de-
bris in restricted basins. Euxinic conditions at the base of these strata are indicat-
ed by fine-laminated bituminous shales and dark argillaceous limestones. These
conditions are frequently developed during transgressive periods over environ-
ments with topographic differences (Hallam and Bradshaw 1979), like the
subaerial volcanic environment of unit I. The anaerobic conditions were main-
tained in the faster subsiding regions, which could form isolated pockets with no
bottom circulation, whereas in the topographic highs aerobic sediments were de-
posited. During the deposition of the sequence III a reinforced volcanic activity
spread out over the whole area and the carbonate sedimentation was abruptly in-
terrupted. Because of the similarities of the rocks of unit III with those of unit
I, the same depositional factors are assumed.
4 Geology, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry of the Palma Deposit

The orebody of Palma occurs at the base of the sedimentary part II and is hosted
by the already described black shales and dark carbonates (Fig. 2A, B). The foot-
wall rocks consist of dark shales and basaltic to basaltic-andesitic lavas, and the
hanging wall rocks are built up of finely laminated, micritic limestones, and
shales. The deposit is found at the eastern limb of an open, drag-folded anticline
with a ± N- S striking axis. Because of the ductile behavior of the sulfides, in
contrast to the more brittle host rocks, the orebody displays a strong disbar-
monica! deformation (Figs. 4, 5). The sulfide-bearing horizon shows an average
thickness of about 1.5 m, but on account of the intense folding it may be consid-
erably thicker or thinner. The ores contain roughly 100J'o Zn, 2% Pb, and 0.02%
Cu. An underlying stockwork ore zone, as in the other eastern stratabound Zn-Ba
deposits in central Peru (Vidal 1987), is not known. But this could only be due
to the small exposure of the orebody until now.
In the lower parts, the orebody consists of fine laminated bituminous shales
with fine layers of mainly pyrite and pyrrhotite. Sphalerite and chalcopyrite occur
in subordinate amounts. X-Ray diffraction of some pyrrhotite samples revealed
the existence of monoclinic as well as of mixtures of monoclinic/hexagonal pyr-
rhotite in Palma (Steinmiiller 1987). The monoclinic pyrrhotite indicates that the
temperature of the ore solution was not higher than 253 oc during the ore deposi-
tion (Kissin and Scott 1982). Towards the upper parts, the content of the black
shales and the pyrrhotite diminish and the ore is made up of thin layers of pyrite,
sphalerite, and galena (Figs. 2B, 6). Over 120 microprobe analyses of sphalerite
in the different parts of the sulfide orebody show its high iron content of about
15 -17 mol% FeS (Fig. 7). Only at the top of the body are lower values (8 mol%
c::J Talus deposits

- r:::::::;)Alteration zone
bd Hanging wall limes tonl's/shales

[[]Footwall shales/volcanics
0.....!!!..15 -Orebody / Bedding
X v
1800m
1750m
1700m~--------~--------~--------~~~~
Om 50m lOOm 150m
Fig. 4. Simplified geology of the Palma area and section (XY) through the ore body
FeS) found. Generally the sphalerites which are associated with pyrrhotite are
higher in iron than those coexisting with pyrite. The high iron content of the
sphalerites coexisting with monoclinic and/or hexagonal pyrrhotite (Fig. 7) indi-
cates a very low sulfur fugacity ( < 10- 12 bar) during the deposition of the sul-
fide orebody (Steinmiiller 1987).
Fig. 5. Strongly deformed sphalerite-pyrite-galena ore in the upper parts of the Palma orebody
Fig. 6. Mineral distribution in the orebody of Palma
The sulfide ores are overlain by hydrothermally alterated micritic limestones

and argillaceous rocks which contain stratabound barite-(pyrite-galena) lenses.
The barite has a Sr-content of 0.1-0.5 SrS04 (Steinmtiller 1987) and thus falls
into the group of "submarine exhalative barite" (Puchelt 1967).
Because of the folding, the textures of the ores are mainly a result of the tec-
tonic deformation. The ores are usually fine-grained (5 -150 J.t), but often the py-
rite grains, especially in sphalerite-rich groundmasses, form megacrysts (1 mm)
Paragenesis
I
0
+
::J
co Sl-Py
3::
0
VI
VI
~-
VI
c:.
+ Sl-Py
:::;;
a:
11)
•
...,0
11)
I Sl-Py-HPo-MPo
CD
0 ......_...
•
- Range Mote•J.
,...
....._
n
Mean Mole •t.
Sl-MPo
VI
"J Sl-Py
0
iii"
VI
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mole"lo FeS in Sphalerite
Fig. 7. Iron content (molOJo FeS) of sphalerites in the Palma orebody associated with different iron
phases. HPo hexagonal pyrrhotite; MPo monoclinic pyrrhotite; Py pyrite; S/ sphalerite
with irregular shapes and many inclusions of gangue minerals, galena, and
sphalerite. In sphalerite-poor parts, "durchbewegung" textures of pyrite and pyr-
rhotite and elongated pyrite crystals parallel to the layering can be observed. Elon-
gated pyrite grains probably are a result of a combination of physical distortion
of already existing crystals and new growth of the pyrite in areas of lesser pressure
(Vokes 1969). In spite of the tectonic overprint, sedimentary and/or diagenetic
structures can still be identified (Steinmiiller and Wauschkuhn 1987). They are
best preserved in the black, bituminous shales at the bottom of the orebody. Here
one can observe in the fine sulfide layers framboidal pyrite showing different stag-
es of recrystallization and framboid-like pyrrhotite spheres.
5 Conclusion
The depositional environment of the host rocks of the Palma deposit, the high
Zn- and low Cu-content of the ores and the mineral zonation of the orebody from
the lower towards the upper parts: pyrrhotite-pyrite-+ pyrite-sphalerite-galena-+
barite-(pyrite-galena) show good agreement with the class of sediment-hosted
massive sulfide Pb-Zn deposits, which are described by Large (1980), Sangster
(1983) and Smith (1983). However, the strong volcanic influences and the margin-
al basin setting are not typical for this group of ore deposits.
On the other hand, the classification of the Zn-Ba deposit as Kuroko-type de-
posit (Vidal 1987) seems not to be appropriate, because of the exclusively basic
and intermediate volcanic rocks in the area of the Palma deposit (Fig. 3), and the
very low copper content of the ores.
Hence, the authors suggest that the Palma deposit in central Peru belongs to
the type of sediment-hosted massive sulfide Pb-Zn deposits, although there are
remarkably strong volcanic influences. It is assumed that this class of ore deposits
is restricted not only to continental rifts (Sawkins 1976), but also may be formed
in an aborted ensialic marginal basin with suitable depositional environments by
volcanic processes. The ore deposition may be explained by the mixing of a hot
ore solution with the surrounding sea water. The ore solution had a lesser density
than the sea water, but on account of its cooling by mixing with sea water it be-
came denser than sea water and a brine pool was formed at the bottom of the
sea floor during the sedimentation of part II. The observed zonation of the
orebody: pyrrhotite-pyrite --+ pyrite-sphalerite-galena --+ barite-(pyrite-galena) is
the result of the decreasing temperature and the increasing pH and oxygen fugaci-
ty within the brine pool during the ore deposition (Steinmiiller 1987).
Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft which support-
ed the present research. The Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst and the Barmine S.A. gave
support to one author (K. Steinmiiller) during his field trips in Peru. To these organizations we wish
to express our appreciation. We thank Dr. M. Cardozo and E. Cedillo for critically reading the manu-
script.
References
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(Lon d) 305:303- 306
Hallam A, Bradshaw MJ (1979) Bituminous shales and oolitic ironstones as indicators of transgres-
sions and regressions. J Geol Soc 136:157 -164
Kissin SA, Scott SD (1982) Phase relations involving pyrrhotite below 350°C. Econ Geol
77:1739-1754
Large DE (1980) Geological parameters associated with sediment-hosted submarine exhalative Pb-Zn
deposits: an empirical model for mineral exploration. Geol Jb D40:59-129
Megard F (1983) Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Andes of Central and
Northern Peru (abstr.). Meeting Geol evolution of the Andes. London, Oct 1983, p 6
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Beckinsale RD (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, 328 p
Puchelt H (1967) Zur Geochemie des Bariums im exogenen Zyklus. Sitzber Heidelberg Akad Wiss,
Math-Nat Kl:85-287
Sangster DF (ed)(1983) Short course in sediment-hosted stratiform lead-zinc deposits. Min Assoc Can
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Sawkins FS (1976) Massive sulphide deposits in relation to geotectonics. In: Strong DF (ed)
Metallogeny and plate tectonics. Spec Pap Geol As soc Can 14:221 - 240
Smith CL (1983) Sediment-hosted stratiform lead-zinc-silver deposits. In: Boardman SJ (ed) Revolu-
tion in the earth sciences. Advances in the past half century. Kendall/Hunt Dubuque, pp 281-300
Steinmiiller K (1987) Beitrage zur Metallogenese der Baryt-Sulfid-Lagerstatten in der ostlichen Cas-
ma-druppe Zentralperus. Thesis, Universitat Heidelberg, 111 p (unpublished)
Steinmiiller K, Wauschkuhn A (1987) Geology and mineralogy of the barite-sulfide deposits in the
Eastern Casma Group of Central Peru. Zbl Geol Palaont 7/8:995 -1005
Vidal C (1987) Kuroko-type deposits in the Middle-Cretaceous marginal basin of Central Peru. Econ
Geol 82:1409-1430
Vokes FM (1969) A review of the metamorphism of sulphide deposits. Earth Sci Rev 5:99-143
Winchester JA, Floyd PA (1977) Geochemical discriminant of different magma series and their differ-
ent products using immobile elements. Chern Geol 20:325- 343
The Agustina Mine, a Volcanic-Hosted Copper Deposit
in Northern Chile
S. HOPF 1
1 Introduction
The Agustina copper sulfide mine (27°30'S, 70° 15'W) is located about 800 km
north of Santiago at the southern border of the Atacama desert. It is situated on
the southwest margin of the valley of the Copiap6 River, 18 km SSE of the city
of Copiap6 in the Punta del Cobre mining district (Fig. 1). A number of small
and medium-sized copper deposits are found in the region. Early mining in the
district commenced following the discovery of gold. In the 18th century, the area
became famous for its silver-rich deposits; however, today it is better known as
a copper-producing area. The Agustina copper deposit, which has been worked
since the 17th century, was acquired by the Compania Minera Agustina in 1864
(now Compania Minera Carola).
The copper mineralization occurs in hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks of
the Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous Punta del Cobre Formation. Early mining
was based on high-grade secondary copper ore formed by surficial enrichment
(about 130Jo Cu and approximately 1000 t/y), whereas in 1984, the Agustina mine
produced 250000 metric tons of ore with a grade of 1.8% to 2.2% Cu and 0.4 g/t
Au (Lino 1984) from veins and stockwork. The vertical shaft entrance is situated
at 645 m above sea level. Twelve levels are present to a depth of 345 m. Of these
only three are mined (levels 7, 10, 11). The ore is mined by the room-and-pillar
system, via the shaft (Pique Maquina). Several other mines are developed nearby,
for example the Bateas, Abundancia, and Socav6n Rampla Mines are in a western
continuation of the ore deposit. The local stratigraphy and some aspects of the
ore deposits have been the subject of several papers (Biese-Nickel 1942; Ortiz et
al. 1966; Ruiz et al. 1965; Segerstrom and Parker 1959; Segerstrom and Ruiz 1962;
Segerstrom et al. 1963; Segerstrom 1967, 1968; Zentilli 1974). Recent authors have
suggested a volcanic exhalative origin for the Agustina deposit (Camus 1980,
1986; Lino and Rivera 1985). This paper presents new information derived from
a study of the deposit in 1985-1987, and a genetic model which differs con-
siderably from previous models.
2 Regional Geology
Segerstrom ( 1968) provided a detailed description of the geology of the central
Atacama Province. Episodic plutonic and associated volcanic activity occurred
1 Department of Geology, University of Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia

422 S. Hopf
26°s
2
oq
IU
0
0
0
IL.
0 28. s
oq
a.
I DO 20 0 km
72° w G8 • W
Fig. 1. Location of the Agustina copper deposit in the Punta del Cobre district, Atacama Province,
northern Chile
from the early Jurassic (Zentilli 1974) to the recent. There was a transition from
dominantly marine to subaerial conditions in the early Late Cretaceous
(Segerstrom and Parker 1959) during deposition of the sedimentary Neocomian
(Hauterivian to Upper Barremian) Chaiiarcillo Group. In the west the Chaiiarcillo
Group interdigitates with the Bandurrias Formation, which is characterized by
volcanogenic sediments and lavas, and displays similarities with the Punta del
Cobre Formation. There are different opinions concerning the position of the Pun-
ta del Cobre Formation in the stratigraphic sequence. Segerstrom and Ruiz (1962)
regarded it as part of the Chaiiarcillo Group (with the Abundancia, Nantoco,
Totoralillo, and Pabell6n Formations), but Biese-Nickel (1942) and Ortiz et al.
( 1966) thought that it should be a separate unit on account of its Upper Valangian
age and volcanogenic character. In contrast, Lino and Rivera ( 1985) suggested that
the Punta del Cobre Formation should be part of the Bandurrias Formation.
In the Agustina mine area the Punta del Cobre Formation represents the oldest
sequence, however, only its upper portions are exposed. The Punta del Cobre For-
mation consists of andesitic to trachytic volcanic rocks, tuffs/tuffites, con-
glomerates, and sandstones. It is followed discordantly by the Lower Cretaceous
Abundancia Formation, which consists mainly of calcareous sediments and varies
in thickness from 60 to 400 m (Segerstrom and Ruiz 1962). In the surroundings
of the Agustina deposit the Punta del Cobre and the Abundancia Formations dis-
play a gradational contact.
The Agustina deposit lies to the east of a NNE-trending anticline. West of the
Copiap6 River (Fig. 1) the rocks have undergone thermal metamorphism as a
result of the intrusion of the Andean batholith (Segerstrom and Ruiz 1962). A
weak contact-metamorphic influence on the mining area is assumed but could not
be confirmed.
The Agustina Mine, a Volcanic-Hosted Copper Deposit in Northern Chile 423
2.1 The Punta del Cobre Formation
The maximum thickness of the exposed Punta del Cobre Formation is about
680m (Ortiz in Segerstrom and Ruiz 1962). According to Segerstrom (1968) it
consists of albite-rich volcanic rocks ("albitophyres") and pillow andesites. How-
ever, in the Agustina mining area, the Punta del Cobre Formation has been sub-
divided into three lithostratigraphic units (Hopf 1987) as follows: A, a unit of
volcanic flows (at least 250m); B, a hematite-rich sediment unit (maximum
thickness 8 m); and C, a volcaniclastic unit (only 50 mare exposed in the mine).
The latter unit consists of tuffs/tuffites with subordinate conglomerates and
sandstones. The Punta del Cobre Formation is cut by a swarm of discordant lam-
prophyric dykes.
2.2 Mine Geology
The geology of the mine was reconstructed from drill core samples, field and
underground observations (Fig. 2). A paleo-surface forms an erosional unconfor-
mity between the volcanic rocks (unit A) and the overlying units, B and C. The
dip angles of units B and C vary strongly on account of the paleo-relief, from
about 10° to 87 °SE. The various thicknesses of units B and C are also caused
by the paleo-relief during deposition. The contacts between these units are best
exposed in the roof pendant on mine level 7.
Unit A has undergone strong hydrothermal alteration and classification of the
original rock types in hand specimen is not possible. However, a differentiation
sequence, from andesite through latite andesite and latite to trachyte (Fig. 3) has
been recognized from microscopic studies. This is characteristic for shoshonitic
sequences which are typically found in island-arc and continental margin tectonic
N s
tertiary
~;~~~ gravels
H!//1 unit c
unit B
,_, ·-·-~
~",-,1.:,. .. -... : unit A
_,~~: -":.';~\'
II shaft
level
0 200m
4500N 1.400 4200N 4000N
Fig. 2. North-south section at 4650 E. Units A to C correspond respectively to mine units A to C de-
scribed in the text. The irregular footwall of units B and C is caused by a paleo-relief during deposition
424 S. Hopf
Osilica minerals
VOLCANIC ROCKS (mainly quartz)
M 0-90 A alkali feldspar
(incl. albite An 00 _05 )
P plagioclase An 05 100
@ Alkali trachyte
rJ) Trachyte
® Latite } Trachyandesite
® Latite-andesite and Latite-basalt and Trachybasalt
® Andesite and Basalt
• 1 =PC
-54, 2= PC -123, l =PC -134, 4= PC-142, s= PC-152,
6=PC-156, 7=PC-194, a=PC-207
Fig. 3. Classification of the volcanic rocks in a QAP-diagram (Streckeisen 1967)
settings (Wimmenauer 1985). All volcanic rocks have been affected by strong
hydrothermal alteration with green biotite, fluorite, tourmaline, zircon, topaz,
apatite, quartz, muscovite/sericite, chlorite, calcite, and clay minerals occurring in
close association with ore. Plagioclase and alkali feldspar are the dominant
phenocrysts, whereas mafic phenocrysts are subordinate. The phenocrysts are
enclosed in a microcrystalline groundmass of plagioclase and secondary minerals.
Plagioclase often displays zonal structure. Pyroxene, biotite, and amphibole(?) are
pseudomorphously replaced by chlorite. Relatively unaltered samples showing the
original textures were examined and classified using a QAP-diagram (Streckeisen
1967; see Fig. 3).
Unit A is overlain by the hematite-rich sediment unit B. The thickness of unit
B differs on account of the paleo-relief from a few meters to about 8 m. Unit B
predominantly shows a red color with the exception of the green-colored contact
with the volcanic rocks. It represents a poorly sorted breccia with a high content
of opaque minerals (200Jo to 35%). In some parts this unit is developed as a con-
glomerate. In the footwall the 0.5 to 1 em particles of the breccia are composed
of volcanic rocks similar to those in unit A. This suggests that unit B was derived
from the debris of the eroded volcanic rocks of unit A. In addition, there are chert
clasts and rose-colored acid components. The matrix consists of fine-grained

clastic material and hematite pigment. Subordinate sandstones with cross-bed-
ding and graded bedding indicate fluvial deposition. A strong alteration with car-
bonate, chlorite, hematite, clay minerals and authigenic quartz has been observed
in thin sections. The great abundance of sericite in the sandstones suggests a slight
thermal influence on parts of unit B, possibly caused by metamorphism.
Volcaniclastic unit C is an alternating sequence of tuffs/tuffites, sandstones,
conglomerates and possible lava flows. The sandstones and conglomerates may
have been derived from erosion of unit A. Three varieties of tuffs/tuffites are pre-
sent: (1) lithic tuffs, with or without pumice and crystal fragments, (2) unsorted
pumice breccias, partly with rock fragments, and (3) fine-grained tuffs with
shards. Chert clasts are present in all types.
3 Hydrothermal Alteration
Hypogene alteration assemblages identified in the Agustina mine are classified in-
to three groups: (1) biotite, (2) quartz-tourmaline-fluorite, and (3) sericite-
chlorite-calcite-clay minerals. Alteration minerals belonging to the first two
groups represent high-temperature assemblages. In contrast, the third assemblage
is a low-temperature one. Assemblage 2 occurs in close association with ore
minerals controlled by open-space filling in veins, breccias, stockworks, and in
stratiform ore. On the other hand, assemblage 3 is distributed throughout the
mine, commonly overlapping other assemblages.
The original magmatic pilotaxitic texture of the volcanic rocks has been
strongly modified by the first two alteration types. The following zonation of sec-
ondary minerals from the ore outwards into the host rock was observed at the em
to several m scale: muscovite-+tourmaline-+apatit~zircon-+topaz-+fluorite-+
green biotite-+quartz-+chlorite. The mineralization is mainly associated with the
alteration assemblage tourmaline, fluorite, topaz, muscovite, and apatite. The
altered volcanic host rocks show high iron and potassium contents. Alteration has
caused considerable redistribution of these elements with enrichments up to 17o/o
Fe20 3 and 10% K20, and major depletion of Na20 (Hopf 1987). The high K20
contents correspond with high amounts of secondary green biotite. or muscovite.
Localized high concentrations of magnesium, approximately 10o/o, reflect intense
chloritization or biotitization. Detailed mapping of the alteration has only just
begun, and the three alteration assemblages are strongly overlapping, so fine
distinctions cannot be made yet. In places, only assemblage (3) can be recognized.
The intense alteration of the volcanic rocks can serve as a useful prospecting guide
for defining broad-scale exploration targets away from the mine. The relative
position of hydrothermal alteration minerals in the paragenetic sequence is shown
in Fig. 4.
1. Biotite Alteration. Green biotite of hydrothermal origin is the earliest alteration

product recognized in the Agustina deposit. Biotite is scattered throughout the
volcanic rocks. It occurs as fine-grained clotty aggregates or clusters of euhedral
crystals (Fig. 4B) up to 0.04 mm in size, partly or completely replacing magmatic
426 S. Hopf
1cm
..........
A B c
F G H
Fig. 4A- H. A Photograph of stratiform ore (manto) with cross-bedding. The matrix (light) is mainly
comprised of chalcopyrite, pyrite, quartz and calcite. The black angular fragments consist of volcanic
detritus and chert. The following three photographs show the alteration of the volcanic rocks: B
Rosettes of needle-shaped apatite (ap) together with chlorite and secondary green biotite (dark gray)
enclosed in quartz (qtz) in the neighborhood of opaque minerals. C Tourmaline crystals (tour)
together with chlorite (dark gray) and quartz (qtz ). D Patchy aggregates of zircon (zir) with secondary
biotite (biot). The zircon crystal it1 the center shows zonal structure. E Thbular hematite I (in the
center) partly replaced by magnetite I (gray) . The gangue (gg) is represented by quartz (in air). F Tran-
sition from euhedral pyrite Ia to skeletal pyrite Ib (py) (in air). G 'JYpical skeletal form of pyrite lb
(py), with chalcopyrite III (cp) filling the cavities (in air). H Gold (Au) in cataclastic pyrite I (py) .
Late chalcopyrite III (cp) fills the fissures (in oil)
pyroxene, biotite, amphibole(?) and the groundmass of the volcanic rocks. This
alteration is quite selective in nature; feldspar phenocrysts are only slightly re-
placed by biotite, whereas mafic phenocrysts are usually thoroughly altered.
Biotite alteration is accompanied by sodium removal, probably in conjunction
with the replacement of plagioclase in the groundmass. Hydrothermal biotite has
been selectively altered to chlorite on a prospect-wide scale although the replace-
ment is seldom complete.
2. Quartz-Tourmaline-Fluorite Alteration. Alteration assemblage (2) is character-

ized by quartz, fluorite, tourmaline, and apatite, in decreasing order of abun-
dance, and subordinate zircon, muscovite, and topaz. These minerals are accom-
panied by ore minerals, especially chalcopyrite III and pyrite I (see later discus-
sion of the mineralization). Muscovite occurs only intergrown with, or within
chalcopyrite III. Fluorite is frequently associated with ore-bearing veinlets and
appears also in the host rock near veinlets, always intergrown with quartz. Topaz
and apatite are commonly associated with quartz. Tourmaline and zircon also oc-
cur intergrown with calcite, green biotite or chlorite.
Quartz (quartz II of the paragenetic sequence, see Fig. 5) forms mainly
subhedral crystals, and, less commonly euhedral crystals. Quartz grains are, in
places, partially replaced by apatite. Fluorite occurs as rose- to violet-colored,
mainly euhedral crystals ( < 0.2 mm), sometimes marginally corroded by quartz.
Blue-green tourmaline (Fig. 4C) is developed as radiating aggregates or single
crystals and ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.2 mm. It occasionally shows a zonal
structure. Apatite displays elongate prismatic needle-shaped crystals, 0.2 mm in
size, arranged in rosettes (Fig. 4 B) and intergrown with quartz. Topaz is found
as compact colorless crystals under 0.04 mm, partly intergrown with tourmaline.
Zircon occurs as patchy aggregates or as euhedral crystals (0.15 to 0.2 mm; Fig.
4D) occasionally displaying zoning and corroded margins. The dark color proba-
bly indicates an incorporation of radioactive elements. Muscovite is subordinate;
it ranges in size from 0.15 to 0.2 mm and occurs in fine-grained fasicular ag-
gregates.
There is some overlap with the biotite alteration (1), and furthermore, assem-
blage (2) is overprinted by the sericite-chlorite-calcite-clay mineral alteration.
3. Sericite-Chlorite-Calcite-Clay Mineral Alteration. This assemblage occurs

throughout the volcanic unit A, not only in association with the ore, and over-
prints the other alteration types. It shows a great variety with all transitions from
incipient to strong alteration intensity. Calcite, sericite and clay minerals probably
are part of the regional alteration of the volcanic rocks. However, chlorite is
distinctly associated with ore mineralization and thus represents a late phase of
hydrothermal alteration. Typically, for this low-temperature assemblage water and
carbon dioxide-bearing minerals are present. Chloritization is widespread as a
pseudomorphous replacement of magmatic pyroxene, biotite, amphibole(?), and
hydrothermal biotite. Calcite and clay minerals are distributed throughout,
whereas sericite predominantly replaces feldspar phenocrysts.
Three varieties of chlorite are present: Mg-Fe chlorite, Fe-Mg chlorite and
Fe-rich chlorite. Fe-rich chlorites are the dominant phase. A coarser variety is
428 S. Hopf
~-
HYDROTHERMAL STAGE
1 2
D. magnetite
-
--
hematite
C/) pyrrhotite -
- - Iii -
-
...I
cc chalcopyrite
a: hematite
I
--
UJ ternary amalgam
:!: magnetite
- I - -
:E sphalerite .J..
Ia I b -
UJ pyrite
a: native -·-····-
- -
- -
gold
0
marcasite -
green biotite
quartz ? ....
II
- -
--
-
--
tourmaline
UJ topaz
:::;)
fluorite
~
z
cc
zircon
apatite
- -
CJ muscovite -
calcite time .- --
chlorite
~
...
Fig. 5. Paragenetic diagram of mineralization occurring in all different geometric types. Abbreviation
P marks primary opaque minerals of unit A. Thickness of lines represent a general estimate of the
relative abundances of minerals; dashes indicate uncertain occurrence. Main ore and gangue genera-
tions are provided with Arabic numbers. Number Ia signifies early euhedral pyrite I, whereas Ib repre-
sents late skeletal pyrite I. The boundary between hydrothermal stages 1 and 2 is based on the end
of the main generation of chalcopyrite (cpy Ill)
generally well developed in pseudomorphs after phenocrysts, whereas finer

chlorite tends to be more common in the groundmass. Calcite is ubiquitous in the
groundmass and in phenocrysts. It represents the main gangue mineral. Sericite
is present both as discrete flakes up to 0.15 mm and in microcrystalline form. Clay
minerals occur as brownish patches dispersed in groundmass and phenocrysts.
4 Mineralization
The mineralization, consisting of chalcopyrite, pyrite, hematite, and magnetite,

occurs in different geometric types such as veins, breccias, stockworks, and
disseminations in the hydraulically fractured volcanic rocks (unit A). Stratiform
ore (manto) is also present. The different geometric types rarely occur unmixed.
Two or three types are mostly superimposed. The average copper concentrations
vary from 1.807o to 2.2% with peak values (8%-20%) occurring in veins.
The veins are actually ore-rich breccia zones with layers of massive ore and
subordinate stockwork ore, marginally passing over to ore-poor breccia and
stockwork ore. The veins are north-northwest-trending with an average dip of 57°
to the southeast. Vein zones especially appear in the upper mine levels, including
level 10. Below level 10 they thin out and/or split into veinlets with depth. Only
the biggest vein, named San Lorenzo, continues as a clear vein zone to level 12.
Below level 9, magnetite-hematite veins and lenses, as well as irregularly shaped
bodies, also occur.
The brecciated areas are characterized by indistinct margins. They are more
abundant in the lower parts of the mine, and are found especially as the continua-
tion of the veins at level10 and downwards. The width of the breccia zones ranges
from a few meters to approximately 200 m. The breccias are composed of
autochthonous volcanic rock fragments in a matrix consisting mainly of ore
minerals quartz and calcite, although locally chert schlieren can be a major con-
stituent. The volcanic fragments may be partly replaced by chert and in areas
where there has been extensive replacement, e.g., level 11, large chert bodies may
be developed.
Multidirectional fracturing forms a typical stockwork pattern representing the
most frequent ore type in the Agustina deposit. Areas with stockwork ore are
often found at the contact to mineralized veins and breccias.
Disseminations appear everywhere in the volcanic rocks. Chalcopyrite occurs
finely scattered throughout the volcanic rocks, or in stringers controlled by
microscopic fractures. Chalcopyrite partly replaces the host rock. Copper values
range from 0.130Jo to 0.53% (Hopf 1987).
Stratiform ore (manto), which is volumetrically unimportant, occurs as north-
east-trending, southeast-dipping (30°) lenses, especially on mine level 7.
Stratiform ore exists in different stratigraphic positions within the volcanic rocks,
and due to the paleo-erosion of the volcanic rocks, a contact with the hematite-
rich sediment unit is possible. The largest exposed lens has a maximum thickness
of about 1.50 m, and a width of about 8 m. The mantos represent polymictic
clastic sediments (Fig. 4A) with a coarse-grained base (fragments up to 3 em) and,
at the top, intercalations of fine- ( < 1 mm) and coarse-grained (1 to 7 mm) layers.
The angular clasts comprise predominantly andesitic volcanic rocks, subordinate-
ly acid volcanic rocks and chert. Distinct features such as cross-bedding and grad-
ed bedding indicate a sedimentary deposition of the mantos between volcanic
flows. The mantos are broken and dislocated and often peripherally corroded by
lavas. Ore minerals fill the pore volume of the mantos and partly replace the
clasts. The copper content is up to 100Jo.
4.1 Ore Mineralogy
The main ore minerals are chalcopyrite, pyrite, hematite, and magnetite; pyr-
rhotite and sphalerite are much less abundant. Traces of native gold and ternary
Ag-Au-Hg amalgam have been observed. Copper, gold, and silver contents range
up to 10% (average 1.8% to 2.2%), 0.4 g/t and 25 g/t respectively. Quartz and
carbonate form the bulk of the gangue minerals; green biotite, tourmaline,
fluorite, zircon, topaz, apatite, and chlorite are commonly restricted to the
volcanic host rock.
430 S. Hopf
The deposit has been subjected to a widespread supergene alteration with

oxidation and secondary sulfide enrichment in superficial zones down to level 5,
153m below the shaft entrance. A leaching zone and a zone of cementation,
showing no distinct boundaries, contain covellite, neodigenite, chalcocite, and
cuprite. Today secondary ores have been entirely exploited.
The complex paragenetic sequence is illustrated in Fig. 5. A brief description
of the minerals is given below. Numbers behind the minerals correspond respec-
tively to ore mineral generations of Fig. 5.
Hematite I (specularite) occurs as tabular crystals up to 3 em in diameter
(Fig. 4E) occasionally containing inclusions of chalcopyrite, ternary Ag-Au-Hg
amalgam, and native gold.
Magnetite I often replaces hematite (Fig. 4E), or forms euhedral crystals rang-
ing from 0.2 to 0.5 mm in diameter which display distinct zoning. Late hematite
generations are pseudomorphous after magnetite.
Only minor amounts of sphalerite are found in the Agustina Mine. Sphalerite
I represents the main generation. Rare brownish internal reflections suggest that
it is an iron-rich variety. Significant features are the bleblike exsolutions of
chalcopyrite II, oriented parallel to (001).
Pyrite I ranges widely in grain size and appears in two temporally successive
developments: an early euhedral phase (Ia), and a late skeletal phase (lb ). In
places, the transition from one phase to the other can be recognized in one grain
(Fig. 4F). Light-etched crystals show well-defined growth zoning. The early phase
of pyrite, consisting of 0.5 mm to 2 em euhedral crystals, exhibits inclusions of
pyrrhotite, magnetite I, and resorbed hematite I. The late skeletal form (Fig. 4G)
often occurs in fine-grained manto layers. All pyrite grains display a strong
anisotropy from reddish-blue to bluish. Pyrite I shows cataclastic microtextures
with chalcopyrite III commonly filling subparallel fractures (Fig. 4H). The
anisotropy may be caused by the incorporation of trace elements, for example
copper. Electron microprobe analyses demonstrate that copper contents range up
to 1OJo (Hopf 1987).
Grains of chalcopyrite III typically have poorly developed crystal margins.
Chalcopyrite III replaces older ore minerals and fills cavities. Distinguishing
features are an intense anisotropy and lance-shaped lamellae indicating the con-
version of cubic high-temperature chalcopyrite to the low-temperature tetragonal
form (Ramdohr 1975). Electron microprobe analyses reveal a sulfur deficiency
(Hopf 1987). For the conversion from high-temperature to low-temperature
chalcopyrite various temperatures are proposed. Ramdohr (1975) mentions that
high-temperature chalcopyrite generally has a sulfur deficiency, and he suggests
a minimum conversion temperature of 400°C.
Ternary Ag-Au-Hg amalgam and native gold are extremely rare and have been
identified as very small ( < 10 J..Lm) grains, predominantly in pyrite I and
chalcopyrite III, and subordinately in hematite I. Ternary amalgam and native
gold occur especially at the outer edges of euhedral pyrite crystals as bleblike in-
clusions (Fig. 4H). Gold-bearing chalcopyrite III fills fractures in pyrite I. Grains
of native gold and ternary amalgam in chalcopyrite III may result from solution
and/or remobilization of peripherally occurring Au in pyrite during chalcopyrite
formation. The composition of the ternary amalgam as determined with electron
microprobe is 37.8 wtOJo Au, 41.2 wt% Ag and 21.2 wt% Hg. This ternary
amalgam is stable at temperatures of 500° to 450°C (Nysten 1986).
The above-mentioned temperatures relative to the stability of chalcopyrite and
ternary amalgam indicate ore formation at about 500° to 400 °C.
Metal zoning appears to be developed within the deposit. While the copper dis-
tribution is rather homogeneous the iron content increases from mine level 10
downwards on account of the appearance of massive hematite-magnetite bodies.
The zinc contents show an increase from about 100 ppm in the upper levels to
around 6000 ppm below level 10 (Hopf 1987).
5 Genetic Model
For the development of a genetic model, the following aspects should be con-
sidered:
1. The Agustina deposit occurs in an ore-bearing horizon of considerable extent.
2. Distinctly differentiated volcanic rocks from andesite to trachyte occur in the
mine area.
3. Clastic ore-bearing intercalations (mantas) occur between the single volcanic
flows.
4. The geometry of the orebodies comprises vein zones, brecciated zones,
stockwork, and disseminated ore (at least to 350m below surface).
5. Zonation of Zn and Fe.
6. The paragenetic sequence indicates a relatively high temperature of ore forma-
tion (500°-400°C).
7. Strongly hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks are spatially related to
mineralization and contain chlorite, green biotite, fluorite, tourmaline, zircon,
topaz, and chert.
8. The deposit is older than the paleo-relief marked by the hematite-rich sediment
unit.
On the basis of the above, the following genetic model is proposed for the for-
mation of the Agustina deposit. Figure 6 represents a schematic stepwise recon-
struction of the proposed genetic model.
The volcanic rocks (unit A) were deposited as shallow flows (Fig. 6/1). In the
investigated area, the deposition most probably took place in a terrestrial environ-
ment. No pillow structures have been observed in the Agustina mine, but they may
be present in other areas of the Punta del Cobre Formation (Segerstrom 1968;
Camus 1980, 1986).
Lens-shaped clastic sediments, in which the mantas occur now, were deposited
between volcanic flows (Fig. 6/2).
The clastic intercalations, covered by the succeeding flows, were peripherally
resorbed (Fig. 6/3), and in places fractured. The pore volume of these sediments
was preserved.
Epigenetic ore mineralization took place after deposition of the volcanic rocks
and their solidification. The process of mineralization requires fracturing to pro-
vide open space (i.e., stockworks, breccias, veins) for the deposition of ore
432 S. Hopf
<D lava flows @ mineralization

- ores
r----
--
--
® clastic intercalations
-
._
-
~
-
--
@ subsequent lava flows
--
~ ~
Fig. 6. Stepwise genetic model
minerals. For the origin of the fluids, the following reflections can be made. The
ore fluids were derived either from a magma unrelated to the volcanism, or from
an acid differentiate (e.g., quartz monzonite, monzonite, granodiorite) cogenetic
to volcanic rocks in the mining area. The latter possibility is supported by the
distinct differentiation from andesite to trachyte, displayed by the volcanic rocks.
The following features require a differentiated magma:
1. Hydrothermal alteration minerals, e.g., quartz, zircon (uranium-bearing),
tourmaline and fluorite, indicate a differentiated acid magma at depth.
2. The strong K-metasomatism which has taken place during mineralization.
The emplacement of a more acid body (Fig. 6/4) produced structural

weaknesses, i.e., fractures and zones of brecciation. This body can be interpreted
as a subvolcano, or as the subvolcanic solidified magma chamber of the overlying
volcanic rocks. The existence of an intrusive stock cannot be proved. However,
Segerstrom (1968) mentions subvolcanic intrusions in the Punta del Cobre Forma-
tion. The fractured volcanic rocks allowed the escape of the metal-bearing over-
critical volatile-rich phase (H 2, F, Cl, B, P) under pneumatolytic to catathermal
conditions (Fig. 6/5). Veins were developed in fissures, stockworks, and ore-bear-
ing breccias derived from brecciated zones, and disseminations originated from
fine cracks. The clastic sediments probably had a well-developed layering with dif-
ferent permeabilities which favored a stratiform ore type, the mantas. The
mineralization ended before the hematite-rich sediment unit (unit B) was
deposited. Due to an uplift, the upper part of the mineralized volcanic flows was
eroded (Fig. 6/6). The hematite-rich sediment unit (Fig. 617) was formed from the
debris of the underlying volcanic rocks, and the reworking of a formerly existing
copper deposit. In the lowermost parts it consists exclusively of volcanic clasts,
whereas in the hanging wall other components are present (e.g., quartz clasts).
The hematite-rich sediment unit was deposited under strongly oxidizing condi-
tions. The hematite in the matrix was predominantly formed from iron-bearing
sulfides of the eroded part of this deposit. The deposition of the hematite-rich
sediment took place not too far from the source rocks, under terrestrial condi-
tions. The strong relief of the volcanic rocks favored landslides with the resultant
deposition of unsorted materials. In the sandstones, cross-bedding, heavy mineral
enrichment, and graded bedding indicate a fluvial influence. The hematite-rich
sediment unit occurs only in association with underlying sulfide deposits. It can
therefore be used as an exploration target in finding similar volcanic-hosted
sulfide deposits.
Above the hematite-rich sediment the volcaniclastic unit (unit C) was
deposited (Fig. 6/8). At this time the paleo-relief still existed. The tuffs of the
volcaniclastic unit may not necessarily be related to the volcanic event which pro-
duced the rocks of the Agustina deposit (unit A).
The Agustina deposit shows similarities to porphyry copper deposits; for ex-
ample, the alteration paragenesis with green biotite, the zonation of the alteration
minerals, the geometry of the ore, and the high temperatures of ore formation.
Acknowledgments. The author gratefully acknowledges the permission of the Compania Minera
Carola to study samples from the Agustina mine, and thanks S. Lino and J. Alday for their aid during
field work and for providing useful data.
Appreciation is expressed to L. Fontbote (University of Heidelberg) for his constant help through-
out the research, stimulating discussions, thoughtful suggestions, and his assistance in electron
microprobe analyses. Constructive comments which led to improvement of this chapter were provided
by M. Jurgeit (Beneficadora de Minerales Guatamo, Mexico), I.R. Plimer and T.R. Farrell (both
University of Newcastle, Australia). Thanks are due to R.A. Zimmermann (University of Heidelberg)
for correction of the English. Additional financial support for this study was obtained from the DFG.
434 S. Hopf
References
Biese-Nickel WA (1942) La distribucion del cretaceo inferior a! sur de Copiapo. Congr Panam Ing
Min Geol, Santiago 2:429-466
Camus F (1980) Posible modelo genetico para los yacimientos de cobre del Distrito Minero Punta del
Cobre. Rev Geol Chile, Santiago 11:51-76
R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia y recursos minerales de Chile. Univ Concepcion Press 2:547-635
Hopf S (1987) Petrographische, mineralogische und geochemische Beobachtungen an der Cu-
Lagerstiitte Agustina/Distrikt Punta del Cobre/Chile. Diplomarbeit, Heidelberg, 144 p (un-
published)
Lino BS (1984) Geologia de Ia Mina Agustina, Communa de Tierra Amarilla, Provincia de Copiapo,
Region de Atacama. Mem de Titulo, Univ del Norte, Antofagasta, 161 p (unpublished)
Lino BS, Rivera CS (1985) Sobre el ambiente deposicional de Ia formacion Punta del Cobre y sus im-
plicaciones paleogeograficas. IV Congr Geol Chile, Antofagasta 1:397-409
Nysten P (1986) Gold in the volcanogenic mercury-rich sulfide deposit Umgsele, Skellefte ore district,
northern Sweden. Min Deposita 21:116-120
Ortiz F, Araya R, Franqueza F, Moraga A, Zentilli M (1966) Informe geologico del Distrito Minero
Punta del Cobre, Provincia de Atacama. Inst Inv Geol Chile, Santiago, Pub! Esp 1:4
Ramdohr P (1975) Die Erzmineralien und ihre Verwachsungen. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1277p
Ruiz C, Aguirre L, Corvalan J, Klohn C, Klohn E, Levi B (1965) Geologia y yacimientos metaliferos
de Chile. Inst Inv Geol, Santiago, 386 p
Segerstrom K (1967) Geology and ore deposits of Central Atacama Province, Chile. Geol Soc Am Bull
78:305-318
Segerstrom K (1968) Geologia de las hojas Copiapo y Ojos del Salado, Provincia de Atacama. Inst
Inv Geol, Santiago, Bol 24:58 p
Segerstrom K, Parker RL (1959) Cuadrangulo Cerrillos, Provincia de Atacama. Inst Inv Geol, San-
tiago, Carta Geol Chile 1, 2, 33 p
Segerstrom K, Ruiz C (1962) Cuadrangulo Copiapo, Provincia de Atacama. Inst Inv Geol, Santiago,
Carta Geol Chile 3, 1, 48p
Segerstrom K, Thomas H, Tilling RI (1963) Cuadrangulo Pintadas, Provincia de Atacama. Inst Inv
Geol, Santiago, Carta Geol Chile 12:52 p
Streckeisen AL (1%7) Classification and nomenclature of igneous rocks. N Jb Min Abh 107
(2/3):144- 240
Wimmenauer W (1985) Petrographie der magmatischen und metamorphen Gesteine. Enke, Stuttgart,
382 p
Zentilli M (1974) Geological evolution and metallogenetic relationships in the Andes of northern
Chile between 26° and 29° south. Ph D Thesis, Queen's Univ Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 394 p
El Soldado, a Stratabound Copper Deposit Associated
with Alkaline Volcanism
in the Central Chilean Coastal Range
E. KLOHN, C. HOLMGREN and H. RUGE
1 Introduction
The El Soldado copper deposit is located in the Coastal Range of Central Chile,
120 km NW of Santiago, at 830 m above sea level (Fig. 1). The deposit is mined
by underground methods at a rate of 11,500 tonnes per day containing 1.80Jo Cu.
Ore reserves are estimated to be 70 million tons.
The origin of this deposit has been highly controversial. Genetic models that
have been proposed include ore mineralization syngenetic with the volcanic host
rock (Ruiz et al. 1965), exhalative sedimentary origin (Camus 1980; Espinoza
1981; Ruiz et al. 1971), burial metamorphism (Sato 1984). In this paper we pre-
sent evidence that supports an epigenetic origin as suggested by Holmgren (1985).
2 Geologic Setting
The deposit is emplaced in the Lower Cretaceous Lo Prado Formation (Piraces
and Maksaev 1977), in a thick volcanic pile of alternating basic and acid flows
and pyroclastics with sedimentary intercalations. This formation represents a
transition from a shallow marine to a continental environment.
The Lo Prado Formation conformably overlies the Upper Jurassic Horqueta
Formation of continental volcanoclastic characteristics and is in turn conform-
ably overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Veta Negra Formation, mainly composed
of flood basalts and intercalations of continental sediments.
This volcanic pile has been folded into a north-striking homocline, dipping
30 °E. The clostest intrusive rocks known in the area are Upper Cretaceous grano-
diorites-diorites, which crop out in a north-trending fringe belt some 12 km east
of El Soldado. Near the El Soldado deposit only subvolcanic intrusive rocks have
been reported.
Two regional structural trends appear to converge and meet in the El Soldado
area. Strong NNW-SSE trends converge with north-south trends, and at El
Soldado there is a complex area of overlap and apparent bending of faults of one
trend into those of the other.
Mineralization was controlled primarily by fault sets and tension fracture sets
related to strike slip engendered by north-south and east-west shear couples. Min-
1 Cia. Minera Disputada de las Condes S.A., Av. Pedro de Valdivia 291, Casilla 16178 Correo 9 Pro-
videncia, Santiago, Chile

L. Font bote, G. C. Amstutz, M. Cardozo,
436 E. Klohn et al.
Fig. 1. Location map of the El soldado deposit and central Chilean belt of stratabound copper depos-
its (shaded areas)
eralized orebodies were localized where faults of the north-south set were inter-
sected by north-east tension faults related to the east-west set.
From a regional viewpoint the deposit is interpreted as formed in an island arc
environment which had been gradually migrating since the Jurassic in a west to
east direction as part of the Andean Orogenic Cycle. This cycle has been interpret-
ed as controlled by the subduction of the Pacific Ocean crust under the South
American continent (Rutland 1971; Coira et al. 1982). Arc magmatism was inter-
rupted during the Early Cretaceous by an intracontinental rifting event which led
to the formation of an ensialic trough in central Chile (Aberg et al. 1984). This
trough is interpreted as an aborted marginal basin since no oceanic crust was gen-
erated. However, mantle-derived material represented by flood basalts with a low
initial 87 Sr/ 86Sr ratio and evolved geochemical characteristics, alternating with
dacitic ignimbrites and some shallow marine and continental sediments, were de-
posited in the basin.
3 Ore Deposit Description

The following summary is mainly based upon Ruge (1985), Ahumada (1985), and
Holmgren (1985), and references therein.
El Soldado, a Stratabound Copper Deposit Associated with Alkaline Volcanism 437
0 - 0 · 0·0 · 0 · 0 · 0 · 0 ·
0·0 •0· 0·0 · 0 • 0 • 0 · 0
·0 ' 0• 0•0 • 0·0·0·0 ·
• O • O • O o O • O • O • O • 0 • 0
0 • 0 • 0 · 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 · 0 · 0 ·
0 • 0 · 0 · 0 · 0 • 0 • 0 · 0 · 0 ·0
VETA NEGRA
FORMATION {~ .o . o
1•..•.. 1
ANDESITES
VOLCANIC BRECCIAS
INTRUSIVES
{~A NDESITE
~
" " Dl KES
TRACHYTIC
FEEDERS
.5-- FAULTS
~~'"m
~
T
'"
T VOLCANIC BRECCIAS
TRACHYTES
A
--1..- SECTION
LO PRADO
FORMATION
" G_.. MINERALIZATION
~ ANDESITES OUTCROP OUTLINE
[]]]] CALCAREOUS
SEDIMENTS
0
SCALE
oo ..
Fig. 2. Simplified geological surface map, El Soldado
At the El Soldado mine, the Lo Prado Formation is composed of interlayered

trachytic and andesitic flows, pyroclastics of acid to intermediate composition,
and some fossiliferous sedimentary rocks of shallow marine association. (Figs. 2
and 3).
Dikes of acid and basic composition cut through the whole column. Some
trachytic dikes are feeders for the corresponding trachyte flows.
438 E. Klohn et al.
VETA NEGRA
{~ ~
~ ANDESITES
{r.;-:;Tl
~ 01 KES
ANDESITE
FORMATION I NTRUS IVES f'7"71+

+ TRACHYTIC
~ VOLCANIC BRECCIAS L.2:.....2:...J FEEDERS
!
~ ~gr~~NI~N~RECCIAS - - FAULTS
LO PRADO lvvvv I TRACHYTES MINERALIZATION

rl>>>>l 1.2% Cu CUTOFF
FORMATION
~ ANDESITES [ 3 0.5% Cu CUTOFF
[ill] CALCAREOUS
SEDIMENTS 0 200m
SCALE
Fig. 3. Simplified geologic cross-section A-N
The effusive flows generally interfinger laterally with pyroclastic rocks of simi-
lar composition.
3.1 Principal Host Rocks
The principal host rocks at El Soldado are trachytes, followed in importance by

andesites. Tuffs of trachytic and andesitic composition are less commonly host
rocks, as are the sedimentary intercalations.
Trachytes. El Soldado trachyte is composed of albite phenocrysts (An2 _ 5) in a

groundmass composed of albite microlites, fine-grained anhedral potassic feld-
spar, and minor quartz. Quantitative electron microprobe studies verify that there
are no nucleii or more calcic zones within the feldspars, and the texture appears
to be primary. Universal stage studies show that albites with crystalline structures
of high and low temperature make up crystal clots. All of this evidence points to
a primary, magmatic origin for the plagioclase.
Scarce relicts are present, suggesting former ferromagnesian minerals. Magne-
tite and zircon appear as accessory minerals. Trachyte shows a wide textural vari-
ety, ranging from intrusive to ignimbritic types, yet the chemical composition is
remarkably homogeneous even in sampales taken several kilometers away from
the orebodies and in different flows.
The trachytic nature of the host rock has been a subject of strong controversy.
First it was postulated to be formed by Na metasomatism of andesites (Aliste in
Ruiz et al. 1965; Olcay and Alarcon 1975), or a trachyte still (Bassi 1958) formed
either by interaction with marine water or hydrothermal alteration of andesites,
and related directly with the emplacement for the ore. Another interpretation
(Terrazas 1977) relates albitization to Na metasomatism of rhyolitic ignimbrites
in conjunction with ore emplacement.
The relationship between immobile elements, Zr/Ti02 and Si02 (Ahumada
1985), demonstrates that this rock is far from being an albitized andesite. Instead,
it probably corresponds to an originally abnormally alkaline rhyolitic-dacitic
magma (Fig. 4) even though it contains no quartz, as would be expected. Because
of the highly alkaline composition and peculiar mineralogy, the preferred name
of this rock is trachyte.
These characteristics point more to the unusual development of an early con-
taminated magma rather than a complete transformation of dacitic ignimbrites
brought about by the low burial metamorphism facies which has been document-
ed for the Veta Negra and the Lo Prado Formations. Relatively "fresh" nome-
crystallized ignimbrites with some scarce glass relicts coexist with trachytes show-
ing primary holocrystaline textures (or perfectly mimicked primary textures ac-
cording to other interpretations).
Whatever the origin of such an alkaline rock, the presence of albite does not
necessarily imply proximity to ore. Nor does is show the typical spilitic texture or
keratophyric mineralogy, and even less so what one would expect as a product of
hydrothermal alteration alone. Moreover, it lacks the characteristic trace elements
(Sn, U, high P) typical of truly alkaline rocks.
Andesites. The El Soldado andesites are porphyritic with plagioclase and augite
phenocrysts. The plagioclases are unusually low in anorthite, and comprise
oligoclase-andesine (An 25 _ 36). The groundmass is composed of plagioclase
microlites in random arrangement with interstitial K-feldspar, clinopyroxenes, (re-
placed by chlorite), and some devitrified glass.
The mineralogic and chemical composition of these andesites does not corre-
spond to normal andesites due to their low (530Jo) silica content and the low anor-
thite content (25- 36%) of the plagioclase. They are locally named "alkaline
andesites" to distinguish them from some "true" andesites and basalts, which are
composed of labradorite, clinopyroxene, magnetite, and altered olivine.
Recent regional studies by Levi et al. (1985) demonstrate that the andesites to-
gether with some basalts in the area, geochemically belong to the shoshonitic se-
ries.
Table 1 shows the average chemical composition of the trachytes and andesites.
440 E. Klohn et a!.
Si0 2
(wt 0/o)
70
68 +
66
RD+D +~
64 + + illill
+
62 +
60
58 A
56
54
52
50 Sub- AB
48
46
AB
44
42
40oooz 0.01 0.1 Zr/TiOz
AB Alkali basalts, howoiites, 6) T rochyt ic dikes

mugearites, tra c hybosalts
Sub- AB Sub-at kol ine basalts (tholeiitic + Trachytes

and high- alumino)
D+RO Dacites and rhyodocites • Andesites
TA Trochyandesites
T Trachytes
A Andesites
Fig. 4. Si0 2 vs. Zr/Ti0 2 classification diagram for altered volcanic rocks. The El Soldado trachytes
plot preferentially on the rhyodacite field, with the andesites on the basalt field. Both rock types are
clearly different (Floyd and Winchester 1978)
Mineralization. At the El Soldado deposit, copper mineralization has been recog-

nized throughout an area 1800 m long (N-S) by 700 m wide, in the upper member
of the Lo Prado Formation. Mineralization occurs as numerous isolated
orebodies with variable dimensions from 100 to 450 m in length, 30 to 150 m in
width, and 80 to 250 m in height.
The orebodies, with strong stuctural controls, are oriented parallel to the N-S
and NE fault systems and are discordant with the stratification. Lateral limits of
the orebodies are characterized by abrupt variations in the copper grade. The tran-
sition from high-grade zones (20Jo Cu) to low-grade zones outside the orebody (0.5
to 1.2% Cu) takes place within a few meters. The wall rock between orebodies is
generally barren (below 0.15% Cu).
Sulfide mineralization is primary. Orebodies are zonally arranged. They exhib-
it an outer pyrite-rich halo, followed inwards by abundand chalcopyrite and a bor-
Table 1. Chemical compositions of different rock types present at the El Soldado mining district
AND (3) L.P. (6) V.N. (2) AND* TRQ (7) T.M. (5) T.C. (3) TRQ **
Si02 53.8 50.7 53.9 55.61 62.0 65.2 59.9 63.50
Al20 3 15.57 17.7 16.6 16.71 15.23 13.4 16.9 17.87
F~0 3 9.5 9.09 8.35 8.36 3.07 0.53 0.69 1.63
FeO 1.57 2.06
CaO 4.92 8.71 5.0 5.66 3.21 2.35 4.20 0.57
MgO 4.68 4.9 4.3 3.61 0.86 0.13 0.50 0.59
Na20 4.27 2.96 4.4 4.04 4.71 3.27 7.7 6.22
K20 2.11 1.40 3.5 2.77 4.94 5.33 1.6 4.98
Ti02 0.66 0.85 0.83 1.33 0.39 0.34 0.51 0.65
MnO 0.3 0.24 0.27 0.15 0.14 0.04 0.07 0.14
P20s 0.13 0.12 0.19 0.37 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.17
ZrO 0.005 0.01 0.01 0.011 0.02 0.02
H 2o+ 0.5 0.3 0.07 0.14
H 2o+ 3.55 1.37 0.12 0.17
LOI 4.4 3.32 4.42
AND, Andesites (Ahumada 1985); L.P., Lo Prado formation andesites, far from the mine (Levi writ-
ten commun.); V.N., Veta Negra formation andesites, far from the mine (Holmgren 1985); TRQ,
Average selected as "unaltered" trachyte (Holmgren 1985, Ahumada 1985); T.M., Morro dike
trachytes {Ahumada 1985); T.C., Catedrallike trachytes {Ahumada 1985); (3), Number of analyses;
AND •, Andesites from Vinogradov (1962); TRQ ••, Trachytes from Turner and Verhoogen (1960).
nite core with minor chalcocite and hematite, with these minerals being deposited
in this same paragenetic sequence. The principal gangue minerals are calcite,
quartz, chlorite, epidote, and albite. Development of the various bornite-
chalcocite ore zones throughout the deposit appear to be related to heat sources
associated with trachyte feeder dykes.
About half of the copper mineralization occurs as finely disseminated grains
and half in veinlets or microveinlets. The sulfides tend to be in open space fillings
in the centers of the shoots and grade outward to disseminated mineralization.
Sulfide mineralization is more pervasive near the convergence of the trachyte
feeder dikes and their corresponding trachyte layers. Away from such areas,
orebodies are smaller and less numerous. The dikes themselves are poorly miner-
alized (Fig. 3).
Hydrothermal Alteration. Hydrothermal alteration at El Soldado is expressed

mainly as carbonatization, chloritization, silicification, and albitization.
Carbonatization was the dominant hydrothermal process to have affected the
deposit, and shows a wide, highly pronounced pervasive halo in trachytes, and
also manifested as multiple generations of veinlets.
Silicification is mainly associated with the central bornite zones of the
orebodies. Locally, silicification also significantly affected trachytic feeder dykes
in the proximity of structures that conducted the mineralizing fluids.
The chloritization process was better developed in andesites and tuffs, in which
ferromagnesian minerals were altered to pycnochlorites together with some
epidote and calcite. A few gangue chlorites in veinlets have a chemical composi-
tion near to ripidolite.
442 E. Klohn et a!.
Late albite occurs as veinlets and patches within primary albite phenocrysts.
Albite is sometimes present as veinlets with scarce associated Cu sulfides. It also
occurs as vesicle filling in andesites and tuffs. This albitization, however, was of
merely local development, was nonpervasive and confined to albites of low-tem-
perature crystalline structures. Hematitization is found mainly in the core zones
of the orebodies. Hematite occurs as minute metacrysts surrounding copper sul-
fides, thus indicating formation from the excess iron resulting from hypogene re-
placement of the copper sulfides.
4 Sulfur Isotope Analyses
Five samples containing the different sulfide associations present in the deposit
were selected for this study.
As our results show (Thble 2}, sulfides from the different ore zones within an
orebody (samples D-1, D-2, and D-3) have isotope ratios close to 0 permil. This
supports a magmatic origin for the sulfur of the ore-forming sulfide minerals.
The observed variation in sulfur isotope composition is most likely due to varia-
tion in temperature and oxygen fugacity, as discussed by Ohmoto (1972).
Similar results have been obtained for a number of stratab()und copper depos-
its in the Chilean Coastal Range as well as porphyry copper deposits (Sasaki et
al. 1984).
Table 2. Sulfur isotope analyses
Sample no. Description &34sa
D-1 Chalcopyrite+ pyrite zone -5.2%o

D-2 Bornite zone -1.5%o
D-3 Chalcopyrite zone -0.3%o
D-4 Framboidal pyrite +28.4%o
D-5 Pyrite in sediments +7.3%o
a Written communication by Krueger Enterprises Inc.

1984.
Sample D-4 comprises framboidal pyrite taken from a sedimentary parting be-
tween lava flows immediately underlying the orebody. This material occurs rarely
at El Soldado. It seems to have no relation whatsoever with the main stage of cop-
o
per mineralization. Their 34 S at+ 28.4%o makes a biogenic origin with participa-
tion of sulfur from marine water most probable. Pyrite from black calcareous sed-
iments (sample D-5) immediately underlying host rocks of the same orebody
o
yields a 34 S of+ 7.8%o, likewise indicating a nonmagmatic origin for the sulfur.
This pyrite is also nonrelated to the main stage of copper mineralization.
5 Study of Fluid Inclusions

Thirteen representative samples from the main orebodies and from different
stratigraphic horizons and paragenetic zones within each orebody were analyzed.
Likewise sampled were gangue minerals clearly associated with the ore, as well as
late barren veins.
The study comprises about 400 homogenization temperature measurements,
ice melting temperatures, and NaCl melting temperatures.
All fluid inclusions found were type I (liquid phase plus vapor) and type III
(liquid plus vapor and daughter crystals).
The following is a summary of the results (Holmgren 1985)
Freezing stage results indicate that the inclusions are highly saline, and their
characteristics suggest that, in addition to NaCl, CaC12 could be an impor-
tant component of these fluid inclusions. The presence of daughter crystals
of NaCl in some inclusions shows that the fluid was at times saturated in
NaCI.
Complete dissolution of NaCl crystals was observed up to 244 °C, indicating
a maximum NaCl content concentration of 34 weight %. This represents the
minimum NaCl formation temperature or trapping temperature.
Salinities were very high throughout all parageneses and remained so for a
considerable time after the formation of the deposit.
There is no evidence of boiling. Vapor-rich inclusions were found nowhere in
the system.
In a single orebody, highest homogenization temperatures belong to samples
from the chalcopyrite-pyrite paragenesis (240-260°C, uncorrected tempera-
tures). The intermediate temperature ranges belong to the bornite-chalcocite asso-
ciation and the lowest temperatures are recorded for the late barren veinlets
(80-104°C, uncorrected temperatures). Generally, lower temperature popula-
tions are trapped within initial growth zones. This prograde can vary, for example,
from 100 to 250 °C (uncorrected temperatures) within a single crystal in the
chalcopyrite zone.
No obvious variation in temperature and salinity were observed between sam-
ples from different stratigraphic horizons, which instead seem zoned with respect
to different centers or conduits of ascending solutions.
A summary of homogenization temperature data on the primary fluid inclu-
sion is shown in Thble 3.
Pressure corrections for the fluid inclusions at El Soldado can be only gross-
ly estimated, since the age of mineralization is not well known, hence the rock
column above the orebodies at the time of ore deposition can be only in-
ferred.
There is no unconformity or evidence of erosion between the Lo Prado Forma-
tion, hosting the ore, and the Veta Negra Formation that overlies it. Thus the max-
imum possible rock column load is represented by the thickness of the Veta Negra
Formation (7000 m, Levi 1968). This thickness also coincides with that required
for the development of the prehnite-pumpellyite facies. The effects of such burial
metamorphism can be observed in the Lo Prado Formation rocks.
444 E. Klohn et a!.
Table 3. Homogenization temperature data on primary fluid inclusions
Range of uncorrected Maximum temperatures (DC)

temperatures (°C)
A B
Early cloudy calcite 98 to 230 295 400

Quartz 105 to 257 320 420
Late barren calcite 82 to 104 175 260
A, Maximum temperature corrected for hydrostatic pressure; B, maximum temperature corrected for
lithostatic pressure.
The maximum temperature corrections that are shown in Thble 3 were calculat-
ed bearing in mind this assumption, that the lithostatic pressure calculated for
7000 m is 1800 bar and the hydrostatic pressure 680 bar (assumed lithostatic pres-
sure gradient is 270 bar/km).
6 El Soldado Genetic Model Discussion

Various genetic models have been proposed for the El Soldado deposit by differ-
ent authors.
The present authors believe that the data gathered to date fit better and more
simply hydrothermal epigenetic model related to a magmatic source.
A discussion is presented on the arguments of the three most supported genetic
models, namely the epigenetic model, the exhalative sedimentary model, and the
metamorphic model.
a) Epigenetic Origin Related to an Acid Subvo/canic, but Relatively Deep,
Magmatism. The source of the hydrothermal solutions would be the vaning phase
of acidic volcanic activity under a contemporaneously compressive regime result-
ing in the accumulation of residual solutions that contribute mainly S, H 20,
C02 , and some metals. This would be consistent with the extreme salinities of
the solutions, the sulfur isotope values, and the absence of boiling, which implies
a relatively deep source. The extremely high salinities of the solutions rule out the
possibility of mixing with meteoric and/or marine water.
We cannot, however, rule out the possibility of mixing with metamorphic flu-
ids (discussed below for the metamorphic origin hypothesis).
Copper could originate, in part, from the leaching of the andesitic volcanic pile
and underlying sediments. This is suggested not only by the regional background
copper content of these rocks but also by the Co/Ni and Zn/Pb ratios of the ore,
among other trace elements, whose values resemble those of these same rocks.
Trachytes are the preferred host rock, andesites rank second. Thffs and sedi-
ments are barren.
The spatial relationship between the large orebodies and the trachytic feeder
dykes is interpreted as a structural relationship. The fault system serving as con-
duits for the solutions are parallel to the dyke trend, both having made use of pre-
existing fracture zones above the magma chamber.
According to the fluid inclusion analysis results, the most feasible ore precipi-
tation mechanism is firstly, fluid reaction with the wall rock. Thus, calcite was the
first to precipitate, then the fluids bearing copper as complex chloride ions were
changed through a reduction in pH or possibly a decrease in Cl- concentration
by reaction with the strong Cl- ion-pairing cation Ca2 + , resulting in precipita-
tion of the copper from the chloride complexes (Barnes 1979). A subordinate pre-
cipitation mechanism could be drop in temperature, which is evidenced by the dis-
crete temperature differences recorded for each paragenesis.
The consistent localization of mineralization beneath the oxidized Veta Negra
Formation suggests that a change in oxygen fugacity could have influenced ore
deposition.
The most obvious alternative is to relate mineralization to intrusives of the pre-
viously-discussed alkaline magmatism. The other (less probable) alternative is to
relate mineralization to a regional granodioritic intrusive of the type as previously
described cropping out 12 km east of El Soldado. Such an intrusive is not exposed
near the mine and would supposedly be located beneath the Patagua Member of
the Lo Prado Formation.
The mineralization age, according to any of these alternatives, would be
Aptian-Albian, i.e., towards the end of the deposition of the Veta Negra Forma-
tion.
b) Exhalative Sedimentary Origin, or a Variation of Abortive Massive Sulfide.

The ore was deposited with a clear structural control in marine-continental se-
quences without any evidence of exhalites or truly manto-type deposits. Likewise,
no characteristic trace elements or sulfur isotope relationships, barite occurrenc-
es, or other indications have been found to support this explanation. At El
Soldado, only very localized sectors occur with jasper or framboidal pyrites, and
these are always pre-copper mineralization or barren, indicating rather a sedimen-
tary environment than a mineralization event. We agree with the discussion by
Sato (1984) and references theirein that there is no persuasive evidence that would
sustain this explanation, particularly for El Soladao.
If the El Soldado orebodies had been the lower conduits of a massive sulfide,
it is likely that some seawater admixture would be recorded in the fluid inclusions,
which would necessarily have led to generating fluids noticeably less saline than
those actually found. If such conditions had occurred, evidence of boiling should
also be found, considering the shallow marine environment indicated by the
fossiliferous intercalations.
As stated previously, there is no sufficient evidence of unconformity due to
erosion between the Lo Prado and Veta Negra Formations to suggest complete re-
moval of an assumed associated manto of a massive sulfide type mineralization.
c) Metamorphic Origin. Explanations involving a possible burial metamorphic

origin for this "El Soldado type" of deposit (Sato 1984) have gained more and
more adherents.
However, only in the El Soldado area have prehnite-pumpellyite facies with
laumontite been documented. Evidence is not clear for the development of a
greenschist facies in the lower members of the Lo Prado Formation in this area,
446 E. Klohn et a!.
intense enough to have generated fluids for later migration to rock units in which
the ore occurs.
Some mineralogical data suggest the development of burial metamorphism
conditions (prehnite-pumpellyite facies) prior to or at least acting during ore de-
position. Rb-Sr dating shows that the lavas underwent burial metamorphism
shortly after their extrusion (Aberg et al. 1984). A study of chlorites by electron
microprobe has demonstrated that those chlorites with an apparently regional dis-
tribution are diabantites, while those related with the ore mineralization are pyc-
nochlorites. The textural relationships in samples in which both chlorites occur
suggest that diabantites were formed previous to the pycnochlorite deposition.
Salinities such as reported in this study are not described in the literature avail-
able for this type of metamorphism. Crawford (1982) records exceptional cases
in metamorphosed carbonate sediments in which the metamorphic fluids were
highly saline, with a maximum 23- 250Jo NaCl equivalent, but the fluids are not
NaCl-saturated. CaC12 can account for about half of the total dissolved salts.
Other exceptional cases are reported in association with sequences that include
evaporites, which is not the case in the El Soldado area.
For an assumed burial metamorphic origin, temperature zonation must be
strongly controlled by stratigraphy. However, at El Soldado, different orebodies
found at relatively similar stratigraphic levels may have different fluid inclusion
temperatures. These temperatures are usually higher than those limiting the stabil-
ity of the prehnite-pumpellyite facies if pressure is corrected for thickness in ac-
cordance with the development of that facies.
Stable sulfur isotope data show a great dispersion of o34 S in samples coming
from nearby sediments or very close pyritic horizons not strictly related to the
orebodies. A certain degree of homogenization of these values would be expected
through metamorphic reworking.
Thus, a burial metamorphic origin of the El Soldado deposit is not very likely
on present evidence.
7 Conclusions
1. Field evidence has shown that at El Soldado the combination of various factors
contributes to form the best orebodies. These occur in trachyte flows, spatially re-
lated to their feeder dykes, and associated with the major fault systems. Andesites
and tuffs are considerably less pervasively mineralized than trachytes.
El Soldado has been included within the central Chilean belt of stratabound
copper deposits because their host rocks of the same Lower Cretaceous age. Ore
mineralization occurs finely disseminated and in veinlets, and displays a similar
primary sulfide assemblage of pyrite-chalcopyrite-bornite-chalcocite with
specularite and low sulfur to metal ratios.
2. The trachyte and andesite host rocks comprise an originally alkaline rock
suite, rather than originated by burial metamorphism or local Na metasomatism.
Recently described flood basalts within Lower Cretaceous volcanic rocks of
the same area are thought to have been generated by intracontinental rifting, im-
plying a deep source or mantle-derived material. This is a possible explanation

for the origin of the peculiar rock suite at El Soldado.
3. Data gathered to date support an epigenetic emplacement of the mineraliza-
tion, probably associated with the waning phase of trachytic magmatism. This is
consistent with:
- the extremely high salinities of the mineralizing fluids, typical for a magmatic
source;
- sulfur isotopes with a o34S close to zero permil, reported for the El Soldado
sulfides, are commonly considered indicative of a magmatic origin for sulfur.
4. There is no evidence of boiling in these highly saline fluids. This implies that
the ore probably precipitated due to wall-rock reaction with the fluids and that
this process took place at a relatively deep level. The alternative, that mineraliza-
tion at El Soldado took place at sufficient hydrostatic depth to prevent boiling,
is invalidated by the presence of shallow-water sediments intercalated with the
volcanics that host the ore. Correspondingly, dilution with marine or meteoric wa-
ter is incompatible with the observed salinities.
Acknowledgments. This paper is the result of the systematic team work of all El Soldado geologists.
The authors express their thanks Mr. L. D. Hayes, Executive Vicepresident of Compaiiia Minera
Disputada de Las Condes S. A. for his continued support, critical reviews, and approval to publish
this article. Likewise we extend our gratitude to Dr. G. Westra and Dr. B. Levi, for constructive criti-
cism. J. L. Walker, A. E. Bence and J.P. Lawler from the Geological Research Department, Exxon
Minerals Co., also gave valuable advice for the laboratory research and interpretation work.
References
Aberg G, Aguirre L, Levi B, NystrOm JO (1984) Spreading subsidence and generation of ensialic mar-
ginal basins, an example from the early Cretaceous of central Chile. In: Kokelaar BP, Howells MF
(eds) Marginal basin geology. Geol Soc Spec Publ16, pp 185-193
Ahumada R (1985) Eventos Intrusivos en el Yacimiento Cupdfero El Soldado, V Region, Chile. IV
Congr Geol Chile IV: 752-773
Barnes H (1979) Solubilities of ore minerals. In: Barnes H (ed) Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore de-
posits. Wiley, New York, pp 404-460
Bassi H (1958) Estudio Geologico de Mina El Soldado. Inf Ined CMD 26 p
Camus F (1980) Distrito Minero Punta del Cobre, Modelo Interpretativo. Rev Geol Chile 11:51-76
Crawford ML (1982) Fluid inclusions in metamorphic rocks - low and medium grade metamorphic
rocks. Bryn Mawr, Penn. Chapter 7. In: Hollister LS, Crawford ML (eds) Course of fluid inclu-
sions - applications to petrology. Min. Ass Canada, Calgary, pp 157-164
Espinoza S (1981) Volcanismo y Metalogenesis, una Introduccion al Thma in Aetas deller. Coloquio
sobre Volcanismo y Metalogenesis. Dept Geosci, Univ Norte, pp 16-27
Floyd P, Winchester J (1978) Identification and discrimination of altered and metamorphosed volca-
nic rocks using immobile elements. Chern Geol 21:291-306
Holmgren C (1985) Antecedentes para un Modelo Genetico del Yacimiento El Soldado. V Region. IV
Congr Geol Chile, Antofagasta IV: 626-650
Levi B (1968) Cretaceous volcanic rocks from a part of the Coast Range west from Santiago, Chile:
A study on lithology variation and burial metamorphism in the Andean geosyncline. Ph. D. The-
sis, Univ California, Berkeley, 121 p
448 E. Klohn et al.
Levi B, NystrOm JO, Thiele R, Aberg G (1985) Geochemical variations in Mesowic-Tertiary volcanic
rocks from the Andes in Central Chile and amplications for the tectonic evolution. Comunica-
ciones No 35. Dep Geol, Univ Chile, Santiago, pp 125-128
Ohmoto H (1972) Systematics of sulfur and carbon isotopes in hydrothermal ore deposits. Econ Geol
67:551-578
Olcay L, Alarcon B (1975) Alteracion Hidrothermal Sodica de Mina El Soldado, Provincia de
Valparaiso, Chile. II Congr lberoam Geol Econ, Buenos Aires 11:1-9
Piraces R, Maksaev V (1977) Geologia de Ia Hoja Quillota. IIG, Santiago (unpublished)
Ruge H (1985) Geologia y Mineralizacion del Yacimiento de Cobre El Soldado, V Region, Chile. IV
Congr Geol Chile IV:855- 872
Ruiz C, Aguirre L, Corvalan J, Klohn C, Klohn E, Levi B (1965) Geologia y Yacimientos Metaliferos
de Chile. IIG, Santiago 305 p
Ruiz C, Aguilar A, Egert F, Espinosa W, Peebles F, Quezada R, Serrano M (1971) Strata-bound cop-
per sulfide deposits of Chile. Soc Min Geol Jpn, Spec Issue 3:252-260
Rutland RWR (1971) Andean orogeny and sea floor spreading. Nature (Lond) 233:252-255
Sasaki A, Ulriksen CE, Sato K, Terashima S, Sato T, Endo Y (1984) Sulfur isotope reconnaissance
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(11):615-624
Sato T (1984) Manto-type copper deposits in Chile, a Review. Bull Geol Surv Jpn 35 (11):565-582
Thrrazas R (1977) Petrografia Alteracion Hidrothermal y Mineralizacion del Yacimiento Cuprffero El
Soldado. Provincia de Valparaiso, Chile. Mem de Titulo, Thsis de Doctorado, Univ Chile
Thrner FJ, Verhoogen J (1960) Igneous and metamorphic petrology. McGraw-Hill, New York, 545
Vinogradov AP (1962) Average contents of chemical elements in the principal types of the igneous
rocks of the Earth's crust. Geochemistry 7:641-664
Geological Characteristics of Stratabound Deposits
Associated with Lacustrine Sediments, Central Chile
F. CAMUS 1
1 Introduction
Copper stratabound deposits, in part referred to in Chile as "manto type", are dis-
tributed along the coastal range of northern Chile and the western foothills of the
main Andean range of central Chile. They represent the second most important
source of copper in the country. Some of them also contain significant amounts
of silver, lead, and zinc.
A group of these deposits, associated with volcano-sedimentary rocks of Low-
er Cretaceous age in central Chile is described in this paper. These deposits
formed in restricted basins (Fig. 1) after the gradual disappearance during the
Jurassic-Neocomian of a regionally extensive ensialic back-arc basin due to a
change from a "Mariana" high-angle type to "Chilean" low-angle type of subduc-
tion regime (Coira et al. 1982). The main characteristics of these deposits are:
(a) they are hosted by marine and volcanogenic sediments; (b) permeable volcano-
clastic sandstones and tuffs are the most favorable sites for mineralization,
chalcopyrite, chalcocite, and bornite coexisting with hematite, magnetite, pyrite,
and locally galena and sphalerite are the main copper sulfides; (c) similarly miner-
alized vein structures are temporally and spatially related to the stratabound min-
eralization; (d) wallrock alteration is weak: chlorite, carbonates, and quartz are
the main alteration minerals present.
The better-known examples of these deposits are the Talcuna, Cerro Negro
(Elgueta et al., this Vol.), Los Mantos de Catemu, Guayacan, and Uchumi dis-
tricts located in central Chile (Fig. 1). Other such districts also shown in Fig. 1
are Sauce, La Torre, and Peumo-Rusa. Each one of these districts is composed
of several individual stratabound and associated vein deposits.
2 Geologic Setting
The manto-type deposits shown in Fig. 1 are enclosed in volcano-sedimentary
rock units of the Quebrada Marquesa, Lo Prado, or Las Chilcas Formation of
Lower Cretaceous age. Geotectonic interpretations of the Chilean Andes suggest
that the stratigraphic units enclosing these deposits represent a transition stage be-
tween the marine and continental domains that existed from Early Jurassic to
Lower Cretaceous ages in association with a back-arc basin bounded on the west
1 Camino del Valle Alto 1327, Santiago, Chile

450 F. Camus
\
70°
..;;e
...
"
<:>
..."'
.."' "'
"'
0..
"
;z
32°--~~--~----~------+-----~~~--+-~----
CER RO NEGRO
CATE MU BAS IN
SANTI AGO
0 0
Fig. 1. Location map of the lacustrine-sediment hosted stratabound deposits, with the two main clus-
ters of orebodies (shaded area). 1 Talcuna; 2 Uchumf; 3 La Torre; 4 Carmen; 5 Peuma-Rusa;
6 Guayacan; 7 Cerro Negro; 8 Mantos de Catemu; 9 Sauce; 10 Naltagua
by a magmatic arc and on the east by a continental foreland (Coira et al. 1982;
Mpodozis 1984).
The base of these three formations consists of calcareous and shaly sediments
with abundant volcanic components. Finely laminated layers of shales and
siltstone usually overlying the calcareous sandstone horizons have been interpret-
ed as formed in a lagoonal environment. In the Talcuna district, these sedimenta-
ry rocks are overlain by relatively thick manganese-rich horizons that extend to
the south for more than 70 km. Locally some volcanic units occur interbedded
with marine sediments.
Geological Characteristics of Stratabound Deposits Associated with Lacustrine Sediments 451
This sedimentary facies has been interpreted by Camus ( 1986) as representing

a transitional littoral to sublittoral lacustrine environment associated with the de-
velopment of restricted basins. The presence of volcanic components in the sedi-
ments indicates that during the development of these basins (Fig. 1) volcanism
was still active on the magmatic arc to the west.
During the Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary, a subduction-related magmatic
arc along the margin of the continent resulted in thousands of meters of andesitic,
dacitic, and rhyolitic flows conformably overlying the sedimentary units.
3 Geology of the Deposits

Table 1 summarizes the main geologic characteristics of these manto-type
deposits. Some of the main common features and significative differences are giv-
en below.
3.1 Economic Importance
Lacustrine sediment-hosted stratabound deposits represent important sources of

copper for the small- and medium-sized mining industry in Chile. The average de-
posit contains about 2 million tons with 1.70Jo Cu and 0.8 oz/t Ag. In the Cerro
Negro district, 6 million metric tons between 1% and 3% Cu, 1 oz/t Ag, minor
lead, and zinc have been reported.
3.2 Morphology
Each of the districts indicated in Table 1 consists of one to six lenticular-shaped

stratabound deposits, roughly circular to ellipsoidal in plan, distributed within ar-
eas of 2 to 4 km2 •
The upper limit of each orebody is usually associated with a change in the per-
meability of the lithologic units involved, i.e., from a permeable host rock to an
impervious hanging wall unit. The lower limit may also correspond to a lithologic
change, but is commonly associated with a gradual decrease of the mineralization
and is defined by a cut-off grade; this characteristic is also true for the lateral
boundaries.
In the Cerro Negro district (Figs. 2, 4) only one such manto-type deposit has
been recognized to date, covering approximately 2 km2 • However, in districts
where several such deposits exist, each of them may cover between 50000 to
200 000 m2 • Vertical dimensions of mineralization vary from 1 m to 12 m, indi-
eating very low height to width ratios.
In the Guayacan district (Fig. 4), located within the Cerro Negro-Catemu Ba-
sin, at least four bodies are hosted by a calcareous sandstone filling channel-like
depressions of a paleo-relief, and in the upper vesicular part of the underlying
andesitic lava flows (Carter and Aliste 1964). Vertical differences of up to 10m
have been measured between the vesicular crest of flows and the sediment-filled
452 F. Camus
Table 1. Geological characteristics of selected lacustrine sediment-hosted stratabound deposits
Name Production Grades Geologic setting

and
reserves (t) OJo Cu g/t Ag Host rock Igneous activity
(post-mineralization)
Talcuna 4300000 1.47 38 Shallow sedimentary Andesitic dikes and

facies with important sills
Uchumi 320000 1.60 20 volcanic com- Andesitic dikes and
ponents. Calcareous sills
Cerro Negro 6000000 2.0 and tuffaceous sand-
Los Mantos 2000000 1.75 20 stone, calcareous Dioritic stock
de Catemu shale, conglomerate andesitic dikes
Guayacan 500000 1.90 Shallow marine No igneous activity
La Torre 300000 1.80 facies, locally chan-
Peumo Rusa 500000 2.0 nel-like depressions
in vesicular andesite
porphyry filled with
calcareous sedimen-
tary rocks
Note: Qtz = quartz, Cal = calcite, Chi = chlorite
depressions. The largest orebody at the Guayacan mine is about 100m long and
7 to 12m wide.
Vein-type mineralization is spatially and genetically associated with these strata-
bound deposits. These vein bodies contain mineralogical assemblages identical to
the respective stratabound mantos. They are tabular and lenticular in shape, vary-
ing from 100 to 1000 in length, 1 to 2 m in width and 100 to 200m in depth, and
have gradational contacts. These discordant veins originate below the manto depos-
its. In some cases, such as at Los Mantos de Catemu, they fade out in the upper
part of the manto; in Thlcuna (Fig. 3) they cut through up to the hanging wall. Ore
grade increases in Thlcuna at the manto vein intersection (Boric 1985). However, at
Guayacan, Uchumi, and Cerro Negro, no vein bodies have been recognized to date.
3.3 Lithology
Manto-type ore is mainly hosted in tuffaceous and calcareous sandstones, calcar-

eous and carbonaceous shales, and in volcanic breccias. These rocks suggest de-
position in a lacustrine environment with or without freshwater circulation. Thin-
ly interlayered volcanoclastic horizons and fragments denote a genetic relation-
ship of these sediments with an active volcanic arc.
In Thlcuna, Cerro Negro, and Catemu districts host rocks are gray to greenish
gray brecciated calcareous sandstones containing subrounded to subangular vol-
canic fragments. Cement is calcite and chlorite. Mineralization occurs in the feld-
spathic matrix and in the volcaniclastics. Host rocks at Peumo-La Rusa and La
Torre are calcareous shales or carbonaceous limestones containing some
volcaniclastics.
Orebodies Sulfides Alteration References
Stratabound Cross-cutting Qtz Cal Chi

mineralization
Cu-Pb-Zn as fine Cu-Pb-Zn sulfides Bornite-chalcopy- - X X Peebles (1966)

disseminations and along veins rite-galena-sphale- Boric (1985)
veinlets. Mn as beneath and cut- rite-chalcocite- X X Ulriksen ( 1970)
massive horizons. ting through the covellite
Locally laminated mantos. X X X Espinoza (1969)
pyrite Mineralization of X X X Camus (1986)
open space filling
Finely
disseminated Cu No cross-cutting Bornite-chalcopy- - X - Carter and Aliste (1964)
sulfides. Locally mineralization rite-pyrite-chalco- - X - Serrano (1976)
Co pyrite-safflorite X - Serrano (1976)
3.4 Intrusive Activity
Steeply dipping dikes associated with regional faulting appear in most orebodies.
In the Cerro Negro district, a subvolcanic andesitic to dioritic intrusive body cuts
through the southern portion of the deposit (Fig. 4). In general, all the intrusive
bodies are barren and possibly post-mineralization in age.
3.5 Structure
Several structural systems have been recognized in the different districts. Some of
them are pre-mineralization and appear to control the emplacement of the vein-
type orebodies. Others are post-mineralization and cause significant vertical dis-
placements of the stratabound ore deposits.
The principal pre-mineralization fault systems have trends N-S to
N20°-40°W and near vertical dips and host veins and andesitic dikes. At the
Uchumi and La Torre deposits, no associated vein deposits are found, although
the mantos are clearly controlled by N-S- to NNE-striking faults. Lense-shaped
manto bodies are usually found at the intersection of the faults and favorable
stratigraphic units such as a calcareous sandstone (i.e., Thlcuna and Los Mantos
de Catemu). Copper grades tend to increase as the faults are approached (e.g.,
Uchumi and Los Mantos de Catemu). Post-mineral faulting affects all the dis-
tricts and tends to be of a normal dip-slip nature with some strike-slip displace-
ments. Vertical displacements of more than 10m have been measured at Los Man-
tos de Catemu.
Folding appears to be less important and has no control over mineralization
processes. Although districts like Los Mantos de Catemu show minor folding,
454 F. Camus
NA
/
/
(
Klcn
' f ""
EXPLANATION
---
~ A lluv ial dtp01 1tl ~ Cerro Morado format ion
EJ Dior i te /granodiorite Faull
_,<,6
~ Lo Vo lt t format io n
Str i ke and dip
~ Loa Chilcoa (Nilhue membtr) Mine
I ,.,.-"I Manto orr drpotll 6 v 6 Brecc i a
~ Lo1 Chileo1 format ion ___,._ Vt . n
Fig. 2. Geologic surface map of the Los Mantos de Catemu and Cerro Negro districts
more intense folding may appear in the more faulted areas. For example, at
Talcuna (Fig. 3) there are wide open folds interrupted by normal faults. Most of
the Talcuna manto-type orebodies are emplaced on the western faulted limb of
a wide open fold (i.e., the Talcuna anticline of Aguirre and Egert 1965).
SCALE
NA
EXPLANATION
~0 8<J~ Alluv.al ~poti ll

[:z=J o.or it ic porphyry
~ Andet i lf porphyry
l<?ocfSooJ ConQ iomtrott:
~ Brtcc io / andtsitt
J===?=j Co lcor.out Sondttont
~ Or• d•paa . t
I4 9 Av4J Brtec i a and tuff
Strikt and d;p
Sync lint
Fau It
Vt i n
~ M,n•
Fig. 3. Geologic surface map of the Thlcuna district (after Peebles 1966)
456 F. Camus
EXPLANATION
C2J Alluvial Mpos:ts 1"""'"1Ott depoai ts
~ Conglomrroh
~ Breccia and tuff
~ Brtccio/ondeaitt [?ZJ Oior i t ic porphyry
~ Colcoreoua aondttoneo [ZJ Ve-in
~ Faull
~ Mine
(b)
DIABLO N ORTE NE
EXPLANATION
f}~$j~¢1 Alluvial depo1it1
C2J Upper volcanic aondttont

R~~ :;Jtntruaive ondtaite
~ Chloritr - colcitf'
(-~----1 Colcor~oua ahole
~ Chotcocitt-bornlte
Calcite- chlor itt
~ Breccialtd aondslont
CD Lowf'r aondatone
Faull
(CI
N ~B
· ~~ · ··
.
. ··-:···· ·.·.·.·.:-·.
v v
v
. ·. · . : ·.·.:-:-·.. ·
v
. . [3
EXPLANATION
Morint atdimentory rocks

v v
v ~ Ort df'poait
~ Andttile porp~yry
- - Faull
Fig. 4. Geological sections of the Thlcuna, Cerro Negro and Guayacan stratabound deposits. a Modi-
fied after Peebles (1%6); b modified after Alarcon and Olcay (1979) and Carter (1961); c modified
after Carter (1961)
3.6 Age of Mineralization
No independent radiometric age dating exists on these deposits. The association

of veins with the general structure suggests that the mineralization is post-deposi-
tional and perhaps related to uppermost early Cretaceous extension (Mpodozis
and Ramos in press).
3.7 Mineralogy and Texture
Stratabound deposits and their associated veins show identical mineralogy. The
mineralogy is simple and consists primarily of bornite, chalcopyrite, and
chalcocite with minor proportions of pyrite, hematite, covellite, galena, magnetite,
neodigenite, safflorite, quartz, calcite, and barite. These minerals were deposited
in the manto either as individual grains or associations of minerals forming fine-
grained disseminations in the matrix, matrix filling, stockwork veining and/or
bands. The most common mineral associations are: pyrite+ chalcopyrite+ bor-
nite+ chalcocite, pyrite+ chalcopyrite+ bornite, and pyrite+ chalcopyrite+ bornite
+galena+ sphalerite.
Both disseminated and veinlet-type mineralization appear in the calcareous
sandstone and shale-hosted deposits. Where shales overlie the mineralized hori-
zon, pyrite and sphalerite tend to occur in colloform textures. Framboidal and
pseudo-oolitic pyrite may also be present in this case (Davila et al. 1982).
The textures of the associated vein-type deposits are typical open space filling
such as banding, crustification, and comb arrangements (Boric 1985).
3.8 Zonation and Paragenesis
Most deposits show vertical zoning: (1) a basal zone of Cu-Fe sulfides, (2) a mixed
or intermediate zone of copper sulfides with or without associated iron oxides,
and (3) an upper zone with Pb-Zn sulfides with minor pyrite.
At Thlcuna, a lower zone composed of bornite+chalcopyrite is gradually over-
lain by an incipient zone of galena+sphalerite. At Guayacan, a basal zone of bor-
nite is covered by a mixed zone of bornite+ chalcopyrite and by an upper zone
of chalcopyrite+pyrite. Los Mantas de Catemu shows a vertical zonation with
iron oxides and iron-rich sulfides at the base, grading upwards into copper-rich
sulfides with decreasing iron contents and finally into a zone of Pb + Zn sulfides
at the top with lesser amounts of pyrite and chalcopyrite. At Uchumi, zonation
is very similar except for the upper part where a hematite horizon overlies the
Pb+Zn zone (Ulriksen 1970). At the Cerro Negro manto deposit, Alarcon and
Olcay (1979) described an upper zone composed of bornite+ chalcocite+ magne-
tite grading into a lower zone of chalcopyrite+ hematite. Pyrite displays a halo
around the two zones.
On a regional scale some horizontal zonation has been recognized at the Los
Mantas de Catemu district. In the central part Cu +Fe minerals predominate,
while the Pb + Zn + Ag contents increase towards the periphery of the district.
458 F. Camus
Polished sections of ore specimens show that pyrite is partly replaced by

chalcopyrite, which in turn occurs in graphic intergrowths with bornite and as in-
clusions in the latter. Chalcopyrite and pyrite are surrounded and replaced by ha-
los of chalcocite. Calcite, quartz, and minor barite occur as fine crystals in the
matrix of the sediments. Magnetite is very fine-grained. The grains are totally
or partially replaced by chalcopyrite or hematite. Massive stringers of safflorite
in calcite vein filling have also been observed at Guayacan (Carter and Aliste
1964).
Paragenetic sequences such as described by Boric (1985) and Peebles (1966) for
Thlcuna, for Cerro Negro by Espinoza (1969), Alarc6n and Olcay (1979), and for
Los Mantos de Catemu by Davila et al. (1982) are:
Los Mantos de Catemu Cerro Negro Thlcuna
1 Magnetite Magnetite-hematite Pyrite

2 Pyrite-marcasite Pyrite-magnetite Magnetite
3 Chalcopyrite-sphalerite-galena Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-bornite
4 Bornite-chalcocite Bornite Chalcocite
5 Neodigenite-covellite Neodigenite Sphalerite-galena
6 Hematite Chalcocite
7 - Sphalerite-galena
3.9 Hydrothermal Alteration
Hydrothermal wallrock alteration is rather weak and represented by a propylitic

suite: chlorite, carbonates, quartz, and minor amounts of sericite and gypsum, as
well as clay minerals of probable supergene origin. The more common association
of alteration minerals is chlorite +calcite+ quartz with the two former minerals
occurring in close association with ore minerals, while quartz forms a marginal
halo around the deposits.
The vertical and horizontal mineral zonation correlates very well with particu-
lar alteration assemblages. At Los Mantos de Catemu and Cerro Negro, the ore
zones are associated with calcite+ gypsum+ chlorite assemblages which, in turn,
change gradually towards the boundaries of the orebodies into a calcite+ quartz+
chlorite suite.
At Talcuna, calcite, chlorite, sericite and albite coexist with the ore minerals
(Boric 1985). Zeolites (analcime-wairakite), epidote, prehnite, and possible mont-
morillonite also occur. These alteration minerals, which partially replace primary
minerals without strongly affecting the original textures, are more abundant in the
porous and permeable horizons and rather scarce in the more compact or massive
rocks.
Mineral assemblages similar to those described above have been interpreted in
central Chile as evidence of regional low-grade metamorphism (Levi 1970). How-
ever, Boric (1985) suggested that the hydrothermal alteration assemblages associ-
ated with this mineralization could have been superimposed on a previous low-
grade metamorphic phase.
4 Genetic Discussions
Syngenetic and epigenetic models have been used to explain the genesis of this
type of stratabound deposits. Most of the earlier workers favored a syngenetic ori-
gin (Ruiz 1965; Ruiz et al. 1971), although Carter (1961) suggested an epigenetic
origin. Later, epigenetic models appear to have gained favor (e.g., Boric 1985;
Sato 1984).
Any genetic model for these lacustrine environment-related deposits must con-
sider the following geologic features: (a) deposits concentrate in clusters, (b) min-
eralization is associated with permeable horizons overlain by impervious strata,
(c) veins that could represent mineralization channel-ways occur spatially related
to mantos, (d) mineralization involved simple mineralogy including pyrite-
chalcopyrite-bornite-chalcocite-magnetite-hematite-galena-sphalerite both in
veins and as fine-grained disseminations and veinlets in mantos, (e) mineral-
ization involved only weak hydrothermal alteration revealing very little chemical
reaction with wall-rock, (f) simple gangue mineralogy mostly as by carbonates,
(g) important regional and local structures clearly control the location of
the orebodies, and (h) lack of intrusive bodies directly connected to the de-
posits.
SUBSIDENCE
(a)
~ EXPlANATION
DEEP-SEATED
HEAT SOURCE ~ Tuffoctou•
~Volcan i c L.!:........£J li rnt•tont
~ Calcorl'ous
~ limutont ~O i kl'
~Stlall' ......... Or• deposit
~Vtin
Fig. S. Sketch model of crustal extension and subsidence related to volcanic activity, showing the loca-
tion of the stratabound deposits (taken and modified from Levi and Aguirre 1981). a Detail of the
model postulated for the formation of the deposits
460 F. Camus
Considering these features we favor an epigenetic model to explain this type

of ore deposits; however, diagenetic episodes related to burial post-depositional
processes cannot be ruled out. To explain this model, the geotectonic setting, ore
sources, and solution transport implications will be reviewed next. Since volcanic-
hosted stratabound deposits show similar characteristics, the model proposed will
also indirectly refer to this type of deposits (Fig. 5).
4.1 Geotectonic Environment
The mineralization of the manto-type stratabound deposits described here oc-

curred most probably during the uppermost Early Cretaceous within a prevailing
extensional tectonic environment characterized by the generation of back-arc en-
sialic basins (Mpodozis and Ramos in press). Thereafter, compressional tectonics
prevailing at ca. 100m. y., probably due to the inception of Atlantic spreading and
westward movement of the South American plate, involved major
paleogeographic changes impeding further stratabound deposition from that pe-
riod onwards in central Chile. Consequently, the extensional tectonic environment
would be the locus not only for the lacustrine sediment-hosted deposits but also
for the volcanic-hosted deposits that occur in the same areas. The strong structur-
al control points clearly to the fact that faulting had an important role in channel-
ing the ore solutions. Consequently, we postulate that the stratabound deposits
described here occurred during or after periods of extensional tectonism in the
Upper Cretaceous.
4.2 Ore Source
Very few stable isotope and fluid inclusion studies have been undertaken in order
to discriminate possible ore sources and characterization of the solutions in these
deposits. Nevertheless, Nisterenko et al. (1974) and recently Klohn et al. (1986,
this Vol.) undertook such studies in volcanic-hosted stratabound deposits, some
of which are located close to the lacustrine type of orebodies described her. Since
the structural and geologic setting of both types of deposits is about equivalent,
one hypothesis is to assume that the solutions responsible for this mineralization
were similar, this is highly saline and possibly of a relatively deep magmatic
source (Klohn et al. this Vol.).
An alternative possibility that metals have been leached out from the volcanic-
sedimentary pile (e.g., anomalous in copper contents according to Oyarzun 1986)
should not be ruled out (Fig. 5).
4.3 Ore Solution Transport and Deposition
The possible mechanisms by which mineralizing solutions migrated, transported,

and deposited their metallic content into stratabound deposits leads to the present
controversy about syngenetic versus epigenetic origins for these manto deposits.
Solution transport probably occurred along an interconnected system of channels

controlled by major structures or faults. Through these structures ore solutions
discharged their metals as soon as they encountered favorable permeable hori-
zons.
Precipitation and zonation of metal ore was controlled by T, P, Eh, pH, fo 2
and fs 2 • The composition and extremely weak hydrothermal alteration of wall
rocks suggests rather neutral to alkaline pH conditions for the ore solutions.
In conclusion, an epigenetic model is suggested for these stratabound
lacustrine deposits. They formed in an extensional tectonic environment. A deep
magmatic heat source acted as heat engine in this case. The dikes and sills associ-
ated with the deposits may be post-mineralization expressions of this plutonism.
The metals in these deposits could either be of a "deep source" origin or have
been leached out from the same volcanic-sedimentary pile.
Acknowledgments. The author wishes to acknowledge the suggestions and constructive criticism of
various aspects of this manuscript made by E. Reichhard, N. Saric, and C. Stern. Thanks are also giv-
en to G. Alarc6n, who drafted the figures and to X. Schulz for typing the earlier and final manuscripts
of this paper.
References
Aguirre L, Egert E (1965) Cuadr.ingulo Quebrada Marquesa, Provincia de Coquimbo. Inst Invest
Geol, Carta Geol 15:92
Alarc6n B, Olcay L (1979) Paragenesis y distribuci6n de Ia mineralizaci6n del dep6sito estratiforme
Diablo Sur, Cabildo, V Regi6n. Aetas II Congr Geol Chileno, pp C207-215
Boric R (1985) Geologia y yacimientos meta!icos del distrito Thlcuna, Regi6n de Coquimbo. Rev Geol
Chile 25/26:57-75
Camus F (1986) Los yacimientos estratoligados de Cu, Pb, Zn y Ag de Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyarzun
R, Pincheira M (eels) Geologia y Recursos Minerales de Chile. Univ Concepci6n, pp 547-635
Carter WD (1961) Yacimientos de cobre tipo manto, su distribuci6n en fajas mineralizadas, Provincia
de Aconcagua. Inst Invest Geol Bol 10:30
Carter WD, Aliste NT (1964) Paleo-channels at the Guayacan copper mine, Cabildo district, Acon-
cagua Province, Chile. Econ Geol 59:1283-1292
Davila A, Henriquez F, Rojas J (1982) Geologia y mineralizaci6n en las minas Las Animas, El
Romero, Distrito minero El Nilhue, Catemu, Valparaiso. In: Aetas III Congr Geol Chile, pp
E173-200
Elgueta S, Hodgkin A, Rodriguez E, Schneider A The Cerro Negro mine, Chile: Manto-type copper
mineralization in a volcaniclastic environment. This Vol, pp 463-471
Espinoza W (1969) Geologia del distrito cuprifero de Cerro Negro. Thesis, Univ Chile, 147 p (unpub-
lished)
Klohn E, Holmgren C, Ruge H (1986) El Soldado, a peculiar copper deposit associated with anoma-
lous alkaline volcanism in the central Chilean coastal range. SME-AIME Mtg New Orleans, Loui-
siana
Klohn E, Holmgren C, Ruge H El Soldado, a stratabound copper deposit associated with alkaline
volcanism in the central Chilean Coastal Range. This Vol, pp 435- 448
Levi B (1970) Burial metamorphic episodes in Andean geosyncline, Central Chile. Geol Rundsch
59:994-1013 .
Mpodozis C (1984) Dimimica de los margenes continentales activos. In: Seminario de actualizaci6n
de Ia Geologia de Chile. Serv Nac Geol Min 4:A1- 22
462 F. Camus
Mpodozis C, Ramos V The Andes of Chile and Argentina. In: Symp on the geology of the Andes
and its relation to hydrocarbon and mineral resources. Circumpacific Counc energy mineral
resour, Santiago, Chile. Earth Sci Ser (in press)
Nisterenko GV, Losert J, Chavez L, Naumov VB (1974) Temperaturas y presiones de formaci6n de
algunos yacimientos cupriferos de Chile. Rev Geol Chile 1:74-80
Oyarzlin J (1986) Magmatismo y metalogenesis andina en Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyarzun R, Pincheira
M (eds) Geologia y Recursos Minerales de Chile. Univ Concepci6n, pp 441-468
Peebles F (1966) Estudio geol6gico del distrito cuprifero Th.lcuna. Inst Invest Geol, 100 p
Ruiz C (1965) Geologia y yacimientos metaliferos de Chile. Inst Invest Geol Spec Vol, 305 p
Ruiz C eta!. (1971) Stratabound copper sulfide deposits. In: Th.keuchi Y (ed) Proc-IMA-IAGOD Meet-
ings' 70. Soc Min Geol Jpn, Spec Issue 3:252-260
Sato T (1984) Manto type copper deposits in Chile: A review. Bull Geol Surv Jpn 35:565-582
Serrano M (1976) Informe sobre abastecimiento de Ia planta regional de Cabildo, Provincia deAcon-
cagua. Inst Inv Geol Chile, 133 p (unpublished)
Ulriksen C (1970) Estudio geol6gico del distrito minero de Uchumi, Provincia de Coquimbo. Thesis,
Univ Chile, 83 p (unpublished)
The Cerro Negro Mine, Chile:
Manto-Type Copper Mineralization
in a Volcaniclastic Environment
S. ELGUETA 1 , A. HODGKIN 2 , E. RODRIGUEZ 3 and A. SCHNEIDER 4
1 Introduction
The Cerro Negro mine is located in the Andean precordillera of central Chile,
100 km north of Santiago and 55 km east of the Pacific coast, at an altitude of
1000m above sea level (Fig. 1). It is one of the many stratabound manto copper
deposits of central Chile which lie at several different stratigraphic levels within
the Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary sequence of the Andean orogenic cycle (Ruiz
et al. 1971; Sato 1984; Camus 1985).
The mineralization at Cerro Negro is one of the stratigraphically highest of
these, and is hosted by an andesitic lapilli tuff associated with sandstone, con-
glomerate, and siltstone facies.
In general terms, the orebody is crescent-shaped with a maximum axis of
2200 m. Two types of ore occurrences are recognized: one, a strongly stratiform,
typical manto deposit is located along the upper contact of the lapilli tuff, below
silicified calcareous fine sediments; a similar body occurs along the lower contact
of the tuff unit, above sandstones; the second, more recently discovered, consists
of irregular orebodies close to the contact of an andesitic sill within the lapilli tuff
(Fig. 3).
Outcropping, mainly oxidized portions of the stratiform orebody were discov-
ered in the 1840's and have been mined intermittently since then by small-scale
underground and open-pit methods. The more important recent production
comes from blind portions of the orebody, which have been discovered since 1948.
The mine is operated by the Compaiiia Minera Cerro Negro S. A. of the Cerro
Centinela holding group at a daily rate of 1000t with average grades of 1.80Jo Cu
and 23 g/t Ag. Originally the deposit contained 8 million tons total reserves. Cur-
rent reserves are of the order of 4.5 million tons with several areas still unexplored.
Little has been previously published on either the local or the mine geology.
Pelisonnier (1971) gives a brief description and interpretation. Articles by Olcay
1 Empresa Nacional de Petroleo, Compafiia 1085, Piso 12, casilla 3556, Santiago, Chile
2 Newmont Chile, Av. Pocu o 2850, Santiago, Chile
3 Compafiia Minera Cerro Negro, Alameda 1146, Santiago, Chile
Present address: Compaii.ia Minera Mantos de Oro, Av. 11 de Septiembre 2353, Piso, Santiago, Chile
4 Research Fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Dpto. Geologia Universidad de Chile,
correo 21, casilla 13518, Santiago, Chile
Present address: Bundesanstalt ftir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Stilleweg 2, 3000 Hannover
51, FRG, DGA Bolivien

464 S. Elgueta et al.
LEGEND
Q
~ 0AIIuvium
T.
Las Chi lea s Formation '

~
w
0 Andesite flow-breccias
and sediments.
~ Veto Negro Formation :
I 0 Flood basa lts, andesites

and minor sedimen ts.
Lo Prado Forma lion '

c EJ terri9enou~ s.edimenls
Calcareous and
: 1
T minor volcanics .
A
c Pochocomo Formot1on :
+ gu [IJ) and
Trachytes, andesi tes
minor sediments .
s
Patoguo Formation :
[ill) Terrioenous and
calca reous sediments .
J r:-1 Horqueta Formation :

~ W Acid Iovas , minor
· sediments.
c
: ~ Granitoid mtrusives
T.
e• Major and minor

stratabound copper
deposits .
• Town
Fig. 1. Regional geology and location of manto deposits (after Piraces and Maksaev 1977)
(1979) and Alarcon and Olcay (1979) and the theses by Espinoza (1969), Viteri
(1970), and Perez (1985) are important detailed studies which, together with un-
published company reports, form the basis of this study. In particular, recent
detailed mapping of the local geology by Hodgkin and Elgueta (1986, 1987) and
new developments in the understanding of the orebody have produced a better ap-
preciation of this ore system.
2 Geology
2.1 Regional Setting
The stratabound copper deposits of the central Chilean belt are hosted by volca-
nic and sedimentary rocks of Lower Cretaceous age associated with an aborted
ensialic marginal basin which developed during Early Cretaceous times (Aberg et
The Cerro Negro Mine, Chile: Manto-'!YPe Copper Mineralization 465
al. 1984). The early phase of rift development in the region was dominated by acid
and basic volcanism of shoshonitic affinities (Levi et al. 1985), and was accompa-
nied by terrigenous clastic and carbonate sedimentation in shallow marine condi-
tions. Stratabound copper mineralization in this phase is hosted in trachytic
volcanics at El Soldado, Chile (Ahumada 1985; Klohn et al. 1986 and this Vol.)
and in sedimentary units (Cabildo district; Ruiz et al. 1971; Camus 1985) (Fig. 1).
The second phase of rifting commenced with a thick sequence of continental
flood basalts with certain tholeitic affinities and minor andesites with intercalated
sediments (Aberg et al. 1984). Manto deposits are generally hosted in the upper
brecciated parts of basalt flows (El Salado, Ruiz et al. 1971). The basaltic phase
was succeeded by andesitic volcanism composed mainly of flow breccias, with
volumetrically important associated sediments. Stratiform copper deposits are
hosted mainly within the sedimentary facies (Cerro Negro, Mantos de Catemu,
Portales; Ruiz et al. 1971; this chapter).
The whole Lower Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary sequence has been affected
by "propylitic" alteration dominated by chloritization and carbonatization with
variable albite, epidote, hematite, clay minerals, quartz, prehnite, and pumpellyite.
This style of regional alteration has been attributed by Levi (1969, 1970) to
prehnite-pumpellyite facies burial metamorphism. With the exception of the El
Soldado deposit, manto-type mineralization does not show a markedly different
alteration assemblage from this regional pattern (Sato 1984; this chapter).
Granitoid and andesitic intrusives of mid-Cretaceous age are common
throughout the area (Rivano et al. 1986).
2.2 Geology of the Cerro Negro Area
The Cerro Negro deposit lies within the Lower Cretaceous Las Chilcas Formation,
Chile (Rivano et al. 1986) of complexly interrelated continental andesitic
volcanics and derived sediments, which vary in thickness between 1100 m and
2400 m. The volcanic and sedimentary sequence shows little deformation, with
dips of less than 25°, generally towards the south and southeast. The dominant
structural lineaments trend NNW to NNE; in the mine area these are steep normal
faults with displacements of up to 100m, which have broken the orebody into sev-
eral blocks. Some of these normal faults are believed to have been formed during
early stages of basin development but were reactivated after ore formation.
Detailed mapping of the local geology has shown that the Las Chilcas Forma-
tion in this area is characterized by important and rapid lateral facies changes be-
tween volcanic-dominant and sediment-dominant facies (Fig. 2) (Hodgkin and
Elgueta 1986, 1987). Porphyritic andesite flows and flow breccias with lesser
amounts of pyroclastic breccias and tuffs dominate the area to the west of the
mine close to dioritic bodies, where they attain a maximum thickness of 1500 m.
A single phase of more acid volcanic activity is represented by a dacitic ash-flow
tuff which forms a persistent marker bed up to 40 m thick, low in the sequence.
Conglomerates and sandstones, which form thin interflow deposits in the vol-
canic sequence, coalesce rapidly to the east to form a sedimentary succession up
to 1000 m thick in the mine area. This succession accumulated in a probably
466 S. Elgueta et a!.
D Alluvium 0 Fluv101 ton diUones and conot omeroln

~ Ande!uhc: 1n1ru:uves
B :;' J.~!i!~Q~~~~f;', g~'~bo~~ O~AB'L~~
E!J Ouortt Oio ritt and d lor•ll •n trusl ... u CJ Pro tee ltd l•m•la of I hi ort bod yo
D Dottle oal'l -fl o• tuU A--A' S&CtiOI"' of tru11 Ortl body (f•O 3)
r:::-1 Mo ~nl y ondts•lic flows GAd tto•·brtccios,
l.!!!..J minor ash· fall tuffs __s...- Faull w1lh down-lhrown block ind1e:oled
~lacustrine f·~o sediments,''"' sandstones,
L.:.J eoleortout s1lhtone~ ond tholes, llmntones X' I DIABLO SUR 4 VALPARAISO
~ A1r - fotl IOCHIII•t!Ch htmOI!tu: ~OMS!Ontl 2 DIABLO NORTE 'PIROUI TAS
3 BER.,UDAS
Fig.2. Geology of the Cerro Negro area (after Hodgkin and Elgueta 1986, 1987)
structurally controlled NNE-trending basin for which the term Cerro Negro
Paleobasin is proposed. In the mine area, located near the western border of the
basin, the sequence consists of two main sandstone units (the lower "red" and the
upper "green" sandstones in mine terminology) which are separated by the ore-
bearing lapilli tuff (the Brecha Diablo) and overlying fine sediments.
Numerous predominantly andesitic sills, dykes, and irregular bodies up to
100m thick intrude this sequence (Perez 1985). Major dioritic bodies occur within
5 km of the deposit with apophyses within the mine area (Fig. 2). The intrusive
The Cerro Negro Mine, Chile: Manto.:rype Copper Mineralization 467
bodies were classified by Perez (1985) as of calc-alkaline basaltic, andesitic, and

dacitic composition. A possible alkaline affinity is suggested, although the great
variations shown in the Ca, Na, and K content may be largely the effect of wide-
spread alteration and remobilization. Both the andesitic and the dioritic intrusives
are considered to be cogenetic and of subvolcanic origin. Similar rocks in a simi-
lar setting about 10 km north and south of the mine area have been dated between
96 and 92 m.y. (Rivano et al. 1986). Regional "propylitic" alteration affects all
the rocks in the district including occasional prehnite-pumpellyite assemblages
(Viteri 1979).
2.3 Mine Geology
The orebody is hosted almost entirely by the Brecha Diablo, a distinctive andesitic
lapilli tuff which contains lenses of, and is locally transitional to sandstones and
conglomerates. It consists of well-sorted, angular, equant clasts up to 6 em in di-
ameter (average 1.5 em) of very fine-grained weakly vesicular andesite or basaltic
andesite. The texture is clast-supported (700Jo clasts) with a fine crystal-ash matrix
although commonly the intergranular space is occupied by a calcitic-chloritic ce-
ment. Bedding is generally massive or diffuse with some areas of low-angle cross-
stratification. Isopachs of the Brecha Diablo, although difficult to interpret be-
cause of interference from sills, suggest that this unit forms a sinuous, NNE-
trending tongue at least 2.5 km long, which follows the axis of the sedimentary
system. The unit extends over an area of 20 km2 , having a maximum thickness
of 120m in the mine area, wedging out rapidly with the standstones to the west;
to the east and south it appears to thin out progressively within sandstones and
conglomerates.
The upper limit of mineralization is defined by the sharp basal contact of over-
lying thin-bedded, dark-gray calcareous siltstones and fine sandstones. This unit
has a lenticular form, roughly coincident with the underlying orebody, and a max-
imum thickness of 40 m. It contains abundant fossil flora and freshwater fauna
and occasional unidentified major vertebrate remains. Local strong cherty
silicification and weak mineralization are present.
The lower limit of mineralization is the basal contact of the Brecha Diablo
with the lower "red" sandstone unit. This unit and the upper "green" sandstone
unit, with maximum thicknesses of 600 m and 200m respectively, consist of poor-
ly sorted coarse, feldspathic-lithic sandstones with andesitic cobble to pebble con-
glomerate intercalations and occasional lenses of fine calcareous sediments.
Bedding is generally thick and planar with local low-angle cross-stratification.
The upper unit includes abundant desiccation features and horizons of air-fall
tuffs.
A nonoutcropping porphyritic and weakly vesicular andesitic sill occupies the
entire northern and western border of the orebody, totally or partially replacing
the Brecha Diablo and having generally as its base the lower sandstone, and as
its roof the calcareous siltstone horizon (Fig. 3). Convoluted folding of the
siltstone suggests possible emplacement while sediments were in a semi-con-
solidated state.
A
fintttrt d a I
LEGEND
~ AlluYium
[ ] Fluvtol sands tones and conglomeroles
rn Lacustrine ftne sedtments
0 !!OOm l
B Brecho D1oblo
Ore body
~ AndeslfiC sills and dtkes
Fig. 3. Cross-section of the Cerro Negro orebody (after Hodgkin and Elgueta 1986, 1987)
In plan, the orebody has crescent shape with a long axis of 2200 m, oriented
NNE along and parallel to the thickest part of the Brecha Diablo; its width fluctu-
ates between 100 and 600 m and its thickness between 2 and 55 m. Even though
the mineralization is clearly present in one single continuous orebody, it can be
separated into three different units (Fig. 3):
1. The "Upper Manto'~ The upper part of the orebody is a strictly stratiform hori-
zon, 2-3m thick, which follows the conformable contact between the Brecha Di-
ablo host rock and the overlying siltstones, covering an area of 750 x 500 m.
2. The "Envelope" of the Andesitic Sill. This irregular body surrounds the outer
edge of the andesitic sill like a nutshell or crust within the Brecha Diablo. It has
a very variable geometry and thickness with a maximum vertical development of
55 m. The upper part of this body grades into the "upper manto", while its base
is transitional to the "lower manto". In the contact zone with the orebody the sill
itself shows a fine porphyritic and vesicular texture with minor amounts of
hematite, bornite, chalcopyrite, and chalcocite.
3. The "Lower Manto'~ This part of the orebody extends more or less stratiformly
towards the SE, along the contact zone of the Brecha Diablo with the underlying
sandstones. It has a maximum width of 100 m and a variable thickness averaging
20 m. Persistent, thin, subvertical fractures, locally filled with calcite and copper
sulfides, occur in the lower sandstone up to 40 m below the orebody.
The Cerro Negro Mine, Chile: Manto-Type Copper Mineralization 469
The orebody has been cut by late normal faulting into five different blocks
which have been worked as separate mines; these are from north to south: Pir-
quitas, Valparaiso, Bermudas, Diablo Norte, and Diablo Sur (Fig. 2).
3 Mineralization and Alteration

Sulfide mineralization generally occurs as uniform, extremely fine-grained dis-
seminations (0.07- 1.1 mm), preferentially concentrated in the matrix cement of
the lapilli tuff and to a lesser extent within the clasts. Discontinuous and irregular
microveins make up 50Jo of the total sulfide ore.
The primary mineralization consists of the following species, in approximate
order of abundance: chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, chalcocite, magnetite, hematite,
galena, and sphalerite.
A vertical zonation is characteristic of the upper manto orebody: an upper
chalcocite-bornite zone with significant galena, sphalerite, and elevated silver val-
ues is in contact with and restricted to areas underlying the upper siltstone hori-
zon; this gives way progressively downwards to bornite-chalcopyrite and chalco-
pyrite zones, with pyrite increasing downwards, forming a pyrite-dominated zone
at the base. The orebody enveloping the andesitic sill shows an outward horizontal
zonation similar to the above pattern, although chalcocite is notably absent. Con-
tacts between these zones are transitional. Although the chalcocite-bornite zone
contains the highest grades (up to 5% Cu, 0.5% Pb, 1% Zn, and 50 g/t Ag, the
major part of the orebody is formed by the bornite-chalcopyrite and chalcopyrite
zones.
The most distinctive alteration associated with the orebody is the strong local
silicification of the upper siltstone unit, although volumetrically this is a minor
phenomenon. It consists of cryptocrystalline quartz and minor clays with cross-
cutting calcite veinlets. Weak pervasive silicification is also present in the Brecha
Diablo of the ore zone. Plagioclases of the sill show moderate to intense albitiza-
tion. In its other characteristics, the alteration of the ore zone is similar to that
of the regional propylitic alteration, although it is possible that chloritization and
carbonatization are more intense, and prehnite-pumpellyite absent, in the ore
zone. Olcay (1979) states that the degree of alteration is variable and that rapid
changes go along with lithology and zoning of the ore mineral association.
4 Conclusions
4.1 Paleogeographic Evolution of the Cerro Negro Area
It is apparent that the geometry and composition of the rapid lateral and vertical
facies changes in the Cerro Negro area are consistent with the proximal to distal
facies depositional model of a continental volcano-sedimentary system as de-
scribed by Suthren (1985).
The predominantly volcanic areas west of the mine area represent the proximal
facies, close to the volcanic center. These wedge out progressively to the east, giv-
ing way to the predominantly sedimentary distal facies, which is interpreted as

having been deposited in an braided river and lacustrine system.
A wet, warm climate, as indicated by floral and faunal assemblages, is consis-
tent with a high sedimentation rate in which mineralogically and texturally imma-
ture epiclastic sediments were derived from the easily eroded flanks of the volca-
nic center. Short-lived lacustrine conditions were attained when channels were
temporally blocked by the oversupply of sediments.
The Brecha Diablo is tentatively interpreted as an original coarse, matrix-poor,
air-fall tuff which was locally reworked by fluvial processes. It represents a major
explosive event which choked the river system, giving rise to an important lake
where fine calcareous sediments were formed (Hodgkin and Elgueta 1986, 1987).
4.2 Possible Mechanisms of Ore Formation

At Cerro Negro the mineralization is strictly stratabound and hosted within the
most permeable and texturally heterogeneous horizon of the sedimentary se-
quence. Several factors indicate an epigenetic origin of the ore fluids, including
the presence of mineralization in clasts as well as matrix of the host lapilli tuff,
the strong local silicification of the overlying fine sediments and the presence of
an important ore zone peripheral to an intrusive sill, which seems to have intruded
and partially replaced the Brecha Diablo. Olcay (1979) and Perez (1985) conclud-
ed that the alteration zoning is a typical hydrothermal feature and that intrusives
in the Cerro Negro area may be related to a major deep-seated stock. These intru-
sives could well have provided the ore fluids which migrated into the permeable
horizons of the Brecha Diablo, preferentially occupying the interfaces with the
hanging- and footwall horizons.
Existing analytical data concerning the origin of stratabound copper deposits
in Chile point towards a magmatic source of the sulfur (Sasaki et al. 1984;
Holmgren 1985). Both the El Soldado and the El Salado Mines, close to the Cerro
Negro deposit, and other volcanic-hosted stratabound deposits from northern
Chile show negative o S values for the sulfides and slightly positive values for the
host rocks. At El Soldado and El Salado, fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite
showed no boiling and NaCl saturation; measured homogenization temperatures
vary between 200° and 430°C (Holmgren 1985; Nisterenko et al. 1974). These ob-
servations suggest a magmatic source for the sulfur and ore fluids and are incon-
sistent with a metamorphic or a submarine exhalative origin. A magmatic origin
for the copper also appears likely, although it could have been supplied by leach-
ing of the andesites. Geochemical data concerning the origin of mineralization at
Cerro Negro are part of a current research program.
Whatever the source of the fluids, it seems inevitable to conclude that the pri-
mary control of the localization of ore deposition was the favorable physico-
chemical environment of the Brecha Diablo lapilli tuff. This is interpreted as hav-
ing provided channels for fluid flow while the over- and underlying fine sediments
acted as impermeable cap rocks to seal fluid movement. The close association be-
tween mineralization and particular facies within the Cerro Negro paleobasin em-
phasizes the importance of a detailed understanding of paleogeography and vol-
cano-sedimentary processes in exploration for this type of orebody.
The Cerro Negro Mine, Chile: Manto-'IYPe Copper Mineralization 471
Acknowledgments. This paper is published with the permission of Compaiiia Minera Cerro Negro.
Partial funding was received from the Project DIB-2456 (Dept. de Investigaciones y Bibliotecas of the
Univ. of Chile).
References
Aberg G, Aguirre L, Levi B, NystrOm J (1984) Spreading, subsidence and generation of ensialic mar-
ginal basins: an example from the early Cretaceous of central Chile. In: Kokelaar BP, Howells MF
(eds) Marginal basin geology. Geol Soc, Spec Publ16, Blackwell, pp 185-193
Ahumada R (1985) Eventos intrusivos en el yacirniento cuprifero El Soldado, V Region. IV Congr
Geol Chile IV:752-773
Alarc6n B, Olcay L (1979) Paragenesis y distribuci6n de Ia rnineralizaci6n del dep6sito estratiforme
Diablo Sur, Cabildo, V Region. II Congr Geol Chile C:207-215
Camus F (1985) Los yacimientos estratoligades de Cu, Pb, Zn y Ag de Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyarzun
R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia y recursos rninerales de Chile. Univ Concepci6n 11:547-635
Espinoza NW (1969) Geologia del distrito cuprifero de Cerro Negro. Dip! Thesis, Univ Chile, Santiago
Hodgkin A, Elgueta S (1986) Estudio geo16gico-rninero del area norte de Quebrada Pitipeumo. Cia
Minera Cerro Negro, 108 p (unpublished)
Hodgkin A, Elgueta S (1987) Estudio geol6gico-rninero del distrito Cerro Negro Sur y Oeste (unpubl
Company report). Cia Minera Cerro Negro, 128 pp
Holmgren C (1985) Antecedentes para un modelo genetico del yacimiento El Soldado, V Region. IV
Congr Geol Chile, Antofagasta 4:626-651
Klohn E, Holmgren C, Ruge H (1986) El Soldado, a peculiar copper deposit associated with anoma-
lous alkaline volcanism in the central Chilean coastal range. AIME, 115TH Ann Meeting, 10 p
Klohn E, Holmgren C, Ruge H El Soldado, a stratabound Copper deposit associated with alkaline
volcanism in the central Chilean Coastal Range. This Vol, pp 435- 448
Levi B (1969) Burial metamorphism of a Cretaceous volcanic sequence west from Santiago, Chile.
Contrib Mineral Petrol 24:30-49
Levi B (1970) Burial metamorphic episodes in the Andean geosyncline, Central Chile. Geol Rundsch
59:994-1013
Levi B, NystrOm J, Thiele R, Aberg G (1985) Geochemical variations in Mesozoic-Tertiary volcanic
rocks from the Andes in central Chile and implications for the tectonic evolution. Communica-
ciones, Dep Geol, Univ Chile, Santiago 35:125-128
Nisterenko GV, Losert J, Chavez L, Naumov VB (1974) Thmperaturas y presiones de formaci6n de
algunos yacimientos cupiferos de Chile. Rev Geol Chile 1:74-80
Olcay L (1979) Geologia, alteraci6n hidrotermal y rnineralizaci6n cuprifera del yacirniento estratiforme
de Diablo Sur distrito rninero Cerro Negro. Communicaciones, Dep Geol, Univ Chile 27:1-18
Pellisonnier H (1971) Le gisement de cuivre stratiforme de Cerro Negro. Bull BRGM, Orleans, Sect
11, 6:43-50
Perez M (1985) Estudio geol6gico de los cuerpos intrusivos y su relaci6n con Ia rnineralizaci6n
cuprifera del sector noreste del distrito minero Cerro Negro, Quinta Region. Dip! Thesis, Univ
Chile, Santiago
Piraces R, Maksaev V (1977) Plano geo16gico preliminar de Ia hoja Quilloto, 1:250000. Inst Invest
Geol, Santiago (unpublished)
Rivano S, Sepulveda P, Boric R, Herve M, Puig A (1986) Antecedentes radiometricos para una edad
inferior de Ia formaci6n Las Chilcas. Rev Geol Chile 27:27-32
Ruiz C, Aguilar A, Egert E, Espinoza W, Peebles F, Quezada R, Serrano M (1971) Stratabound copper
sulphide deposits of Chile. Soc Min Geol Jpn, Spec Issue 3:252-260
Sasaki A, Ulriksen CE, Sato K, Ishihara S (1984) Sulfur isotope reconnaissance of porphyry copper
and manto-type deposits in Chile and the Philippines. Bull Geol Surv Jpn 35:(11)615-622
Sato T (1984) Manto-type copper deposits in Chile - A review. Bull Geol Surv Jpn 35(11):565-582
Suthren R (1985) Facies analysis of volcanoclastic sediments: A Review, 53. In: Benchley PJ, Williams
BPJ (eds) Sedimentology: recent development in applied aspects. Spec Pub! Geol Soc Lond (in
press)
Viteri E (1970) Estudio geo16gico de Ia regi6n de los Cerros Negro y Portales. Provincia de Aconcagua.
Dip! Thesis, Univ Chile
The Toqui Zinc-Lead-Copper-Silver Deposits,
Aysen Province, Chile
F. W. WELLMER 1 and E. J. REEVE 2
1 Introduction
The zinc-lead-copper-silver deposits of El Toqui are located about 1700 km south
of Santiago in the southern Chilean province of Aysen at 71 °54'W, 45°02'S
(Fig. 1). El Toqui may be reached by all-weather gravel roads from the provincial
capital, Coyhaique (120 km south of El Toqui), and the principal port, Chacabu-
co (120 km southwest).
El Toqui is a district of about 25 km2 which contains stratiform massive zinc-
lead-copper-silver and zinc deposits and discordant zinc-lead-silver veins in Meso-
zoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks. It lies within the north-south-trending
polymetallic stratabound (Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu-Au) Cretaceous to Tertiary ore deposits
belt of Frutos (1984; Fig. 1), which runs from the pre-Mesozoic rocks south of
Lago General Carrera (near latitude 47 °S) to the southern edge of the Tertiary
plateau basalts near 44 °S. The main known mineralizations within the province
of Aysen are plotted according to their type in Fig. 1.
The Toqui district was explored in a 3-year exploration program between 1974
and 1977 in a joint venture by the Sociedad Contractual Minera Toqui and Metall-
gesellschaft AG. In 1984 the Sociedad Contractual Minera Toqui established a
mine with a capacity of 500 t/day, later increased to 750 t/day (Anonymous 1985;
Pinilla 1985). The latest published reserves are 1.5 million t with 0.660Jo Cu, 12%
Pb-Zn and 50 g Ag/t (Camus 1985). The latest published production figures for
Sociedad Minera Toqui show the following metal contents for 1984; 900 t copper,
2200 t lead, 19000 t zinc, 220 kg silver, and 850 kg gold (Metallgesellschaft
1987) 3 • These production figures, however, also include the production from the
Santa Teresa (or K-2) copper-lead-zinc-gold-silver veins in the Rio Cisne district
(1), about 25 km north of El Toqui (Fig. 1). This paper does not deal with the San-
ta Teresa veins, but is confined to the Toqui district proper.
The mineralization at El Toqui was first described in an unpublished report by
Viteri (1972). Collao (1979) published a geochemical study in the Toqui district.
Wellmer et al. (1983) gave a detailed description of the geology and the mineral-
ization of El Toqui, on which the following summary is based, and to which the
reader is referred for detailed information.
1 Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Stilleweg 2, D-3000 Hannover 51, FRG
2 First Boston Canada Ltd., 121 King Street West, Toronto, Ontario M5H 3T9, Canada
3 This represents the state of knowledge at time of writing in 1987. In the meantime the Canadian
company LAC Minerals Ltd. acquired the Toqui mine and discovered new reserves southwest of San
Antonio (see Fig. 2). Latest published production and reserves figures for 1989 are (LAC 1989): pro-
duction: 303 000 t with 6.9% Zn; reserves (proven and probable): 5.8 mio t at 7.811Jo Zn and 4. 7 mio t
at 0.05 oz Au/t.

474 F. W. Wellmer and E. J. Reeve
70
46
- - - - - - - +•a'
~A~ see caption

• Pb- Zn- Ag
(Cu Au)
deposits
X Cu mineralisation
without Pb - Zn
---- roads
Fig. 1. Index map showing location of the Toqui district, Aysen Province, Chile, with the polymetallic
stratabound Cretaceous to Tertiary ore deposits belt of Frutos (1984) (=A in legend) and known Pb,
Zn, Ag deposits of various types. 1 Santa Teresa (K-2) Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Au, vein type; 2 Lago Fontana
Pb, Zn, Ag, vein type; 3 Europa Pb, Zn, Ag, Cu, vein type; 4 Mina Silva Pb, Zn, Ag, dissem. type;
5 Rio Muller Pb, Zn, Ag, dissem. type; 6 Rio Aviles Pb, Zn, Ag, stratiform type; 7 San Sebas-
tian/Guadal Pb, Zn, Ag, Cu, vein type; 8 Cerro San Lorenzo Pb, Zn, Ag, Cu, vein type; deposit infor-
mation mainly from Frutos and Pincheira (1984)
2 Regional Geology
2.1 Tectonic Setting
The Cordillera in the province of Aysen has been divided by Stiefel (1970) and
Skarmeta (1976) into five major geotectonic provinces; from west to east these are
the Coastal Cordillera, the Central Graben, essentially covered by the Canal
Moraleda (Fig. 1), the Andes Cordillera, the Andean Precordillera and the Pata-
The Toqui Zinc-Lead-Copper-Silver Deposits, Aysen Province, Chile 475
gonian Pampa. In general, these geotectonic units form an easterly-dipping

monoclinal sequence with the oldest rocks in the west.
El Toqui lies within the Andean Precordillera geotectonic unit, about 20 km
to the east of its boundary with the Andes Cordillera unit. The Andean Precor-
dillera consists of Jurassic to Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The Andes
Cordillera is composed of diorites and granites of the Patagonian batholith,
which is of Cretaceous age (Baker et al. 1981).
According to Baker et al. (1981) persistent igneous activity in the area under
consideration took place from the middle Jurassic onwards and was controlled by
easterly-dipping subduction along the Pacific margin. Co-genetic plutonic rocks
belonging to the Patagonian batholith and calc-alkaline volcanics ranging from
basaltic andesites to rhyolitic tuffs and ignimbrites are the principal products of
this igneous activity. The region marks the northerly extension of a narrow back-
arc basin in which marine Neocomian sequences accumulated, bordered by a vol-
canic-batholith arc in the west. The location of Toqui is within the back-arc basin.
This is in agreement with Ph-isotope data, which will be discussed later, and with
results of Schneider et al. (1986) who consider such a submarine volcanic environ-
ment connected with massive sulfide ores like El Toqui to be characteristic of an
aborted back-arc system.
2.2 Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy of the volcanic-sedimentary sequence of the Andean Precor-

dillera in the province of Aysen is mainly based on Skarmeta (1976), who distin-
guishes the following subdivisions, from youngest to oldest:
Galera Formation; Miocene to Pliocene; sandstones, conglomerates, and tuffs
70-600m
Nirehuao Formation; early Tertiary; andesitic to rhyolitic tuffs and breccias
with intercalated sandstones 50- 300 m
Divisadero Formation; late Cretaceous; conglomerates, breccias, sandstones,
and basaltic flows and tuffs 270-700 m
Coyhaique Formation, which is described below. It is the host to the discor-
dant and stratiform mineralizations at El Toqui 1500 m +
Elizalde Formation, locally to the south called Ibanez Formation; middle to
upper Jurassic; andesitic to rhyolitic volcanics 1000 m +
The Coyhaique Formation consists of up to 1600 m of black lutites (black
shales) with intercalated sandstones and andesitic tuffs in the Coyhaique area.
Moving to the north, this stratigraphic unit becomes more volcanic. From about
50 km south of Toqui northwards the unit has been subdivided into a predomi-
nantly sedimentary and a predominantly volcanic part, the Lower and Upper
Coyhaique Formation, respectively (Wellmer et al. 1983). In the Toqui district
proper only the Upper Coyhaique Formation has been recognized so far, although
its base is not known; it is at least 1500 m thick and hosts the mineralization.
Generally, the Coyhaique Formation is considered to be of Lower Cretaceous
age (Baker et al. 1981; Skarmeta 1976); however, there are data indicating that the
Lower Series of the Upper Coyhaique Formation straddles the Jurassic/Creta-

ceous boundary (Wellmer et al. 1983).
3 Geology of the Toqui District

3.1 General Description
The Toqui district consists mainly of submarine volcanic rocks altered to varying
degrees, lutites and minor limestones and conglomerates, all belonging to the Up-
per Coyhaique Formation (Fig. 2). As is typical of many districts with volcanic-
associated base-metal deposits (Franklin et al. 1981 ), the volcanics have a bimodal
composition, namely andesitic and rhyolitic. This bimodality not only applies to
the whole sequence but also to contemporaneous volcanics (Fig. 3). This charac-
teristic has also been described from other base-metal districts (Spence and de
Rosen-Spence 1975).
Subvolcanic intrusions which are a significant feature of many massive sulfide
districts (Franklin et al. 1981) also occur in El Toqui. The Toqui volcanic-sedimen-
tary sequence is intruded by quartz porphyry sills and small plugs of diorite. Two
local volcanic centers can be observed near the known mineralization (Zufliga-An-
tolin and Concordia). Within the Toqui district significant base-metal mineraliza-
tion is known at four localities (Fig. 2): Zufliga-Antolin (vein type), Concordia,
Estatuas, and San Antonio (all stratiform). The rocks in the Toqui district are
highly block-faulted.
The Upper Coyhaique Formation has been subdivided in the Toqui district in-
to three series with approximate thicknesses as shown: Upper Series 1000 m; Ore
Series 20-150 m; and Lower Series (base unknown) 200-400 m. Whole rock ana-
lyses of a selected suite of volcanic rocks from the three units all plot in the calc-
alkaline field of an AFM diagram (Wellmer et al. 1983).
The veins at Zufliga-Antolin are hosted by the Lower Series, whereas the
stratiform ore deposits only occur within the Ore Series, adjacent to or within lo-
cal lenses of limestone or its facies equivalents.
Three limestone horizons, named Limestone I to III (from bottom to top), are
taken to define the three stratigraphic positions at which stratiform ores occur
(Ore I to III). The three limestone horizons form the framework of the strati-
graphic subdivision. Limestone I defines the beginning and Limestone III the end
of the Ore Series (Fig. 3).
The limestones are marine and mostly fossiliferous and have been dated as
Early Cretaceous. As indicated by the close association of fossiliferous limestones
and ignimbrites, the environment of the ore deposition was shallow marine. Only
for the overlying Divisadero Formation do observations indicate that the volcan-
ism later became predominantly subaerial; this agrees with the sequence observed
by Baker et al. (1981).
D Quaternary Rhyolitic volcanics
~ Diorite plug Andesitic volcanics
Porphyry sills Lutite undivided

Coyhaique
Formation
Dlvlsadero Rhyolitic volcanics
Formation mainly tuffs
Andesltic volcanics
mainly tuffs
some sediments
Volcanics
Lower Series
) Fault
Om 1000m
6 Tooui Camp 0 Stratabound mineralisation 0 Discordant mineralisation I 1±3 F4
Fig. 2. Simplified geologic map of the Toqui district
3.2 Stratigraphy
Lower Series. The Lower Se,ries consists of the so-called basal tuff, an altered
dacitic to rhyolite tuff overlain by a sequence of altered andesitic tuffs, agglomer-
ates and breccias.
Concordia Estatuas San Antonio

'\1 '\1 Upper
'\1 Series
'\1 '\1
""" '\1
Upper
Series
'\1 '\1 Upper
1 """
Series
--_-_
Pb,Zn,eu
-=~· L..
s 111 4"'- <;:;:::;:;:;:
Zn
·.·.·.·.·.·.·
l..S.III~
0~ (Pb, Zn)
'12' ,,, 6D
"""
r_-_-:
__
1
L.S. Ill
--- ·.·-:
:-:- .,__
----- r-----
-
Zn ~~~~ Pb, Zn L.S. II
--::-:::-:=--::- - F' L.S. II ORE II -
Pb Zn f- -
.. .. ..
- -_-
-
OREI
/
~ L.S. I
/ -t++ Lower
Sill
/n.
/
+ +
/
/
'~-'--'..:...:...:..;..'-1/
+++ Lower
Sill
I" ""I
Volcanics
Upper Series
~
luncstone
(L.S. I, II, Ill) - slratlform base metal lens
<=:> stratiform pyrite lens
I++ +I
r
~ Lullte Porphyry soils CJ diSseminated mineralisation
[[]. Rhyolillc
volcanics
mainly tuffs lc.c.c.l Volcantcs
Lower Series
20
10
approximate
ver11cal scale
Andesllic
~ volcanics 30
- mainly luffs
40m
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic sections at Concordia, Estatuas and San Antonio
Ore Series. The Ore Series consists predominantly of stratified waterlain volcanic
tuffs of two facies, andesitic and rhyolitic, which were erupted from different vol-
canic centers and deposited in a marine basin. These volcanic tuffs contain dis-
continuous limestone horizons (Limestone I to III, see above) and discontinuous
lenticular lutites representing local basin deposits.
The andesitic tuff facies extends over the Zufliga-Antolin, Concordia, and San
Antonio areas (Fig. 2). It is predominantly a fine-grained subaqueous tuff, which
shows pervasive diagenetic chlorite alteration, unrelated to any mineralization.
This facies was deposited in a large basin between Zufiiga-Antolin and Estatuas
(Fig. 2). The basin was formed by subsidence in the Concordia area and/ or con-
temporaneous doming in the Zuiiiga-Antolin area, a possible volcanic center

which might be the source of the tuffs.
The rhyolitic tuff facies is found in the Estatuas area, and interfingers with the
andesitic tuff facies in the Concordia area (Fig. 2).
The rhyolitic tuff consists mainly of fine-grained subaqueous tuff with only
minor chlorite and epidote alteration. This weak alteration mostly occurs near the
stratiform mineralization at Estatuas.
The intercalated limestones (Limestone I to III, see above) are marine and gen-
erally characterized by abundant mollusc shells and various amounts of tuf-
faceous material. At San Antonio the mollusc shells are partly metasomatically
replaced by sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite, and to a lesser extent by galena (see
below). The limestones are thin (1-10m) layers that can be traced along the strike
for distances of up to 1 km. The thickest known limestones occur near the miner-
alized areas.
In the andesitic facies, stratiform base-metal mineralization is associated with
stratigraphic positions Ore I, II, and III, whereas in the rhyolitic facies this is only
the case with Ore II and III. A further contrasting feature is that the andesitic
tuff facies contains stratiform zinc-lead-copper deposits, and the rhyolitic tuff
facies only stratiform zinc deposits.
Upper Series. The Upper Series starts with a thick basallutite horizon which is
the most persistent and widespread unit in the Toqui district. It varies in thickness
from more than 100m in the area west of Concordia to as little as 1 mat Estatuas.
In most areas, however, it averages 30 to 60 m in thickness. Above this basallutite,
the Upper Series is a thick sequence of andesitic and less abundant rhyolitic flows,
tuffs, and breccias with several additional lutite horizons. As in the Ore Series,
the bimodal composition of the volcanic rocks not only occurs through time but
contemporaneous volcanics also show bimodality. Andesitic volcanics predomi-
nate, however, except in the Estatuas area and an area northeast of Zufiiga-An-
tolin and east of San Antonio, where the volcanics are rhyolitic rather than
andesitic.
The Upper Series does not contain any significant base-metal mineralization,
but relatively high concentrations of pyrrhotite and pyrite are found in the basal
lutite above the stratiform base-metal deposits at Concordia and to the south of
it.
Quartz Porphyry Intrusions. Two quartz porphyry sills intrude the Ore Series and
the Upper Series. The lower porphyry sill is closely associated with the stratiform
ore deposits. It is slightly discordant and splits Limestone I into two parts in the
Zuiiiga-Antolin area but lies above Limestone I south of Concordia. The sill is
15 to 30m thick and is exposed over 4 km2 between San Antonio and Concordia.
Above the intrusive contact, a skarn zone with hedenbergite and garnet can be ob-
served. At San Antonio the sill is in direct contact with the lowest stratiform ore
deposit Ore I, which is the largest ore lens in the Toqui district. Here the sill has
undergone potassic alteration. The Concordia deposits occur near the edge of the
sill. At Estatuas both Limestone I and Ore I are missing. Here the lower porphyry
sill is intruded about 40 m below the ore lens Ore II and 100m below Ore III.
4 Mineralization in the Toqui District

4.1 Discordant Mineralization
Discordant zinc-lead-silver veins occur at Zufiiga-Antolin (Fig. 2) in two parallel,

steeply dipping N-S fault zones, about 250m apart. One fault zone (Zuniga) is
intruded by an unaltered diabase dyke which runs parallel to it and in places cuts
the mineralization. As discussed above, the host rocks belong to the Lower Series.
Although the fault structures are continuous and cut through the overlying
younger units, all significant base-metal mineralization is confined to the basal
tuff unit, the lowest unit in the Lower Series.
The ore occurs as en-echelon massive sulfide lenses up to 60 m long and 6 m
thick, but some mineralization also occurs in a stockwork of horizontal and verti-
cal sulfide veinlets. Minor veinlets of galena and pyrite can be observed in Lime-
stone I directly above Zuniga. Patches of remobilized sulfides occur within the un-
altered diabase dyke.
The principal sulfides in the massive sulfide ore are sphalerite and galena, with
smaller amounts of pyrite and chalcopyrite; the gangue consists of quartz and cal-
cite, which also enclose fragments of wall rock and chert. There is no obvious
banding in the sulfides nor can any zoning be observed. There are, however, dif-
ferences in metal ratios between the two vein structures. At the end of the under-
ground exploration program in 1977, the Zuniga ores averaged 9.50Jo Zn, 5.7% Pb,
0.3% Cu and 55 g Ag/t, whereas the average for Antolin ores was: 10.9% Zn,
0.1% Pb, 0.3% Cu, and 34 g Ag/t. In Zuniga there is a strong correlation between
Pb and Ag such that 1% Pb corresponds to 10 g Ag/t. In laboratory tests in 1976,
zinc concentrates were shown to contain the following amounts of tin and mercu-
ry: Zuniga - 600 ppm Sn, 5 ppm Hg, and Antolin -100 ppm Sn, 40 ppm Hg. In
both structures the sphalerite contains exsolved pyrrhotite and pyrite as well as
2.5% to 3.5% Fe in solid solution.
These veins are considered to be part of the feeder system for the stratiform
base-metal deposits in the overlying Ore Series.
4.2 Stratiform Mineralization
As mentioned above, significant base-metal mineralization occurs at Concordia

and San Antonio associated with andesitic volcanics and at Estatuas associated
with rhyolitic volcanics (Figs. 2 and 3).
4.2.1 Stratiform Mineralization in the Andesitic Domain
San Antonio. At San Antonio mineralization was discovered at stratigraphic posi-

tions Ore I, II, and III. Ore I comprises the largest base-metal manto in the Toqui
district; the Ore II manto is about 10% of the size of that at Ore I. At Ore III
only minor amounts of disseminated sphalerite and galena are observed in Lime-
stone III. The Ore I manto has a thickness of 2 to 10m, that at Ore II 1 to 3m.
The Thqui Zinc-Lead-Copper-Silver Deposits, Aysen Province, Chile 481
Ore I occurs in a carbonate-rich andesitic tuff with fossils which grades laterally
into fossiliferous limestone (Limestone I) and is directly underlain by the lower
quartz porphyry sill, which shows potassic alteration, as mentioned above_ The
Ore II manto occurs within fossiliferous Limestone II. The sphalerite-rich miner-
alization of the Ore I and II mantos is predominantly a replacement ore in which
the carbonate of the fossils is replaced by sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite and
to a lesser extent by galena. The sulfides also occur in the calcareous andesitic tuff
matrix. The content of sulfides varies between 200Jo and 80%. The lower 1 to 2 m
of the Ore II manto is pyrite- and pyrrhotite-rich. Disseminated pyrrhotite is also
a major sulfide component in the silicified andesitic tuff underlying the margin
of the replacement ore at Ore I. In the center of the Ore I manto directly underly-
ing the replacement ore, a local lens, 1 m thick, of chalcopyrite-rich massive sul-
fides with andesitic tuff was observed in the drilling exploration campaign.
The minerals present in order of decreasing abundance are sphalerite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, galena, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, tetrahedrite, and native bismuth.
The average iron content of the sphalerite is 11.2% Fe. Most sphalerite crystals
contain exsolved chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite which also occur on the boundaries
of sphalerite. Tetrahedrite is present in minor amounts, always with galena. Native
bismuth forms minute inclusions in galena and pyrrhotite. Arsenopyrite is locally
more abundant near the margins of the mantos.
At the end of the drilling campaign in 1976, the grade of the Ore I manto was
estimated at 9% Zn, 0.7% Pb, 0.1% Cu, and 52 g Ag/t, and for the Ore II man-
tos: 6.75% Zn, 2.36% Pb, 0.1% Cu, and 62 g Ag/t.
Concordia. The main sulfide zone at Concordia occurs within andesitic tuffs and
limestone at the stratigraphic position Ore II. A small base-metal sulfide mineral-
ization was intersected in drilling at Ore III. Ore I comprises barren pyrite.
The ores at Concordia are partly massive to semi-massive, and partly banded
sphalerite, galena, and pyrite. No replacements or skarns like those in San Anto-
nio are known here. The lower porphyry sill ends just east and south of the miner-
alization. Ore II sulfides, in decreasing order of abundance, are pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, and chalcopyrite, and traces of pyrrhotite. The sphalerite contains ex-
solved chalcopyrite, but exsolved pyrrhotite is absent, unlike in San Antonio and
Estatuas. The sphalerite contains 5% Fe, much less than in San Antonio and
Estatuas.
Drilling in 1976/77 indicated grades of 13% Zn, 6.3% Pb, 0.56% Cu, and
145 g Ag/t.
At Concordia, intensive argillic footwall alteration can be observed in the un-
derlying andesitic and rhyolitic breccia and tuff units of the Lower Series. This
alteration zone also contains anomalously high Cu, Zn, and Pb values. The
strongest alteration was observed below the highest-grade base-metal values of
Ore II. Geophysical measurements indicate that this location also coincides with
the center of pyrrhotite mineralization in the overlying basallutite of the Upper
Series. Thus at Concordia, stratiform sulfide deposition occurs at four successive
stratigraphic levels above an alteration zone with anomalous base-metal values in
the underlying Lower Series, which is also host to the discordant vein mineraliza-
tion at Zuiiiga-Antolin about 2 km away (Fig. 2).
Ore II at Concordia displays the same zonation as Ore I in San Antonio, i.e.,
chalcopyrite-rich ore beneath sphalerite-rich ore (see above). Going stratigraphi-
cally upwards from Ore I to Ore II in San Antonio and from Ore II to Ore III
in Concordia, Pb increases relatively to Zn, and Ag decreases relatively to Pb. In
San Antonio, the Zn/Pb ratio changes from 19/1 to 2.9/1 compared to 2.2/1 to
1.7I 1 at Concordia. The corresponding o/o Pb to g Ag/t ratios are 1/94 to 1/26
at San Antonio and 1/23 to 1/9 at Concordia. Thus the Zn/Pb ratio of Ore II
at San Antonio (2.9/1) and Concordia (2.2/1) is comparable. This applies also to
the Pb/Ag ratio, which is 1/26 at San Antonio and 1/23 at Concordia.
4.2.2 Stratiform Mineralization in the Rhyolitic Domain
Estatuas. At Estatuas five stratiform sphalerite ore zones occur at the stratigraph-
ic positions Ore II and III. These zones consist of lenses 5 to 20 m long and up
to 3 m thick. They are in rhyolitic tuffs and, unlike San Antonio and Concordia,
are not directly connected with limestone which only occur along strike. The
Estatuas sulfide zones consist of banded and massive sphalerite which interfinger
and grade laterally and relatively abruptly into felsic tuffs containing thin layers
of pyrrhotite and pyrite. As with Ore I at San Antonio, pyrrhotite is enriched in
the lower part of the sphalerite ore.
The sulfide minerals in order of decreasing abundance are sphalerite, pyr-
rhotite, pyrite (which together represent about 99% of all sulfides), as well as gale-
na, chalcopyrite, tertrahedrite, and molybdenite. The iron content of sphalerite is
between 11.0% and 11.5 %. Minor chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite occur as exsolved
grains. Tetrahedrite and native bismuth occur only as traces, usually in galena.
Magnetite occurs in minor amounts within the sulfide lenses and is locally en-
riched as small patches. Microscopically the textural relationships between the in-
dividual phases are similar to those in the San Antonio ores.
5 Conclusions
Stratiform base-metal mineralization in the Toqui district at San Antonio,
Estatuas, and Concordia is stratigraphically correlatable and occurs at three levels
within the Ore Series (Ore I, II, and III), equivalent to three different ore-forming
events. A fourth mineralization event, which produced barren pyrrhotite, occurs
in the basal lutite of the Upper Series directly overlying the Ore Series. Thus it
is clear that stratiform base-metal deposits formed in three different areas at three
different levels more or less contemporaneously, in spite of the fact that the base-
metal deposits within the Ore Series are hosted by two different types of volcanic
rocks, rhyolitic and andesitic tuffs originating from local volcanic centers. The co-
incidence of two or three ore events in different volcanic facies is interpreted as
resulting from regional control of the ore solutions. Despite contemporaneous ore
events in different volcanic facies, there are metal associations typical of each vol-
canic facies. In the andesitic terrane the stratiform deposits are zinc-lead-copper
mantos, while only zinc mantos occur in the rhyolitic terrane. Despite the fact that
Table 1. Pb isotope ratios of mineralizations in the Toqui district (Puig 1985)
Isotope ratios 2061204 Pb 2071204 Pb 208/204 Pb
Accuracy ±0.024 ±0.022 ±0.074

Mineralization from Toqui (possibly Zuniga vein) 18.513 15.627 38.497
Zuniga vein 18.502 15.599 38.340
San Antonio manto 18.534 15.642 38.539
Concordia and San Antonio, both in the andesitic terrane, are 3 km apart, the
metal ratios of corresponding Ore II mineralizations are very similar and the
trends of relative increase or decrease of Zn to Pb or Ag to Pb are the same, going
from Ore I to Ore II in San Antonio or from Ore II to Ore III in Concordia.
This is also the argument for considering that both the San Antonio and Con-
cordia deposits have the same origin. The ore at San Antonio showing replace-
ment features and skarn deposits is certainly epigenetic. No such features are ob-
served in Concordia. It is argued that both Concordia and San Antonio ore de-
posits have a syngenetic volcanogenic origin, but the ores at San Antonio were
subsequently mobilized by the intrusion of the lower porphyry sill, which directly
underlies the Ore I manto (Wellmer et al. 1983).
The base-metal deposits in the Toqui district are enveloped by barren pyrite-
pyrrhotite mineralization both in a vertical and lateral sense. At Concordia in the
first ore event, Ore I, barren pyrite was deposited, then base-metal deposition fol-
lowed at Ore II and III. These two events are followed by the barren pyrrhotite
mineralization in the basallutite of the Upper Series, which overlies the Ore Se-
ries. On a regional scale barren pyrite mineralization was observed outside the
Estatuas-San Antonio-Concordia triangle, e.g., 6 km east of Toqui a barren pyrite
horizon at the stratigraphic position of Ore II.
The discordant base-metal mineralization at Zufiiga-Antolin in the underlying
Lower Series is considered to be part of the feeder system for the stratiform de-
posits at Ore I, II, and III in the overlying Ore Series. Further evidence for this
feeder system below the Concordia orebodies is the intensive footwall alteration
associated with anomalous base-metal values.
Pb isotope studies by Puig (1985) do not contradict the interpretation that all
mineralizations occurring in discordant veins and stratiform mantos have a com-
mon metal source (Table 1). Differences in the metal ratios and trace elements in
the two vein orebodies at Zuniga and Antolin, which are only 250m apart, may
reflect differences in local sources. These differences could also be interpreted,
however, as changes through time comparable to the changes which can be ob-
served going from mineralization events Ore I to Ore II and then Ore III, as dis-
cussed above.
According to Fontbote et al. (1990), the Pb isotope data support the geotec-
tonic interpretation that Toqui is a typical volcanogenic base-metal deposit in a
back-arc basin.
References
Anonymous (1985) Oro de "Santa Teresa" descubierto nuevo "El Indio"? Min Chilena 53 (6):5-7
Baker PE, Rea WJ, Skarmeta J, Caminos R, Rex DC (1981) Igneous history of the Andean cordillera
and Patagonian plateau around latitude 46 °S. Phil ltans R Soc Lond, Math Phys Sci 303
(1474):105-149
R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia y recursos minerales de Chile. 2:547-635
Collao S (1979) Anomalias geoquimicas asociadas a depositos de Pb-Zn en Rio Toqui, XI Region,
Chile. Aetas II Congr Geol Chile, Arica, pp C 89- C 108
Fontbote L, Gunnesch KA, Baumann A (1990) Metal sources in stratabound ore deposits in the Andes
(Andean cycle) - Lead isotope constraints. This Vol, pp 759-773
Franklin JM, Lydon JW, Sangster DF (1981) Volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits. Econ Geol
75th Anniv Vol, pp 485-627
Frutos J (1984) Metallogenic map of Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyarzun R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia y
recursos minerales de Chile. Univ Concepcion Press, map annex
Frutos J, Pincheira M (1984) Depositos minerales de Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyarzun R, Pincheira M (eds)
Geologia y recursos minerales de Chile. Univ Concepcion Press, 2v, 923 pp and annexmaps
LAC Minerals Ltd (1989) 1989 Annual Report, Toronto, 59 pp
Metallgesellschaft AG (1987) World mining map. VWK-Ryborsch, Obertshausen/Frankfurt
Pinilla BS (1985) La mineria del zinc. Min Chilena 58, Nov 17-23
Puig A (1985) The geological and metallogenic significance of lead isotope abundance studies on
galena occurrences in the Chilean Andes. Thesis, Oxford Polytechnic Fac Techn, Oxford
Schneider A, Charrier R, Ambrus J (1986) Geology of mineralizing systems within the Chilean Andes;
its association to eruptive processes and the regional geodynamic and magmatic evolution. Berli-
ner Geowiss Abh A, Sonderbd (X Geowiss Lateinamerika-Kolloq, Berlin, Abstracts), pp 94-96
Skarmeta MJ (1976) Evolucion tectonica y paleogeografica de los Andes Patagonicos de Aysen (Chile)
durante el neocomiano. I Congr Geol Chile, Santiago, pp B 1 - B 15
Spence CD, de Rosen-Spence AF (1975) The place of sulfide mineralization in the volcanic sequence
at Noranda, Quebec. Econ Geol 70:90-101
Stiefel J (1970) Das Andenprofil im Bereich des 45. siidlichen Breitengrades. Geol Rundsch 59:979
Viteri E (1972) Estudio geologico del distrito minero Cerro Estatuas, Aysen. Inst Invest Geol Chile
38 (unpublished)
Wellmer FW, Reeve EJ, Wentzlau E, Westenberger H (1983) Geology and ore deposits of the Toqui
district, Aysen, Chile. Econ Geol 78:1119-1143
The Mining District of the General Carrera Lake
and the Rosillo Manto Deposit,
Aysen Province, Southern Chile
A. SCHNEIDER 1 and R. TOLOZA 2
1 Introduction
Polymetallic Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag mineralization at the Lake General Carrera occurs in
veins and in mantiform and irregular replacement bodies, hosted dominantly by
Paleozoic schists and marbles but also by Jurassic volcanic rocks (Fig. 1).
The lake is located 1600 km south of Santiago in the Aysen province of south-
ern Chile (lat. 46 °30'S) and forms the world's southernmost mining district. The
deposits of the district are not very large, but have produced a significant tonnage
of Zn and Pb for the Chilean mining industry. El Toqui District, Chile (Wellmer
and Reeve this Vol.) lies about 150 km N of this region.
The district comprises non-stratabound ore deposits hosted by Paleozoic and
Jurassic rocks and stratabound ore deposits hosted by Jurassic rocks.
Some of the stratiform orebodies emplaced in Paleozoic rocks show features
which could support a volcanogenic-exhalative origin. As it will be discussed be-
low this is not the case. On the contrary, the present investigation shows that all
ore deposits of the district are related to calc-alkaline magmatism developed
in a Mesozoic back-arc setting. Only some of the ore deposits and occurrences
hosted by the Jurassic Ibanez Fm. can be considered to be stratabound.
2 Regional Geology
Principal rock types associated with the mineralization are weakly metamorphic
schists, phyllites and very pure, granoblastic marbles. These were grouped into a
metamorphic basement complex, which crops out preferentially to the south of
the Lake General Carrera (Skarmeta 1978). The regional metamorphism of the ar-
ea reaches in general into the greenschist facies (Miller 1975; Lagally 1975) and
rocks have been foliated and folded (Niemeyer 1975; Lagally 1975; Skarmeta
1978). Miller (1970) and Miller and Sprechmann (1978) concluded that the defor-
mation has at least a pre-Devonian age. These purely clastic rocks were possibly
derived from andesitic lava flows and dykes (Miller 1970) with an alkali-dominat-
ed chemistry, probably deposited onto a continental plate margin (Godoy 1980).
The post-Paleozoic history shows that since the Middle Jurassic igneous activi-
ty at this latitude was controlled by an easterly dipping subduction zone along the
1 Feodor Lynen Research Fellow, Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Depto de Geologia Univer-
sidad de Chile, Correo 21, Casilla 13518, Santiago, Chile
2 Departamento de Geologia, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 13518, Correo 21, Santiago, Chile
Present address: Bundesanstalt fUr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Stilleweg 2, 3000 Hannover
51, FRG, DGA Bolivien

486 A. Schneider and R. Toloza
0 IOKm
I
2
3
4 LEGEND
l
l3) 5
!Z] s
G:J7
p/ FAULTS
~ a
<D ROSILl.O MINE @ SAN SE8A$TIAN
® SILVA MI NI[ {!) ARROYO PEDREGOSO
® L.tS CHIVI.S MIME @LA POU

@ RIO MI LLER @ Cw,Pb
GD CERRO COLORAOO @ .. AftBLES
Fig. 1. Geological setting of the ore deposits of the General Carrera Lake (after Skarmeta 1978 and
Tolosa 1987) (see also Fig. 1 in Wellmer et al. this Vol.). 1 Quarternary; alluvials; 2 Jurassic-Cretaceous
intrusives of the Patagonian batholith; 3 Glacial moraine; 4 Tertiary; fossiliferous sandstones; 5 Upper
Cretaceous; acid pyroclastics of the Divisadero Formation; 6 Middle Jurassic; acid volcanics of the
Ibaiiez Formation; 7 Paleozoic basement; schists, phyllites, quartzites; 8 Paleozoic basement; marbles.
Numbers 1-10 in open circles indicate most important deposits (1, 2, 3, 6, 8), smaller deposits, pros-
pects and local occurrences of mineralization (4, 5, 7, 9) and nonmetallics (10)
Pacific margin (Baker et al. 1981). Cogenetic plutonic rocks of the Patagonian
batholith (Bartholomew and Thrney 1985) and Middle to Upper Jurassic calc-
alkaline rhyolites and dacites of the Ibanez Formation intrude and discordantly
overlie the Paleozoic basement, reaching a thickness of up to 2600 m (Niemeyer
197 5). This Ibanez Formation is concordantly overlain by marine fossiliferous
shales and sandstones of the Neocomian Coyhaique Formation (Lahsen 1966;
Skarmeta 1974), which marks a mildly extensional back-arc regime which may
have existed throughout much of Mesozoic-Recent time (Baker et al. 1981). The
terrestrial infill of the basin is a thick rhyolitic to andesitic and volcanoclastic
sequence up to 470 m thick of the Divisadero Formation (Niemeyer 1975). Wide-
spread, Middle Tertiary basalt-rhyolite volcanism on the eastern side of the Lake
General Carrera seems to be associated with this tectonic environment (Skarmeta
1974; Baker et al. 1981).
The Mining District of the General Carrera Lake and the Rosillo Manto Deposit 487
3 The Ore Deposits of the District

Much of the following information has been summarized from unpublished
reports by Diaz and Diaz (1982), Roeschmann (1981, 1982), Soza (1971), Flores
(1964), Ferretti (1961), Ruiz (1946), and Toloza (1987). Figure 1 shows the geo-
logic setting and the principal ore deposits of the region. The main production
of the district has come from the Las Chivas, Silva, Escondida, and the Rosillo
deposits with a total production close to 500000 tons of Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag ore.
The largest deposit of the district was the Las Chivas Mine (Fig. 1), which pro-
duced about 200000 t of ore averaging 4.850Jo Cu. Maximum grades have been
140Jo Cu. The deposit consisted of a series of tectonized, lenticular veins hosted
by micaschists and phyllites. The largest vein is known for 1700 m with an average
of 1.5 m and a maximum width of 6 m. Vertically, this vein extends over 400 m.
It is cut by a series of porphyritic dykes. Chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite com-
prise the principal ore mineralogy with quartz gangue. Flores (1964) classified the
vein as mesothermal.
Much smaller deposits occur in the Rio Mueller area (Fig. 1). These include
stratiform deposits such as El Pelado. This together with the Olga, Olguita Sur,
and the Roma deposit forms part of a horizon of marbles which occur within a
sequence of Mesozoic volcanics and basal phyllites. A sphalerite< galena-py-
rite < chalcopyrite mineralization is emplaced in flat lying cylindrical bodies
which are up to 20m long, 10m wide and 3-4m thick, all of which are associat-
ed with tectonized and brecciated horizons of the marbles. These bodies are sur-
rounded by a 2-m-thick aureole of rhomboedric-coarse crystalline calcite.
Oligario is the largest vein of the region, carrying chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
pyrite and quartz gangue. It is hosted within greenschists and phyllites.
Other deposits of the Rio Mueller area correspond to bodies replacing the car-
bonaceous host rocks by pyrrhotite-pyrite and <chalcopyrite. These are very
abundant, forming massive bodies with elongated forms which follow the folia-
tion of associated phyllites over an area of 100x20 m. One of the largest deposit
of this type, Cerro Colorado, may be of some use for the production of sulfuric
acid.
Similar but even smaller deposits occur in the Rivera and the Puerto 'franquilo
area. These correspond to Cu-, Pb-, and Mo-bearing veins, lenticular and replace-
ment bodies, formed within marbles or at the contact between marbles and phyl-
lites. The replacement bodies may extend over 200m with a thickness of 3 -7 m.
The Escondida deposit 3.5 km SE of Puerto Guadal is hosted in greenschist
facies rocks and consists of parallel veins which extend over an area of 340 x 75 m.
The veins have an average thickness of 30 em and trend N80/90 o to 60 o S; they
represent fissure fillings.
Chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena< sphalerite is the principal ore mineralogy with
quartz and subordinate chlorite-calcite gangue. Average grades were 12% Cu and
3% Pb.
The San Sebastian mine, located 1.5 km S of Puerto Guadal, consists of a se-
ries of veins and veinlets and lenses of quartz which are oriented parallel to the
foliation of the green schists. Their thickness is less than 1 m and the mineraliza-
tion is galena, sphalerite< chalcopyrite, pyrite with quartz gangue.
The most important mine in the Fachinal area is La Poza. Others are Veta de
Oro, Paulina, and prospects such as Arroyo Pedregosa. In this area the basement
and the Mesozoic series are intruded by a major stock (20 km2) SE of Fachinal
and local, brecciated rhyolitic domes. 1\vo of the deposits of the sector are man-
tiform: La Poza, and Paulina. They contain Pb-Zn and high Ag grades. Another
four deposits are veins of little potential with Cu-Pb-Zn-Mo mineralization.
A third group is those with surficial hydrothermal alteration with scarce Pb-Cu,
Pb-Zn, Mo, Cu, Cu-W-Mo mineralization. At Arroyo Pedregosa the Cu-W-Mo ore
occurs in a small vein, which is 20- 30 em wide and hosted in a granodioritic
stock.
La Poza is hosted by volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks of the Jurassic Ibanez
Formation. The mineralization occurs in disseminations and in veinlets carrying
galena, sphalerite and interesting amounts of Ag hosted within calcareous
volcanoclastics and cherts. The mineralized strata are slightly folded and form
orebodies up to 300 m long, 1.5- 3 m thick bound by two vertical faults. The high-
est ore grade is 11.5o/o Pb and 4.9% Zn (Flores 1964). The ore minerals are gale-
na> sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite with some barite gangue. These occur as dis-
seminated grains within the stratified planes of the host rocks and as fissure fill-
ings within horizontal and vertical fractures. Roeschmann ( 1981) estimated
126000 t of probable and 84000 t of possible reserves. At the Paulina deposit, red-
dish chert is associated with high grade mineralization. This deposit is similar in
type to La Poza although much smaller.
The Silva mine, situated 2 km NNE of Puerto Crystal consists of irregular,
subvertical bodies emplaced in pure marble. These bodies range in size from 500
to 3000 m3 , and are connected by discontinuous vein structures (Roeschmann
1981; Ruiz 1946; Ferreti 1961; Flores 1964; Soza 1971). The grades were 20% Pb,
20% Zn, and 800 g/t Ag, and during 1971 60% Pb and 8% Zn (Soza 1971).
Roeschmann (1981) interpreted the deposit as a metasomatic replacement body
formed by ore fluids generated by a granodioritic intrusion and a series of aplitic
dykes which are rooted in the intrusive.
The northwestern sector of the lake near Puerto Ibanez, about 75 km E of
Puerto Crystal (not shown in Fig. 1) hosts some very small veins and manto de-
posits which contain Pb-Zn-Cu ore emplaced within volcanics and volcaniclastics
of the Ibanez and Divisadero Formations. The largest deposit is the Long Mine,
which consists of a subhorizontal manto extending only 10m with a thickness of
0.1-0.7 m, carrying 60% Pb.
4 The Rosillo Manto Deposit (Fig. 2)

The Rosillo deposit is the only mantiform orebody of economic significance
in the General Carrera district. The mine is situated at low altitudes about
3 km NNE of Puerto Crystal (Fig. 1). It is owned by the Empresea Minera Aysen
Ltd. The original size of the orebody was of the order of 15000 t with ore
grades of 12o/o -40% Zn, 16% Pb, 12% Cu and 380 g/t Ag (Toloza 1987).
Mining activities started before 1960 and continued sporadically until the end of
1986.
fAULT
0 70 11'1
Fig. 2. Schematic block diagram of the Rosillo Manto. Symbols see Fig. 1. The mantiform massive
Zn ore is marked in black lines. Figure not to scale (dimensions about 250M horizontal and 100M
vertical). A continuation of the Manto SSE of the Eastern Fault is based on preliminary exploration
work and field evidence (Toloza 1987). The manto NW of the Western Fault was exploited until 1960.
Until 1968, central sectors of the manto were exploited along the Eastern Fault zone. Exploitation be-
tween 1980 and 1986 continued NE of the Central Fault in the highly faulted and brecciated sectors
of the deposit
4.1 Geology of the Orebody
The Rosillo mine area is located in green and black phyllites and marbles of Pa-
leozoic age which are discordantly overlain by the acid to intermediate Jurassic
volcanics of the Ibanez Formation. West of Puerto Crystal these sequences are in-
truded by granodiorites from the Patagonian batholith. Abundant basaltic,
andesitic, and dacitic dykes cut both marbles and phyllites.
The Rosillo deposit is a mantiform body deformed during late- or post-Meso-
zoic events situated at the contact between black phyllites and underlying mar-
bles, following in general the foliation of the phyllites. The orebody shows both
open and tight symmetrical and asymmetrical folding as well as complex post-ore
faulting.
These black phyllites consist of quartz-chlorite-albite-white mica with subordi-
nate biotite and plagioclase. The marbles are of a high purity with minor ( < 5o/o)
calcite-dolomite-quartz and white micas. The manto is formed by massive sphal-
erite< pyrite< galena ore between 1.5 and 2.5 m thick. In fault zones where it is
brecciated and intermixed with large blocks of marble and phyllite the total thick-
ness can reach up to 10m. The width of the body varies from 32 to 40 m and the
known horizontal extension is at least 194 m.
4.2 Mineralization and Paragenesis
The mineralization of the massvie sulfide body consists principally of sphalerite

and pyrite and, in order of abundance, of minor phases which are chalcopyrite-
galena-bornite-tennantite-digenite-covellite-cerussite-Ag-bearing tetrahedrite. The
gangue minerals are quartz and calcite and minor chlorite, sericite, tourmaline,
epidote, and kaolinite.
Paragenetically the first stage of ore deposition involved pyrite, which after
fracturing was recemented by calcite. In a second stage sphalerite was deposited.
It generally surrounds the earlier pyrite and calcite cement, penetrating them
along fractures. The compositional variation of the sphalerite is very restricted
and the absence of significant trace element contents and a relatively high Fe con-
tent may be indicative of formation at higher temperatures (Thble 1).
This sphalerite is partially replaced by tenanntite and then by chalcopyrite and
galena. This early galena was Ag-poor, and was pseudomorphically replaced by
cerrusite. Later, Ag-rich galena was deposited, followed by rare Ag-rich tetrahe-
drite. No Ag-bearing inclusions were detected in the tetrahedrite and the silver ap-
pears to be in solid solution up to 0.34 wto/o Ag (Thble 2). Digenite, bornite, and
covellite are rare, appearing during later stages of the paragenetic sequence. Even-
tual deformation and fracturing took place with late quartz-calcite fillings.
Table 1. Electron microprobe analyses of sphalerite, Rosillo mine, General Carrera district, Aysen
province, Southern Chile
Spot 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average
Zn 59.90 59.70 60.20 59.50 59.30 59.30 59.00 59.30 59.50 59.30 59.50
Fe 6.90 6.90 6.90 7.00 6.70 6.90 6.90 6.70 7.309 7.00 6.90
Cd 0.15 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16
Mn 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
s 33.10 33.20 32.80 33.00 32.70 32.70 33.10 33.10 33.50 33.10 33.00
Totals 100.06 99.98 100.06 99.67 98.87 99.07 99.17 99.26 100.46 99.56 99.57
wtOJo
Atomic proportions
Zn 0.88 0.88 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.88 0.88
Fe 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.12 0.12
Cd <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Mn <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
e 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
s 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Ag, Ge and In were sought for but not detected, with minimum detection levels of 0.02 wtOJo. The
analyses were done at 20 kV with a beam current of 20 nanoamperes using the following X-ray lines
and standards: Zn K, Fe K, S K (synthetic sphalerite), Cd L (synthetic CdS), Mn K (natural alaban-
dite).
Table 2. Electron microprobe analyses of the Ag content of galena in the

massive sphalerite of the Rosillo manto, General Carrera region, Aysen
province, Southern Chile
Ag (wtOJo)
0.30 0.29 0.31 0.30 0.31 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.30
0.31 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.35 0.34 0.27
0.29 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.30
Average Ag content for 26 analyses: 0.305 wtOJo
The analyses were done at 20 kV with a beam current of 40 nanoamperes

using the following X-ray line and standards: Ag L [synthetic (Pb, Ag)S],
with 0.40 wtOJo Ag and Ag-free PbS for background, counting for 100 s.
The contact zone of the hanging and footwall horizons does not show any sig-
nificant mineralization, apart from some pyrite replacements of the marbles with
recrystallized calcite. Pyrite occurs principally within the upper parts of the man-
to, which can be seen in central parts of the deposit where the orebody consists
of 1.20 m of sphalerite and an upper 0.30 m of pyrite. In other sectors the manto
is 2.50 m thick with intense but irregular pyritization. In general, the sphalerite
is massive but fine-grained with associated fragments of black phyllite and mar-
ble.
4.3 Geochemistry of the Ore Fluids
Fluid inclusions within the sphalerite of the Rosillo manto are generally smaller
than 30 !l· They are typically hexagonal and elongated in shape and appear to be
of primary origin. Effects of fluid boiling have not been observed. The degree of
filling of 0.90-0.95 (density: 0.9-0.95 g/cm3) indicates a high density fluid. C0 2
and solid daughter phases are absent, which indicates a rather low fluid salinity.
Homogenization temperatures for nine inclusions, which all homogenized to the
liquid phase, were between 417°-478 oc (Toloza 1987).
Sulfur isotopic analyses were carried out for two sphalerite and one pyrite sam-
ple from the Rosillo manto and for one galena sample from the Silva Mine. The
results range between + 1.68 for sphalerite to -4.81 for the galena, which favors
an inorganic reduction of the sulfur, and therefore a magmatic source for the sul-
fur is implied (Table 3).
Table 3. Sulfur isotope analyses General

Carrera region, Southern Chile
Sample Locality 34s (O?o)
Galena Silva Mine -4.81

Sphalerite Rosillo Mine + 1.18
Sphalerite Rosillo Mine + 1.68
Pyrite Rosillo Mine + 1.02
4.4 Discussion
The mantiform massive sulfide mineralization at Rosillo shows distinct features

which could favor a syngenetic, volcanogenic-exhalative origin of the deposit.
These include the lack of any major hydrothermal alteration in the foot and hang-
ing wall of the orebody, absence of major intrusives, the stratification of the
orebody, the fine-grained nature of the ore minerals and the absence of mineral-
ization in vertical fractures and in the dykes. Consequently this would favor a Pa-
leozoic age of ore formation, unrelated to the magmatic evolution of the Mesozo-
ic-Tertiary. However, the presence of igneous dykes, the high temperature at which
the ore fluids deposited the sphalerite, the replacement textures, the absence of
boiling fluids, the inorganic reduction of the sulfur, the absence of cherts, barites,
or gypsum are not indicative of an exhalative massive sulfide origin.
The low P, T conditions of greenschist facies metamorphism, the absence of
C02 in the fluid inclusions, and the absence of metamorphic ore textures may
also exclude a metamorphic origin for the ore fluids.
The detailed analysis of the mantiform mineralization at Rosillo (Toloza 1987),
laboratory analyses presented in this chapter, and comparative studies of the oth-
er deposits of the district indicate an epigenetic, Mesozoic origin of the orebody.
Such evidence is based on the geochemical analyses, on little veins associated with
hydrothermal alteration, the presence of igneous dykes, typical replacement tex-
tures, and that of a major intrusive body in the vicinity of the deposit. The
stratiform shape of the orebody may be explained by fluid migration by diffusion
of the aqueous ore solution within the permeable calcareous facies along the foli-
ated impermeable hanging wall horizon of the phyllites. Conditions for such a re-
placement could exist for ores formed at high P, T conditions where open spaces
are scarce and communication with the surface is impeded.
A possible dissolution and precipitation reaction could be written:
CaC0 3 +2H+~ca2 + +H 2 C0 3 (aq) ,
the space provided by removal of Ca and H 2C0 3 would be filled by

ZnC1 2 (aq)+H 2 S(aq)~ZnS+2H+ +2Cl .
5 Conclusions
The ore deposits of the Lake General Carrera district are associated with calc-al-
kaline magmatism and back-arc development during the emplacement of the Pat-
agonian batholith in the Jurassic and the Cretaceous.
In general, two settings may be distinguished:
1. Volcanic-hosted mineralization in the Jurassic Ibanez Formation at La Poza,
formed under submarine conditions in the region of the back-arc, which shows
distinct features typical for exhalative massive sulfide deposits.
2. Mineralization associated with the evolution of the main batholith which corre-
sponds to high temperature, deep-rooted massive and highly tectonized veins,
small, high-level, epithermal veins within the upper parts of the least eroded
volcanics, and especially to irregular and mantiform replacement bodies in Paleo-

zoic rocks.
Cu-dominated Vein deposits were formed as fracture fillings under high
lithostatic pressures within inert and largely impermeable host rocks such as the
schists and the phyllites of the basement complex (the Las Chivas, Oligario,
Escondida and San Sebastian veins).
Irregular-shaped, subvertical ore deposits which are connected with intrusives
at depth were formed when the ore fluids entered into a chemically reactive rock
such as marble. These fluids may have entered the carbonates along fractures, re-
sulting in metasomatic replacements by Zn-Pb-rich fluids forming coarse
sphalerite, galena, and granoblastic recrystallizations of calcite (the Silva Mine).
The tense-shaped bodies are related to Zn-rich fluids which replaced the
Paleozoic marbles preferentially along the interface of horizontal marbles and
overlying phyllites. The fluids might have ascended along fractures which entered
the host rocks probably at the interface between phyllites and marbles. The
phyllites acted as seals to fluid movement which through metasomatic replace-
ment processes involving chemical dissolution and fluid migration probably by
diffusion are thought to have followed the foliation of the phyllites. In this way,
apparently "foliated" mantiform bodies adjacent to impermeable caps could have
been formed (Rosillo, mantiform deposits of the Rio Mueller area).
Acknowledgments. S. Chryssoulis (Surface Science Laboratory, London, Canada) and N. Blum (Uni-
versity of Karlsruhe, West Germany) are thanked for the help with the microprobe and isotopic analys-
es. J. Skarmeta and A. Hodgkin considerably improved this manuscript.
References
Baker PE, Rea WJ, Skarmeta J, Caminos R, Rex DC (1981) Igneous history of the Andean cordillera
and Patagonian plateau around latitude 46°S. Phil Trans R Soc Lond A 303(1474):105-149
Bartholomew DS, Th.rney J (1985) Geochemical Characteristics of Magmatism in the Southern Andes
(45-46°S). In: Harmon RS, Barreiro BA (eds) Andean magmatism-chemical and isotopic con-
straints. Shiva Geol Ser England, pp 220-229
Diaz F, Diaz H (1982) Mapa metalogenico pron6stico del sector continental de la XI Region compren-
dido entre latitudes 45-47°S y el Estuario Elefante, Canal Costa. Corfo, AMI 82:247 (unpub-
lished)
Ferretti J (1961) Geologia econ6mica de la zona dellago General Carrera. Dipl Thesis, Univ Chile,
Santiago
Flores H (1964) Informe sobre los yacimientos del Lago General Carrera. Corfo, Santiago, 35 p
Godoy E (1980) Zur Geochemie der Giiinschiefer des Grundgebirges in Chile. Munster Forsch Geol
Paliiont 51:161-182
Lagally U (1975) Geologische Untersuchungen im Gebiet Lago General Carrera-Lago Cochranes,
Prov. Aysen/Chile unter besonderer Beiiicksichtigung des Grundgebirges und seiner Thktonik. Ph
D Thesis, Miinchen Univ, West Germany, 131 p
Lahsen A (1966) Geologia de la region continental de Aysen. Inst Invest Recursos Nat, Corfo 20:1-20
Miller H (1970) Vergleichende Studien an priimesozoischen Gesteinen Chiles unter besonderer Beriick-
sichtigung ihrer Kleintektonik. Geotekt Forsch Stuttgart 36:64
Miller H (1975) El basamento de la provincia de Aysen (Chile) y sus correlaciones con las rocas
premesozoicas de al Patagonia Argentina. Aetas VI Congr Geol Argentina 1
Miller H, Sprechmann P (1978) Eine devonische Faunula aus dem Chonos-Archipel, Region Aysen,
Chile, und ihre stratigraphische Bedeutung. Geol Jb, Hannover B28:37- 45
Niemeyer H (1975) Geologia de Ia region entre el Lago General Carrera y Rio Chacabuco, Aysen. Dip!
Thesis, Univ Chile, Santiago
Roeschmann C (1981) Estudio geologico minero zona Lago General Carrera-XI region. Corfo, AMI
81/23:14 (unpublished)
Roeschmann C (1982) Mineralizacion sulfurada de Fey Cu en los rocas del basamento metamorfico
en el Lago General Carrera, Concepcion. (III), II Congr Geol Chile F, pp 360-372
Ruiz C (1946) Posibilidades mineros de Aysen. Imprenta Univ, Santiago, 69 p
Skarmeta J (1974) Geologia de Ia region continental de Aysen entre los 45 o y 46 o Lat. Sur, Chile. Dip!
Thesis, Univ Chile, Santiago, 226 p
Skarmeta J (1978) Regi6n continental de Aysen entre el Lago General Carrera y Ia Cordillera Castillo.
Carta Geologica de Chile 1:250000 No 29. Inst Invest Geol, Santiago, 53 p
Soza H (1971) Informe geologico Mina Silva, Lago General Carrera, Aysen. Corfo, Div Min Sec Geol,
Santiago, 14 p
Tolosa R (1987) Geologia y genesis del manto de cine Rosillo, Aysen, Lago general Carrera, Chile. Dip!
Thesis, Univ Chile, Santiago
Wellmer FW, Reeve EJ The Toqui zinc-lead-copper-silver deposits, Aysen Province, Chile. This Vol,
pp 473-484
Geologic Evolution of the Atacama Basin
During the Lower Cretaceous
M. E. CISTERNAS and L. L. DIAZ 1
1 Introduction
The Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian to Barremian-Aptian?) sedimentary rocks of
the Atacama region have been grouped into the Chaflarcillo Group by Segerstrom
(1961) and Corvalan (1974). They have been interpreted as one continuous sedi-
mentary cycle, in which the transgression (Valanginian) depicts the beginning of
the second marine cycle in the Andine development, while the regression (Ap-
tian?) represents the end of the marine influence in the Andine development and
the beginning of a predominantly continental environment in the Upper Creta-
ceous.
New studies in the area between Chaftarcillo and Las Canas (Fig. 1) show the
occurrence of an intermediate, regressive pulse, characterized by tidal flat facies
with development of evaporitic levels (Cisternas et al. 1985 b; Cisternas 1986).
A number of stratabound deposits occur associated to the Lower Cretaceous
sequence in the Atacama region. In this Volume, four of them are presented in
detail. The Punta del Cobre deposit (Cu) is associated with the volcanic and
volcanoclastic facies of the lower part of the Cretaceous sequence (Unit 0; Punta
del Cobre Fm.). The Bellavista Ag-Zn deposit occurs in the lower carbonatic
facies, which bears important amounts of volcanoclastic particles (Unit I; Nan-
toco Fm.). Both the Mamifla (Ba) and the Bandurrias (Fe) deposits occur in the
carbonatic-evaporitic facies with intercalated tuffs, that is characteristic for the
intermediate regressive pulse (Unit II; Upper member of the Nantoco Formation)
of the Lower Cretaceous sequence in the Atacama Region.
2 Tectonic Setting
The Lower Cretaceous development in the north of Chile is characterized by a re-
gional polarity, with volcanic and volcanogenic facies to the west and marine
facies to the east. This polarity has been explained by some authors (Frutos and
Tobar 1975; Coira et al. 1982) with a "back-arc basin-magmatic arc" model.
The Cretaceous basin develops between the Upper Jurassic (Araucana) and the
Upper Cretaceous (Peruana) distensive phases.
1 Dpto. Geociencias, Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile

facies
~ Mari ne facies
From
MAPA G E O L OG ICO
DE CH I LE
S ERNAGEOM IN- 1982
0 50 IOOkm
1:::::::::::=~====~
Fig. 1. Distribution of the Lower Cretaceous in the region and location of the research areas
3 Stratigraphy and Facies Analysis
Two series characterize the back-arc basin-magmatic arc system. The magmatic
arc is represented primarily by volcanogenic rocks (more than 3000 m thick) devel-
oped subaerially to the north of Copiap6 and underwater south of 29 o latitude.
The back-arc basin is represented by 1200 to 2000 m of marine carbonatic sedi-
ments. A constant volcanic influence is demonstrated by tuff and lava intercala-
tions, as well as by the fine pyroclastic material in the limestones.
Geologic Evolution of the Atacama Basin During the Lower Cretaceous 497
QUEBRADA QUEBRADA QUEBRADA

CHANARCIL LO GALENA LAS CANAS
N s
l1J
::!:
w
Q:
Q:
______ _
<I
m
iii ~g;
'X Ba ( Mami~a)
w frrr77.,.,.j 'X p b
> (Fortune)
Q:
w
f-
CERRO I 125 :J
<I
CERRO BANDURR IAS J:
Fig. 2. Correlation between the facies units: 0 Unit 0: Basal volcanic to volcanoclastic with calcareous
marine intercalations. 1 Unit I: First carbonatic unit, in the lower part with transgressive facies. 2 Unit
II: This unit represents the intermediate regressive pulse. It consists of carbonatic facies, partly
evaporitic, as well as of .tuffs and exhalites. 3 Unit III: Due to its faunal contents this is a
chronostratigraphic unit and is used as marker horizon in the Atacama Basin. 4 Unit IV: This unit
is composed of limestones and cherts with phosphatic nodules. 5 Unit V: This unit depict the regres-
sive pulse finishing the Cretaceous marine sedimentation. It consists of carbonatic facies with increas-
ing pyroclastic and volcanic epiclast contents to the upper parts
Based on facies analysis of three major profiles in the basin, six process-con-
trolled genetic units are defined (Cisternas 1986). These genetic units can be corre-
lated with the lithologic formations of the Chaiiarcillo Group. Unit 0 is equivalent
to the Punta del Cobre Formation; Unit I is correlated to the Abundancia Forma-
tion and the lower member of the Nantoco Formation Unit II is associated with
the upper member of the Nantoco Formation (Nantoco-Gamma). Unit III corre-
lates with the Totoralillo Formation, while both Units IV and V are equivalent to
the Pabellon Formation.
Figure 2 shows the main characteristics of the units and Fig. 3 the evolution
of the environment in Quebrada Galena, one of the sectors studied.
3.1 Unit 0
This is the oldest unit defined. It is composed of lavas, tuffs, and volcanoclastic
sediments. Pillow structures in the lavas of the southern sector are common, thus
they are supposed to be of submarine origin. In other sectors the only evidence
of submarine origin are the intercalations of marine sediments in the lavas.
498 M. E. Cisternas and L. L. Diaz
QUEBRADA
GALENA 1 23456789
Foreslope
-I
Deep Shelf Margin to
Open Seo Shelf
Foreslope
to
Shelf- Lagoon
Restri cted Platform
Deep Shel f Mo rgin or

Open Seo She l f
to
Shel f- Lagoon
Vo l canoclostie fac i es
w i th
cal careous intercalations
of l agoonal facies
Fig. 3. Evolution of the

depositional environment in
the Q. Galena
Contact metamorphism obliterated this unit in the Quebrada Chafiarcillo, but

in the northern part of the basin (Quebrada Melendez), the volcanic base (Punta
del Cobre Formation) has been interpreted by Camus (1980) as of submarine ori-
gin.
3.2 Unit I
During the first stages, a foreslope to platform margin facies develops in the
northern and central part of the basin. Reef facies appears locally. Deeper condi-
tions, open sea shelf and deep sea shelf margin facies dominate later, as shown
by the occurrence of cherty limestones with phosphatic lenses. In the southern
profile (Quebrada Las Canas), shallower conditions prevail during all the develop-
ment of this unit.
Tuff and lava intercalations, as well as fine pyroclastic components in the lime-
stones, indicate a contemporaneous volcanism. Lavas predominate in the central
southern sector, while tuffs are more common to the north of the basin.
In the lower part of this unit, near its contact with the volcanic base and relat-
ed to the stromatolitic facies that constitutes the upper part of Unit 0, Pb-Zn (Las
Cafias, Cisternas et al. 1985a) and Ag (Bellavista-Jaula, Diaz 1986; this Vol.)
stratabound ore deposits are found.
Platform edge sand facies indicates the transition to the regressive facies of the
next unit.
3.3 Unit II
This unit is defined by the occurrence of limestones with algal mats, calcified
evaporites, iron-bearing laminated limestones, ferruginous cherty limestones, and
abundant tuff horizons, but especially by the presence in the middle part of this
unit of a solution-collapse breccia (Cisternas 1986). The rocks are micrites with
fine lamination or clotted structure and pelbiomicrites.
Subtidal to supratidal deposition environments are recognized in this unit. A
faunal association of radiolarians, ostracodes, milliolids, and juvenile forms of
gastropods characterize the subtidal environment, while algal mat laminated lime-
stones with fenestral porosity represent the intertidal environment. Typical in
these rocks is the presence of crystals, nodules, or relicts of evaporitic minerals
(anhydrite, barite, and quartz-lutecine). The supratidal conditions are recognized
by the calcified relicts of evaporitic beds (gypsum/anhydrite), with a typical su-
crose texture. Also common are desiccation cracks and abundant barite and chal-
cedony, both with evapocrystic as well as evapolensic textures.
The more conspicuous manifestation of the supratidal conditions is an extend-
ed horizon of a solution-collapse breccia, which, with different thickness, is rec-
ognized from Copiap6 through Vallenar, i.e., for more than 100 km. The clasts
of this breccia, mainly algal laminated limestones, are immersed in a matrix of
calcite and gypsum pseudomorphs, barite or barite and chalcedony. The breccia
formed during a subaerial exposition stage, when the underlying evaporitic hori-
zons were dissolved by meteoric waters.
Extended tuff horizons are characteristic of this unit. In Quebrada Chafiarcillo
and Quebrada Las Cafias also lavas appear. As a product of the exhalative activity
associated with the volcanism, ferruginous chert levels or exhalites (Cisternas
1986) occur intercalated both in the tuffs and in the limestones.
This regressive facies, to which numerous stratabound ore deposits of the
Atacama region are bound (including the Mamifia belt, Diaz this Vol. and Ban-
durrias, Cisternas this Vol.), presents important Zn, Pb, Ag, Ba, Fe and Mn
anomalies. Zn and Mn concentrations are higher in the dissolution breccia, Zn
reaches values as high as 2.6% (Mayer and Fontbote 1985). The Pb anomalies
concentrate in the southern part (Quebrada Las Cafias) with values between 0.70/o
and 1.6%.
3.4 Unit III
This unit is composed by ammonite-bearing limestones deposited as a conse-

quence of a fast transgression over Unit II. Since it has a large extension, and the
fossil content (Paracrioceras andinum, Crioceras cf. hildesiense and Shasticrio-
ceras sp.) allows a good stratigraphic control, this unit is used as marker horizon
in the Atacama region. Jurgan (1977) dated this unit paleontologically as Upper
Hauterivian or as Hauterivian-Barremian boundary.
During the evolution of this unit, stable depositional conditions dominated in
the Quebrada Chaiiarcillo sector with facies of open sea shelf to deep sea shelf.
In both central and southern profiles, this condition evolves into shallower facies,
between foreslope and platform edge sands, to become, finally, lagoonal type.
An intense volcanic activity is always present as tuff and lava intercalations.
In the Quebrada Chaiiarcillo lavas and limestones are intimately interbedded; in
the Quebrada Galena and Quebrada Las Caiias lava bodies are tightly related to
tuffitic horizons (Cisternas 1986).
3.5 Unit IV
This unit consists of chert, cherty limestones, and radiolarian-bearing biomicrites

with phosphatic nodules. It represents an important lithologic change compared
with the upper and lower units. The lower and upper parts of this unit are com-
posed of lumachelle beds with bivalves, echinoderms, and red algae debris.
Volcanic activity is represented by fine pyroclastic dust and tuffitic microlenses
in cherts and cherty limestones.
3.6 Unit V
This unit is defined by a regressive facies representing the end of the marine do-
main. An erosion discordance builds the top of this unit, thus its thickness is ir-
regular. It is best exposed in the northern part (Quebrada Chaiiarcillo), where the
lower beds present lagoonal facies. The facies evolve upward to the foreslope, and
platform margin facies appear. The lumachelle beds contain mostly echinoderms
and bivalves in the lower parts, gastropods in the middle, and coral banks in the
upper part.
The pyroclastic fragments, but especially the volcanic epiclasts, increase on the
upper parts of this unit. The last beds are volcanoclastic sandstones with abun-
dant red algae debris.
4 Lithogeochemistry
Chemical analyses for Zn, Cu, Pb, Mn, Fe, Sr, and Ag were done on the same
samples used for the microfacies analysis. Table 1 shows the mean value for each
genetic unit and facies belt. These values are, with the exception of Sr, larger than
Table 1. Mean elemental concentrations by genetic unit and facies

belt
Pb Zn Sr Cu Ag Fe Mn
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (OJo) (%)
Unit
0 26 91 17 16 0.126 1.99 0.12
I 73 284 74 20 0.406 1.01 0.16
II 143 311 77 23 0.252 0.86 0.13
III 57 95 64 27 0.182 1.29 0.09
IV 24 64 43 23 0.020 1.25 0.06
v 39 56 108 26 0.050 1.31 0.06
Facies
2/3 39 124 66 21 0.40 1.03 0.07
4 119 250 81 23 0.20 1.26 0.14
5 56 66 99 21 0.05 1.14 0.13
6 55 152 106 35 0.40 0.88 0.18
7 60 118 108 19 0.60 0.72 0.08
8 71 104 112 17 0.30 0.57 0.69
8/9 132 425 114 27 0.50 0.69 0.19
the reported means for similar lithologies. Positive anomalies (defined as values
within the upper 5o/o of the distribution) occur only in the first three units, while
the last units have practically no anomalies. If we compare the means for the dif-
ferent genetic units, Unit II, the regressive evaporitic sequence, shows clear peaks
in both Pb and Zn.
Figure 4 shows the geochemical evolution of the Lower Cretaceous units. The
Mn/Fe ratio is larger in the Unit II. Similar geochemical characteristics have been
observed in distal facies associated with volcanogenic sulfur deposits (Kuroko
type). On the other hand, it is in this unit where most of the positive anomalies
for Zn, Pb, and Mn, and the negative ones for Sr occur. The relation between
mean geochemical contents for the different elements and the facies belts is com-
pared in Fig. 5.
The Sr/Fe ratio is practically constant from the deeper facies up to the reef,
where an increment of this ratio occurs in the direction of the coast. This charac-
teristic depends heavily in the lower Sr contents in the rock of the tidal to
supratidal facies.
Besides the lagoon facies, where the Fe content is five times higher than that
of Mn, the Mn/Fe curve shows an increase from open sea to the coast.
In the reef and closed platform facies, the Pb and Zn contents are practically
the same, but in the sand bar and evaporitic platform facies, Zn is notoriously
higher than Pb.
A clear relationship can be stated between geochemically favorable rocks, with
large mean values and a large quantity of positive anomalies, and paleogeographi-
cally controlled facies. This trend is especially notorious in the closed platform
and evaporitic platform facies from Unit II. The close relationship between
geochemically anomalous rocks and facies, the large extension of these outcrops
(more than 100 km) at the same stratigraphic level, and the observations of Cister-
I~ C C
\
•
- N N ILO
'c ':l '
.a '-0
L.-
~···
\ l~
Y/~
ll{/
A ..
I I I iii I I IIIII
0.05 0.1 0.5 2 3
Fig. 4. Geochemical evolution of the genetic

units
nas (1986) and Diaz (1986) on some Ag, Zn, Pb, and Fe ore deposits in this unit
allow the supposition of a syngenetic origin for the ore.
The depositional environment of Unit II, in the border of a back-arc basin,
contiguous to an active magmatic arc, as well as the presence in this unit of
volcanogenic levels (tuffs and exhalites) let us suppose that this unit represents the
distal facies of a volcano-exhalative source.
5 Conclusions
During the first stages of the basin development, the northern end was closed by
an elevated region of volcanic terrains (Abad 1976). The deeper part was located
in the central region, in the area of Quebrada Galena, while in the southern pro-
file, shallow waters with submarine volcanic activity were found.
With the development of an extended tidal flat, the geotectonic setting ap-
pears to stabilize along the basin, as shown by the extension and similitude of the
overlying units.
The volcanic activity associated with the magmatic arc is recognized in each
unit, but is especially important during the tidal flat episode, since the highly
evaporitic conditions helped the concentration of the elements liberated by the
volcanic processes. Particularly, a close relation occurs between Zn and the lime-
5
/~ --......._~
~ -~
/
·-·
Sr / F e
• I00 ~----~ ~~ .----·~ I
~/
/ -0
Pb / Zn
0--- . . . . "' ><:

0.5
CuI Z n ~D><' •--~
* " 0
c ~* o~o,
*
Mn/ Fe
* 0.1
2-3 4 5 6 7 8 8-9
Oeep Burldup.s Winnowed Shelf Restr ic ted Platform Lgnd
Shelf or P la tform Lagoon Protform Evoporit.
Margin
Foreslope Platform Edge (Sabkha)
or Open Marg in Sands
Sea
She l f
lL
+---Very Narrow Belts--..+- Wide Fac ies Belts-+ ::;;
(J)
Fig. 5. Relationships between anomalous components for elements and facies in the studied area. SMF
type and facies belts according to Wilson (1975)
stones with algal mats, and between Fe and tuffs and exhalites. Barite appears re-
lated to depositional characteristics (e.g., beds with evaporitic nodules) or associ-
ated with diagenetic modifications, such as diagenetic crystallization rhythmites
(Diaz 1986). Anomalous Mn values in the collapse breccia are related to an en-
richment through meteoric water infiltrations (Cisternas 1985).
The absence of extrabasinal input other than weakly altered volcanogenic frag-
ments allows us to refute an extrabasinal origin for the ore elements.
All these data permit the conclusion that it is not a coincidence that a large
number of stratabound ore deposits in the Atacama region occur in the regressive
Unit II (Cisternas et al. 1985b). The recognition of this unit is therefore very im-
portant as a tool in prospection at a regional level.
Acknowledgments. We are pleased to acknowledge the financial support provided by the University
of Concepci6n (Grant 20.34.27), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Grant Am 23/57) and the
Consejo Nacional de Ciencias y Thcnologia (Chile). This is a contribution to IGCP 242.
References
Abad E (1976) Acerca de Ia paleogeografia neocomiana en Ia regional sur de Copiap6, provincia de
Atacama. Chile Asoc Geol Argentina 32(1):24-33
Amstutz GC, Cistemas ME, Diaz LL, Fontbote L, Frutos J, Mayer C, Schmidt S, Wauschkuhn A
(1985) Relaciones entre algunos yacimientos de Ag, Zn, Fey Bay las secuencias marinas tras-arco
del Junisico y Cretacico inferior en el Norte de Chile. IV Congr Geol Chile 3:435-450
Camus F (1980) Posible modelo genetico para los yacimientos de cobre del distrito minero Punta del
Cobre. Rev Geol Chile 11:51-76
Cistemas ME (1985) Zur Entwicklung einer Sabkha-Fazies in der unterkretazischen Abfolge in der
Region Atacama, Chile. Zbl Geol Paliiont I(9/10):1325-1336
sen-Lagerstiitte Bandurrias. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 2:1-268
Cisternas ME, Diaz LL, Fontbote L (1985 a) Paleogeographically controlled stratabound ore deposits
in the Neocomian of the Atacama Region Chile. Thrra Cognita 5(2-3):295
Cisternas ME, Diaz LL, Fontbote L, Mayer C, Amstutz GC (1985b) Nuevos antecedentes sobre Ia
evoluci6n de Ia cuenca neocomiana en Ia zona Copiap6-Vallenar. IV Congr Geol Chile 1:599-612
Cisternas ME The Bandurrias iron ore deposit, Atacama region, northern Chile. This Vol, pp
505-512
Corvalan J (1974) Estratigrafia del Neocomiano marino al sur de Copiap6, provincia de Atacama.
Diaz LL (1985) Diagenetic control of the ore formation in the Bellavista Mine, North Chile. Zbl Geol
Paliiont I(9/10):1629-1635
Diaz LL (1986) Stratabound Zn-, Ba-, (Ag-) ore deposits of the Lower Cretaceous in the Atacama re-
gion of Northern Chile. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 3:1-186
Diaz LL The Mamifia Mine, Atacama region, Chile. This Vol, pp 523-536
Frutos J, Thbar A (1975) Evolution of the southwestern continental margin of South America. Proc
Gondwana Symp, Canberra, pp 565- 578
Jurgan H (1977) Strukturelle und lithofazielle Entwicklung des andinen Unterkreide-Beckens im Nor-
den Chiles (Provinz Atacama). Geotek Forsch 52:1-138
Levi B, Aguirre L (1981) Ensialic spreading-subsidence in the Mesozoic and Palaeogene Andes of Cen-
Mayer C, Fontbote L (1985) New observation in the silver mining district of Chaftarcillo, Northern
Chile. Zbl Geol Paliiont I(9/10):1637-1648
Segerstrom K (1961) Facies changes in Neocomian rocks of the Teresita-Chulo area, Atacama Prov-
ince, Chile. Geol Surv Res, pp 219-223
Wilson JL (1975) Carbonate facies in geologic history. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, 471 p
The Bandurrias Iron Ore Deposit, Atacama Region,
Northern Chile
M. E. CISTERNAS 1
1 Introduction
Bandurrias is a stratabound iron ore deposit in Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary
rocks. It belongs to the Franja Ferrifera Principal (Espinoza 1979 and this Vol.),
also known as the Fe-apatite subprovince from the Andean geosyncline metallo-
genic province (Ruiz et al. 1965). This less than 30-km-wide belt extends from
about Thltal (25 °) to south of La Serena (31 °) (Fig. 1). More than 50 iron ore de-
posits are known in the Franja Ferrifera Principal located in lavas, intrusives, or
marine beds of Lower Cretaceous age. Those in sediments are stratabound and,
while they are not very important economically (reserves between 0.1 to 1.5 mil-
lion t), they are significant from a genetic point of view.
The best-known stratabound Fe ore deposits in the Franja Ferrifera are Ban-
durrias, Manolete, and Charafta (Fig. 1). These deposits have two main common
characteristics:
- The orebodies are mantos within volcano-carbonatic facies of Lower Creta-
ceous age.
- In the area of the deposits, a skarn paragenesis is produced by Cretaceous in-
trusives.
2 Geology of the Bandurrias Ore Deposit

The Bandurrias ore deposit is located in the Atacama region, Chile, 55 km south
of Copiap6, 100 km north of Vallenar and 5 km south of the well-known silver
deposit Chaftarcillo (Fig.1). The deposit began to be exploited in 1917 (Loram
1917 in St. Clair 1965), was completely worked out, and in 1974 was abandoned.
The ore horizon is a 7-m-thick manto, stretching out for about 1700 m on the
western part of the Bandurrias Hill (Fig. 2). Ore analysis gave a mean composi-
tion of 550Jo Fe, 9.8% Si02 , 0.08% P, 0.078% Sand 0.1% Ti0 2 (St. Clair 1965).
The country rock appears as a homocline striking N 15 °-30 °E and dipping
25 o to 45 o west. Some faults striking N 80 °E to N 80 ow cut the manto (Fig. 2).
Dioritic subvolcanic intrusives crop out in the mine area. In the same stratigraphic
horizon in which the manto is located, a calc-silicate paragenesis develops associ-
ated to these intrusives.
1 Dpto. Geociencias, Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile

506 M. E. Cisternas
72° 71° 70° 69" 68°
24"
/ "
b' I
.
"' /--+6
\
.....
2 /
/
'\..)
<::(
<::
t-
26" lu
-1 <::
lu
::z: <c)
Cerro
(J 0::
Cerro lm
27"
.. _) <::(
.
, / . A LEOZOIC
-t
Bondurr ios
D- Costal range
28" Los
hofior
/ LOWER
basement
CRETACEOUS
Quemado
Gronito ides
(
Choroiio
bt;!;.)j Volcano- sedi men_
I tor-y Series
j Bos in boundaries
ORE DEPOSITS
0 Magnetite
(1 Apat ite (Mgt)
* Manganese
.......... Stratabound iron ore

depos i ts
\ I
31°
\ +6
I
I
Magnet ic A noma ries
MAG SAT ( nt)
+5
0 100 200 km
72" 71° 70°
Fig. 1. Location of the iron ore deposits of the Franja Ferrifera Principal (Oyarzun 1985)
The Bandurrias Iron Ore Deposit, Atacama Region, Northern Chile 507
N 0 500 IOOOm
I ~2
L::.:.......:J H !i'!""'l3
····:·::::: r---
·· j4 IYZN'I5
~ r/.716
t::LJ c:r::::J7
l.L......lJ - e ...
.._9 ~~ot:-:.
l!..:..!.!.J ....:::!1 1
Fig. 2. Geologic map of the Bandurrias deposit. 1 Quaternary alluvium; 2 Quaternary terraces; 3 mine
dumps; 4 calcilutites and lutites (Unit III); 5 limestones, tuffs and exhalites (Unit II); 6 solution brec-
cia; 7 limestones (Unit I); 8 massive manto; 9 tuffs and exhalite relicts in the manto; 10 subvolcanic
dioritic intrusives; 11 lavas and tuffs (Unit 0); 12 fold axis; 13 normal fault; 14 bearing and dip
2.1 The Host Rock
The manto is located in the Unit II of the Lower Cretaceous sequence (Cisternas
1986; Cisternas and Diaz this Vol.). In the mine area this unit is divided into three
sections:
- 10 to 15 m of gray to pink recrystallized limestones with algal mat texture and
calcified evaporitic beds. It builds the base of the manto.
- 5 to 10 m of tuffs, exhalites, and some lavas and limestone lenses. All of them
are metamorphosed with a characteristic calc-silicate paragenesis with garnet and
less scapolite. In this mostly volcanogenic section the manto crops out.
. - 10 to 20m of a collapse or solution breccia and evaporite remains. The breccia
cement contains disseminated garnet and magnetite crystals (Cisternas 1986).
The paleogeographic reconstruction of the Unit II has been made on the basis
of regional observations between Copiap6 and Vallenar. Data show that both the
foot wall and the hanging wall of the manto deposited in the inter- to supratidal
facies of a restricted basin (Cisternas 1986). The stratigraphic equivalent of the
manto is represented in other sectors, for example 30 km south (Quebrada Gale-
na), by a volcanogenic bed consisting of Mn- and Fe-rich exhalites and tuffitic
levels with algal mat intercalations. In these areas there is no metamorphism and
the volcanogenic character of this horizon is easily recognized.
508 M. E. Cisternas
In the Bandurrias area two intrusive bodies, called West Stock and East Stock,
are known. Both are similar, with compositions varying between porphyritic
diorite and monzodiorite. The western stock shows a microphaneritic texture and
contains more mafic minerals.
Three types of dykes are distinguished by their composition: dioritic with por-
phyritic texture, monzodioritic with aphanitic texture, and rhyolitic, also with por-
phyritic texture. The first two intrude the sequence only up to the manto level.
In the host rocks a late carbonatic phase is developed, with large, zoned crystals,
in which calcitic and iron-rich bands alternate.
Both the geometry and the petrographic characteristics of the stocks indicate
that they are subvolcanic bodies. The eastern stock is part of a laccolithic system
of regional scale.
The dioritic intrusives of the Atacama region has been considered as an earlier,
hypabyssal phase of the Cretaceous batholith outcropping along the Franja Fer-
rifera Principal (Segerstrom et al. 1963; Segerstrom and Moraga 1964; Tilling
1976). The age of the lavas containing some of the iron deposits of the Franja
Ferrifera Principal practically coincides with the age of the intrusives, thus they
have been interpreted by Montecinos (1983) as a co-magmatic intrusive-extrusive
phase.
2.2 The Manto
The manto in the Bandurrias ore deposit is a stratiform body emplaced in a

volcanogenic horizon. Remains of tuffs and exhalites are clearly recognized in
spite the contact metamorphism, hinting at the original, volcano-sedimentary
character of the manto. Distinctive for the manto is a certain banding, in em to
dm scale, concordant with the stratification. It is given both by primary minerals
(magnetite !-barite, pyrite-goethite) as well as by minerals from the skarn
paragenesis (garnet-scapolite-magnetite II).
The manto is not homogeneous in all its extension. In the southern and central
parts, (i.e., near the intrusive bodies), it is more massive and iron-richer. In the
northern part, where the metamorphic grade is lower, it is nonmassive, showing
Fe-rich bands intercalated within iron-bearing tuffs and limestones with
pseudomorphs of evaporitic minerals.
Petrographic Characteristics of the Manto in the Northern Part. The original

characteristics of the manto are more easily recognized in this sector. Highly calci-
fied tuffs crop out, in which "phantom" crystals, probably feldspars, scapolite,
small idiomorphic quartz crystals, and disseminated magnetite grains appear.
Other levels, with a banded fabric, consist of magnetite-quartz beds interlayered
with magnetite-barite-quartz bands. Some of the nonlaminated levels are com-
posed of large magnetite grains floating in a groundmass of quartz and barite.
Barite appears also as bands alternating rhythmically with magnetite-goethite.
These horizons are interpreted as exhalites (in the sense of Ridler 1971), i.e.,
formed through sedimentary-exhalative processes. In the same stratigraphic level,
far from the deposit, both tuffs and exhalites have been recognized.
Another important characteristic of this sector is the presence of a breccia with

manto clasts. This breccia appears locally under the collapse breccia horizon of
Unit II. The clasts of this breccia consist of laminated ferruginous tuffs, massive
magnetite or a banded aggregate of magnetite and quartz. The fragments show
a weathering crust indicating a subaerial exposure. Sulfate pseudomorphs, com-
posed of calcite and partly chalcedony (quartzine), are recognized in the breccia
cement.
In this sector of the mine a contact metamorphism produced garnetite bands,
that is, rocks composed exclusively of garnet, scapolite, and some magnetite. Gar-
net crystals in the exhalites, as well as in the cement of the breccia with manto
clasts, also developed.
Petrographic Characteristics of the Manto in the Central-Southern Part. In the

central and southern area of the deposit, the manto is massive and comparatively
thicker. The ore consists of idio- to hypidiomorphic magnetite crystals, partially
martitized. Colloform goethite fills pores or is located in the borders of the mag-
netite aggregates. Hexagonal-shaped pores in the magnetite aggregate are proba-
bly quartz relicts, similar to those found in the exhalites of the northern part. Rel-
ict crystals of garnet and scapolite are also observed.
In the central sector a macro- and microbanding is observed with alternating
bands of massive magnetite and bands of garnetite. Samples of this sector show
the development of two magnetite generations, before and after garnet crystalliza-
tion.
Development of the Garnet-Scapolite-Magnetite II Paragenesis. As explained be-
fore, the volcanogenic horizon where the manto occurs has a regional extent, but
only in the Bandurrias area is a skarn paragenesis found. This paragenesis is bet-
ter developed in the central and southern sectors of the deposit, that is, near the
Stock Oeste (west stock).
Macroscopically, the minerals of this paragenesis appear alternating with
bands of massive magnetite (central sector) or with exhalites and tuffs (northern
sector).
Microscopically, a certain banding, given by oriented garnet crystals and
scapolite relicts in a massive aggregate of magnetite, is also observed.
The garnets are zoned, with alternating bands of andradite 50 - grossularite50
and anisotropic bands of pure andradite. The scapolite corresponds to meionite
(Pichon 1981).
The second generation of magnetite (magnetite II) originated as a subproduct
of the calc-silicated paragenesis, that is, as a late generation produced during
metamorphism.
3 Conclusions
The following points stand out in relation with the genesis of the Bandurrias ore
deposit:
- The ore horizon is a metamorphosed volcanogenic level occurring within a car-
bonatic-evaporitic sequence (Unit II) in a back-arc environment. The skarn
510 M. E. Cisternas
f 0::
t t
<(
0 IZ
0 <(
0 <( J:
..J
m :E 0
0:: u
<(
0
0::
w (!) (/)
:::> w z
...ww
0:: <(
0::
w <(
0 z 0 0:: 0
z u
:E
0
0::
(!)
..J
<(
0::
<(
IZ
0
0::
0::
w
:::>
0::
:::>
0
..J
0
w
:E
...0::w <(
..J
<( 0:: 0 z<( z 0:: w
..J ..J J: w 0 <( <( :::> ..J
w w u u m m :E u (/) w
PPM
3000
+ + + + + + + + + +
dt
d. bt
2000 1-b. -
dt dt
dt
dt dt
1000 1- elf
900 t-
800 1-
700 r- d~
b~
600 1-
500 dJ1-: d~ d~ ct
1-b.!i' dt
400
b. d~ d~ at
300 1- d~
200 t- a~
d~
b~
df
-
d~
100 I bit I
*• TITANIUM
VANADIUM
STRATABOUND Fe- ORE DEPOSITS
a: FRUTOS a OYARZUN, 1975 b : COLLAO et al, 1980
c : DERUELLE, 1979 d: ESPINOZA, 1984
Fig. 3. Ti and V contents of iron ore deposits in northern Chile
paragenesis is congruent with the manto, since the original composition of the
manto (tuffs and exhalites) controlled calc-silicate formation, while the composi-
tion of the limestones and evaporites of the hanging and foot wall h<:lmpered its
development.
The presence of tuff relicts and ferruginous exhalites, that is, exhalative sedi-
mentary iron-oxide-(hydroxide)-barite layers as well as the presence, at the
same stratigraphic level, of metamorphosed iron oxides, indicate a primary or-
igin for the iron in the Bandurrias deposit.
The local occurrence of a breccia with clasts of the manto, spatially associated
to the collapse breccia of Unit II, gives precise time constraints for the forma-
tion of the iron-rich manto, i.e., early diagenetic, since the collapse breccia
build up during a syn-sedimentary emersion stage.
Abundant dykes and sills, i.e., subvolcanic intrusives, of probably pre-Barre-
mian age intrude the country rocks. At least one dyke system intrudes only up
to the manto and is interpreted as a feeder channel system.
The skarn paragenesis, the reduction of ferric oxides to magnetite, and the
presence of a magnetite generation after garnet-scapolite are related to the
contact metamorphism produced by the intrusion of the western subvolcanic
body (west stock). Near it, the manto is wider, more massive, and has higher
iron contents.
The low Ti and V contents of the deposit (Fig. 3), as well as the high Mn con-
tent of the Bandurrias magnetites, is consistent with an exhalative-sedimentary
origin.
The presence of tuff relicts and exhalites indicates an important pyroclastic
and exhalative contribution to the basin. In most modern examples (Honnorez et
al. 1973; Puchelt 1973; Wauschkuhn and Gropper 1975; Wauschkuhn et al. 1977;
Wauschkuhn 1979; Spiess 1980) the tuffitic exhalites are lateral extensions of sul-
fide horizons and themselves contain important metallic amounts (Ridler 1971;
Kalogeropoulos 1982, 1985).
In summary, the original ore horizon in the Bandurrias deposit represents the
distal facies of an exhalative source.
Considering the geotectonic setting during the Lower Cretaceous in the
Atacama region - an active magmatic arc, a back-arc basin with clear influence
from exhalative sources - the sedimentation, the volcanism, and the subvolcanic
intrusives are interpreted as roughly synchronous processes.
Acknowledgments. The author is particularly grateful to Prof. G. C. Amstutz for his positive sugges-
tions and criticism during this study. Part of this research was done under the tenure of a DAAD-
Stipendium and an University of Concepcion Grant (20.34.26).
References
kreide der Region Atacama: Metallogenetische Bedeutung am Beispiel der schichtgebundenen
Eisen-Lagerstlttte Bandurrias. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 2:1-168
Cisternas ME, Diaz LL Geologic evolution of the Atacama basin during the lower Cretaceous. This
Vol, pp 495- 504
Collao S, Montecinos P, Oyarzun R, Oviedo L (1980) Estudio gem!tico de las mineralizaciones de
fievro de Mahnilque. Contrib Depto Geociencias 4:169 p
Deruelle B (1979) Petrologie d'un volcanisme de marge active: Atacama et Andes Meridionales: These
Doct d'Etat. Univ Paris (Orsay), 417 p
Espinoza S (1979) Una hip6tesis sobre Ia metalogenesis de Ia franja ferrifera chilena. II Congr Geol
Chile, Arica 2:C1-C21
Espinoza S (1979) Una hip6tesis sobre Ia metalogenesis de Ia franja ferdfera chilena. II Cong Geol
Chile Arica 2:C1-C21
Espinoza S (1984) Le rl>le du volcanisme du Cretace inferieur dans Ia metallogenese de Ia Ceinture
ferrifere d'Atacama-Coquimbo, Chili. These Doct Univ. Univ Paris, 153 p
Espinoza S The Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt, northern Chile. This Vol, pp 353-364
Frutos J, Oyarzun J (1975) Thctonic and geochemical evidence concerning the genesis of El Laco
magnetite lava flow deposits, Chile. Econ Geol 70:988-990
512 M. E. Cisternas
Honnorez J, Honnorez-Guerstein B, Walette J, Wauschkuhn A (1973) Present-day formation of an

exhalative sulfide deposit at Vulcano (IYrrhenian Sea). 2. Active crystallization of fumarolic sul-
fides in the volcanic sediments of the Baja di Levante. In: Amstutz GC, Bernard JA (eds) Ores
in sediments. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 139-166
Kalogeropoulos S (1982) Chemical sediments in the hanging wall of volcanogenic massive sulfide de-
posits. Ph D Thesis, Univ Toronto, 488 p
Kalogeropoulos S (1985) Discriminant analysis for evaluating the use of lithogeochemistry along the
Thtsusekiei Horizon as an exploration tool in search for Kuroko type ore deposits. Min Deposita
20:135-142
(Chili). These Doct-Ing, Univ Paris Sud, 191 p
Oyarzun J (1985) La metallogenie andine: cadre geologique, petrologique et geochimique et essai d'in-
terpretation. These Doct d'etat, Univ Paris Sud, 864 p
Pichon R (1981) Contribution a !'etude de Ia ceinture du Fer du Chili. Les gisements de Bandurrias
et Los Colorados Norte. These Doct 3 cycle, Univ Paris Sud, 326 p
Puchelt H (1973) Recent iron sediment formation at the Kameni Islands, Santorini (Greece). In:
Amstutz GC, Bernard AJ (eds) Ores in sediments. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp
227-245
Ridler RH (1971) Analysis of Archean volcanic basins in the Canadian Shield using the exhalite con-
cept. Canadian Inst Mining Met 64(714):20
Ruiz C, Segerstrom K, Aguirre L, Corvalan J, Klohn C, Levi B (1965) Geologia y yacimientos
metaliferos de Chile. Inst Invest Geol Chile, 305 p
Segerstrom K, Moraga A (1964) Cuadrangulo Chaiiarcillo, Prov de Atacama. Inst Invest Geol Carta
Geol Chile 6
Segerstrom K, Thomas H, Tilling R (1963) Cuadrangulo Pintadas, Prov de Atacama. Inst Invest Geol
Carta Geol Chile 12
Spiess FN (1980) Rise Group: East Pacific Rise: Hot springs and geophysical experiments. Science
207:1421-1432
StClair 0 (1965) Bandurrias iron deposit, Atacama Province, Chile. Cia Minera Sta Barbara, Int Re-
port, 62 p
Tilling R (1976) El Batolito Andino cerca de Copiap6, Prov. de Atacama. Geologia y petrografia. Rev
Geol Chile 3:1-24
Wauschkuhn A (1979) Untersuchungen in rezenten vulkanisch-exhalativen Ablagerungsrliumen und
fossilen vulkanisch-exhalativen Sulfidlagerstlitten. Ein Beitrag zur Genese dieses Lagerstlittentyps.
Habilitationsschrift, Univ Heidelberg
Wauschkuhn A, GrOpper H (1975) Rezente Sulfidbildung auf und bei Volcano, Aolische Inseln, Ita-
lien. N Jb Min Abh 129:171-200
Wauschkuhn A, Schwartz W, Amstutz GC, Yagi K (1977) Fumarolic hot lakes on Hokkaido:
Geochemical, mineralogical and biochemical investigations of their significance for the formation
of massive sulfide deposits. N Jb Min Abh 129:171-200
The Bellavista Zn-Ag Mine, Copiapo Region, Chile
L.L. DIAZ 1
1 Introduction
The Bellavista Zn-Ag mine is located on the Jaula Hill, about 45 km north of
Vallenar, at 70°37.8' south latitude and 28°12.3' west longitude (Fig. 1). This
stratabound deposit occurs in a yellowish biocalcarenite which develops a reddish
tone in the parts bearing more hematite. Microscopically, the manto is a
biosparite with abundant reworked bioclasts, few volcanic rock clasts and opaque
minerals in the matrix. Above and below the manto a reddish bed of chert ap-
pears. The manto runs along the western slope of the Jaula Hill for more than
1000 m with some interruptions. The lithology, content, and type of biogenic ma-
terial along the manto remains fairly constant, indicating that the environment
in which the ore-rich lenses were formed, while restricted in space, recurred as the
sequence was deposited. A few vertical faults with less than a couple of meters
of displacement are recognized.
2 General Stratigraphy
The Cretaceous sequence of the Jaula Hill strikes roughly northeast-southwest
with a dip of 7 to 10° southeast. Therefore, the older sediments in the region crop
out along the western footwall of the Sierra Galena, the Chuschampis, and the
Jaula Hill (Fig. 1). Jurgan (1977) and Cisternas (1986) assign a Hauterivian age
to these rocks.
The sequence that crops out on the Jaula Hill has been divided (Diaz 1986)
into three main units (Fig. 2):
A basal, volcaniclastic sequence of at least 20 meters.
Approximately 75 m of heterogeneous biocalcarenites with common lateral
facies changes. The manto outcrops in the lower parts of this unit.
An upper unit of well-bedded, homogeneous cherty limestones and bio-
calcarenites.
2.1 The Volcaniclastic Base
The volcanic base (Unit 0 in Fig. 3) occurs in the area as small, isolated outcrops
and in the lowest skirts of the Jaula Hill. The sequence is composed of lavas,
1 Departamento de Geociencias Universidad de Concepci6n, Casilla 3-C, Concepci6n, Chile

514 L.L. Diaz
Fig. 1. Regional geology and location map. 1 Alluvium and alluvial fans. 2 Tertiary terraces.
3 Andesitic sill. 4 Lavas, tuffs, and sandstones of the Cerrillos Formation (Upper Cretaceous). 5 Barre-
mian limestones. 6 Hauterivian limestones. 7 Hauterivian lavas, tuffs, and conglomerates
tuffs, breccias, volcarenites, and thin conglomerate layers. In the northern part of
the Jaula Hill, the base consists of lavas, while to the south volcanic sandstones,
sandy conglomerates, or volcanic breccias are common. The lavas and the volca-
nic components of the breccias are fine-grained andesites to sodic trachytes (Abad
1976).
The conglomerate clasts show very good rounding and poor sorting. Particle
sizes range from microscopic to boulders. They are volcanic rock fragments with
plagioclase phenocrysts altered to chlorite and less commonly, to epidote. The
conglomerate matrix is composed of angular to subangular grains of plagioclase,
also altered to epidote and sericite. Opaque minerals appear commonly along the
borders of the plagioclase grains as alteration halos. Clinopyroxenes are also
found, with borders completely replaced by opaque minerals. The cement is cal-
careous.
The conglomerates in the north-central section formed in a beach environment
with some alluvial influence. To the north, they become coarser and an erosional
surface is present. The volcaniclastics thin out to the south and disappear before
the southern profile (Fig. 3).
2.2 The Lower Bioclastic Sequence
A thin layer of an oligomictic paraconglomerate with well-rounded volcanic clasts

in a very abundant matrix constitutes the base of the bioclastic sequence. It lies
The Bellavista Zn-Ag Mine, Copiap6 Region, Chile 515
Fig. 2. Main stratigraphic units in the mine

area. 1 Lavas and tuffs. 2 Sandstones and
conglomerates. 3 Bryozoan and crinoid-bear-
ing limestones. Stromatolites in the lower
~ parts. 4 Limestones with chert nodules and
I
intercalated silica beds
directly over the lavas and conglomerates of the volcaniclastic base. Most of the
clasts are covered by algae (algal oncoids). The remainder of this unit consists of
biosparites with bryozoa, algae, pellets, coralline algae, mollusks, calcareous
sandstones, and stromatolitic limestones. One or two meters over the contact the
manto outcrops.
The association of conglomerates with volcanic clasts and the presence of
stromatolites indicate the change from continental to marine conditions. Rocks
deposited in the intertidal facies are present in all three profiles, but are thicker
(7 m) in the central profile. Calcareous sandstones with oyster and Trigonia
(Jurgan 1977) close the sequence.
2.3 The Cherty Limestones
Overlying the previously described units, a sequence of well-stratified limestones

with chert nodules appears. Microscopically, they are cherty biomicrites with
bryozoa, echinoderms, and siliceous spicules in a microsparitic matrix. Distinct
sedimentary structures such as ripple marks and cross-bedding stand out. Accord-
ing to Jurgan (1977), this sequence can be followed from the Sierra Galena in the
north to the Jaula Hill in the south, where its 20-km-long outcrop ends.
This sequence represents deposition on the open shelf and to a lesser extent
on the platform foreslope. An open shelf environment is indicated by the finely
516 L.L. Diaz
[
G
E
D
c D
8 c
A ----8
0
v v v
v v v
v v v
v v
v
v vv
vv v
Fig. 3. Comparative stratigraphic sec-

tions. 1 Volcanic rocks. 2 Conglomer-
®5 11 7 # 8 ates. 3Limestones. 4 Cherts. 5 Corals.
6 Echinoderms. 7 Algae. 8 Bryozoa.
9 Intraclasts
laminated bioclastic wackstones with hyalosponge spicules and radiolarians.

Foreslope conditions are represented by packstones with bioclastic detritus and
rare whole organisms.
2.4 Correlations
On a regional scale, there are notorious differences from north to south. In the
Chuschampis and southern Jaula Hill, the basal volcaniclastic unit is covered by
a thin bed of conglomerate, while on Cerro 915 and northern Jaula Hill, very
thick volcarenites of marine origin or tuffs are present. Volcanic breccias also out-
crop, grading to sandstones and marine limestones in the upper part. The
lithologic differences are attributed to the rough and irregular topography of the
land over which the lower Cretaceous transgression took place.
The volcanic unit is correlated with the Bandurrias Formation, which is well
developed in this region, while the marine rocks are assigned to the Nantoco For-
mation. The bioclastic sequence can be followed to the north, and although irreg-
ular in thickness, the unit indicates a more continuous and regular sedimentary
environment than those units underlying it. The cherty limestone unit in the up-
per part of the sequence in the Jaula Hill can be well correlated with those of the
Galena and Chuschampis hills to the north. Paleontologic determinations by a
number of authors (Thvera 1955; Corvalan 1974; Jurgan 1977) date the sequence
as Hauterivian.
3 Diagenetic Environment in the Bellavista Mine Sequence

Diagenesis plays a very important role in the formation of the ore in the Bellavista
mine, thus the relative importance of the diagenetic processes involved was specif-
ically studied.
Micritized zones around skeletal grains and peloids are common in units A to
F (Fig. 3) of the Bellavista sequence. To a varying extent, all components bear a
micritized rim, but it is especially common around bryozoa. In some instances,
distinct tube-shaped borings, filled with micrite or microsparite, are clearly visible
penetrating the grains. Burgess (1979) concluded that organic borings occur only
in submarine environments, therefore it can be supposed that subaquatic condi-
tions predominated during diagenesis in the Bellavista Mine sequence. The cen-
tral, unaffected area of the grains is occasionally dissolved, creating a moldic cavi-
ty that was later filled by micrite.
One of the most important processes of cementation, and probably of neo-
morphism as well, is the syntaxial overgrowth of aragonite or calcite over older
nuclei. They occur commonly around echinoderm fragments, but overgrowths on
mollusks, bryozoa, and corals are not rare in the units A to C of the Jaula Hill
sequence. The calcite in the rim is richer in Ca and Fe than the calcite in the nucle-
us, as shown by microprobe analysis of echinoderm syntaxial growths (Fig. 5).
The time of formation of this cement is indicated by the presence of micritic enve-
lopes around syntaxial cement in some samples, demonstrating that it must be of
a very early type, developed while part of the biotope was active.
Another type of cement, consisting of fibrous or acicular crystals with a sys-
tematic radial arrangement, is also common in the lower part of the sequence. It
usually grows around shell pieces and is frequently associated with earlier stages
of the syntaxial rim growth. Since neomorphic processes commonly destroy this
type of cement, it is not found very often. Its frequent preservation in the
Bellavista Mine sequence indicates the presence of meteoric waters, since the de-
velopment of the typical calcitic rhombohedra is inhibited in more saline environ-
ments by the presence of "foreign ions" (Folk 1974). Burgess (1979) has also sug-
gested that a similar cement, occurring around ooliths in Jurassic rocks, indicates
a near-surface, marine-influenced environment which may have been submarine
or marine vadose.
Poikilitic textures are common in samples of Unit A and B. These textures have
been interpreted as an indicator of early, pre-compaction processes. However,
similar textures are also thought to result from the recrystallization of wackstones.
A process of agrading neomorphism is supposed for the Bellavista Mine, mainly
due to the presence of disseminated particles of organic material (which would
not be present in a water-filled environment) and the supposed depositional en-
vironment. This type of cement is generally believed to indicate a freshwater,
518 L.L. Diaz
subsurface, or subaerial environment, or an early marine cementation (Fluegel

1982).
The samples in the upper part of the manto show a typical vadose cement.
This texture is typical of subaerial exposure and, in conjunction with other tex-
tures, of a vadose diagenesis.
Evaporite pseudomorphs are present in the lower part of the bioclastic se-
quence (Unit A). The mineral is now calcite, but their atypical elongated shapes
indicate that they were originally anhydrite or gypsum.
Authigenic silica is present as isolated euhedral quartz crystals, selectively re-
placing fossil fragments, and as chalcedony filling pore spaces. Hexagonal quartz
crystals, up to 1 em long, occur in the limestones over the manto. These isolated
occurrences develop in environments with high evaporation rates. Selective re-
placement of fossil fragments by chalcedony is very common in the lower and
middle part of the sequence. The selectivity of the replacement is remarkable; on-
ly the bryozoa stems are affected. However, the hypothesis that this fossil type
may have a greater reactive surface area has been refuted by the work of Walter
and Morse (1984).
Authigenic feldspars are very frequent in the upper parts of the sequence.
Authigenic feldspar formation is one of the diagenetic changes which begins im-
mediately after deposition, with the hydrolization of unstable silicates, such as
hornblende, pyroxene and plagioclase. Two textural generations are recognized.
The earlier one appears as rims around plagioclase grains and grows xenomor-
phically in optical continuity with the host crystal. The second type fills pores in
the limestones. Availability of K + in the sequence was assured by the presence of
detrital feldspars and smectite-rich tuffs, which even at low temperatures
(Mizukami and Ohmoto 1983) show fast exchange reactions. The boundaries be-
tween the detrital feldspars and the overgrowths are defined either by a sharp con-
tact between the altered core and the fresh, unaltered rim, or a conspicuously dif-
ferent optical orientation.
3.1 Conclusions on Diagenesis in the Host Rock
The cement composition is variable. Calcite, barite, chalcedony, feldspar, and

some hematite is found. Based on the calcitic cement four diagenetic stages were
modeled. Time relations between cement types are displayed graphically in Fig. 4,
and described as follows:
- The first stage is the initial sediment, composed mainly of echinoderm frag-
ments of high-magnesian calcite, bryozoa, algae, pellets, coralline algae
(aragonite), molluscs, and volcanic rock clasts. It is important to note that all
grains, except those found in the surface of the sediment, were encased in muci-
laginous envelope (oncoids) that effectively isolated them from pore solutions
- During the second stage, the first cementation occurs. A low-Mg calcite grows
on the contact points between grains. The echinoderm pores are filled with calcite
and an optically continuous cement starts to develop around the fossils. Other in-
terparticular pores are also filled with this cement. Aragonite and high-Mg calcite
remain unchanged.
Deposi t eon 0 I 0 9 e n e • I
•
E or I y Late
M1crtf IZOtton
Syntax tal
overorowths
Granular
cement
Grovrtot•onol
Feoturea
Evapor i te
----
d1o gene ••• ~ -..Jo\lllilllll'
Sdrcl ticotton
Auth•o•n•c f eld.
-
formotron
Secondary
••ty
Poro ...
Development
Post de pos i t 1 on o I
- --- ---
RecrranQement
Fig. 4. Diagenesis in the Bellavista mine sequence
70
C E MENT RIM E CHINODERM

60
-0
0
.... 50
0>
~
'u
0
40
30
20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Microns
Fig. S. Ca/Mg ratio in the components, rim and cement in the Bellavista mine manto
-In the third stage, the Mg2 + from the high-Mg calcite is lost and the grains are
surrounded by a fringe of calcitic cement richer in Mg2 + than the grain. As
shown in Fig. 5. the Ca/Mg ratio in the rim is approximately 20, while in the
bioclast it is about 40. The corallinacean algae also lose Mg from the high-Mg
calcite, as noted by Friedman (1969). No fabric changes are seen on the micro-
scopic scale.
520 L.L. Diaz
- During the fourth stage, the aragonite dissolves and a calcite cement precipi-
tates. This dissolution-solution process involves only short-distance ion mobiliza-
tion. The samples from the lower portion (Unit A) commonly show a first cement
of small crystals on the roof of many pores. This pendant cement suggests precipi-
tation from meteoric water in the vadose zone. This type of cement characterizes
the two-phase air-water system in which drainage, or evaporation, or both, pro-
duce unsaturated sediments.
The sediments went from a marine to a subaerial environment during its
diagenesis. During this passage, diagnostic fabrics, such as bird-eye fabrics, lami-
nated and fractured crusts, vadose pisoliths, and tepee structures formed. The ce-
ment type also shows a similar development. Figure 4 graphically depicts the
diagenetic processes in the Bellavista Mine host rocks. Most of the textures and
cements indicate a diagenesis in a zone the top of which is marked by the water
table and the bottom is transitional to the inland brines zone. All pore space in
this zone is filled with meteoric water containing variable amounts of dissolved
carbonates. Thking into account the syntaxial overgrowth on the echinoderm frag-
ments, the bladed isopachous calcite rims, and the coarsening of the calcite crys-
tals toward the center of the pores, it is supposed that most of the diagenetic pro-
cesses occurred in the active area of the phreatic freshwater zone.
4 The Manto in the Bellavista Mine

The manto in the Bellavista Mine corresponds to a yellowish biocalcarenite with
hemimorphite and hydrozincite as ore minerals. It appears a few meters over the
basal volcanic unit and over the tuffs in the central profile. Based on diagenetic
indicators and the abundance of the cements (barite and chalcedony), two parts
may be differentiated in the manto.
The lower one is a biosparitic grainstone, in which the following diagenetic se-
quence was recognized. A first generation of calcareous syntaxial rim cement
(Fig. 6) occurs around the fossils. While the syntaxial rim is still forming, a first
generation of barite with large isolated crystals crystallizes. A second barite gener-
ation crystallizes later, forming large rosette aggregates. A sparitic cement fills the
interparticular pores. Microprobe analyses of this sparitic cement show FeO con-
tents as high as 27o/o.
In the upper silica-rich part of the manto the paragenesis is less complex. First,
a typical dog-tooth calcitic cement develops around some of the fossil fragments.
Large barite rosettes crystallize, followed by the filling of the intercrystalline and
interparticle porosity by chalcedony. A last chalcedony type fills the intraparticle
porosity in the biogenic components with colloform textures.
All these textures build in the tidal environment under the influence of meteor-
ic water, i.e., by marine freatic diagenesis. The presence of mosaic and rim ce-
ment, in the upper sediments, with a less complex diagenetic history, corroborates
this hypothesis, confirming that both the northern and central profiles lithified
under tidal influence.
Hemimorphite also occurs as a cement in the manto. It is a granular cement
filling open spaces after the rim cement. The presence of this mineral in the
8 a rite
8 io gene Components
Dissolution
Pore Fill i ng Chalcedony =
CJ Calcitic Rim
fimTI§~!mjl 8 a r It e I
D Hemimorph i te
Calc i te =
D Bar it e II
1-::;::;::;::;::-1 Pore Fi lli ng Calc ite
lmmmml chalcedony =
Fig. 6. Paragenesis of the diagenetic minerals in the lower (left half of the figure) and the upper part
of the Bellavista manto (right side)
stylolites also dates its paragenetic position. Hydrozincite was also determined in
the manto through X-ray diffractometry, but the small size of the crystals pre-
cludes their recognition under the microscope, therefore its diagenetic position
could not be determined.
5 Genesis of the Ore Deposit

Based on the above described data a syndiagenetic model is proposed for the ori-
gin of the Bellavista ore deposit. The most important factors supporting this in-
terpretation are the geometry of the ore body, the close relationship between the
sedimentary facies and the ore minerals, the paragenetic position of the ore
minerals, and the diagenetic history of the rocks containing the manto.
5.1 The Genetic Model
The Lower Cretaceous rocks of the Jaula Hill, where the Bellavista manto out-
crops, were deposited in a shallow-water, coastal environment with occasional al-
luvial influence. To the west, a volcanic belt was active. Pyroclastic material pro-
vides easily weathered components to the sediment. The direct influence of the
volcanic activity through fumaroles and exhalations cannot be disregarded, but
no direct evidence (feeder channels, vents, alteration patterns) was recognized in
the field.
522 L.L. Diaz
The ore elements' most likely source is leached material, both from the under-
lying volcanic rocks as well as from the volcanic rock fragments introduced in the
system as pyroclastic and epiclastic grains. The ions were taken by the circulating
groundwaters and transported probably as soluble sulfates. The ore material was
thus subject to the same diagenetic processes as the rock itself. This means that
the ore material was dissolved, redeposited as cement, and redissolved, etc. Thus,
the diagenetic history of the ore elements cannot be separated from that of the
nonore minerals. This process is illustrated in Fig. 7, which indicates the general-
ized paragenetic sequence of the minerals in the Bellavista ore deposit.
5.2 The Explomtion Model

As shown above, the ore concentration is strongly related to a specific paleogeo-
graphic environment. This facies is characterized by the presence of volcaniclastic
rocks at the base of a transgressive sequence. Diagenesis in a marine freatic envi-
ronment was also necessary for the formation of the Bellavista Mine. This means
that a relation exists between the origin of the ore minerals and the diagenetic pro-
cesses that affected the sequence, and that not only facies studies but also
diagenetic analysis are necessary in the study of this type of deposits.
Acknowledgments. Special thanks to Dr. M. E. Cisternas and Dr. L. Fontbote for their critical reading
and suggestions. Prof. G. C. Amstutz made valuable comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Fi-
nancial support from Universidad de Concepcion (Chile) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
(FRO) is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Abad E (1976) Acerca de Ia paleogeografia neocomiana en Ia regional sur de Copiapo, provincia de
Atacama, Chile. Asoc Geol Argentina 32(1):23-33
Burgess CJ (1979) The development of a Lower Jurassic carbonate tidal flat. Central High Atlas. Mo-
rocco 2: Diagenetic history. J Sed Petrol 49(2):413-428
Cisternas ME (1985) Zur Entwicklung einer Sabkha-Fazies in der unterkretazischen Abfolge in der
Region Atacama, Chile. Zbl Geol Palllont 1(9/10):1325-1336
sen-Lagerstlltte Bandurrias. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 2:1-268
Corvalan J (1974) Estratigrafia del Neocorniano marino al sur de Copiapo, provincia de Atacama.
Diaz LL (1986) Stratabound Zn-, Ba-, (Ag-) Ore Deposits of the Lower Cretaceous in the Atacama
Region of Northern Chile. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 3:1-186
Fltigel E (1982) Microfacies analysis of limestones. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, 633 p
Folk RL (1974) The natural history of crystalline calcium carbonate: Effect of magnesium content and
salinity. J Sed Petrol 44(1):40-53
Friedman OM (1965) Terminology of crystallization textures and fabrics in sedimentary rocks. J Sed
Petrol 35(3):643-655
Jurgan H (1977) Strukturelle und lithofazielle Entwicklung des andinen Unterkreide-Beckens im
Norden Chiles (Provinz Atacama). Geotek Forsch 52:1-138
Mizukarni M, Ohmoto H (1983) Controlling mechanisms for the major elements chemistry in aqueous
solutions in tuff-rich environments. In: Ohmoto H, Skinner BJ (eds) Econ Geol Spec Pub!
5:559-569
Thvera J (1955) Fauna del Cretaceo Inferior de Copiap6 Anal. Fac Cien Fis Mat 13:205-216
Walter LM, Morse JW (1984) Magnesian calcite stabilities: A reevaluation. Geochim. Cosmochim Ac-
ta 48:1059-1069
The Mamiiia Barite Mine, Atacama Region, Chile
L.L. DfAZ 1
1 Introduction
The Mamifia barite deposit is located in the Quebrada Galena, about 80 km south
of Copiap6 and 15 km east of the Pan-American Highway, at 800 m above sea lev-
el (Fig. 1). The orebody is lens-shaped and concordant with the Lower Cretaceous
sequence, which, at this location, is about 1200 m thick. This is the largest out-
crop of a belt extending for about 3 km in north-south direction. Other mines or
prospects of this belt are Triunfo-Carola, Gladys, Juan 1, and Galena. In the
Mamifia Mine the sequence is folded, striking N-S and dipping east, 15°on the
surface and 60°at 60 m depth (level 6). The up to 3-m-thick manto consists of al-
ternating barite-rich and barite-poor/carbonate-rich bands up to 1 em thick. Bar-
ite occurs also disseminated, in nodules and veinlets, and banded above and below
the manto. A breccia with barite cement occurs on top of the sequence. This brec-
cia is correlated with the collapse breccia (Cisternas 1986) that extends for more
than 100 km in the region.
2 Geologic Setting
The Cretaceous sequence appearing in the mine area extends for more than
200 km in the Atacama Region (Cisternas 1986; Cisternas and Diaz this Vol.). Five
units were defined in the mine area (Diaz 1986).
2.1 Volcanic Base
The lowest unit consists of volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks with andesitic
to dacitic lavas, breccias, and tuffs. Conglomerates of short lateral extension with
well-rounded, up to 30-cm-large clasts appear in the southern parts.
2.2 Lower Cherty Limestones
Over the volcaniclastic rocks lies a 400-500 m-thick cherty, calcareous sequence
of thick-bedded bioarenites to biorudites, containing chert nodules and bands.
1 Dpto. Geociencias Univ. de Concepci6n, Concepci6n, Chile

524 L.L. Diaz
0 Coplapd
Fig. 1. Regional geology and location map. JAIIuvium and alluvial fans. 2 Tertiary terraces. 3 An-
desitic sill. 4 Lavas, tuffs, and sandstones of the Cerrillos Formation (Upper Cretaceous). 5 Barremian
limestones. 6 Hauterivian limestones. 7 Hauterivian lavas, tuffs, and conglomerates
Some arenaceous intercalations show cross-bedding, ripple marks, and slump

structures. Main components of these rocks are bioclasts of bryozoans, crinoids,
and shell debris. Terrigenous components are volcanic rock fragments, plagio-
clase, and quartz grains. The textural characteristics of these rocks point to depo-
sition in a high-energy environment, most likely the foreslope of a platform mar-
gin.
2.3 Lower Limestones
Over the cherty limestones, about 250 m limestones with occasional volcanogenic
beds appear. The lower layers are green limestones with ostracodes, radiolaria,
and volcanic fragments. Over these, finely laminated limestones with echino-
derms and siliceous sponges occur. Extended algal lamination is found at several
levels in this unit. l..apilli suggest simultaneous volcanic activity in the basin. The
Mamiii.a barite deposit occurs in this part of the unit. The upper part of the unit
consists of echinodermal limestones with tuffitic and volcanic components. The
presence of ammonites (Crioceras cf. hildesiense, Paracrioceras andinum, and
Shasticrioceras sp.) indicates a Hauterivian to Barremian age (Jurgan 1977). Both
the textural characteristics as well as the fossil content suggest deposition in a
platform environment with development of sabkha facies for the lower section
and an open platform for the upper section.
The Mamiiia Barite Mine, Atacama Region, Chile 525
2.4 Volcanogenic Sandstones
The fourth unit consists of up to 50 m of well-bedded calcareous sandstones.

Cross-bedding occurs occasionally. The grains are mostly well-rounded feldspar,
volcanic rock epiclasts, and bioclasts of crinoids. Thick banks with Ostrea,
Trigonia, Gervillia, and Lucina occur as intercalations. Secondary chert beds with
important amounts of volcanic clasts also occur. The faunal assemblage indicates
that the sediments deposited in a shallow marine environment.
2.5 Upper Cherty Limestones
Over the volcanogenic sandstone unit, about 150m of dark cherty limestones ap-
pear. Phosphate nodules and small, poorly rounded feldspar grains are the most
common components. The sediment also contains major amounts of hematite
and pyrite. Cisternas (1986) suggests that the siliceous material could have formed
through diagenetic devitrification of tuffs, but also the volcanism, which occurred
simultaneously with the deposition of these limestones, and its concomitant silica
liberation, may have contributed to the high Si02 concentrations. The primary
textures of the limestones are commonly obliterated, but an early diagenetic
calcitic mosaic cement is preserved in some samples. Through lithological correla-
tion a Barremian age is supposed for this unit.
2.6 Biocalcarenites
The last unit corresponds to at least 300 m of green to yellow-green calcarenites

with bioclasts and coarse volcanic clasts. The volcanogenic components are most-
ly well-rounded grains of volcanic rocks and feldspar, but quartz, pyroxene, and
hornblende crystals are also found. The bioclasts are bryozoans, crinoids,
echinodermal plates, and spines. The macroscopic fossils are Ostrea, Pecten, and
subordinately, Serpe/n and gastropods. Two- to three-meters-thick beds with
cross-bedding occur in the upper portion of this unit.
3 Geology of the District

Six stratigraphic units were defined in the Mamiiia Mine sequence (Diaz 1986),
involving the upper part of the lower cherty limestones, the lower limestones, and
the lower part of the volcanogenic sandstones. In stratigraphic order they are
(Fig. 2):
Unit A, with a minimum thickness of 5 m, appears in the Northern and Cen-
tral profiles. It is characterized by an alternation of tuffs, lavas, and dark lime-
stones. The dark, organic-rich limestones suggest deposition on the open plat-
form under reducing conditions, as indicated by the preservation of the siliceous
radiolarian tests. These conditions were probably favored by the H 2S delivered by
volcanism. While no textures of underwater deposition were observed in the lavas,
526 L. L. Diaz
SANDY (MOSTLY LITHIC) TUFFS
mi1 Micrite
D
ALGAL MAT SEQUENCE [ill Sandstone
(MANTO IN BLACK)
D Alga l mals
LIMESTONES WITH PYROCLASTS 8 OCR (manto)
AND SUBORDINATE
§ Dolosparile
VOLCANOGENIC SANDSTONES
~ Sparite
Fig. 2. Main stratigraphic units
RADIOLARIA- BEARING MICRITES in the mine area. Six lithologic
§ Lovas ond luffs
TUFF S, LAVAS AND DARK units were defined in the mine
NON-LAMINATED LIMESTONES sequence. Unit D contains the
manto
they are intercalated with subtidal radiolarian-bearing limestones, thus restricting

the environment to strictly subaquatic.
Unit B (6 m) consists of dark limestones with radiolarians. A fine lamination
appears in some beds. Two types of lamination are distinguished. The first one
is produced by iron oxides and organic matter, while the second results from sili-
ca-rich bands, probably devitrified glass. The presence of organic matter and iron
oxides indicates a less reducing environment. This unit represents a gradual transi-
tion to a shallower, restricted platform.
Unit C (20m) is a sequence of limestones with minor amounts of tuff interca-
lations. In the northern and southern profiles, the limestones are mainly organic
matter-rich micrites, while in the Bocamina profile, they are sparites and
dolosparites. Limestones with algal mat textures point to a restricted, interdital
depositional environment. Occasional subaerial exposure is evidenced by evapo-
ritic mineral relicts.
Unit D (15m) is characterized by the abundance of algal mats. Evaporitic min-
eral relicts and barite in thin beds (1 to 5 em) are common in the algal mats of
the lower parts. Over these beds the manto outcrops. It shows a banding, mostly
parallel to stratification, that has been interpreted as diagenetic crystallization
rhythmites (DCRs). Above it, fine-grained sparites with hematite-rich lenses par-
allel to the lamination appear, supposed to have formed as crusts during subaerial
exposition of the sediment. Algal mats are very common. Thin (1- 2 mm) lamina
of lithic tuffs occur frequently in the sequence. Birds-eye textures, evaporite min-
eral pseudomorphs and ripple marks in this unit characterize deposition in a re-
stricted, intertidal to supratidal platform environment. In the upper beds, emer-
sion periods are represented by Fe- and Mn-rich limestones developed as crusts
during subaerial exposure. These crusts develop later into hematite through dia-
genetic dehydration (Seyfried 1978).
Unit E (20m) consists mostly of sandy tuffs with chloritic and calcitic ce-
ments. Pumice particles, altered fragments of plagioclase, and volcanic rock frag-
ments are the most common components of the rock. The absence of devitrifica-
tion textures in the ashes may indicate a subaerial environment. This interpreta-
tion is also supported by the presence of iron oxide envelopes around the
lithoclasts - a common feature in oxidizing environments.
The Mamifla Barite Mine, Atacama Region, Chile 527
Unit F is the youngest unit defined in the Mamiiia Mine. It is composed of

cherty micrites with ostracodes. Fine-grained pseudomorphs of evaporitic miner-
als appear in the matrix of the rock. The textural characteristics evidence deposi-
tion in a restricted platform characterized by lime-mud facies in tidal flats, and
represent the beginning of a transgressive facies. Pre-evaporitic conditions were
also present.
In summary, the rocks of the Mamiiia sequence were deposited in a restricted
platform with high evaporation rates and intermittent subaerial exposure. Con-
temporaneous volcanic activity also contributed to the sediment.
4 Diagenetic Environment
The variety of diagenetic textures found in the Mamiiia Mine sequence allows a
good understanding of the processes occurring during diagenesis.
4.1 Silicification
Three types of silica minerals are recognized in thin sections. Pyroclastic quartz
is not discussed here, since it is of primary origin. A second type are spheric to
elliptic areas up to 5 mm in diameter corresponding to contemporaneous chalce-
dony formation in an evaporitic environment. This early diagenetic replacement
preserves the finer, mostly organic, structures of the rock. The surrounding areas
consist of fibrous chalcedony with radial habit. Both quartzine and lutecine are
present. The third type of silica minerals is of a dark brown color, also with a radi-
ally fibrous structure. Straight boundaries between adjacent crystals and the triple
points angles evidence pore filling rather than replacement.
4.2 Dolomitization
In the middle portion of the Bocamina profile, the rocks have been dolomitized.
The replacement occurs mostly in the beds with diagenetic crystallization
rhythmites (DCR), but small, scattered dolomite rhombs are common in the ma-
trix. In many cases, these rhombs are associated with birds-eye porosity.
In the manto, two generations of dolomite are differentiated. The first one is
composed of anhedral crystals in the DCR's first generation. The second type
consists of large, well-developed crystals from the DCR's second generation. No
cleavage is seen in these crystals, only iron-rich growth rings. Both dolomite types
commonly have a calcitic nucleus.
Due to evaporation in the supratidal environment, higher Mg/Ca ratios develop
and dolomite forms. A pH increase due to algal photosynthesis also favors
dolomitization. The amount of Mg available in the Mamiiia Mine sequence was
too low to allow dolomitization to proceed completely, but the large Ba and Sr ions
incorporated in the structure of calcite during deposition were partly expelled,
while Fe, Zn, and Mn, being smaller and divalent, remained in the carbonates.
528 L.L. Diaz
4.3 Pressure Solution
Stylolites are very common in the rocks of the Mamiiia Mine sequence. They nor-
mally contain organic matter particles and pyrite crystals. In the DCRs the
stylolites are mostly parallel to the bands and occur commonly between genera-
tions I and II. Stylolitization is only one of the textures that may result from pres-
sure solution. Straight sutures are as common as seams and swarms. As pointed
out by Tturnit and Amstutz (1979), most pressure solution planes are smooth in
rocks without remarkable textures. Thus pressure solution does not necessarily
leave evidence of its occurrence, and large quantities of material may be dissolved
without leaving any evidence of their prior existence. This type of solution by
pressure is considered to be of great importance in the formation of the lamina-
tion in the Mamiiia DCRs. During deposition and early diagenesis the algal mats
were compressed until they formed impermeable layers. Fluids trapped between
these layers crystallized later, generating the rhythmic lamination present in these
rocks.
4.4 Fenestral Fabrics
Fenestral fabrics are characterized by numerous, small voids or fenestrae. These

voids are larger than the spaces that could normally be supported by host particles
and typically occur in the same part of the sequence where the algal mats appear.
The fenestrae may be filled with internal sediments, but in the Mamiiia Mine they
contain only siliceous material. Fenestral pores in unlithified sediments can be
formed through a number of processes, such as the escape of gas bubbles, bur-
rowing organisms, desiccation, and shrinkage and decay of organic matter. The
presence of organic matter and desiccation textures favors the later origin for the
texture. On the other hand, the undisturbed nature of the sediments over the
fenestral pores in the Mamiiia Mine sequence and the absence of burrow textures
eliminates formation by gas bubbles or organic activity.
4.5 Conclusions on tbe Diagenetic Processes
In summary, the following points stand out:

The presence of length-slow chalcedony, considered an indicator of precipita-
tion in an evaporitic environment, replacing sulfate crystals, indicates a prima-
ry origin for some of the sulfates. Other sulfate concentrations in the Mamiiia
mine seem related to an early stage of diagenesis, as shown by (1) irregularly
shaped pores formed by creeping, or drying and cracking of the fresh sedi-
ment, and by (2) deformation of lamination around spherulitic bodies.
The presence of authigenic quartz (large quartz crystals, chalcedony) may be
interpreted in different ways (1). They originated in the evaporitic environ-
ment, (2) they are neomorphs of quartzine/lutecite (early diagenesis), or (3)
they originated during late diagenesis under different conditions of solution
The Mamifia Barite Mine, Atacama Region, Chile 529
chemistry. Round structures filled with microcrystalline quartz could be inter-

preted as neomorphs of length-slow chalcedony, thus supporting the second
interpretation. However, the contacts of the quartz megacrystals, automorphic
to calcite and xenomorphic with barite, suggest formation after the barite and
therefore support the third interpretation as well.
5 The Ore
The Mamifia Mine has been exploited for barite. High values of Zn and Pb are
also found, but their concentrations are too low to be of economic interest. The
main ore mineral is barite, which occurs in four main types:
Barite nodules with diameters from 2 mm to 1 em. Barite is mostly fine-
grained with frequent, well-defined but very small ( < 2 microns) fluid inclu-
sions. The nodules are mostly elongated parallel to the stratification. No tex-
tures indicating a sedimentary origin are found. Also lacking are the radiating
patterns (Zimmermann and Amstutz 1964) that might indicate the absence of
horizontal movements. The resemblance with dismicritic textures could indi-
cate a diagenetic origin.
Barite veins, commonly found in the lower part of the sequence, are character-
ized by coarse, xenomorphic crystals.
Barite cement in a syndiagenetic breccia in the upper part of the manto.
Barite bands are the most valuable ore type. They consists of barite, subordi-
nately interlayered with calcite and less dolomite. The barite bands extend par-
allel to the stratification for about 800 m and constitute the exploited manto.
Especially important is the absence of sulfides, while sulfates are very com-
mon. This means that while sulfur was present, and available, the conditions were
mostly oxidizing and not reducing.
5.1 Geometric Characteristics of the Manto
A schematic model of the manto in the Mamiiia Mine is presented in Fig. 3. The
lower 2 to 2.5 m are characterized by a rhythmic alternation of dark gray carbon-
ate and barite-bearing bands and bands of almost pure, clear barite. This banded
texture is similar to the diagenetic crystallization rhythmites of Fontbote and
Amstutz (1980, 1982) and Fontbote (1981), here also abbreviated as DCRs. The
upper part of the manto is a coarse breccia with baritic cement. It is better devel-
oped in the southern sector of the mine. The transition between both geometric
ore types grades from the stromatitic type of the DCRs to the merismitic type of
the breccia. The bulk thickness of the manto decreases toward the margin of the
deposit, giving a lens shape to the orebody.
There are notable variations in the host rocks. In the northern profile, a black
limestone with incipient banding appears under the manto. Above it, and in sharp
contact, a 1-rom-thick DCR level occurs. The layers are some em thick and cut
by occasional veinlets. Along the upper 15 em, slanted DCRs crop out for about
2 m. The hanging wall is a recrystallized sparite with barite.
530 L.L. Diaz
IRON OXIDE RICH LI MESTONES

(LITHIC TUFFS IN THE SOUTH)
[ ALGAL MATS WITH CHERT NODULES AND
~50
CHALCEDONY FILLED FENEST RAL POROSITY
BRECCIA WITH CLASTS OF OCR
AND L IMESTONES
DIAGENETIC
CRYSTALLI ZATION
R YTHMITES (OCR)
Fig. 3. Schematic model of the

Mamifia Mine manto. The lower
part of the manto in the Mamifia
Mine changes very little in the
ALGAL MATS WIT H EVAPOR ITIC COULES strike, but the upper barite
AND TUFFITIC LENSES cemented breccia occurs only in
the central and southern part. It
is shown here since it allows a
better interpretation of the early
diagenetic formation of the
OCR's
About 50 m to the south, the footwall is a dark, coarsely crystalline sparite

with hematite. In the upper part of this section, the manto is a 50-em-thick crack-
le breccia with baritic cement. The clasts are mostly of DCRs, but dark limestone
clasts, of similar lithology to those of the hanging wall, are also found. A transi-
tional contact between the DCRs and the breccia can be observed. The hanging
wall is a dark, organic matter-rich limestone with barite veinlets.
Approximately 200m south of the northern profile, near the main pit, a black
limestone with ripple marks constitutes the footwall. Above it, the manto is 2 m
thick and contains DCRs, which are both slanted and parallel to the stratification.
In the upper 1.5 m, a 10-cm-thick intercalation of a Fe- and Mn-rich limestone
occurs. The hanging wall is a coarsely crystalline, black limestone.
5.2 Diagenetic Crystallization Rhythmites
The term DCR has been defined by Fontbote and Amstutz (1980) as a texture
characterized by a rhythmic alternation of minerals produced by diagenetic crys-
The Mamifta Barite Mine, Atacama Region, Chile 531
tallization. Numerous examples of different ages, ranging from the Carboniferous

Southern Illinois fluorspar-sphalerite district to the Tertiary Tarnobrzeg (Cracow)
sulfur deposit are described by Fontbote and Amstutz (1982).
On a microscopic scale, the most distinctive characteristic of the DCRs is a bi-
polarity of the crystals over and below the central carbonatic layer. Fontbote
(1981) recognizes three geometric elements, each corresponding to a different
crystallization stage, called generations. Used in this context "generation" refers
to the different textural elements in the DCRs. The time concept implied in the
term is applicable to the time of formation of the texture and does not preclude
the presence of minerals crystallizing later in any generation. The first generation,
termed starting sheet, is marked by the presence of normal textures and grain siz-
es; normally meaning that the texture corresponds to that of the country rock oc-
curring along the bedding plane and in most cases at the top and bottom, i.e.,
above and below the rhythmic layers. The starting sheet contains more in-
tergranular dark organic matter than the other generations, sometimes contains
pyrite, and has fine-to-medium grain size. The color of the starting sheet, due to
the presence of organic matter and the smaller grain size, is always darker than
the other bands.
The first generation grades into the second, commonly with stylolites and a
size change underlining the boundary. The second generation contains no or only
rare inclusions (and therefore is generally lighter-colored) and is medium to
coarse-grained. A distinctive characteristic of these crystals is the presence of di-
rected growth, that is, the crystals grow from both sides of the starting sheet in
opposite directions (anti-polar growth of Clar 1954).
The third generation either xenomorphically fills the remaining central space
or advances idiomorphically into an open geode-like space. The crystals are
coarse and have no solid inclusions.
In the DCRs of the Mamiiia Mine, the distance between one starting sheet and
the other is 2 to 10 mm. In a hand sample, two components can be differentiated.
The light-colored bands consist of barite and the darker ones are mostly carbon-
ates with some barite. Under the microscope all three generations are clearly rec-
ognized. Figure 4 shows the different generations. The first one is composed of
fine-grained dolomite and barite with small inclusions, mostly of organic matter.
The dolomite is always xenomorphic and shows curved, but not interlocking, con-
tacts with the other crystals. A nucleus of clearer calcite is typical. Barite also ap-
pears. Large hexagonal quartz crystals occur in this generation. They are euhedral
to calcite and anhedral to barite, implying a later stage of calcite formation. The
following paragenesis is defined in the first generation:
calcite 0 --+ dolomite --+ barite --+ quartz --+ calcite.
The second generation is composed mostly of large, bipolar dolomite crystals,

with calcitic nuclei. However, these calcite nuclei resemble dolomite mor-
phologies. This feature defines the change in the geochemical conditions, from
calcite-forming to dolomite-forming, during the development of the second gen-
eration. Another time relationship in generation II is given by the presence of
stylolites cutting the dolomite crystals. Hematite and goethite inclusions allow the
532 L.L. Diaz
gcalcite
Fine grained calcite and
dolomi te
L\\\\\1Dotomite
Lorge bipolar dolomite E£E Barite I
.,
crystals with calcitic
nuclei and iron ox ide s
in the growth rings 0Boritell
Lorge, euhedral bar ite II!] Opaque minerals

crystals (hematite and
goethit e in sty-
lolites, galena In
3rd genera tion)
0 Stylolites
Fig. 4. Schematic model of the Mamifia DCRs. In this schematic model generation I is represented
by the small barite, calcite, and dolomite crystals in the upper part of the figure. Generation II is com-
posed of large, well-developed dolomite crystals with a calcitic nucleus, with a typical anti-polar
growth. Generation II (blank in the figure) is large barite crystals with radiating patterns and small
galena crystals in the central parts. Stylolites are commonly found between generation I and II
Comparison of the SaO and SrO contents in barites
+
1.8 Exhalative
1.7
1.6
s 1.5
BariLe !I
r
~-
0 Pore filling
1.4
%
1.3
1.2
1.1
64 65
t Bacile I
66 67 66 69
EaO%
Fig. 5. Comparison of the BaO, SrO, and S04 contents in barites. Barite I refers to the small crystals
in generation I of the DCRs, Barite II to the large, rosette-type crystals of generation II. Note the com-
position similar to those filling pores. The exhalative type is taken from Cisternas (1986). The bars
represent one standard deviation
recognition of growing rims in the dolomite. Barite rosettes form within genera-
tion I in this stage. The following paragenetic sequence is thus defined:
calcite -+ dolomite+ iron oxides+ barite.
Well-developed, elongated barite crystals compose the third generation. This
barite can be distinguished from that of the first generation by the larger size of
the crystals and fewer fluid and solid inclusions. The contents of BaO, SrO, and
S04 in the barites of the Mamifia and the Bandurrias Mine (considered to be ex-
halative, Cisternas 1986) are listed in Fig. 5. Using the Student's t-test for the
means differences, significant differences are recognized at the 5% level for all el-
ements in all groups but barite II and the exhalative type. The smaller barites ap-
pearing in generation I have more BaO and less SrO than those from the rosettes
in generation III. The hydrothermal types are richer in BaO (about 1.5"7o) and
also in SrO (between 0.2 to 0.4"7o). Microprobe measurements also show that no
differences occur within the barites of generation III.
5.3 The Rhythmicity of the DCRs
One of the most striking characteristics of the DCRs is their regularity. Fontbote
(1981) compares statistically the variation of DCR rhythmicity. The underlying
assumption is that "in purely depositional rhythmites the thickness of a given
rhythm is independent of the thickness of the contiguous ones, because it depends
only on factors external to the sediment", while "if the rhythmicity is due to pro-
cesses of diagenetic crystallization in itself (or to another type of crystallization),
i.e., to an internal factor, the thickness of a given rhythm will depend on the thick-
ness of contiguous rhythms~· (Fontbote 1981, p.148). Internal factors to the sedi-
ment pile are, for example, the H 20 partial pressure, the temperature of the
country rock, and the lithostatic pressure, all parameters which play important
roles in diagenetic (and other types of) crystallization.
The following scheme is proposed for the origin of the Mamifia DCRs. After
deposition, the algal mats are loosely packed, forming extended, highly porous
blankets with interleaved water-rich sediments (Fig. 6a). In the earlier stages of
compaction, the organic matter-rich laminae are compressed, and a concomitant
mechanical rearrangement of the solids (organic matter particles, fossil pieces,
etc.) produces an increase in the distance between the layers. Porosity is also re-
duced, up to the moment in which the fluids cannot circulate through the blankets
at the same speed as the compressive movements take place. At this moment the
algal mats are impermeable and water movement may occur only between the
mats, implying a mostly horizontal movement. The process of compaction con-
tinues and the distance between the layers increases, perhaps in part aided by crys-
tal growth phenomena. The minerals crystallizing in this environment present the
typical antipolar, sometimes geopetal texture common in DCRs.
In the Mamifia Mine, as well as in many of the deposits where DCRs appear,
an original lamination due to algal mats is present. This lamination is well pre-
served in the lowest parts of the sequence and partially preserved in the upper
parts. The original texture is characterized by laminae rich in organic matter. The
distance between them ranges from 0.5 to 2 mm, and is filled with a micritic,
sometimes sparitic groundmass, in which abundant algal filaments can be recog-
nized.
In a second stage, coarse sparite crystallizes from the original aragonite. The
sparite crystals have fairly straight contacts, parallel to the bands of organic mat-
ter. The secondary calcite mosaics develop as in situ recrystallization of the origi-
534 L.L. Diaz
I II@
QP 4t
LAYER S RICH IN ORGANIC MATTER
ALGAL FILAMENTS IN A CALCAREOUS MAT RIX
A ••
COARSER LAYERS RICH IN ORGANIC MATTER
RECRYSTALLIZED SPARITE BANDS
ORGAN IC MATTER BETWEEN THE CRYSTALS
BANDS RICH IN ORGANIC

MATTER (STARTING SHEETl
DOLOMI TE CRYSTALS
BARITE
HAND SPECIMEN SCALE MICROSCOPIC SCAL E
Fig. 6. Proposed development of the Mamifta Mine DCRs. The Mamifta Mine DCRs form through
a three-step process. The upper part of the figure shows the original rock, with a submillimetric algal
layering, which, through recrystallization and particle rearrangement, develops to centimetric bands
nal micrite without apparent previous dissolution. In this stage, the algal fila-
ments appear only near the ribbons of organic matter (Fig. 6 b). The distance be-
tween these ribbons, as well as their thickness, is increased by the aggregation of
organic particles displaced by the recrystallization process. Some of these organic
particles are found in the borders of the crystals, especially in the triple joints,
hinting at a purely mechanical movement of the organic matter. The presence of
stylolites between generation I and II also suggests mechanical rearrangement of
the particles.
In the third step, compaction of the sediments and percolation of Mg-rich wa-
ters partially dissolves the sparite. At the same time, and over a nucleus of not
yet dissolved sparite, dolomite grows geopetally from the organic layers, giving
rise to the typically directed, antipolar growth of the DCRs.
Finally, the dissolved matter in the fluids between the beds crystallizes. In the
Mamifi.a Mine, this third generation is barite, with only one occurrence of galena,
but galena, fluorite, or hydrocarbons are known in other deposits (Amstutz and
Font bote 1983). Summarizing, it is proposed that during compaction of the sedi-
ment, and due to the rearrangement of the organic matter-rich bands (in this case
algal mats) a rhythmicity is produced, followed by an anti-polar crystal growth.
5.4 The Breccia
The upper part of the manto is a breccia up to 50 em in thickness. This breccia

is better developed in the southern sectors of the mine. The breccia clasts are em
to dm large and composed principally of dark brown limestones from the hanging
wall and DCR pieces. On a microscopic scale, clasts of algal mat limestones with
their original textures can be recognized. The matrix is barite, typically shining
white, with large and very pure crystals. A complete gradation from a jig-saw
breccia to a breccia with clasts floating haphazardly in the barite is observed. Fun-
nel-shaped barite bodies result from fluids escaping upward under lithostatic pres-
sure breaking the already lithified beds. In the lower part, the structure begins as
a vein, without clasts, becoming wider upward, until it parallels stratification, i.e.,
teepe-like structures. The breccia is interpreted as a syndiagenetic hydraulic frac-
turing breccia produced by the forced escape of intraformational fluids saturated
with barite.
Both a geometric and a time transition between the breccia and the underlying
DCRs can be postulated. The presence of fragments containing DCR textures in
the breccia could indicate that brecciation developed after DCR formation; never-
theless, the barite matrix of the breccia can be correlated to the formation of gen-
eration III. This indicates that brecciation developed shortly and in part contem-
poraneously to the DCRs.
6 Conclusions
The Mamifia Mine sequence was deposited in a restricted platform with periods
of subaerial exposure. In the subaerial phase, under oxidizing conditions, sulfates
and hematite crusts formed. During the evaporitic phase, algal mats, sulfates,
silica nodules, and pyrite grow. No sulfates formed during marine sedimenta-
tion.
During diagenesis the Ca-rich sulfates were dissolved by meteoric waters. A
banded texture (DCR) was produced. In the earlier stages, high magnesium calcite
crystallized, followed by dolomite. Afterwards, large barite crystals formed. After
a period of brine movement across the loosely packed, permeable algal mats,
water was confined. As confinement pressure increased, part of the barite was
expelled, producing tepee-like structures and breccias.
The role of algal mats in the development of DCRs must be stressed, since it
implies an environmental and biological control in the formation of the barite
mantas in the Mamifia Mine area. On the other hand, the presence of volcanic
activity is also essential. The easily leached young volcanic rocks, as well as
hydrothermal fluids escaping through vents, provided the necessary elements to
the system.
One of the most striking characteristics of these deposits is the lack of sulfides.
Their absence may be due to the high rate of evaporation in this environment and
the subsequent circulation of large amounts of water, which maintained oxidizing
conditions during both deposition and diagenesis.
From an economic point of view, little tonnage can be expected from deposits
of this type in the Atacama region, since the regressive episode to which these ore
deposits are bound is short-lived therefore the large diagenetic trap necessary for
the formation of large deposits is not expected. On the other hand, since this epi-
sode is of regional importance, abundant deposits are foreseen, and found, over
536 L.L. Diaz
a large area. This type of barite deposits is, therefore, best worked by small com-
panies with a central purchasing power.
The Mamifia ore deposit is the first discovery of DCRs in Chile; later studies
have shown that this texture is very common in the area. While DCRs have been
studied throughout the world, and algal mats have been recognized in many cases,
the direct genetic relationship of algal lamination to the diagenetic rhythmites has
only recently been under discussion (Diaz 1986).
Acknowledgments. I am particularly grateful to Dr. M. E. Cisternas for her positive suggestions and
criticism during this study. Prof. Dr. G. C. Amstutz and Dr. L. Fontbote made valuable comments to
an earlier version of the manuscript. Financial support from the Concepci6n University, Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft and CONICYT (Chile} is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Amstutz GC, Fontbote L (1983} Observations on the genesis of stratabound Pb-Zn-(F-Ba} deposits
in carbonate rocks. Proc Int Conf on Mississippi Val'JYpe Deposits, Univ, La Rolla, pp 536-545
Cisternas ME (1986} Stratigraphische, fazielle und lithogeochemische Untersuchungen in der Unter-
sen-Lagerstiitte Bandurrias. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 2:1-268
Cisternas ME, Diaz LL Geologic evolution of the Atacama Basin during the lower Cretaceous. This
Vol, pp 495- 504
ClarE (1954} Ober Parallel-, Schrilg- und Kreuzblinderung in Splttlagerstiitten. Tschermaks Mineral
Petrogr Mitt 3 F 4:55- 64
Diaz LL (1986} Statabound Zn-, Ba-, (Ag-} ore deposits of the Lower Cretaceous in the Atacama Re-
gion of Northern Chile. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 3:1-186
Fontbote L (1981} Stratabound Zn-Pb-F-Ba deposits in carbonate rocks: New aspects of paleogeo-
graphical location, facies factors and diagenetic facies. Diss, Univ Heidelberg, 192 p
Fontbote L, Amstutz GC (1980} New observations on diagenetic crystallization rhythmites in the car-
bonate facies of the Triassic of the Alpujarrides. Rev Inst Invest Geol Barcelona 34:290-310
Fontbote L, Amstutz GC (1982} Observation on ore rhythmites of the Trzebionka Mine, Upper Sile-
sian-Cracow region, Poland. In: Amstutz GC et al. (eds} Ore genesis: The state of the art, Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg New York Thkyo, pp 83-91
lurgan H (1977} Strukturelle and lithofazielle Entwicklung des andinen Unterkreide-Beckens im Nor-
dern Chile (Provinz Atacama}. Geotek Forsch 52:1-138
Seyfried H (1978} Der subbetische Jura von Murcia (Stldost Spanien}. Geol Jb 29:1507-1519
Trurnit P, Amstutz GC (1979} Die Bedeutung des Rtlckstandes von Druck-Wsungsvorgltngen ftlr stra-
tigraphische Abfolgen. Wechsellagerung und Lagerstiitten. Geol, Rundsch 68(3}:1107 -1124
Zimmermann RA, Amstutz GC (1964} Small-scale sedimentary features in the Arkansas barite dis-
trict. In: Amstutz GC (ed} Sedimentology and Ore Genesis. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 157-163
Stratabound Lead-Zinc Deposits
in the Jurassic Chaucha Formation,
Central Peru
E. CEDILL0 1
1 Introduction
The stratabound lead-zinc deposits of the Cercapuquio mining district are located
in the high Andean region of the Department Junin, Central Peru. They are
hosted by the Chaucha Formation of Middle Jurassic age. The first investigations
concerning the Cercapuquio ores are related to the presence of brunckite, a very
fine crystallized sphalerite (Herzenberg 1938; Zemann 1949; Sterk 1953; Levedev
1968). Geologic investigations in the surrounding areas of the Cercapuquio mine
were carried out by Harrison (1956) and Megard (1968). The genesis of the
deposit has been a matter of controversy for the past 30 years. Proposed origins
for the Cercapuquio ores include intrusion-associated epigenetic (Melchiori 1956;
Miranda 1956; Petersen 1972) and syngenetic (Blohm 1972; Samaniego and
Amstutz 1979; Samaniego 1980; Soler and Lara 1983; Soler 1987).
New investigations are related to the sedimentology of the Chaucha Formation
and the geochemistry of host rocks and ore minerals (Cedillo and Wauschkuhn
1986a, b, 1987; Amstutz and Fontbote 1987; Cedillo and Gorzawski 1988; Gor-
zawski and Cedillo 1988; Cedillo and Tejada 1988).
2 Geologic Setting
The Cercapuquio mining district lies within a belt of Mesozoic rocks in central
Peru (Fig. 1). The Mesozoic sedimentary sequence in this area consists of interca-
lations of clastic and carbonate rocks (Fig. 2). The oldest sediments correspond
to the upper part of the Pucara Group (Upper Sinemurian to Lower Aalenian).
They are composed of approximately 1000 m of predominantly oolitic limestones
with very strong continental influence, indicated by their high content of detrital
material.
Over the sediments of the Pucara Group follows the Cercapuquio Formation
consisting of approximately 700 m of clastic sediments, mostly orthoquartzites,
feldspathic sandstones, and arkoses.
The age of the Cercapuquio and Chaucha Formations has been a subject of
controversy because of the scarcity of diagnostic fossils; assigned ages varying
from Liassic (Harrison 1956), Bajocian (Megard 1968), Maim (Megard 1979), to
1 Facultad de Minas, Metalurgia y Geologia, Universidad de Guanajuato, Mexico, formely at Mineral-

ogic-Petrologic Institute, University of Heidelberg, FRO

538 E. Cedillo
D moraines
fluvial and fluvio·
!lmfi glacial deposits
0 travertine
a Astobamba
volcanics
a Casapalca Fm
[]JIIJ Ju masha Fm
-
Chulec and
§ Pariatambo Fms
Goyllarisquizga
D Gr
Chaucha Fm
m Cerapuquio Fm
~ Condorsinga Fm
~ dikes and sills

La Virgen
E3 rhyolite
[B) Huacravilca
stocks
~ lakes
3 Km
Fig. 1. Geology of the Cercapuquio mine and neighboring areas
Neocomian (Wilson 1963). Recently, Rosas (1988), basing on paleogeographic

considerations, again suggested a Bajocian age for both formations. This sugges-
tion is reasonable if one takes into account the presence of Middle Jurassic
(Socosani Formation) to Upper Jurassic (Gramadal Member of the Yura Group)
marine sediments in south Peru (Benavides 1962). According to this, the Chaucha
Formation could represent an ephemeral incursion of the sea from the south.
During the time span Neocomian-Aptian, sediments of continental and shal-
low marine facies were laid down, forming the predominantly clastic sequence
known as the Goyllarisquizga Group. It consists of approximately 800 m of sand-
stones intercalated with shales and a persistent coal seam.
During the Albian-Santonian, the carbonate sedimentation was re-established
in Central Peru. In Cercapuquio it is represented by the formations Chulec and
Pariatambo (Albian), Jumasha (Albian-Coniacian), and Celendin (Santonian).
The Mesozoic sequences described above were folded as a consequence of the
onset of the Peruvian deformation phase by the end of the Cretaceous. After this
event the sedimentation took place in a continental environment, and is represent-
ed by the red beds of the Casapalca Formation.
In Cercapuquio, the Peruvian deformation phase produced a very simple tec-
tonic pattern consisting of parallel folds. The Cercapuquio mine is located in the
eastern flank of the syncline of the same name. This fold shows transversal faults
with very little displacement. The intersection of faults with paleosol horizons is
characterized by the development of disharmonic decimetric folds. Another fault-
ing system runs parallel to the folding and produces steeply dipping faults.
Stratabound Lead-Zinc Deposits in the Jurassic Chaucha Formation, Central Peru 539
..""
,...
.....
...
=
.....
.,/1
y
•@~
y
v
y
a
y
0
0
0 0
0 0
o o
0
Aslobamba
Volcanics lbl
Casapalca Fm (a}
..
..
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"'
:.;;
and
Parltam bo Fms
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:::>
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.
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Govllarlsqulzga Group
I
u Eg ·.
,
"'., -. .
z
Chaucha Fm
~· -=---· • Ore-bearing horizon
~
·;; ..
.=......:--.~·.·-
.· -
.·
~ ~ . ~- ~-
«1 . . . . •
~
-: ..:.....:__.·_.
~ """" ,..:..., ..:..,... ·"
~
Cercapuqulo Fm
"' :g ~ _ ..;_; '-c-' - '
"'
c ~ ~ ;--:- . -.
=
- .- .-'---
Condorsinga Formation
Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of the Cer-
capuquio mining district
Magmatic activity in the Cercapuquio mining district is represented by the

products of Tertiary volcanism, by the Huacravilca and La Virgen intrusions, and
diabase dykes and sills. To the Tertiary volcanism belong the Astobamba volcanics
which consist of a sequence of basaltic and andesitic flows and conglomerates.
The Huacravilca intrusive is a stock of granodioritic-tonalitic composition crop-
ping out 4 km SE of Cercapuquio. The lower part of this intrusive shows
equigranular texture, whereas its upper part exhibits porphyritic character with no
visible change in mineralogic composition. Different grades of metamorphism
have developed at the contacts of the intrusive with the limestones of the Con-
dorsinga Formation. Noteworthy is the presence of a skarn paragenesis in the
eastern part of the stock, consisting of magnetite, garnet, and other calco-
silicates
Seven kilometers NE of Cercapuquio the La Virgen intrusion crops out, which
is a domatic plug of rhyolitic composition. It intrudes the Mesozoic sequence and
the Astobamba Formation. In contrast with the Huacravilca stock, this intrusive
appears to be emplaced under passive conditions.
540 E. Cedillo
Diabase sills of about 1 m in thickness were observed in the Goyllarisquizga

and Chaucha Formations near a coal seam and in the vicinity of the Adrhitico
ore-bearing horizon.
3 Sedimentology
The Chaucha Formation is made up of cyclic arrays of peloidal limestones,

micrites, oolitic grainstones, paleosols, breccias, and dolomites. These sediments
were deposited in a lagoonal complex limited seaward by a sandy barrier (Cedillo
and Wauschkuhn 1986 a, 1987). Peloidal limestones with variable faunal content
are abundant and represent subtidal to intertidal environments. Laminated strata
with relatively scarce fauna and dolomites were deposited in tidal flats; oolitic
limestones represent barrier sediments (Fig. 3).
The basin dynamics is characterized by periodical emersions associated with
karst and pedogenesis. Paleosols are of particular importance in the present dis-
cussion because they constitute the host rocks of the ores. Breccias and dolomites
are strongly associated with paleosols and will be discussed in some detail.
- - LAND - t Tl DAL FLAT - + - - LA GOON - - - - - I - -BARRIER -----!
• Paleo',!;~r5t sea level (low I

• Soi Is
• Peloidal muds
•Ool iltlie gtain!illone 5
• Mi c:r i tes
Fig. 3. Depositional environments of the Chaucha Formation
4 Paleosols
Calcrete and terra-rossa paleosols have been recognized in different intervals of

the Chaucha Formation particularly in its lower part (Gorzawski and Cedillo
1988).
Calcrete forms crusts under "mammillated" surfaces (microdoline-like struc-
tures) produced during subaerial exposures. The thickness of these horizons is
variable, but generally not exceeding a few centimeters. The composition is also
variable depending on the precursor material, with a tendency to an increase in
CaC0 3 content toward the upper parts.
Terra-rossa paleosols rest directly over calcrete and consist of a mixture of
quartz, feldspars, and micas cemented with calcite.
Gypsum is a very important component of terra-rossa and occurs forming
banded structures with red-colored silty material. A recent surficial origin is ruled
out because it is recognized in underground workings at a depth of 500 m, in

zones not affected by present oxidation.
A typical zonation of paleosols as it is seen in modern soils was not observed.
In only one case a thin layer of coal capping the ore-bearing manto "513" was
recognized. This could represent a relict of an A-horizon of a soil profile.
The microscopic features of terra-rossa correspond to a very good compacted
marl. Because of the diagenetic changes, a satisfactory comparison with the mi-
croscopic features developed in modern analogs is not possible. However, some
textural evidence such as, for instance, the presence of iron-stained clay cutans
and quartz corrosion probably due to organic acids, point to pedogenic processes.
It must be emphasized that in the case of the Chaucha Formation the more im-
portant criteria are the facies setting and the paleogeographic reconstructions.
5 Dolomitization
Dolomitization has affected the limestones of the Chaucha Formation in different
degrees. According to the intensity of the process, two groups can be differentiat-
ed: completely and partially dolomitized rocks. The first group is spatially related
to tidal-flat-dominated portions of the sequence. The second group is restricted
to subtidal facies of the sequence. Both types of dolomite are interpreted as hav-
ing originated during early diagenesis (Cedillo and Gorzawski 1988).
In the field, dolomites are recognized by their yellow to brown weathering col-
or resulting from iron oxidation. The most continuous dolomite lies directly at
the contact between the Cercapuquio and Chaucha Formations ("basal dolo-
mite") and it extends laterally for tens of kilometers with an almost constant
thickness of 3 m. The other horizons show lesser lateral continuity. The textural
pattern varies from scattered dolomitic crystals to completely dolomitized rocks.
In the peloidal limestones the dolomitization begins in the interpeloidal material
and progresses to the peloids, changing their grain size as a response to changes
in the diffusion medium. In some cases the peloidal precursor can be detected by
careful examination of ghost features.
Completely dolomitized limestones show mosaic or porphyrotopic textures.
Mosaic texture is the product of neomorphism, which in turn produces
equigranular and suturated aggregates of inclusion-free dolomite aggregates. By
contrast, dolomites with porphyrotopic textures preserve to some extent micritic
material, and generally maintain their idiomorphic character. Some dolomite
horizons are partially or completely dedolomitized.
The subtidal facies immediately overlying the basal tidal flats have incorporat-
ed detrital dolomite produced by deflation of the emerged dolomitized areas. Do-
lomite grains are constituted of single or polycrystalline particles and show iron-
stained outlines due to subaerial exposure.
Differences concerning petrography, facies setting, and geochemistry of the
dolomites point to separate events of dolomitization.
By plotting o180 versus o13C values of dolomites (Fig. 4), three well-defined
fields result (Cedillo and Gorzawski 1988). Dolomites of the groups I and II ap~
pear to have formed under hypersaline conditions. Supporting facts for this are
542 E. Cedillo
+4
II~
·6 ·4
.z
Fig. 4. Carbon and oxygen iso-
-4 tope signatures of the dolomites
of the Chaucha Formation
(after Cedillo and Gorzawski
1988)
their frequent association with collapse breccias related to vanishing of evapor-

ites. The basal dolomite (group I) shows depleted carbon isotopic ratios compared
to the other dolomite groups. This can be explained by the former presence of
vegetation on the dolomitized flats.
Dolomites of the group III are interpreted as the result of a mixed-water mech-
anism. Ghost textures show that some dolomites of this group are the product of
replacement of peloidal grainstones.
6 Breccia
Two types of breccia were recognized in the Chaucha sequence: (a) intraforma-
tional collapse J;rreccia and (b) karst breccia. Intraformational collapse breccia are
characterized by their stratiform geometry and sharp contacts with the underlying
and overlying facies, lateral extension (several km}, and association with tidal flats
of the basal portion of the formation. The fragments are composed of dolomites
or grainstones of the overlying facies and the matrix is of micritic to peloidal com-
position; their size varies from 10 em to blocks of 30 to 40 em in diameter.
The facies affected by brecciation are basically dolomites and paleosols. Many
facts support the idea that the lower parts of the sequence were deposited under
hypersaline conditions in response to periodical restriction of the basin. The wide-
spread presence of gypsum molds is the most important evidence for interpreting
the basal breccia as a product of vanished evaporites. Additional salinity indica-
tors are the presence of algal mats preserved under hypersaline conditions, shell
replacements by chalcedony, and quartz authigenesis. Terra-rossa paleosols are
also affected, as this mechanism of brecciation took place before important
burial.
An interpretation of bedded breccia as tectonic in origin has neither field nor
stratigraphic support. Faults produced during the Andine deformation process
cut all collapse breccia.
7 The Ore-Bearing Horizons

The Chaucha Formation in the Cercapuquio mining district hosts four ore-bear-
ing horizons. The names of these horizons from the bottom to the top of the
Chaucha Formation are as follows: Raguza (at 14m), "513" (at 35m), Intermedio
(at 93 m), and Adrhitico (at 137m) (Fig. 5). The ore-bearing horizons show in
turn discontinuous tabular ores and irregular breccia.
All ore horizons are located in the Cercapuquio syncline, in the flank dipping
to the southwest.
The ores are restricted to paleosol facies which generally are associated with
dolomites. The pedogenic character of the horizons hosting the ores is in some
cases obliterated by interstratal karst processes. Detailed mapping and petro-
graphic work was necessary in order to discriminate paleosols from internal sedi-
ments, where both were present. The contacts between ore-bearing horizons and
adjoining facies are mostly sharp, with the exception of some portions of the ore
horizons affected by later dissolution processes.
a:
2a:
w M. ADRIATICO
a. t-- 150m
:I
en
ct~
::1: Ill
~
-
CJ w
:::~-
ct~
::1:
CJ
100m
z M. INTERMEDIO
0
-
CJ a:
ct 2
a:
~ w
-
LL.
a: z
--
0 50m
LL.
0
a:
Ill
~
w M. '513'
~
~ M. RAGUZA
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic position of the ore-
bearing horizons of the Cercapuquio
Mine
544 E. Cedillo
II
4600
4=soo
4400
Adrlatlco
400m
Fig. 6. Main ore-bearing horizons of Cercapuquio projected on a section coincident with the Adriatico
horizon
For practical purposes, the Cercapuquio mine is divided into four zones: San
Jorge, Central, San Simon, and Chaca-Chaca. The distribution of the ore-bearing
horizons in the above-mentioned zones is shown in Fig. 6. The tabular orebodies
within the horizons were contoured following a master curve equivalent to 50Jo Zn
and/or 5% Pb. The reasons for adopting these contents as limit were conditioned
by the information available in the files of the operating mining company. It must
be emphasized that the metal content drops drastically below 5%. The main ore-
bearing horizons are Raguza and Adriatico.
The Raguza horizon shows two well-defined tabular orebodies 1300 m apart;
the most important concentration is located in the central zone and the second
one in the San Jorge zone. In the first case, the orebody shows a roughly semi-el-
liptical form with a major axis parallel to the strata strike, dipping from 45 to 60 °.
The long axis is 900 m and the short one is 140 m. In the second case, the orebody
shows a more or less rectangular form with a long axis of 540 m and a short axis
of 80 m. The thickness of the ore occurrences ranges from 0.3 to 1 m.
The Adriatico horizon shows two tabular bodies. One is located in the central
zone and has the following dimensions: 1350x220 m. Another body lies in the
San Jorge zone and measures 210x 125m. The thickness of both occurrences var-
ies from 1 to 2 m.
8 Ore '!Ypes
The ores of Cercapuquio have formed during three main stages. Stage I is charac-
terized by disseminated ore minerals. During Stage II laminated and brecciated
ores were formed. The ores of Stage III are generally massive with occasional lam-
ination (see below).
Disseminated sulfides are frequently observed in common limestones of the
Chaucha Formation. Dolomitized paleosols show also disseminated ores consist-
ing of coarse-grained galena and sphalerite.
Laminated ores are typical of the dolomitized paleosols and can be several mil-
limeters thick. The fact that in many cases they are found forming part of breccia
fragments suggests an early formation.
Galena of laminated ores is coarse-grained in comparison with massive ores.
Interlaminations of galena and brunckite are frequent and mostly contorted.
Breccia are produced during several stages of the evolution of the deposit.
However, from the economic point of view, the breccia formed during Stage II
are the most important. This type of breccia was observed in the Raguza horizon,
but they were recognized in deeper parts of the mine (at present inaccessible) by
Melchiori ( 1956). Figure 7 a shows a schematic representation of the breccia of
the Raguza horizon. The fragments are outlined by a barite crust and the inter-
fragmental spaces are filled with banded sphalerite and galena. A second type of
breccia is related to early interstratal karst and has affected terra-rossa paleosol.
Figure 7 b shows brecciation occurring in the 513 horizon; the fragments are elon-
gated and parallel to the stratification. In advanced stages of interstratal karst
processes, breccia show transitions to redeposited terra-rossa paleosols.
The upper parts of the ore-bearing horizons show massive ores. They are char-
acterized by the presence of fine-grained sphalerite (brunckite) and galena, and
constitute the richest ores of the mine.
Stalactites were observed only in the upper part of the 513 horizon. They con-
sist of single or composed tubes with a locked central part. In cross-section they
show concentric-radial structure and the last precipitated mineral is calcite. The
sulfides present are globular sphalerite, octahedral galena, and pyrite.
Fig. 7. l)rpical profiles of the ore-bearing

horizons Raguza (a) and 513 (b). 1 Dolo-
mitized paleosol; 2 barite; 3 banded
sphalerite; 4 coarse-grained sphalerite;
5 galena patches; 6 stalactites; 7 terra-rossa
relict; 8 laminated galena; 9 reworked terra-
1m rossa
546 E. Cedillo
9 Ore Mineralogy
Sphalerite occurs mainly in two forms, the very fine-grained brunckite and in
coarser grains. The latter occur in bands or as disseminated grains. Brunckite pre-
dominates in the upper parts of the ore-bearing horizons and constitutes the rich-
est zinc ores of the deposit. Microscopically brunckite consists of an aggregate
of spherical sphalerite particles ranging in size from 5 to 10 Jl, with very few larger
grains enclosed.
Brunckite occurs in massive, interstitial form and interlaminated with galena,
or forming part of stalactites. Massive brunckite forms clusters of friable and
fractured material mostly associated with disseminated or laminated galena.
Cerussite was frequently observed sealing microfractures of massive brunckite.
Banded sphalerite constitutes the other important zinc ore and is typical for
the Raguza horizon. It occurs as fragments or as fillings in interfragmental spaces
of breccias. Intergrowths with galena and mutual boundary textures with this
mineral were also observed. Transitions between globular, banded, and coarser
crystallized sphalerite are common. Greenockite is associated with brunckite in
the upper parts of the mine and is probably a secondary product.
Galena shows different morphologic characteristics and mineral associations de-

pending on the ore types. In massive ores it is generally fine-grained (30-100 Jl)
and frequently associated with globular brunckite. Zoning is common; it is proba-
bly due to the incorporation of foreign elements in the structure. Bulk-ore ana-
lyses of the Cercapuquio ores show that the main trace elements are Sb and As
(between 80 and 100 ppm for both elements; P. Soler, written commun.). These
elements, from the theoretical point of view, are able to substitute Pb in the galena
structure. In lead-dominant ores galena can be contemporaneous or later with re-
spect to sphalerite. Galena forms late zones and also some irregular textures with-
in globular brunckite.
Massive galena ores are products of coalescence of octahedral or skeletal crys-
tals. In many cases it is possible to observe the crystal outlines of the faces (111 ),
but generally they disappear by growth competition.
Massive galena ores show transitions to laminated ores. Laminae are frequent-
ly contorted or show dislocations due to mechanical effects. In some cases galena
veinlets are discordant to the lamination. Laminated galena is very frequent inter-
ra-rossa horizons of the Chaucha Formation. The laminae are made up of coarse
crystals and the intercalated materials is globular sphalerite. Very fine laminae of
galena in massive brunckite consists of dendritic crystals. Of particular interest
is the association of galena with coaly material. This occurrence is restricted to
the upper part of the 513 horizon, where galena laminae are deformed and dis-
rupted; associated framboidal pyrite is "cemented" by galena.
Galena of brecciated ores is always associated with banded sphalerite. Galena
crystals intergrown with banded sphalerite show euhedral outlines toward the up-
per parts of the banding. Their lower parts, however, show in some cases corro-
sion contacts with sphalerite. Some fragments of breccia are constituted by
dolomitized paleosols, which contain disseminated galena frequently associated
with framboidal pyrite.
Other important occurrences of lead are related to stalactitic ores. Stalactites

consist basically of octahedral galena, globular sphalerite, and pyrite. The "sub-
stratum" of stalactites is a porous material formed by galena intergrown with do-
lomite. The outer part of the stalactites is constituted of calcite crystals; the interi-
or has a central tube with radial and concentric arrays of galena. The interstitial
material is always globular sphalerite (brunckite) with minor amounts of
melnikovite-pyrite. In the upper part of the ore-bearing horizons galena is often
altered to cerussite and anglesite. Pyrite is not well represented in the Cercapuquio
ores; however, it is frequently observed as disseminated crystals in barren lime-
stones, dolomites, and paleosols. Part of the iron content of the dolomites is due
to the presence of pyrite.
Framboidal pyrite is closely associated with carbonaceous matter, galena, well-
crystallized sphalerite, and brunckite. The internal structure of framboids is pre-
served to different degrees. In some cases, the constituent microcrystals are "ce-
mented" by organic matter, galena, or sphalerite.
Another occurrence of pyrite is related to stalactites; in this case it occurs as
subhedral crystals, as melnikovite-pyrite (in the sense of Ramdohr 1975) and scat-
tered framboids. With the exception of framboidal pyrite, the other occurrences
of this mineral appear to be later generations coating galena, replacing globular
sphalerite, or filling fissures of stalactites. Marcasite is very rare and was observed
associated with pyrite framboids or galena.
Sulfosalts are not typical constituents of the ores of Cercapuquio. Fahlore and
geocronite are the only two minerals representing this group and are always asso-
ciated with galena.
Fahlore is found as inclusions of approximately 25 !! in galena associated with
banded sphalerite of the Raguza horizon. Some of these occurrences are incipi-
ently altered to covellite, indicating its cupriferous composition. Geocronite oc-
curs intergrown with galena or replacing it, producing pseudomorphs. Banding
of galena inherited from sphalerite is preserved in geocronite, which replaces the
first-mentioned mineral. This occurrence shows the same associations as those re-
ported by Lagny et al. (1974) for Salafossa, an intrakarstic deposit located in the
eastern Italian Alps.
10 Ore Textures
Two important textural features are characteristic for the sphalerites of the Cer-
capuquio mine, namely their globular and banded character. The main discussion
point in order to interpret these textures is the nature of the fluids from which
the ZnS has crystallized. Earlier workers have favored a colloidal origin for the
banded textures. However, with better understanding of crystal growth processes,
experimental work, and the use of scanning electron microscopy, it has become
accepted that these banded textures are the product of crystallization from true
solutions. Based on microscopic observations of ores from typical American and
European mines, Roedder (1968) concluded that banded textures (so-called col-
loform textures) are not necessarily the product of colloidal precipitation.
548 E. Cedillo
There is no doubt that a great part of the banded textures of Cercapuquio have
been produced by precipitation from true solutions. This is supported by the
growth of columnar sphalerite within the individual bands. These crystals are
similar to the palisade calcite of caves. However, brunckite shows cracks which
could represent syneresis cracks. This feature suggests a precipitation from a col-
loid or a colloid-like substance.
11 Gangue Minerals
Gangue minerals in Cercapuquio are dolomite, calcite, gypsum, barite, and car-
bonaceous matter. 1\vo different dolomite types are associated with the ores. The
first consists of very fine, unzoned dolomite; a second type is coarse-grained and
zoned, and closely related to the ore minerals. In some cases, pyrite selectively re-
places certain zones of dolomite of the second type.
Calcite is found filling interfragmental spaces in brecciated ores. Occasionally
two or three generations of this mineral coat breccia fragments. Calcite is also
found forming the outer coatings of stalactites or as globular aggregates in the
former spaces between individual stalactite tubes. Calcite veinlets are widespread
in the ores; they represent late precipitation of calcium carbonate.
Barite is associated with brecciated ores and occurs as well-developed crystals
lining breccia fragments. Gypsum is poorly represented as a gangue mineral and
the most conspicuous occurrence is related with later fissure fillings and with a
particular ore associated with carbonaceous material. The most important gyp-
sum concentrations in the studied area are associated with terra-rossa paleosols
with very low metal content.
The ores affected by intrastratal karst processes are very closely associated with
internal sediments which originated by reworking of paleosol material. Carbona-
ceous matter was recognized in some fragments of brecciated ores, in stalactites,
and in the ore-bearing horizon 513, forming a persistent thin layer (3 em) on the
top of a terra-rossa layer. The same ore-bearing horizon contains scattered
graphite flakes.
12 The Source of Sulfur and Metals
In order to discuss the origin of sulfur for the Cercapuquio ores it is necessary
to consider the most realistic sources on the basis of geologic and mineralogic
findings. The ultimate source for the sulfur of the Cercapuquio ores appears to
be the evaporites interbedded with paleosols. These evaporites were formed dur-
ing emergence periods of the Chaucha basin. Evidences for such an origin are
threefold:
a) Evaporite structures typical of sabkha or sabkha-like environments.
b) The present position with respect to the surface; evaporites are found at depths
of more than 500 m.
c) The heavy isotopic composition o34S = + 12.1.
The isotopic composition of galenas of Cercapuquio are moderately radiogenic

in comparison with other Jurassic stratabound deposits of central Peru. Thble 1
shows the isotopic composition of 6 galena samples of the Cercapuquio ores. A
reasonable explanation for these isotopic compositions could be related to an in-
fluence of the basement as a possible source of lead (see Fontbote et al. this Vol.).
Table 1. Lead isotope composition of galenas
Sample 208/204 207/204 206/204
A-12C 38.97 15.70 18.77

A-15 38.72 15.63 18.74
A-E8 38.90 15.68 18.76
5-M6A 38.86 15.68 18.77
R-E35 38.87 15.69 18.76
R-116A 38.79 15.65 18.73
13 Genesis
Previous attempts to explain the genesis of the Cercapuquio deposit have taken
into account isolated aspects of the ores or particular events of the geologic evolu-
tion of the area. Fundamental points of the genetic discussions were the presence
of intrusions, ore textures, the stratabound character of the ores, and trace-ele-
ment geochemistry.
With respect to the influence of the intrusions it must be emphasized that there
is no field evidence for hydrothermal solutions coming from the intrusions closest
to Cercapuquio. The Huacravilca intrusive has developed a magnetite skarn at the
contact with the limestones of the Pucara Group. In this mineralized skarn nei-
ther galena nor sphalerite is present. Dykes were invoked also as a possible source
of hydrothermal solutions. They are, however, very scarce and too little altered to
be considered as having been rich in fluids.
Hypotheses considering textural features of the ores are based on the laminat-
ed character of fine-grained sphalerite and galena. Blohm (1972) considered these
textures as products of diagenesis of sulfide muds deposited with the normal sedi-
ments. It is difficult to reconcile this hypothesis with the nature of the hosting
lithofacies and the burial history. In fact, three ore horizons (513, Intermedio, and
Adriatico}, are characterized by the presence of terra-rossa paleosols which were
formed under conditions nonfavorable (oxidant) to sulfide precipitation. A rea-
sonable conclusion is that host rock and ore minerals were formed by different
events. On the other hand, the burial history of the area should lead to a
recrystallization of the assumed syngenetic brunckite. The stratabound character
of the Cercapuquio ores is an important argument favoring a syngenetic origin
(Samaniego and Amstutz 1979; Samaniego 1980). However, a detailed sedimen-
tologic investigation shows that these horizons have been affected by a long histo-
ry of karstification. Paleokarst processes have registered in the geologic column
as paleokarstic surfaces and paleosols containing interstratified gypsum. Porosity
550 E. Cedillo
and permeability have been increasing due to solution processes of interstratal

karst. Ores clearly deposited as open space karst fillings are the consequence of
this process.
Finally, an exhalative-sedimentary origin has been proposed for Cercapuquio
(Soler and Lara 1983; Soler et al. 1986; Soler 1987). This hypothesis is based on
the high Cd content of brunckite of the upper parts of the mine. The diminution
of cadmium from the surface to the deeper parts of the mine and the coexistence
of brunckite with Mn-oxydes point to an enrichment of cadmium by supergene
processes.
At a first glance, the Cercapuquio deposit appears to be formed by mecha-
nisms operating in a simple way. Detailed investigations show, however, a more
complicated evolutionary history. In fact, the ores of Cercapuquio have been
formed in subsequent episodes since Jurassic to recent times, and probably con-
tinue at present in some parts of the deposit. Three main events of ore formation
(stages) are recognized:
Stage 1: Disseminations of galena and sphalerite in paleosols.
Stage II: Brecciated and laminated ores of the Mississippi Valley type.
Stage III: Massive ore in interstratal karst fillings.
From the economic point of view, Stage III is the most important event. Dur-
ing this stage, brunckite and galena were formed as a result of supergene enrich-
ment processes.
Stage I: Ore Minerals in Paleosols
Sulfides produced during pedogenesis are not important from an economic point
of view. They comprise disseminated galena, sphalerite, and pyrite. These miner-
als show the following features: (a) galena is coarse-grained, (b) sphalerite is well
crystallized, and (c) pyrite is restricted to the framboidal type.
Because of the dominant oxidation conditions prevailing during the formation
of terra-rossa, it is not realistic to expect an important sulfide formation.
Ore Stage II
The ores of the Stage II display analogies with those deposits of the Mississippi
Valley type; they show, among other features, the paleogeographic position, the
stratabound character, the association with dolomites, the presence of breccia and
the mineralogical composition. A particularity of the ores of the Stage II of Cer-
capuquio is their occurrence in paleosols. The ore minerals of this stage show the
following characteristics:
a) sphalerite exhibits banded textures,
b) galena occurs laminated or lining breccia fragments,
c) gangue minerals are coarse-grained dolomite and barite, and
d) pyrite is practically absent.
Minerals of ore Stage II were observed only in the breccia and the laminated
ores of the ore-bearing horizon Raguza. Unfortunately, ores of the Stage II in the
horizons Adriatico, 513, and Intermedio were not recognized in the upper parts
of the mine due to intense mining and supergene enrichment. The ores consist of
galena and banded sphalerite; the breccia of the Stage II contain also barite. Un-
altered, coarse-grained galena of this horizon show o34 S -15.2%o and -17.3%o.
Considering the value of o34 S of + 12.1 %o of the evaporites, we can conclude
that this large fractionation is only possible by biogenic reduction. These ores are
associated to coarse-grained dolomite; this mineral shows carbon and oxygen iso-
topic signatures quite different from those of marine dolomites and dolomitized
paleosols.
The ore minerals of the Stage II could be formed by the interplay of two flow
systems operating on a regional and local scale. The first regime is the conse-
quence of the dewatering of the Paleozoic-Mesozoic sequence located west of the
Marafi6n Geanticline (Fig. 7). The thick terrigenous Paleozoic series could be the
source for lead and zinc transported subsequently in brines migrating from the
center of the basin to its margin or from deeper parts along deep-reaching faults
limiting the Marafi6n Geanticline. Important for the ore mineral formation was
the presence of evaporites interlayered with paleosols. They have acted as traps
for metals and as sulfur supplier.
Ore Stage III: Supergene Enrichment
The most spectacular development of interstratal karst is related to the uplifting

and geomorphological modeling of the area. During this stage the pre-existing
ores are enriched by supergene processes. The present outcrops of the mantos rep-
resent the transition between the oxidation zone with abundant manganese oxide
and the cementation zone with abundant brunckite and botryoidal galena. These
ore types are typical of the manto Raguza and Adrilitico. The ores produced dur-
ing this stage are massive and fine-grained. Cerussite and greenockite are associat-
ed with brunckite in the upper part of the ore-bearing horizons.
The formation of stalactites corresponds to this stage. They are a proof of
vadose conditions predominating during their formation. The flow regime was
confined to the paleosol horizons, the flow direction was downdip, and the base
level was marked by the Chacuasmayo river.
The formation of massive brunckite and galena can only be explained in terms
similar to the formation of secondary sulfides from primary ores. Evidence for
such a process is manifold:
a) The present position of the ores with respect to the surface (Raguza and
Adriatico crop out with important values of lead and zinc).
b) The position of the enrichment zone with respect to the Chacuasmayo river is
a very clear proof of supergene processes under the influence of a water table.
This is obvious in the ore-bearing horizon Adriatico.
c) The patterns of lead and zinc distribution are typical of supergene enrichment
zones. The enrichment of cadmium is parallel to the enrichment of zinc.
552 E. Cedillo
d) The association of massive ores with manganese oxides in the Adrilitico and
the Raguza horizon points to transitions between oxidation and cementation
zones. On a microscopic scale, minerals typical of oxidation zones occur together
with massive brunckite and galena.
e) Textures of sulfides, particularly globular sphalerite and botryoidal galena, are
similar to other minerals produced during supergene enrichment.
f) Further evidence for supergene enrichment producing massive ores is given by
the isotopic composition of gangue minerals. Carbon and oxygen isotopes of car-
bonate gangues suggest a participation of meteoric waters. The extremely nega-
tive isotopic ratios of sulfide sulfur with respect to those of sulfates support a ki-
netic fractionation due to dissimilatory sulfate reduction. The most extreme frac-
tionation is related with ores of the Stage III. The most negative o34S values cor-
respond to brunckite (Cedillo 1988; Cedillo et al. in prep.).
Acknowledgments. The author wishes to thank Prof. Dr. G. C. Amstutz and Dr. A. Wauschkuhn,
heads of the DFG projects Am 63 and Wa 299, for their continuous support. My appreciation is ex-
tended to my friend Dr. L. Fontbote for invaluable assistance and numerous discussions concerning
the genesis of Mississippi Valley-type deposits. The analytical work was carried out with the coopera-
tion of Prof. C. Field (sulfur isotopes), Prof. K. Gunnesch (lead isotopes), Dr. H. Gorzawski (carbon
and oxygen isotopes) and B. Rixen (analytical assistance), to whom I express my gratitude. My thanks
also go to the staff and personel of the Peruvian mining company Centrarninas S. A. for logistic sup-
port during the field work. This article benefited from numerous discussions and suggestions of Peru-
vian and German colleagues. Financial support for this investigation was provided by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft in the FRO.
References
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Blohm M (1972) Mineralogisch-petrographische Untersuchungen an rhythrnischen Erzgefiigen in Se-
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trict, Central Peru. Ph D Thesis, Univ Heidelberg, 201 p (unpublished)
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on, Oberer Jura. Geol Geotech Arbeiten 29:23-26
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48:417-419
Stratabound Polymetallic Ore Deposits
of the Santa Metallotect in the Huanzabi
and Pachapaqui Mining Areas
in Central Peru
R. CARRASCAL 1•2 and J. SAEZ 1•3
1 Introduction
The Huanzala mine is located on the southeast flank of the Huayhuash Cor-
dillera, about 80 km SE of the town of Huaraz (Fig. 1). This mine is one of the
most important Zn producers of Peru (with minor contents of Pb, Ag, and Cu).
In this chapter, the results of investigations on the regional and local geology
as well as the stratigraphy in the mine areas of Huanzala and Pachapaqui, includ-
ing detailed underground studies on the geometry and mineralogy of the ores, are
presented.
The Huanzala deposit has been the subject of several investigations and papers.
Most of the authors consider it as replacement hydrothermal lens-like mantos ge-
netically related to a Miocene granodioritic intrusion (Petersen 1965; Horita et al.
1973; Sato and Saito 1977; Fukahori et al. 1980; Saito et al. 1981; Tsuchiya et al.
1983; Imai et al. 1985; Imai 1986). Other geologists, like Iberica (1957), reject age-
netic relation of the ores with the intrusion. Dunin-Borkowski (1975) suggests a
possible volcanogenic origin. Samaniego and Amstutz (1979) and Samaniego
( 1980) have proposed a syngenetic ore formation including Huanzala and Aida
Unica to the Santa Metallotect. Carrascal et al. (1983), Carrascal (1984), and Soler
et al. (1986) consider Huanzala as a syngenetic exhalative sedimentary ore deposit.
2 The Santa Formation in a Regional Context

According to Benavides (1956), the Santa Formation represents a change in the
nonmarine conditions that prevailed during the deposition of the sandstones and
black shales of the Chimu Formation.
The structures observed (cross-bedding and others) correspond to an open sea
to the west. Wilson (1963) considers that ripple marks, the sporadic distribution
of oolitic layers, and the absence of pelagic invertebrates in the Santa sediments
in central Peru indicate a deposition in a shallow water environment. Later obser-
vations of Samaniego (1982) during the measuring of stratigraphic profiles in dif-
ferent mining districts and by Carrascal et al. (1983) in the Huanzala area support
the same interpretation.
1 Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria, Escuela de Geologia, Lima, Peru
2 Av. Peru 274, Urb. Huaquillay, Comas, Lima 7, Peru
3 Present address: Mineralogisch-Petrographisches lnstitut der Universitat, INF 236, D-6900
Heidelberg, FRG

556 R. Carrascal and J. Saez
Q 5Km .
I
LEGEND
1. 1m 2 D. 3 4. 0 5 . fm} 6. 0 7. ~
8. 0 9. 0 10. 0 11. [Z] 72_ 0 13_ [K] 1t..GJ 15. •
Fig. 1. Generalized geologic map of the Huayhuash Cordillera showing the localization of stratabound
mineral occurrences (After Dunin-Borkowski 1975). 1 Chicama and Oy6n Formations (Jurassic);
2 Chimu Formation (Berriasian-lower Valanginian); 3 Santa Formation (upper Valanginian);
4 Carhuaz and Farrat Formations (Hauterivian-lower Albian); 5 Pariahuanca, Chulec, Pariatambo
and Jumasha Formations (lower Albian-Cenomanian); 6 Calipuy volcanics (Upper Cretaceous-Tertia-
ry); 7 intrusives (Upper Cretaceous-Tertiary); 8 stratabound and stratiform ore deposits; 9 ore deposits
of unknown geometry; 10 non-stratabound ore deposits; 11 fault; 12 anticline; 13 syncline; 14 bedding;
15 location of town
Moulin (1986) based on sequential analysis in Lower Cretaceous sediments of

the zone around La Oroya (central Peru), had described 35m of sediments be-
longing to a transgressive sequence within the Goyllarisquizga Group at the east-
ern border of the basin. It is remarkable that this clastic group remained undiffer-
entiated until the investigations quoted. These sediments should correspond to
the same paleogeographic position of the Santa Formation described in the
Huanzala area, north of La Oroya. Both sequences could then be correlatable
Stratabound Polymetallic Ore Deposits of the Santa Metallotect 557
with the Santa Formation lithostratigraphically defined in the western part of the
basin by Wilson (1963).
The Santa Formation is considered to be of upper Valanginian age based on
the Valanginites Broggi Lisson described by Benavides (1956). Samaniego and
Amstutz (1978) reported the same fauna in the western border ofthe Santa calcar-
eous units in the El Extrafio mine area.
3 The Santa Formation in the Huanzala Mining Area

The Huanzala stratabound ore deposit is located at the eastern border of the San-
ta basin (Fig. 1). The contact with the Chimu Formation is concordant. The top
of this formation corresponds to the last strata of white orthoquartzite of 1 m
thickness underlying the 0.5-m-thick beds of gray greenish sandstones interbedd-
ed with gray shales that form the base of the Santa Formation.
Locally it is divided into two members (Fig. 2):
Lower Santa Formation (30- 40 m): Principally composed of 0.5- to 1-m-thick
greenish gray, medium-grained sandstones with channels and lamination in-
terbedded with 0.3-m-thick gray shales. These sandstones turn gradually more cal-
careous up to sandy limestones and limestones in the upper member.
Upper Santa Formation (120m): Although a more detailed stratigraphic and
sedimentologic study of the Santa Formation in the Huanzala area is still needed,
in the five stratigraphic profiles set up by Carrascal et al. (1983) this member
shows a good homogeneity. It consists of interbeddings of 0.5- to 1-m-thick medi-
um- to fine-grained black limestones (mudstones) with 0.3-m-thick, fetid bitumi-
nous limestones with black chert inclusions, dolomites, sandy limestones, and
fossiliferous limestones containing abundant gastropods and medium thick gray
shale layers. It is important to point out the existence of a 2- to 3-m-thick sedi-
mentary breccia with subangular limestone and chert fragments involved in a cal-
careous cement, concordant to the stratification, which is used as a guide layer.
The Santa limestones in the Huanzala area are shallow water rocks showing
oolitic tidal facies and dolomitization (internal platform environment).
There is remarkable evidence of volcanism based on the observation of tuf-
faceous limestones by Samaniego (1980) and by the presence in the mine area of
thin altered tuffs, particularly within the calcareous layers near manto 3 (Car-
rascal et al. 1983). This upper member hosts concordantly all the mantos.
4 Local Geology of the Huanzala Mine

In the Huanzala area the Lower Cretaceous sedimentary sequence crops out, built
up by quartzites of the Chimu Formation, sandstones and limestones of the Santa
Formation, and sandstones and quartzites of the Carhuaz Formation (Fig. 3).
This sequence is intensively folded, showing closed anticlines and synclines due
to the Andean orogeny.
The Huanzala mine is located in the eastern inverse limb of an inverted
syncline, whose axis trends N30-35°W, with 70°NE dip and SE plunge.
m.
S.ant.a
Carhuaz
I
Form~ lion
Form~t i on
(M>in put)
M-3
S,i.Otd
Fo rmat ion
M-3 {M.ain p.;ul)
= === Keybod ( M-3)
S~ntiil M-3P
Formation
(Lower P«rl)
~Chimu
Form.i.tion
I
1. [IT] 2 ~ 3. 0 4. t2j ~
5.~ 6. ~ 1. 8
8 . [{iiJ 9. Ci 10. 1.31111
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Santa Formation at the Huanzala mine, showing the distribution
of the mantos. (After Carrascal et al. 1983). 1 Quartzite; 2 shale; 3 sandstone; 4 limestone; 5 sandy
limestone; 6 dolomite; 7 calcareous breccia; 8 tuff; 9 fossil; 10 ore mineral (Fe-Pb-Zn)
5 Ore Occurrence and Distribution

As mentioned above, the mantas lie within the gray limestones of the upper Santa
Formation. Five mantas are defined, all of them stratabound (Fig. 2).
As lithostratigraphic guide are used 0.4- to 0.7-m-thick greenish gray shales
which are very useful as key beds for the exploration of the mantas. These shales
lie either to the hanging or to the footwall of the mantas.
The geometric setting of the mantas shows stratabound character at all obser-
vation scales. They are lens-shaped, 2 to 15 m thick, and extend 50 to 200 m in
ALBERTO HUANZALA HUANZA LA SUR

·- . . . - . . . .1000
- rn.
LEGEND
~ 2 o 3 1:59 • m s rn 6 6 1 [Z] a. ~
Fig. 3. Geologic map of the Huanzala mine. (After Saito et al. 1981). 1 Shale and quartzite (Chimu
Formation); 2 sandstone (lower Santa Formation); 3 limestone (upper Santa Formation); 4 shale and
quartzite (Carhuaz Formation); 5 granodioritic porphyry (Miocene); 6 ore lenses; 7 fault; 8 bedding
NW SE
JULIO CESAR RECUERDO RECUERDO SUR HUANZALA
"G - 4000
.c
•
.t. - 3800
- HOO
o s. rn
0 100 200 300 400 500 m.
r EJ 2. • 3. ~ 4. 6. !Zl
Fig. 4. Longitudinal section showing the distribution of the ore types in the manto 3, Huanzahi mine.
(After Carrascal1984). 1 Fe ore (pyrite); 2 Cu ore; 3 Pb-Zn ore; 4limestone; 5 granodioritic porphyry;
6 fault; A to P mining levels
their horizontal section, and 70 to 210 m in the vertical (Figs. 4, 5). They have a
discontinuous display in each stratigraphic level but on the whole they are recog-
nized along 8 km.
At decimeter to meter scale, the mantos show slumping and banded structures.
The ore lenses have been cut and displaced by two fault systems. The first, NW-
SE, consists of inverse faults that strike N60 ow with a dip of 60-70 ow and dis-
placements of 200 to 250m, the major of them being the lower faults 1 and 2.
The second system is subvertical conjugated faults, which strike N10° to 20 °E
with 45-50°N dip, and N70-80°E dipping to the south, displaced 30 to 50m
and 2 to 10 m respectively. The Recuerdo Fault corresponds to this system.
Later dacitic dyke sills and granodioritic stock-like intrusions were emplaced,
the ages of which lie between 7.7 to 9.2 million years, both corresponding to the
sw ~ NE
---\; :\\ \ ++ \
\+ + ;-\
\ t--t \
\ ... : -t :·· ·~-\

+ +
- " 000 ms_n.m
-F
+
+- -t++ /
+ T + .:;,_,
t-++
+ + +\
+ + + ...
-E
- 3900 ms.n.m.
- c
LEGEND
1. ETI 6 ~
2. ~ 7. D :- A
3. ~ 8. [TI] '- 3800m s.n.m
4. L§J g [ZJ
5. [IT] 10. [A]
0 50m.
Fig. 5. Geologic cross-section along the 280-295 line in the Huanzala mine. (After Carrascal 1984).
1 Fe ore (pyrite); 2 Cu ore; 3 Pb-Zn ore; 4 key bed; 5 calcareous breccia; 6 sandstone (lower Santa
Formation); ?limestone (upper Santa Formation); 8 granodioritic porphyry; 9 fault; 10 mining level
Miocene (Steward et al. 1974). These dyke sills intrude the Santa limestones, and
their thickness varies between 20 and 50 m; they are 1.5 to 2.5 km long with a ten-
dency to strike parallel to the stratification.
6 Ore Textures and Mineralogy

Ore minerals are present in three associations:
pyritic type,
- skarn type in calc-silicate gangue, and
- "shiroji" type, so named by the Japanese geologists, characterized by the
quartz-pyrite-sericite-kaolinite association.
In the pyritic type the ore minerals are reddish brown sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite; as microscopic inclusions pyrrhotite, stannite, fahlore, Bi-sulfosalts;
as gangue minerals associated to massive pyrite and arsenopyrite: dark silica and
quartz. Organic matter accompanying the other minerals has been observed. On
a macroscopic and microscopic scale the ore shows diagenetic sedimentary tex-
tures like geopetal features (Fig. 6), minor synsedimentary displacements, and fos-
sils filled by sulfides. Frequently, pyrite (in fine layers), sphalerite, and galena
rhythmites (Fig. 7) are observed. This type of association occurs mainly in the
northern part of the deposit (Recuerdo zone, mantos 1 and 3). Framboidal pyrite
within dark chert and two generations of pyrite with suturated grain borders were
also observed.
In the skarn type the ore minerals are reddish brown sphalerite, galena, chalco-
pyrite, pyrite; as gangue minerals occur calc-silicates like diopside, grossular,
wollastonite, and epidote. These minerals are found in rhythmites associated with
sulfides (Fig. 10A). These rhythmites are characterized by coarse grain size and
are probably produced by the skarn recrystallization and thus not identical with
those described above. This type is restricted to mantos 2 and 4 (Fig. 8) in the
HuanzaUt zone of the deposit. A tendency of the calc-silicates to replace the sul-
fides is observed.
d gn
0
8
0
d
~ Fig. 6. Geopetal feature: Load
100 /..( cast deformation of fine gale-
sp
na-sphalerite bands by a pyrite
crystal (Huanzahi)
Fig. 7. Pyrite, galena-sphalerite,

and sphalerite bands (Huanzala)
The "shiroji" type mineral association consists of black sphalerite, galena,

chalcopyrite, bornite, and pyrite as main ore minerals, pyrrhotite and fahlore as
microscopic inclusions, and comprises also rhythmites of pyrite, galena, and thin
layers of clay minerals (Fig. lOB). Convolute and slumping structures involving
the ore minerals are also typical for this ore type. It occurs in the mantos 1 and
3 in the Huanzala zone of the deposit (Figs. 5, 8).
Two types of sphalerite are observed, a reddish brown one (Fe-rich without
chalcopyrite inclusions) in the pyritic and skarn types, and a black type (Fe-poor,
containing many microscopic chalcopyrite inclusions) is found in the "shiroji"
type.
On a decimeter to meter scale the presence of black sphalerite in mantos 1, 2,
and 3 is remarkable; and the reddish brown one in mantos 3, 4, and 5. This distri-
bution reveals a stratigraphic control for the ore minerals and the rhythmitic char-
acter of its deposition.
7 Vertical and Lateral Distribution of the Ores

The ore-bearing discontinuous lens changes laterally to almost Pb-, Zn-, and Cu-
free massive pyrite or to oolitic limestones. The mantos have a zonal distribution:
Fe-Cu minerals in the middle part and Pb-Zn minerals in the outer part (Fig. 5),
as widely described by Sato and Saito (1977) and Carrascal et al. (1983). The in-
terpretation of the Zn-Pb values and the metallic ratio isocurves show a concen-
tric tendency in each ore lens. Especially, no vertical evolution of the metallic ratio
is observed as in the hydrothermal vein ore deposits.
8 Correlation of Stratabound Occurrences

Around the Huanzahi Area
The Pachapaqui mining district is located 10 km west of the Huanzala mine. In
this district are located several prospects with stratabound ores: Aida Unica,
0 10m
LEGEND
1 o 2. a 3. ~ 4. ~ s. F-01 6. m 1 §l
8 . [MJ 9. --;;:::-- 70. 1:81
Fig. 8. Geologic map of the mantos 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the Huanzahi mine showing the distribution of
the different ore mineral associations: pyritic, "shiroji" and skarn. D-level, line 200, Huanzala mine.
(After Carrascal et al. 1983). 1 Fe ore (pyrite); 2 Cu ore; 3 Pb-Zn ore; 4limestone; 5 granodioritic por-
phyry; 6 shale; 7 key bed; 8 manto; 9 tunnel; 10 shaft
Edgard Damaso, Patria, Esperanza, Ishanca, Otito. All are within the same Santa
Formation (Fig. 1).
Patria-Ishanca-Otito. The ore bed is flanked by dolomitic rocks interbedded with

chert and black shales rich in organic matter.
Esperanza. Stratigraphically the ores correspond to the same manto level of Patria
and are built up of fine alternating layers of dolomites, chert and black shales in-
terbedded with quartzitic sandstones. The mineralogy is similar to Patria, con-
m.
39
fv1a n to I ( Z n, Pb )
JS
fv1anto H (Zn.PbJ
JO
25 Ammonih
fv1anto G (Zn.PbJ
c: fv1anto F(Zn.PbJ
-~ 20
0 fv1antoE(Zn.Pb)
E
....
0 fv1anto D (Zn. Pb)
~
LEGEND
0 IS fv1anto C(Zn.PbJ
c:
0
<I)
1. 8
2. 1---1
fv1anto 8 (Fe.Zn.Pb)
10
3. ~
4. ~
fv1anto A (Fe.Zn.PbJ 5. ~
60
7. 1=::.-j
0
Chimu
B. l:iiiJ
....
Form ~t ion
I
9~
-
Fig. 9. Stratigraphic column of the lower Santa Formation at Aida Unka mine, showing the distribu-
tion of the mantas. (After Carrascal1988). I Tuff; 2 chert; 3 volcanic breccia; 4 dolomite; 51imestone;
6 graywacke; 7 shale; 8 ore lenses; 9 quartzite
sisting of sphalerite, galena, pyrite, and less chalcopyrite, that occurs as part of
the sandstone cement.
A fda Unica. Located in an inverted syncline of Andean trend. In this area the San-
ta Formation consists also of shallow water sediments with tidal-lagoon facies,
with graywackes, black shales, tuffs, chert, volcanic breccias, dolomites, and lime-
stones in fine layers (Fig. 9; Carrascal 1988).
The tuffs are lithic with a fine matrix and appear to be sericitized.
Fig. 10. Textures at the hand sample scale. A Pyrite-sphalerite-galena rhythmites in the skarn ore type
(Huanzaili). 8 Fine banding of pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and clay minerals in "shiroji" ore type
(Huanzahi). C Fine banding of pyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and dark chert (Aida Unica). D Dark
chert-sphalerite-galena-carbonates rhythmite (Aida Unica)
The nine mantos of Pb-Zn (Ag) are stratabound and lithostratigraphically con-
trolled (Fig. 9) and their concordance is recognizable at different observation
scales. The ore lenses are 40 to 50 m long, 10 to 20 m wide, and 0.5 to 1 m thick.
The most frequent textures of the sulfides are, massive fine-grained thin lamina-
tions (pyrite, sphalerite, galena) interbedded with dark chert and organic matter
(Fig. 10D), showing sedimentary-diagenetic textures like rhythmites and syn-
sedimentary deformations (Fig. 10 C). Microscopic geopetal features, framboidal
pyrite, sulfide-filled fossils and dark chert with sulfide and carbonate rhythmites
are observed.
The mineral content is pyrite, black sphalerite, galena, quartz, marcasite, cal-
cite, dolomite, and Ag-sulfosalts included in galena.
In the ore deposit the mantas located at the stratigraphic footwall are more
pyritic (Fe) and in upper levels the ores have a larger Zn-Pb content (Fig. 9).
The mantas are silicified and weakly argillized, both, the ores and the wallrocks
are affected by these alterations. These mantas are spatially associated with the
tuffs. In the mine area, intrusive outcrops are not found. The ore lenses are
folded, forming anticlines and synclines that involve wallrocks too, being later cut
off and displaced by two fault systems of the Incaic phase (40 million years), ac-
cording to the Andean tectonics. This tectonic activity has produced ore
metamorphism and recrystallization.
The mineralogical investigations of these prospects show typical synsedimen-
tary series and diagenetic textures. The metallic ratios of the stratabound mantas
are clearly different from the values expected in epigenetic veins. The stratabound
and stratiform character of the occurrences was recognized and reported by Diaz
(1975), Dunin-Borkowski (1975), Samaniego and Amstutz (1979), Samaniego
( 1980), and Carrascal ( 1988).
The evidence of distal volcanic activity in the Aida Unica mine is correlatable
with the observations at Patria-Ishanca-Otito and Esperanza. These occurrences
are also correlatable with the tuffaceous limestones and thin tuff levels of the
Huanzahi mine (Carrascal et al. 1983).
The tectonic activity is clearly superimposed on the ore deposition. Re-
mobilization and recrystallization in the mantas were probably produced by the
Incaic phase of the Andean tectonic events.
9 Ore Genesis
The authors consider an exhalative-sedimentary origin for the ore deposits in
Huanzahi and Pachapaqui. The most important arguments for this interpretation
could be resumed as follow:
1. The congruent character of the orebodies within the Santa Formation, and the
rhythmitic character of the ore deposition; especially the one observed in the
"shiroji" and pyritic ore types.
2. The zonal distribution of the ore minerals and mantas, which display a con-
centric zonation within each ore lens, and for the mantas as a whole (compris-
ing two or more lenses) with an increase in the Pb and Zn content toward the
NW border of the deposit and in Cu in the SE direction (Fig. 4).
3. The metallic ratios show a tendency to concentric curves in each ore lens. No
vertical evolution appears in the mentioned curves. The classical zoning for the
epigenetic hydrothermal ore deposits is not observed. The isocurve pattern cor-
responds to the theoretical models postulated by Barnes (1974) as typical for
stratabound ore deposits.
4. The lithological control for the ore deposition is similar to the "positive series"
of Routhier (1963) and Nicolini (1970).
5. A great number of mineral textures observed in Huanzala, like rhythmites,
synsedimentary gangue and ore mineral deformations, banded massive sulfide
accumulations, slumping and convolute plastic deformation, and tuff or tuf-
faceous material interbeddings reported by Samaniego (1982) and Carrascal
(1984), have been similarly described in the literature as typical of volcanic sed-
imentary ore deposits.
6. The tectonic structures crossing the mantas actually postdate the ore deposi-
tion and cannot be postulated as channels for hydrothermal solutions, as pro-
posed by the metasomatic theory.
7. The spatial distribution of the ore lenses maintains no genetic relation with the
dyke sills. Particularly in the skarn type, the calc-silicate levels have no spatial
and geometric relation with the contact between the dacitic dykes and the lime-
stone (Figs. 5, 8). In general, near it the intrusive is completely barren, and very
locally disseminated pyrite is found as contamination when it crosses the man-
tas (Carrascal et al. 1983; Carrascal 1984).
Furthermore, the presence of tuffs and tuffaceous limestones, the zonal distri-
bution of the ores, and the congruent geometric relations of the ore lenses with
the stratification suggest a volcanogenic (Samaniego 1980) or proximal exhalative
(Carrascal1984) origin for the mantas. The relative abundance of chalcopyrite in
Huanzahi and some ore deposits of the Pachapaqui district like Patria, lshanca,
and Otito are correlatable with a proximal volcanic activity during the sedimenta-
tion in this area of the Santa Formation (Samaniego 1982; Carrascal 1984); al-
though the poor presence up to date of volcanic interbeddings in the mine area
could support a more distal activity. The low Cu content in Aida Unica suggests
rather a distal volcanic activity, as postulated by Carrascal (1988).
The tuffs, tuffaceous limestones, and argillized tuff levels, and the recurrence
of the "shiroji" and skarn associations in space (in the various mantas) and time,
indicate a pulsatile supply mechanism of the metallic ions to the sedimentary ba-
sin. These processes occur in the present time in fumarolic or emergent volcanic
water fields (Carrascal1984). These mineral associations and the complex miner-
alogical composition indicate very different genetic conditions compared with the
Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits. The calc-silicates of the skarn zone evidence
temperatures of around 350 °C.
The volcanic activity (partially subaerial) in the Lower Cretaceous is probably
related to the faults that have controlled and limited the subsidence of the
Marafi.on Geanticline described by Megard (1973, 1978).
Sedimentological studies suggest that the ores were formed in tidal to
supratidal facies, but a detailed sequential analysis of the Santa limestones and
the paleogeographic reconstruction is lacking. Mineralogical, geochemical, and
isotopic investigations should also be done in order to determine the conditions
prevailing during deposition of the ores and their subsequent diagenetic evolu-
tion.
Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to the Santa Luisa (Huanzala) and Aida Unica mining
companies and their geologists for supplying maps, providing lodging quarters, and assisting in the
field. The support of our investigations by the Universidad Nacional de lngenieria is also gratefully
appreciated. Sincere thanks are due to Dr. M. Cardozo for discussions and critical reading of the
manuscript.
References
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Benavides V (1956) Cretaceous system in northern Peru. Am Mus Nat Hist Bull 108:252-494
Carrascal R (1984) El yacimiento estratoligado (Zn-Pb-Ag-Cu) de Huanzala, Huanuco-Peni. Con-
tribuci6n a Ia interpretaci6n mineralogenetica. Thsis Ing, Univ Nac Ing Lima, 145 p (unpublished)
Carrascal R (1988) Geologia del yacimiento estratoligado Aida Unica. VI Congr Peru Geol Lima. Bol
Soc Geol Peni 78:23- 34
Carrascal R, Saez J, Soler P (1983) El yacimiento estratoligado (Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag) de Huanzala,
(Huanuco, Peni Central): Discusi6n genetica. Bol Soc Geol Peni 71:1-16
Diaz N (1975) Geologia del distrito minero de Pachapaqui. Bol Soc Geol Peru 50:53-64
Dunin-Borkowski E (1975) Control litol6gico y estratigrafico en Ia ubicaci6n de los mantos con
sulfuros de metales no ferrosos en las capas calcareas del Peru central. Bol Soc Geol Peru
50:25-62
Fukahori Y, Aikawa K, Kawasaki M (1980) Geology and ore deposit of the Huanzala mine. Min Geol
Jpn 30:103-118
Horita A, Oikawa J, Thgami Y (1973) Geological features of the Huanzala ore deposits, Peru. Min
Geol 23:265-274
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Petersen U (1965) Regional geology and major ore deposits of Central Peru. Econ Geol 30:407-476
Routhier P (1963) Les gisements metallireres. Masson, Paris 2 vol., 1282 p
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214 p (unpublished)
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Stratabound Ore Deposits of Hualgayoc,
Cajamarca, Peru
S. CANCHAYA 1
1 Introduction
Hualgayoc is one of the typical "complex mining districts" of the Central Andes,
characterized by the influence of many superimposed geologic events and ore-
forming processes.
It has been worked since Spanish colonial times. Initially, Hualgayoc was fa-
mous for the silver ores which were extracted principally from the upper parts of
the ore deposits. The zones of oxidation and supergene enrichment of many de-
posits have already been removed by early mining.
With time, the production of the district became more polymetallic (zinc, lead,
and copper as well as silver). Many mines are being operated by several small com-
panies and some mining ventures of the "mediana mineria". There are up to five
flotation plants, with a total capacity of about 800 t/day.
Although this important mining district has been the object of a large number
of geologic studies by many geologists, we are far from understanding the origin
of many of its ore deposits, especially those of the stratabound type.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the geologic, mineralogic and geo-
metric characteristics of the stratabound ore deposits of this important district to
improve our understanding of the complicated geologic setting of the "mantos".
Hualgayoc is situated in northern Peru, at a height of between 3500 m and
2400 m, near, and on the east zone of the continental divide of the Cordillera Oc-
cidental.
2 Geologic Setting
The Hualgayoc District is characterized by the predominance of calcareous sedi-
ments (Fig. 1). The Goyllarisquizga Formation is the oldest stratigraphic unit in
the zone. It consists of sandstones with minor proportions of interlayered shales
and is overlain by a thick calcareous sequence, which is considered, on strati-
graphic and paleontologic grounds, to range from lower Albian to Turonian in
age. This sedimentary sequence was folded during Tertiary orogenesis into a series
of anticlines and synclines (Fig. 1). The folding of the area was accompanied by
faulting and fracturing.
1 Petromineralogia-INGEMMET, Pablo Bermudez 211, Lima 11, Peru

570 S. Canchaya
Fig. 1. Simplified geologic map of the Hualgayoc District. Diagrams: a Tectonic rosette. b Ca0-
Mg0-K20 diagram showing the magmatic differentiation trend. c AFM diagram showing the mag-
matic differentiation trend. Symbols: 1 Clastic sediments (Aptian); 2limestones (Albian to Turonian);
3 quartz-diorite porphyry; 4 granodioritic porphyry; 5 volcanic rocks; 6 siliceous outcrops; 7 faults;
8 anticline; 9 syncline. Principal mines: 1 Cleopatra; 2 Tres Mosqueteros; 3 Tres Amigos; 4 Firenze;
5 Bella Union; 6 Mechero; 7 Porcia, Predilecta; 8 Pozos Ricos; 9 Sta. Marta; 10 Los Negros; 11 El
Dorado; 12 Morocha; 13 Las Coloradas-Las Gordas; 14 Sinchao-Maria Eugenia; 15 Volare; 16 Con-
gas; 17 Proveedora; 18 Perene; 19 Caii6n; 20 Quijote; 21 Mario; 22 Colquirrumi; 23 Arp6n
Most of the axial planes of folds have an Andean strike direction (N 50 °W);
some regional faults also belong to this system (e. g., A pan Alto Fault); neverthe-
less, many other regional faults, especially those in the south zone of the district,
belong to another system with a N 25 ow general strike direction. Almost all of
the mineralized faults or fractures belong either to the Yanacancha System
(N70°-80°E) or to the Predilecta System (N 80°-90°W) (Fig. 1 a).
Volcanic rocks of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary age also crop out, especially
at the west side of the district (Fig. 2). The area has been intruded by a number
of stocks, sills, and dikes of basic to intermediate composition. Geochemical
studies indicate a calc-alkaline character with important proportions of alkalis
(Borredon 1982). There is a good correlation between K20 and Si02 amounts,
while between Na20 and Si02 the correlation is poor, which characterizes calc-
alkaline series of insular areas. A magmatic differentiation trend in direction of
a K20 enrichment is recognized in Hualgayoc (Fig. 1 b, c).
Borredon (1982) reports radiometric (K-Ar) ages of some igneous rocks of the
district. One sample from the Hualgayoc Intrusion gives 14.5±0.7 m.y., while an-
other from the Coymolache Intrusion results 11.8 ± 0.6 m.y. On lithologic and
structural grounds we could extend these ages to the San Miguel Intrusion. The
Stratabound Ore Deposits of Hualgayoc, Cajamarca, Peru 571
Palo de Fierro
volcanics
100m
[
0
Coymo l oche Intrusion
Yonacancha s I II
MANTOS :
BELLA UN I ON
{ LAS COLORADAS
ARPON
PILANCONES
LOLA CSTA . ROSAl

Aurelio
Si II
~ 2 ~3 D .. ·4
...~ •
~-
·- ~
. .. 5
r~ ' ·-· - ·~•• ~· r.7:~
~s f"<~~·~7
.O"',D: ~
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Hualgayoc District, showing the location of the principal mantos.
Symbols: 1 clastic sediments; 2 shales; 3 limestones; 4 granodioritic intrusion; 5 quartz-dioritic intru-
sion; 6 volcanic rocks; 7 moraines; colluvial and alluvial sediments
sills, which crop out in H ualgayoc river canyon, were dated as 10.5 ± 0.5 m.y. and
the rhyolitic to dacitic extrusion of the Hualgayoc hill as 7.2±0.4 m.y.
Field data suggest that Tanta Huatay Intrusion is younger than the other
stocks described, but older than the volcanic extrusion. Borredon (1982) estimates
the age of the vein mineralization and hydrothermal alteration to be between 10.5
and 7.2m.y.
Valley bottoms, depressions, and gentle slopes are capped by Pleistocene mo-
raines and more recent sediments.
On the basis of geometric and mineralogic characteristics, we can differentiate
four principal types of ore deposits in Hualgayoc (Table 1). Additionally, we have
Table 1. Principal types of ore deposits in Hualgayoc
VI
-..J
Type of deposit Host rock Principal characteristics Mineralogy Examples t->
Principal Accessory
Concordant
Fe-Zn-Pb mantos Lower Cretaceous - Ores in form of massive bodies, lens, Pyrite Chlorites Manto Lourdes
limestones, marls, accumulations (in general concordants) Quartz Sericite Manto Fatima
psammites and short veinlets and disseminated (including chert) Clay minerals Manto 1 (Mansita)
pelites with some - Ore frequently associated with thin lay- Sphalerite Chalcopyrite Firenze (Pilancones)
interlayered tuffs er tuffs Galena Marcasite Mantos 8-W, 10-W
Usually fine-grained minerals Carbonate Pyrrhotite (Bella Union)
Presence of sedimentary textures in- Other Fe-sulfides Hematite Manto Arp6n
volving both ore and country rock Magnetite Manto Las Coloradas
Hydrothermal alteration of host rock Arsenopyrite
very weak or absent Barite
Discordant etc.
Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag veins Lower Cretaceous - Complex mineralogy and coarse-grained Chalcopyrite Cu-Ag-Pb-As-Sb San Agustin
pelites, minerals Pyrite sulfosalts Murcielago
psammites, - Strong hydrothermal alteration of host Galena Carbonates Proveedora (Predilecta)
limestones and rocks Sphalerite Covellite "A" and "Z" (Bella Uni6n)
Tertiary igneous - Copper minerals relatively abundant Quartz Limonites Many veins in Cerros Jesus
rocks - Replacement textures Barite Cu-Fe-sulfates and San Lorenzo
Calcite
Fahlore
Fe-Cu-Ag-As Cretaceous - Occur only in high topographic zones Pyrite Chalcopyrite Cleopatra
Irregular ore bodies limestones and - Intensive hydrothermal alteration of Quartz Fahlore Tres Mosqueteros
intrusions host rocks Enargite Alunite Tres Amigos
Coarse-grained minerals Clays
Located at the contact between Sericite
limestones and intrusions
Zn-Pb Intrakarstic Lower Cretaceous - Irregular and tabular ore bodies (veins Sphalerite Chert Caft6n
bodies limestones and and mantos, intergranular and in- Galena Barite Mario rn
(")
marls terstitial fillings) Carbonates Limonites Porcia
Simple mineralogy Pyrite ()
Clays Pozos Ricos "'::r::s
Host rock alteration absent Marcasite Mn-oxides
Principal textures: botryoidal, banding, ~
massive, dendritic, earthy, graphic, breccia
Table 2. Principal types of "Mantos" in Hualgayoc Cll
...
~
Type Host rock Principal characteristics Mineralogy Examples ~
0
Principal Accessory p..

"=
0
Sphalerite Sericite Manto La Argolla (I
Sphalerite-galena Limestone and Ores in form of massive bodies, lens,
mantos marls accumulations (usually concordant), Galena Clay minerals Manto 8-W (Bella Union) 0
short veinlets, and disseminated Carbonate Arsenopyrite Firenze (Pilancones) "'0
Organic matter and chert, lens-like, Quartz (including Marcasite
"'"'
~·
concretion and veinlets chert) Hematite 0....,
Generally minerals occur fine-grained Pyrite Pyrrhotite
Chalcopyrite
:r:
Hydrothermal alteration of host rocks
very weak or absent (rare) "
~
Presence of sedimentary textures in- ~.P
volving both ore and country rocks
(j
Simple mineralogy
~-
Pyrite-quartz Limestones and - Ores frequently associated with tuff Quartz Chalcopyrite Manto 10-W (Bella Union)
I))
mantos marls with in- beds Pyrite Sphalerite Mercedes
s
....
n
terlayered tuffs Hydrothermal alteration of host rocks Galena Morocha ~
petites and very weak of absent Fahlore Manto 1 (Mansita) ;p
....
psammites Massive ores, in part finely stratified Calcite Lola
Usually sedimentary textures are Enargite "
obliterated by massive ores
Simple mineralogy
Complex mantos Psammites, - Complex mineralogy Alternatively: Chalcopyrite Manto Lourdes
pelites and marls - Ores in form of massive bodies, Pyrite Sphalerite Manto Fatima
with interlayered lenses, veinlets, accumulations, and Quartz (including Pyrrhotite Lola
tuffs disseminated chert) Arsenopyrite Arpon
Presence of sedimentary textures in- Carbonate, other Hematite
volving both ore and country rock Fe-sulfides Cu-Ag-Pb-As-Sb-
Signs of remobilization and metamor- Chlorites or sulfosalts
phism sericite Magnetite
Possible superposition of other Marcasite
mineralization events (karstic, Colusite
hydrothermal) Barite v.
_,
w
574 S. Canchaya
to mention some stockwork-type bodies at the mines Las Gordas and Colorada
(Tumiahin et al. 1976) and Cerro Corona (Hudson et al. 1980). Some diamond
drillings carried out in 1920 by the Northern Peru Mining and Smelting Company
in the Thnta Huatay Intrusion suggest the presence of a low-grade porphyry cop-
per deposit (Ericksen et al. 1956).
At the boundary between the quartz-dioritic intrusions and the limestones on-
ly insignificant zones of alteration developed. By contrast, the limestones in con-
tact with granodioritic intrusions are more altered (silicification and marmoriza-
tion) and occasionally have built up small skarn zones.
3 Description of the Mantos

3.1 Introduction
Mantos of the Hualgayoc District may be divided into three types on the basis
of differing mineral assemblages (Thble 2):
Sphalerite-galena mantos,
- Pyrite-quartz mantos,
- Complex mantos.
Almost all of the mantos in Hualgayoc are hosted by Albian sediments: Inca,
Chulec, and Pariatambo Formations (Fig. 2). The Inca Formation consists of in-
terbedded brownish gray, brown-weathering, arenaceous and ferruginous lime-
stones and yellowish to greenish brown, finely splintery, fossiliferous shales, with
subordinate amounts of quartz-sandstone and siltstone (Benavides-Caceres
1956). It rests disconformably on the shales and sands of the Goyllarisquizga For-
mation, the contact being more or less gradational. This formation represents the
lowest deposit of the marine Albian transgression. It was deposited under shallow
marine conditions. The abundance and diversity of fossils, including "lingula"
and crabs, indicate a nearshore environment.
The Chulec Formation is composed of light-colored argilaceous limestones,
sandstones, and fine-bedded intercalations of carbonates. This unit is very fossili-
ferous. It is considered to be of early-middle Albian age. Its lithology and fauna
suggest that it was deposited in shallow marine conditions.
Lithologically, the Pariatambo Formation is composed of fossiliferous, platy,
slabby, dark gray, bituminous marls and limestones, with some intercalations of
chert. Based on fossil content, this formation has confidently been assigned to
the middle Albian. It rests on the Chulec Formation and represents the culmina-
tion of the marine overlap that began sometime during the Aptian. The Pariatam-
bo Formation grades quickly into the nodular thick-bedded limestones and marls
of the Yumagual Formation, which is the lower member of the Pulluicana Group.
The Upper Cretaceous Groups, Pulluicana, Quilquifian and Otuzco, in general
consist of a monotonous sequence of thick limestone layers (see Fig. 3). Some
mantos could be localized at the basis of the Pulluicana Group.
NW SE
3500 m.
3490
3480
c~py chalcopyrite-
1~1 fahlore
PY pyr ite
qftl\e</mml
..
'""'' mOf'ltmori tlonite
qlr quart:r
, ••ricite
I ph sphalerite
Fig. 3. Cross-section and mineralogy of the pyrite-quartz mantos in Bella Union Mine. 1 Manto; 2 ore
body; 3 vein; 4 fault; 5 tuffs. (After Canchaya 1982, 1987)
3.2 Sphalerite-Galena Mantos
A typical example of this type of manto is the "8-W", recognized at sublevel 1 of

the Bella Union Mine (Canchaya 1987). It is disrupted by faults and its bottom
is not visible; however, we can estimate its thickness to be about 1.5 m. Figure 5 A
shows important geometric feature of this manto.
Some hundreds of meters farther to the north of the village of Pilancones, the
Pb-Zn manto Firenze crops out. This manto shows, better than others, how both
ores and gangue minerals display the same sedimentary and diagenetic textures
(Fig. 5 D). Pyrite framboids, which occur scattered in organic matter, form, by a
subsequent blastesis process, usually cubic coarser pyrite crystals.
At the southeast zone of the district there is a persistent and continuous man-
to: La Argolla, which is found in Los Negros and Santa Marta Mines. It has a
thickness of about 1 m. This manto occurs in a sequence of sandstones with inter-
calations of pyritized shales, overlying a thick dioritic porphyritic sill. Metallic
contents in this manto average 190 g/t Ag, 9% Pb, 80Jo Zn, and traces of Cu (Sir-
na 1976).
576 S. Canchaya
3.3 Pyrite-Quartz Mantos
These mantos are composed essentially of pyrite and quartz with no substantial
amounts of sphalerite and galena. Usually the top of these mantos are drastically
limited by a thin bed of tuff (Fig. 3). Sometimes, toward both, the bottom and
the roof of the mantos, there is a transition from massive and disseminated sul-
fides to a barren rock. This is the case of the pyritic mantos cut by some diamond
drills at Mansita and Lola Mines.
Mineable parts of Manto 10-W average 135 g/t silver, 1.50Jo copper and a thick-
ness of 1.5 m (Ocola 1978). Medina (1972) reports different values: 270 g/t silver,
2% copper and a thickness of 2.5 m. In this manto occur minor amounts of inter-
stitial chalcopyrite, containing traces of fahlore and other sulfosalts (Fig. 3).
Sometimes pyrrhotite prevails instead of pyrite (v. gr. 88.5 m and 89 m of DOH
Lola, Fig. 4); in this case, the wall rock is rather pelitic than psammitic.
Paredes (1980) gives an account of six pyrite-quartz mantos in the Morocha
Mine, with average contents of 1000 ppm Pb, 300 ppm Zn, and 500 ppm Cu. Can-
chaya (1987) also reports other mantos in the Bella Union Mine, which consist
almost completely of pyrite and quartz, with minor quantities of chalcopyrite
(Manto 12-W), and sometimes also local occurrences of chalcanthite and
melanterite (Manto 12-E) and others (Mantos 11, 11 W, 11 E).
Sample HY-20 Sample HY-23

Drill hole Lola qt:t
Borre don (1982) koo Heated at
Glyc oloited 600"C
Ch i
koo
Or ient ed
mount
Nor ma l
kao
•o
sph
No rma l
Fig. 4. Mineralogy and textures of the mantos of Lola Mine. Abbreviations: Chi Clorite; gn galena;
kao kaolinite; qtz quartz; sph sphalerite. The symbols are the same as in Fig. 2. In cores: sulfides are
black; psammitic-pelitic components and chert are white
3.4 Complex Mantos
Some mantos show more complex mineralogy and lateral lithological variations.
One of the most typical ones is the Lola Manto (or Santa Rosa), which occurs some
meters below the Mercedes Sill (Fig. 2), intruded approximately at the limit between
the Chulec and the Inca Formation. Some sedimentary textures are especially fre-
quent in this manto; for instance: cockade arrangements with magnetite cores and
successive irregular shells of pyrite-marcasite, sphalerite-galena and interstitial
kaolinite (Fig. 5B); sample HY-15 shows a typical geopetal texture and a fair con-
cordance of the sulfides with the geometrical features of the rock (Fig. 5 E).
Pyrite is the most frequent iron sulfide, but pyrrhotite and marcasite are also
found. In general, when pyrrhotite predominates, the principal gangue is chlorite
(sample HY-23, Fig. 4).
Figure 4 shows two diffraction patterns of samples HY-20 and HY-23 from this
manto. In both cases iron sulfides were eliminated before the analysis, to avoid
iron fluorescence. Sample HY-23 was glycolated to confirm the presence of
chlorite. An oriented mount of sample HY-23 was heated to 600°C to prove the
presence of kaolinite. X-ray fluorescence analysis of two samples from this manto,
reported by P. Soler (pers. commun.) gives the following values:
a) 100Jo Zn, 2% Pb, 30% Fe, 8% Si02 , 2% Al 20 3, 89 g/t Ag
b) 2% Zn, 0.8% Pb, 14% Fe, 51% Si0 2 , 5% Al20 3, 22 g/t Ag.
Another important example of this type of complex mantos is the Fatima
Manto. It crops out on the southern side of Hualgayoc River with a maximum
thickness of about 8 m. This manto also shows lateral facies variation in lithology
and mineralogy, which is clearly reflected by the chemical analysis. The following
X-ray fluorescence values were provided by P. Soler:
a) 4% Zn, 24% Pb, 20% Fe, 0.2% CaO, 11% Si0 2 and 3.5% Al 20 3
b) 0.2% Zn, 0.4% Pb, 5% Fe, 19% CaO, 30% Si02 and 7% Al20 3
c) 0.7% Zn, 0.2% Pb, 16% Fe, 0.7% CaO, 42% Si02 and 5.5% Al 20 3
The copper content is rarely above 1%. Silver occurs only in some tens of gram
per ton. Gold values of primary ores are less than 1 gram per ton. The persistent
occurrence of barite in small quantities is remarkable. It forms millimetric tabular
crystals, which present a parallel alignment with the bedding, or as more or less
rose-shaped aggregates of individuals. Some barite crystals were diagenetically
deformed (Fig. 5F). Sphalerite presents a beautiful yellow-orange UV-fluores-
cence color, similar to that of the sphalerites from 8-W and 10-W mantos in Bella
Union.
Another important complex orebody is the Lourdes Manto, which also crops
out on the southern side of the Hualgayoc River, but is stratigraphically below
the Fatima Manto. It was found along an extension of more than 300 m, covering
the mining concessions of El Dorado, Centinela and Cufla. The thickness of this
manto is relatively persistent and averages 1.5 m.
X-ray fluorescence analysis of a sample from this manto collected by P. Soler
gives: 7% Zn, 2.4% Pb, 2% Cu, 17% Fe, 64 g/t Ag, 33% Si02 , 0.04% Ba, and
1.5% Al 20 3•
At the contact with the Hualgayoc intrusive, in Cerro Jose, skarn and meta-
morphic facies were developed, affecting restricted zones of both, sediments and
578 S. Canchaya
mantas. Ores in mantas were seemingly remobilized and reconcentrated;

chalcopyrite shows lamellar twins and star-shaped exsolutions of sphalerite;
mackinawite inclusions are recognized in pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Outcrops of the mantas and sills are intensively oxidized and rich in quartz and
clays. Here gold and silver have been concentrated to economic values by selective
weathering.
3.5 Other Mantos
There are many other mantas in Hualgayoc, which are not described here due to
lack of information. This is the case for the Manto 328 (Colquirrumi Mine), Tor-
namesa, and Don Paco Mantas (Bella Union Mine), and several outcrops in
Canon, San Francisco and Santa Marta Mines. Especially important is the Manto
Arp6n (Carolina Mine), which was enriched in silver at the intersection with
cross-cutting veins. The silica-rich mantas Las Coloradas and Las Gordas, located
in the center of the district, have economic values of gold and silver in their oxi-
dized zones. In both mines, on the top of the mantas a centimeter-thick friable
tuff is recognized, similar to the bounding tuffs of pyrite-quartz mantas previous-
ly described.
4 Discussion
The spatial relation of some mantas with intrusive rocks led Ericksen et al.
(1956), Canchaya and Tumiahin (1976), Thmiahin and Martinez (1977), Paredes
(1979), Hudson et al. (1980), and Cabos (1981, 1982), to the opinion that these
deposits originated by metasomatic replacement of favorable sedimentary hori-
zons.
Fig. 5. A Manto 8-W; sample sn-45 M. Millimetric alternance of sulfides (short veinlets and linear ac-
cumulations) and gangue minerals (microgranular aggregates of quartz-sericite and chert). Sphalerite:
colorless to light gray; galena: black areas and bright white dots; quartz-sericite assemblages: different
shades of gray; chert (ch): white areas. B Manto Lola; sample HY-21. Cockade-like texture: magnetite
cores surrounded by successive shells of quartz-pyrite {I), pyrite-marcasite (2), and sphalerite-galena
(3), with interstitial kaolinite (4). C Thin section from lithic fragments of the tuff bed on the roof of
Manto 10-W; sample Tl. Radial aggregate of phillipsite (ph) crystals in a matrix composed by jarosite
(jar), glass (g) and some opaque minerals (o). Left in the picture quartz (qtz) grains aggregate with
interstitial sericite (ser). D Manto Firenze, sample MTP. Microgranular quartz-pyrite aggregate (3)
with pyritic accumulations (4) disrupted by stylolites (2) and cut by sphalerite-galena veinlets {1). The
fragments of the intraformational breccia (5) are composed of microgranular qtz-py aggregates, ce-
mented by sphalerite-galena and limonites. E Manto Lola; sample HY-15. Load texture: subhedral py-
rite grain sinking down into underlying material, whose lamination was partially deformed. Sub-
parallel alignment of linear accumulations or lenses of pyrite (light gray), quartz-sericite assemblages
(different shades of gray), organic components (black) and clays (white). F Manto Fatima; sample
HD-4. Barite (bar) crystal diagenetically deformed by load of another overlying tabular crystal of
barite. The matrix consists of a microgranular aggregate of organic matter (black), quartz-sericite
clays aggregate (light gray) and sphalerite (gray). The larger barite crystal shows undulatory extinction
580 S. Canchaya
Cobbing et al. (1981) are of the same opinion, although they consider the
possibility of a syngenetic origin of these mantos. According to Gabelman (1976)
the mantos of Hualgayoc formed under mesothermal conditions. These inter-
pretations contradict the mineralogy and texture of these mantos; besides this,
there is no direct relationship between these deposits and the hydrothermal
veins.
At the present state of knowledge, it is not possible to give a fully satisfactory
interpretation of the geologic setting and genesis of the Hualgayoc mantos. How-
ever, we can reject the earlier purely epigenetic interpretations.
Mineralogic microscopic studies show equilibrium intergrowth patterns be-
tween sulfides, quartz, sericite, chlorites, carbonates, clays and other associated
minerals. All components are usually fine-grained; only occasionally are they
coarse-grained, probably due to thermal metamorphism, which is the case for the
mantos at the contact with the Hualgayoc intrusive (northern parts of mantos Lo-
la, Lourdes, Fatima, etc.).
Within the sphalerite-galena mantos organic matter is frequently recognized.
Under the microscope this material appears isotropic and with low reflectance.
That is, it consists of a more or less consolidated bitumen-like hydrocarbon mat-
ter, which could not have been influenced by any high temperature or pressure,
since an increase in degree of coalification (by metamorphism) and consequently
the increment of reflectance and anisotropy of the bitumina is not observed.
Field relations, beside mineralogic and petrographic characteristics, resumed
here, support a syngenetic interpretation for the origin of these mantos, which
could have been formed during sedimentary processes of Albian age, in some way
associated with volcanic activity. A detailed discussion of the interpretation of
many sedimentary features in the ore horizons can be found in Canchaya ( 1987).
A close association of many Hualgayoc mantos (especially of the quartz-pyrite
mantos) with volcanic layers, their mineralogy (in particular the presence of
quartz, common sulfides, clays, sericite, chlorites, barite, hematite-bearing cherts,
and zeolites originated by devitrification) support the hypothesis of an exhalative
sedimentary origin of these stratabound ores. According to Carpenter ( 1976) iron
oxide-chert assemblages can be found in submarine muds up to 200 km far away
from volcanic centers, which could be located, in our case, along the eugeosyn-
cline zone. It is also important to note the occurrence of phillipsite within the tuff
layers bounding the pyrite-quartz mantos in Bella Union. In general this type of
zeolite occurs in submarine environments under low temperature and low pressure
conditions, usually originated by conversion of glassy components into crystalline
fractions after solidification (Boles 1981).
There is a regional stratigraphical correlation between the Albian sedimentary
formations of Hualgayoc (miogeosyncline) and the Lomas and Lancones Groups,
farther to the west (eugeosyncline).
Following Plimer's concepts (1978), Hualgayoc mantos could be classified as
"distal deposits", and according to Amstutz's scheme (1976) as krypto- or tele-
volcanic deposits. Similar contemporaneous deposits are found in other localities
in Peru (Canchaya 1987), that could support a regional distribution of this type
of stratabound deposits. Unfortunately these occurrences are less known and a
stratigraphic correlation is as yet uncertain.
There are also important stratabound deposits within the eugeosynclinal belt,
which could be correlated in time with the Albian mantos of Hualgayoc. For ex-
ample: Thmbogrande, Potrobayo, and Totoral in north Peru, and Raul, Con-
destable, Los leas, Leonila-Graciela, Balducho, and Budeku in central Peru.
Five years ago, when the author reported the first results of this study at the
Mineralogic-Petrographic Institute Heidelberg, Professor Amstutz, commenting
about the Hualgayoc mantos, was of the opinion that they could be "a new link
of the chain" of stratabound deposits in Peru. Additional studies will reveal
whether we have a new metallotect with synsedimentary ores, as already defined
in limestones of the Pucara Group (Triassic-Jurassic) and the Santa Formation
(Lower Cretaceous).
Acknowledgments. The research grants received from CONCYTEC and the facilities provided by IN-
GEMMET and the Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria in Lima during different stages of study in
Hualgayoc are gratefully acknowledged. F. Soto provided many interesting samples and information
from Los Mantos, Lola and Mansita Mines. I also wish to thank M. Lacotera for help with the idiom-
atic correction of the manuscript, and C. Reategui for typing this text. Finally, I am especially grateful
to my wife Charo for her comprehension, affection, and untiring support.
References
Amstutz GC (1976) Aus der Arbeit der Universitllts-Institute. Lagerstllttenforschung am Mineralo-

gisch-Petrographischen Institut (1. Lehrstuhl). Heidelberger Jb 20:169-184
Benavides-Caceres V (1956) Cretaceous system in Northern Peru. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 108:353-494
Boles JR (1981) Zeolites in deep-sea sediments. In: Mumpton FA (ed) Mineralogy and Geology of nat-
ural Zeolites. Book Crafters, Michigan, pp 137-163
Borredon R (1982) Etude geologique et metallogenique du district minier de Hualgayoc (Perou septen-
trional) a plomb-zinc-cuivre argent. These Dr. 3 Cycle, Univ Paris
Cabos R (1981) Las asociaciones mineralogicas de Ia Mina Bella Uni6n (Hualgayoc). Determinaciones
microscopicas y analisis mediante microsonda. Bol Soc Geol Peru 68:1-12
Cabos R (1982) Estudios microsc6picos, roentgenograficos y mediante microsonda de las asociaciones
mineralogicas en el distrito minero de Hualgayoc, Cajamarca-Peru. Bol Soc Geol Peru 69:1-17
Canchaya S (1982) Mineralogia y genesis de los depositos de Cu-Ag-Pb y Zn de Ia Mina Bella Union,
Hualgayoc-Cajamarca. XVI ConIng Minas, Lima-Peru (Nov 1982), 18 p
Canchaya S (1987) Lagerstilttenkundlich-mineralogische Untersuchungen der Cu-Ag-Zn-Pb Lager-
stiltte ,Bella Uni6n", Hualgayoc - Peru. Diplomarbeit, Univ Heidelberg, 144 p
Canchaya S, Thmialan PH (1976) Controles de mineralizacion en Ia mina Bella Uni6n, Hualgayoc-
Cajamarca. XIII ConIng Minas, Arequipa-Peru (Sep 1976), 9 p
Carpenter R (1976) Cursillo sobre exploracion, desarrollo y evaluacion de propiedades mineras. Copia
int INGEMMET (unpublished)
Cobbing EJ, Pitcher W, Wilson J, Baldock J, Thylor W, McCourt W, Snelling NJ (1981) Estudio
geologico de Ia Cordillera Occidental del norte del Peru. Bol Inst Geol Min Met, Ser D, Estuds
Especs 10, 252 p
Ericksen GE, Iberico M, Petersen U (1956) Geologia del distrito minero de Hualgayoc, departamento
de Cajamarca. Bol Inst Nac Invest Fomento Min 15, 99 p
Gabelman JW (1976) Strata-bound ore deposits and metallotectonics. In: Wolf KH (ed) Handbook
of strata-bound and stratiform ore deposits, Vol. 4. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 75-163
Hudson C, Cabos R, Cuadros P (1980) Informe geologico Minas Punto Victoria Seis y Canon -
Hualgayoc. Rep Priv Bella Union Minas SA Thcnominas SRL, 49 p
Medina J (1972) Informe tecnico sobre las minas "Punta Victoria Seis" y "Bella Union", Hualgayoc-
Cajamarca. Inf Int Bco Min Peru, 19 p
582 S. Canchaya
Ocola P (1978) Informe tecnico de la unidad economica y administrativa "Bella Union"; minas:
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32 p
Paredes J (1979) Estudio geologico del distrito minero de Hualgayoc. Inf Int BRGM Lima, 80 p
Paredes J (1980) Reconnaissance geologique, geochimique et metallogenique du domaine minier de
Hualgayoc, Department de Cajamarca. Rap Mission Coop Thch BRGM - Bco Min Peru, 92 p
Plimer IR (1978) Proximal and distal stratabound ore deposits. Min Deposita 13:345-353
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Nac lng, Lima-Peru, 48 p
Thmialan PH, Martinez JC (1977) Geologia economica de lamina Pozos Ricos. An II Simp Nac Min,
Ayacucho-Peru, 8 p
Thmialan PH, Rivera D, Martinez P (1976) Mineralizacion de los yacimientos Las Gordas y Colorada,
Hualgayoc-Cajamarca. An. XIII Con lng Minas, Arequipa Peru, Secc 1-5, 3 p
Geology of Iscaycruz Ore Deposits
in the Santa Formation, Central Peru
G. FLORES
1 Introduction
Iscaycruz is the largest new mineral deposit of an important group of base metal
deposits in the Andes of central Peru (Bellido 1969; Samaniego and Amstutz
1979). The information presented in this chapter is based on the results of a re-
gional prospecting and detailed exploration program by the Instituto Geologico
Minero y Metalurgico of Peru and the Metal Mining Agency of Japan on the
Oyon zone, located 150 km north of Lima (Fig. 1). It is located in the western
Cordillera range at 4800 m above sea level.
The Iscaycruz deposit (Limpe area) is a massive stratabound zinc-lead deposit
situated within a sequence of calcareous sedimentary rocks. In this regard it bears
similarities to a variety of deposits, such as the Huanzahi Mine (see Carrascal and
Saez, this Vol.), central Peru. Ore reserves calculated on the Limpe sector are as
follows: 3 50000 mt with > 180Jo Zn, 2.6% Pb, 78 g/t Ag, 0.16% Cu, the geologic
potential of the entire area is unknown but must be over 1000000 mt.
In the 1950's, Chupa Mine, situated on the Iscaycruz area, was explored by
means of tunnels by the Cerro de Pasco Corporation. In 1968 under a joint IGS/
SGM program, electromagnetic prospecting was carried out in the area (Evans and
Greenwood 1968). Several anomalies were delineated along the Santa calcareous
Formation. In 1979, geologic and geochemical surveys were carried out in the Oyon
region, covering 860 km 2 as a first stage of regional prospecting (Fig. 1). Since
1980-1981, geophysical prospecting and preliminary drilling exploration and addi-
tional detailed geologic mapping have been carried out in the Iscaycruz area, con-
sidered as an important target where high grade lead-zinc mineralization was found.
A detailed exploration program was planned in the Limpe area (central part
of Iscaycruz), in order to confirm economic ore reserves, including a combination
of tunneling and underground drilling in addition to the surface drilling. This
program was performed from 1982 to 1984. In total, from 1980 to 1984, 2032 m
of tunneling and 6782 m of diamond drillings were developed.
In 1985-86 a pre-feasibility study was conducted. All evaluation programs,
from regional stage to pre-feasibility level were executed under Technical Interna-
tional Cooperation between the Governments of Japan and Peru, through the Ja-
pan International Cooperation Agency (Jica, the Metal Mining Agency of Japan
MMAJ, 1980, 1984), and the Peruvian Instituto Geologico Minero and Metal-
urgico (INGEMMET, Ponzoni 1980, Flores 1985).
1 Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico, Jr. Pablo Bermudez 211, Jesus Maria, Lima, Peru

F. Fontbote, G. C. Amstutz, M. Cardozo,
584 G. Flores
0 50 100
~b3
3C~E3E:c==d~~~====~l
KILOM E T ER S
Fig. 1. Index map of Iscaycruz area
The recent discovery of the Iscaycruz ore deposit is a good example proving
that the combination of exploration tools is particularly important in discovering
blind orebodies.
2 Regional Geologic Setting

The Oyon region is situated in the Cretaceous sedimentary basin (Cobbing 1973)
and in the folding-thrusting zone (Wilson 1963) of the Western Andes. In this re-
gion, thick Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are widely distributed. The lower part
is composed mainly of clastic rocks including siliceous sandstones and shales, the
upper part of calcareous rocks with dolostones and shales, and the uppermost
part of red bed formation.
The clastic rocks are divided into the Oy6n, Chimu, Santa, Carhuaz, and Far-
rat Formations, the calcareous rocks into Pariahuanca, Chulec, Pariatambo,
Jumasha, Celendin, and the uppermost red bed Casapalca Formation (Table 1).
All these sequences are unconformably covered by the Calipuy volcanics of Ter-
Geology of Iscaycruz Ore Deposits in the Santa Formation, Central Peru 585
Table 1. Stratigraphy
Cretaceous sedimentary formations
Upper calcareous part

Calipuy Mainly andesitic lava, tuff breccia, and agglomerate; the thickness ranges from 900 to
1000m
Casapalca Red conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and limestone; thickness more than 1000 m
Celendin Yell ow to brown marlstone, carries thin limestone; thickness about 200 m
Jumasha Gray massive limestone and marlstone; thickness about 150m
Pariatambo Thin alternation of limestone, marlstone and shale; thickness about 150m
Chulec Consists of pale brownish marlstone; thickness about 200 m
Pariahuanca Massive limestone; thickness 80- 100 m
Lower clastic part
Farrat Light color siliceous sandstone in the lower part and calcareous sandstone in the upper
part; thickness 100- 120 m
Carhuaz Alternation of sandstone and shale and subordinate thin beds of limestone; thickness
500 to BOOm
Santa Fine stratified gray limestone associated with sandy limestone and marlstone,
dolostone, and nodules of chert; thickness 100 to 150m
Chimu White fine- to medium-grained siliceous sandstone, some intercalated sandy shale;
thickness 600 to 700 m
Oyon Dark gray sandstone, carries coal beds
tiary age and are intruded by tonalites, granodiorites, dacites, granite porphyry,
etc.
The investigated area is situated in a zone of folding and faulting whose main
trend is NNW-SSE; most of the folds are symmetric, dips are moderate, but in
some areas steep. The intensity of folding varies greatly within fairly short dis-
tances. The faulting is of two kinds: longitudinal faults of reverse type and trans-
verse wrench conjugates. All these structures were developed in the main period
of deformation, the "Incaic Phase", of the Andean orogeny.
Calipuy undivided volcanic rocks of the Tertiary cover unconformably the sedi-
mentary formations, and consist mainly of andesite, dacite, and rhyolite in the form
of lavas and pyroclastics. The lithology is not uniform, there are great variations
horizontally and vertically. Andesitic and dacitic tuffs and andesite lava are the
most abundant. The volcanic rocks are lightly folded, contrasting with the strongly
folded Cretaceous sediments. The apparent thickness may be near to 3000 m. The
isotopic age of andesitic lava measured by the K-Ar method is 17.9±0.9m.y.
Many igneous bodies from granite to diorite in composition in the form of
stocks and subvolcanic dykes intrude both Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic
Tertiary rocks. Stocks of tonalite intruding into the Cretaceous sediments occur
north and northeast of Churin. The tonalite is medium to coarse-grained,
holocrystalline, contains biotite and hornblende phenocrysts, and has a granular
texture. In the surrounding rocks marble, hornfels, and skarn have been formed.
The K-Ar isotopic age determined on the biotite, gives 10.6±0.5 and 10.9±5m.y.
in two individual samples. Tonalite porphyry intrudes the Cretaceous sediments
to the west of Chiuchin. This rock is fine- to medium-grained and has plagioclase
phenocrysts. Hornblende and biotite are also observed.
586 G. Flores
Igneous Activities Age

lOy
2
Pliocene 10
An desire lava
Miocene (17.9±0.9my) 20
Tertiary Oligocene 30
1 - -- -1 Volcanics group
of Cal i puy 40
Eocene
50
65
80
Cretacerus ., 100
.,
~
"'~" 120
Clastic
9roup
.,
Q..
140
... 160
Jurassic ·~
"
<::>
180
a
Fig. 2. a Schematic correlation of igneous activity sedimentary and volcanic rocks
Dacite porphyry occurs 1 km west of the Iscaycruz mineralized zone, and con-
sists of sets of dykes. The rocks have a porphyritic texture and carry phenocrysts
of prismatic plagioclase, prismatic hornblende, and biotite. The groundmass is
aphanitic with silicification and impregnations of pyrite. Weak silicification and
kaolinization are observed in the surrounding rocks. The K-Ar age is 31.3 ±
1.6 m.y. Outcrops of dykes of porphyry, dacite, rhyolite, and granite porphyry are
found. The porphyry and dacite bear phenocrysts of hornblende, both rocks are
distributed in the Iscaycruz and Tapu areas (Fig. 2 a shows schematic correlation
of igneous activity sedimentary and volcanic rocks).
Mineralization of the lscaycruz area extends discontinuously along 12 km dis-
tance. Mineralization in this area occurs in calcareous rocks of the Santa Forma-
tion, which constituted the west wing of an anticline whose axial part consists of
the Oy6n and Chimu arenaceous Formations (Fig. 3).
Surface signs of mineralization consist of black gossan containing Pb and Zn,
galena and sphalerite in massive pyrite bodies, sphalerite concentration within
skarn, and dissemination of galena and sphalerite in dolostone. Talus and glacial
LEGEND
~ Reverse Fault
..=t:r- Wref'lch Fault
.J...-.r Normal
---Transverse Faults
+ ... Microfolds
~------------~------------~b
L l M P E AREA
STRUCTURAL MAP
0 50 100 150 200
METERS
Fig. 2. b Limpe area. Structural map
materials are widely distributed, covering the surface where gossan outcrops are
exposed intermittently.
3 Local Geology
In the Limpe area, the Santa Formation consists of an intercalation of calcareni-
tes, shales, limestones, and bioclastic limestones. The measured thickness is 75 m,
it extends long and narrow in NNW-SSE direction in contact with a steep cliff of
Chimu quartzite Formation to the east and with Carhuaz thin beds of limestone
Formation to the west. The dip of the Santa Formation is almost vertical.
The mineralized Limpe area is located on the western flank of the anticline,
which is overturned to the west and plunges to the northwest (Fig. 2b). The area
is affected by a longitudinal reserve fault which strikes N 15 ° W and dips 80 ° east,
it changes to strike N 10 o E and N 30 o E. It is considered a reverse sinistral fault.
588 G. Flores
L EY E H 0 A
~ To lui
~ Ova ternary
~ Juma1.ha Format ion
~ PQr ia t a m bo Formation
~ C~ulec FormCltion
~ Pariohuanca Formation
[·.:.:.·.. ·.-,, Far rot For motion
1-=----..:-J Corhuat Formation
!j!·:·.'·.:J Santa Formation
~ Chimu Formation
to:,."-.:.,.j
,,
Oyon Formation
CSJ Acidic lntru' i"e

Gossan outcrops, and mo5IS py
structure
Zinc ore deposit
Fig. 3. Geologic map of Iscaycruz area (scale approx. 1/45000)

There are also other transverse wrench faults (sinistral), which strike N 80 o W,
other wrench dextral faults strike N20° E. On the Santa Formation there are two
structural zones: one of them situated north of Cumbre de Limpe, showing fold-
ing affected by transverse faults, the other, less deformed, situated south of Cum-
bre de Limpe.
4 Ore Occurrences
Surface manifestations of mineralization are exposed discontinuously for about

13 km along the Santa Formation, from the north, Cumbre de Iscaycruz, to the
south, Antapampa (Fig. 3).
_There are some differences between the ore occurrences: in the Cumbre de
Iscaycruz until Quellaycocha, there is massive gossan of black to dark brown col-
or mainly composed of quartz and limonite with minor amounts of goethite and
hematite and in some places network-type gossan and disseminations in
dolostone; there are also small bodies of massive pyrite. On the Cumbre de Ruan-
da (central part-Limpe) layers of gossan with oxidized sphalerite, some galena and
chalcopyrite, whereas south of Cumbre de Ruanda, massive fine-grained, com-
pact pyrite is found. In the Tinyag area, skarn alteration minerals, actinolite, gar-
net, epidote, and magnetite occur. Chupa Mine is a contact metasomatic deposit
in the Pariahuanca limestone, with high-grade Zn (> 150fo Zn), and finally at the
southernmost Antapampa, iron minerals, manganese, and quartz.
5 The Limpe Area
Drilling and tunneling have confirmed high-grade zinc-lead-pyrite orebodies con-

cealed widely in the Limpe area. High-grade zinc constitutes the main orebody
which is composed mainly of sphalerite, associated with quartz, chlorite and
siderite as gangue minerals. Sphalerite has replaced the brecciated wall rocks and
is found to have precipitated in spaces in an brecciated ore mass, associated with
pyrite and galena (Figs. 4, 5, 6).
The main ore minerals are coarse-grained sphalerite and subordinate, coarse-
grained galena. Some galena is included in pyrite. Copper minerals are
chalcopyrite, bornite, covellite, enargite, stannite, and colusite. Argentite and can-
fieldite are also oberved. Further, arsenopyrite, hematite, and pyrrhotite from part
of the ore mineral association. Gangue minerals are quartz, calcite, dolomite, with
subordinate siderite, sericite, chlorite, and talc.
Two main ore types are recognized. The richest one (grade 40-50% Zn) con-
tains greenish dark gray sphalerite with chalcopyrite in exsolution lamellae. The
second ore type consists of dark brown sphalerite and dots and aggregates of py-
rite and galena. The ore grade reaches up to 30-40% Zn. In addition, yellow-pale
brown iron-poor sphalerite occurs in fine veinlets and disseminations. Pyrite is
commonly partly replaced by sphalerite, except in veinlets, where pyrite is
euhedral and occurs associated with sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and galena.
590 G. Flores
\ Chimu Formation
\Santo Formation
Corhuos Formation
\ .
··\·:
. . ::·.·
. .
\ \ : .... ..
\"'
\'
\
\
\
~·;\ c: \
<n ~\
<n
\
\
\
\
\ \
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
LIM PE AREA
GEOLOGICAL SECllON FOR D.D.H.5 S70°W-N70°E
•
ABBREVIATION LEGEND
Sh Shale Hiqh grade ore
Ss Sandstone ~ Low grade ore
Ml Marl / ......
;'///,U
,/
Pyrite
Ls Limestone ~-~
~~
Sheared zone
Do Dolostone •• Brecciated zone
Ry Rhyolite
~ Bedding
Gs Gossen
0 50 lOOm .
Fig.4. Limpe area. Geological section for D.D.H. 5 S70° W-N70° E (+Abbreviations - on fig.)
"'0 ..."'v_
0 "'0
"'
,<i"'
v
.,<i 0
;;;
e'aoa,B40N
L-_ __ ___ __~_ _ _ __ ____._,___, a'aoa,Gao N

LIMPE AREA
UNDERGROUND PLANE MAP
LEVEL 4690
g EAST, WEST ORE BODIES
0 50 Fig. 5. Limpe area. Underground
ME T ERS place map, level 4690
6 The lscaycruz Mineralized Zone -

Structures, Alteration and Mineralization
Mineralization in this area occurs in calcareous rocks of the Santa Formation.
This formation constitutes one wing of folded sedimentary rocks, the thickness
of which varies in the mining area from 40 to 80 m. Throughout the mineralized
zones in the Limpe area, Cunsha Punta area, and Chupa ore deposits, the host
formation is overturned, and the lower unit of the Chimu Formation is distribut-
ed in the apparent hanging wall side.
In the Iscaycruz area, shear faults and fractures are densely developed in ENE-
WSW direction, which is diagonal to the folding axis. Mineralization in the Chu-
pa ore deposit is strongly controlled by the diagonal fracture system. The fractures
are considered to be important as channel ways of the ore solution and also as
the place of precipitation of the ore minerals. The fracture, as well as NNE-SSE
faults, may affect extension of the mineralized zone.
Dacite porphyry intrudes as stock at about 1 km west of the Cumbre Iscaycruz.
This rock is weakly altered and the alteration in the surrounding limestone is also
592 G. Flores
L I MPE AREA
CROSS SECTION ILLUSTRAT!NG THE STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION
AND POSITION OF THE ORE BODIES( I) WITHIN THE SEQUENCE
A _ Limestone and shales

B - Rudites
C-E-0 - Limestone, dolomites, shales
F - Bioclastic limestone
I-H-G - Calcarenites, dolomites shales
Fig. 6. Limpe area. Cross-section illustrating the stratigraphic succession and position of the orebodies
(black) within the sequence (+Abbreviations - on fig.)
faint. Thus the post-ore intrusion may not be related to the mineralization. An
andesitic porphyry dyke is recognized in this area.
East of Cumbre de Cunsha Punta, in the Oy6n and Chimu Formations, more
than ten dykes of acidic composition are present. These dykes themselves and the
intruded wall rocks are both intensely altered hydrothermally. The alteration min-
erals are quartz, sericite, and pyrophyllite. Pyrite and limonite are disseminated
in the altered rocks. Brecciation is seen at margins of these dykes. Breccia dykes
or veins are formed in some places. The dykes are distributed sporadically in the
entire Iscaycruz area along the anticlinal axis, and in the Cumbre of Limpe area
they intrude the Santa Formation.
Host rocks of the known mineralized zones are limestones of the Santa Forma-
tion with tuffaceous siltstone and shale intercalations. The limestone in this area
appears to be clay-rich, as compared with limestone in the other areas. It is not
clear, however, if this character is due to the original impure nature or to later al-
teration such as silicification, dolomitization, and sideritization.
To the north of Cumbre de Cunsha Punta, skarn occurs with disseminated
chalcopyrite and sphalerite. In the massive sulfide orebody recognized to the
north of Cumbre de Limpe, a large amount of pyrite any pyrrhotite replaces lime-
stone. Surrounding wall rocks are silicified, sericitized, sideritized, and dolom-
itized.
r -,
I '
\I \ ',lscay Cruz {Disoem inated deposits(gn·sf)
in manganiferous siderite
\ \ '
~ ~
I \
N.
I \'\,
· r
\
&,_1 Outlloy_cocho
'e Lake
11 /~-,
, { Massi .. stra tabound <leposits
1\1 ' L i mpe of sf- gn; massiYI pyrite
\ \ with gn-sf disseminated II
.
\ I
' I
'~ lt-- Jinyag
f
/
'J
'\ {Skarn deposits
Chupa ~ Ill \ Cun\sh punta Cpy, sf • mag, Py, Pyrr
\ II \
\ I
",
' 1\ I
.... _'((
' ', \ roisseminated dtpasits(gn-sf
', Antapampa'tin manganiferous siderite
\ I
0 2 Km ' .... _ ..../
Fig, 7. Iscaycruz area, mineral zonation
In the vicinity of Cumbre de lscaycruz, silicified siderite is seen widely and is

disseminated with galena and sphalerite. The surrounding rocks of shale and
madstone have disseminated pyrite. Brecciation of the host rocks is characteristic
in the high grade part. Prominent alterations related to the mineralization are
sideritization and silicification. Chemically, iron, manganese, and silica are add-
ed. This addition is considered to be due to hydrothermal alteration.
The mineralization tends to occur along the Santa Formation for about 12 km
in length, and concentration of the ore minerals is sporadic within this horizon.
However, an overall view indicates a regional zonation of the ore minerals. At the
north of Cumbre de Cunsha Punta, which is close to the center of acidic igneous
activities, skarn deposits are present (Chupa, Tinya) containing chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, magnetite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. To the north and south flanks of this
mineralized zone, around Cumbre de Limpe and to the south of Cumbre de Cun-
sha Punta, massive sulfide orebodies were formed. These are massive ferriferous
sphalerite orebodies, and massive pyrite and pyrrhotite orebodies with galena and
disseminated sphalerite. At outer zones, such as Cumbre de Iscaycruz (north area)
and Antapampa (south area), only galena and sphalerite are disseminated in a
manganiferous siderite mass.
This lateral variation in mineralization and in kind of ore minerals is consid-
ered to be a result of a series of mineralizing solutions brought up from the acidic
igneous center. According to a ternary diagram of copper, lead, and zinc, the
594 G. Flores
Cumbre of Iscaycruz area constitutes a Pb-Zn-rich outer zone. The Limpe area
is a Zn-Pb-Cu intermediate zone, the Antapampa area and the Chupa Mine ap-
pear to be a transitional zone of the two zones mentioned above, and finally the
Cunsha Punta area including Tinyag is characterized by a high-copper inner zone.
This zonation of the ore metals may be attributed to evolution of the ore solution
and different physicochemical conditions than occurred in the Santa Formation
during formation of the minerals (Fig. 7).
Acknowledgments. This chapter is published with the permission of the management of the Instituto
Geologico Minero y Metahirgico. The material used in this paper was extracted from internal reports
extended by my own personal observations as a member of the exploration team. The manuscript has
profited from reviews by I. S. Parrish. Special thanks are due to L. M. Villanueva for manuscript typ-
ing and S. Sandoval for preparing drawings.
References
Bellido BE (1969) Sinopsis de Ia geologia del Peru. Bol Serv Geol Min Peru 22, 57 p
Carrascal R, Saez J Stratabound polymetallic ore deposits of the Santa Metallotect in the Huanzahi
and Pachapaqui mining areas in Central Peru. This Vol, pp 555-568
Cobbing J (1973) Geologia de los cuadrangulos de Barranca, Ambar, Oyon, Huacho, Huaral y Canta.
Bol Serv Min Peru 26, 172 p
Evans RB, Greenwood PG (1968) Electromagnetic survey for metalliferous mineral deposits in selected
areas of Central Peru. Inst Geol Surv Lond 39, 29 p
Flores G (1985) Exploracion y geologia del deposito mineral de Iscaycruz. Rep Tech Int INGEMMET
Imai H, Kawasaki M, Yamaguchi M, Th.kahashi M (1985) Mineralization and paragenesis of the Huan-
zala mine, Central Peru. Econ Geol 80:461-478
Metal Mining Agency of Japan and Japan International Cooperation Agency (1980) Report on geo-
logical survey of the Oyon area
Metal Mining Agency of Japan and Japan International Cooperation Agency (1984) Report on geolo-
gical survey of the Iscay Cruz area
Ponzoni SE (1980) Metalogenesis del Peru. Int Rep INGEMMET
Samaniego A, Amstutz GC (1979) Yacimientos estratoligados de Pb, Zn, (Ag, Cu) en el Cretaceo Inf
del Peru central. Bol Soc geol Peru 62:159- 171
Wilson JJ (1963) Cretaceous stratigraphy of Central Andes of Peru. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull
47:1-34
Vanadiferous Occurrences in the Pariatambo Formation
and at Sincos, Central Peru
C. CANEPA 1
1 Pariatambo Formation - Vanadiferous Asphaltite Deposits
At the outcrops of the Pariatambo Formation (middle west Albian) over the axis
of the Cordillera and towards the eastern slopes of these in a well-defined belt that
includes the departments of Junin and Lima y Pasco, numerous vanadiferous
asphaltite occurrences are known. In such areas the Pariatambo Formation com-
prises a sequence of limestones, calcareous shales, and bituminous shales (from
dark gray to red in color) with a predominance of the former. This sequence is
intensively folded and faulted, with its structural axis predominantly oriented
NW-SE. The asphaltite occurs interbedded with the shales and, on rare occasions,
also with the limestones, forming the so-called veins which stretch out for 20 km
or more. Such veins are really a succession of lenses, varying from 0.1 to 7 m wide,
the maximum known length of a lens being approximately 150 m. The veins are
not only confined to one bedding plane, but they also break through from one
to another; some veins fill two or three contiguous bedding planes separated by
single layers of shales 5 to 30 em thick.
The asphaltite is black, lustrous, and softer than ordinary bituminous coal,
lacking the banded structure common to the latter. It breaks clean from the walls,
although the adjoining rock often contains a large amount of carbonaceous mat-
ter. At some deposits it is possible to observe how the asphaltite impregnates the
walls or fills small veins perpendicular to the bedding planes.
There are more than 40 registered occurrences of middle Albian asphaltites
(Romero 1915; Hernandez 1954) but the best-known areas containing abundant
and thick asphaltite veins are Quispe, Marcapomacocha, Yauli, and Sillapata.
Some of them have been explored since the beginning of the century (Torrico and
Meza 1894; Hewett 1909; Broggi 1920). The vanadium is not present as a specific
mineral, but is probably associated with hydrocarbons contained in the asphaltite,
as a dissolved colloidal sulphide. A cross-section of the Minas Ragra deposit was
published by Amstutz (1959, Fig. 6). This location is also the type locality of the
mineral bravoite. Table 1 shows some analyses of asphaltite samples from differ-
ent localities of central Peru. Despite the variations in ash content, one can ob-
serve a certain regularity in the vanadium content. Those values indicate that the
asphaltite veins of central Peru, which probably amount to some millions of met-
ric tons of potential reserves, average almost 0.90Jo V20 5 and represent a big
1 Universidad Nacional de lngenieria, Lima, Peru

596 C. Canepa
Table 1. Analyses of asphaltite samples from various Middle Albian deposits in central Peru
Locality Moisture Volatile Free Ash V20s V20 5 fl/o

(fl/o) matter (fl/o) carbon (fl/o) (fl/o) in ash
Llacsacocha a 0.98 9.41 84.45 5.16 0.68 13.1

Llacsacocha a 1.50 9.84 86.52 2.14 1.32 61.7
Llacsacocha a 0.52 8.26 90.58 0.54 0.49 77.5
Rumichacaa 7.83 49.02 31.15 12.00 0.28 2.3
Rumichaca 8 0.32 11.16 85.02 3.50 0.94 27.0
Quispe (near Minas Ragra)a 3.62 48.59 44.28 3.51 0.54 16.4
Laipicocha b 1.78 12.84 74.50 10.90 1.86 18.79
Huamanripa b 18.79 24.73 35.97 20.51 0.89 4.32
Antacotob 19.48 22.92 29.90 27.70 0.53 1.91
Llacsacocha 8 7.33 1.06 14.5
(average of four tunnels)
a Deposits of the Yauli district; analyses after Hewett (1909).

b Deposits of the Marcapomacocha region; analyses after Broggi (1920).
vanadium concentration at world level. Accordingly to some authors (Hernandez

1973), there are good possibilities for the metallurgical recovery of the vanadium
contained within the asphaltites.
2 Vanadium in the Pucara Metallotect-Vanadiferous

Occurrences at Sincos
The Aramachay Formation is well exposed near to Sincos, Province of Jauja, lati-
tude 11 o 55'S and longitude 75 ° 20'W, between 3700 and 4400 m above sea level.
The Aramachay Formation, considered Early Jurassic in age, Hettangian in part
to middle Sinemurian (Szekely and Grose 1972), is the middle formation of the
Pucara Group and was named by Megard (1968); it is essentially composed of
black bituminous shale with chert and phosphatic mudstone and limestone in the
upper part. A measured section of the type locality indicates a thickness of 408 m
(Szekely and Grose 1972); one 18-m-thick zone in this locality (generally known
as Sincos) is abnormally high in vanadium and selenium content and has been
repeatedly mentioned in the literature (Romero 1915; Baragwanath 1921; Schaller
1924; Larson and Welker 1947; Grose 1961; Szekely and Grose 1972).
The following description of the Sincos occurrence is taken from a report of
Gragg Richardson (quoted in Schaller 1924): The vanadium-bearing shales occur
as a syncline with a general strike of N 50 °W, they are both overlain and underlain
by limestone. The lower limestone carries nodules of chert, limonite, and calcite,
but no fossils.
The shales are generally sandy and friable with variable amounts of carbona-
ceous material, varying in color from gray or light yellow to black. Thin beds of
what appears to be volcanic ash are rather frequent in the shales, but generally un-
der 0.02 m in thickness. They also occur in the lower part of the upper limestone.
Vanadiferous Occurrences in the Pariatambo Formation and at Sincos, Central Peru 597
Ammonites are plentiful throughout the black shales, whether carbonaceous

or not, reaching a diameter up to 0.2 m. A basic dyke 6- 8 m wide occurs at a
point approximately 5 km to the SE, cutting both the shales and underlying lime-
stone with strike N 30 °W.
Vanadium occurs extensively in the shales, and samples yield assays of
0.15"7o- 0.20"7o V. One recognized mineral phase is sincosite [monoclinic, CaYr
(P04h(OH) 4 • 3H20], which occurs as emerald-green to brass-yellow micaceous
scales, rectangular in outline. The scales tend to radial arrangements along bed-
ding and joint planes, with fossils in the black shales. At one place, a 0.3-m-wide
bed of black powdery carbonaceous material contains rich vanadium-bearing
spherules and crystals of sincosite. The nodules average 1-2 em in thickness and
are fairly round, occurring either isolated or as coherent groupings of two, three
or even more.
References
Amstutz GC (1959) Syngenetic zoning in ore deposits. Proc Geol Assoc Can 11, pp 95-114 (Fig. 6)
Baragwanath J (1921) The vanadiferous asphaltites of central Peru. Eng Min J 19:778-781
Broggi J (1920) Estudio sobre algunos yacimientos de asfaltita de Ia regi6n de Marcapomacocha. lnf
Mem Cuerpo lng Minas Aguas, Lima XXII (7):235-253
Grose L (1961) Geology of the vanadiferous, seleniferous and phosphatic rocks of the Sincos region,
Peru. Comp Min Mantaro, Lima (privat report)
Hernandez S (1954) El vanadio en el Peru. Mineria 5:19-32, 6:31-50, 8:21-22, 9:23-29
Hernandez S (1973) Desarrollo de Ia producci6n de vanadio en el Peru. Mineria 117:116-124,
118:154-172
Hewett F (1909) Vanadium deposits in Peru. Trans Am Inst Min Eng, pp 274-299
Larson CB, Welker KK (1947) Vanadium resources of Peru. US Bur Mines, Min Trade Notes, Spec
Suppl 16
Megard F (1968) Geologia del cuadrangulo de Huancayo. Serv Geol Min Bol Lima 18
Romero CL (1915) Algo sobre asfaltitas vanadiferas. InfMem Soc lng Peru, Vol XVII (4-6):203-217
Schaller W (1924) The occurrences and properties of sincosite, a new vanadium mineral from Sincos,
Peru. Am J Sci, 5th Ser VIII (48):462-480
Szekely T, Grose L (1972) Stratigraphy of the carbonate, black shale and phosphate of the Pucara
Group (Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic), Central Andes, Peru. Geol Soc Am Bull 83:407-428
Thrrico Y, Mesa J (1894) Vanadio en los carbones peruanos de Yauli. Bol Min Ind, Construe, Lima
Afto X, XII:89-93
The Barite and Celestite Metallotects
of the Neuquen Retroarc Basin,
Central Argentina
V. A. RAMOS 1 and M. K. DE BRODTKORB 2
1 Introduction
The main celestite and barite metallotects of the Andes are presently known in
the Neuquen basin, developed along the retroarc side of the Andean Chain
(Fig. 1). The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the geologic and tectonic
controls that encompass the stratabound celestite and barite deposits in this large
area. The geologic framework will be briefly described in order to understand the
precise setting of the metallotects analyzed, as well as the main characteristics of
the more important deposits.
2 The Geologic Framework

2.1 Neuquen Basin
This is a typical retroarc foreland ensialic basin developed east of the Main Cor-
dillera between 36 and 39 o S. The sedimentary sequence comprises three impor-
tant cycles: Cuyano (Early Jurassic), Chacayan-Lotenian (Middle to Late Juras-
sic), and Mendocian (Tithonian to Neocomian) (Graeber 1953). These cycles have
a common pattern of lateral variation from alluvial facies to the east, to marine
platform, slope and basinal facies toward the west (Gulisano et al. 1984a, b). As
the edge of the slope migrated to the east, the depocenters were also shifted to
the east, indicating a continuous subsidence in an extensional regime during most
of the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous time (Ramos 1988). The subsidence of the basin
was thermally controlled and produced an important attenuation of the crust.
The basin was filled by thousands of meters of Mesozoic sediments, which record
no deformation until the Middle Cretaceous. Erosional unconformities separate
the different cycles.
The western border of the basin is not exposed. It was documented only during
the Valanginian when provenance of conglomeratic facies were recorded from the
west (Burckhardt 1900). A tectonic contact with Late Paleozoic basement, obliter-
ate primary relations between the western border and the basinal facies.
Molassic continental deposits accumulated during the Late Cretaceous, when
the basin was filled by 1300 m of red beds and conglomerates of the Neuquen
1 Universidad Buenos Aires, Departamento Ciencias Geol6gicas, Ciudad Universitaria (1428), Buenos
Aires, Argentina
2 Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas, Paso 258, 1640 Martinez, Argentina

600 V. A. Ramos and M. K. de Brodtkorb
30°
NEUQUEN BASIN
f *
Occurrences of
celest ite ond
bari te ores
t 0
7777 Basin border
}
.........._ Platform edge
II II
.. I
Volcan 1c ore
II
~ Propossed
A' subduct ion
!.
t
t
--t 1o•
0 IOOkm
Fig. 1. Tectonic setting of the barite and celestite metallotects of the Neuquen basin, indicating the
principal tectonic units during the deposition of the three phases (1, 2, 3) of celestite mineralization
(Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous). A Forearc area; B magmatic arc; C outline of the retroarc Neu-
quen Basin with the migration of the platform edges and dominant provenance of the clastic material
(after Ramos 1985; Mpodozis and Ramos 1985 and 1989)
group (Cazau and Uliana 1973). At the end of the Cretaceous, the area was cov-
ered by shallow marine marls, calcarenites, and thin limestones, which represent
the first Atlantic transgression at these latitudes. The Cenozoic is composed of
thick alluvial fan and fluvial deposits which covered most of the extra-Andean re-
gion.
The structural evolution of the Neuquen embayment began with the first de-
formation recorded between the Early Cretaceous and the deposition of the Neu-
The Barite and Celestite Metallotects of the Neuquen Retroarc Basin, Central Argentina 601
quen group deposits. A fold-thrust belt was developed, and as a consequence of

the tectonic loading, the Neuquen group foredeep was formed. Subsequent short-
ening at the end of the Eocene and during the Middle Miocene was responsible
for the present structure of the basin (Ramos 1978). This is characterized by a se-
ries of east-verging folds and related thrusts, which developed a complex thrust-
front with duplexes and underthrusts. This front bounds to the east with an area
of gentle folds, where most of the present oil fields are in production.
The basin is split by a conspicuous wrench fault (Huincul fault) which has
been intermittently active since the Middle Cretaceous, developing a series of
flower structures (Ploszkiewicz et al. 1984).
2.2 The Magmatic Arc
A fundamental feature of the magmatic arc west of the Neuquen embayment is

the absence of major volcanic or intrusive Mesozoic rocks in the Coastal Range.
The magmatic activity was concentrated along the Principal Cordillera. The dif-
ferent Mesozoic arcs were stationary, without migration through time. East of the
arc was developed the wide ensialic and asymmetric foreland basin (Neuquen ba-
sin) as an embayment of the Principal Cordillera.
Along the main axis of the Cordillera, outcrops of Late Paleozoic granitoids
and sedimentary sequences are intruded south of Temuco (38 °S), by Jurassic
(200-160 m. y., Rb/Sr) and Cretaceous (90 m. y., Rb/Sr) granodioritic stocks
(Mpodozis and Ramos 1989). Some scarce roof pendants composed by andesites
have been assigned to the Cretaceous (Curarrehue Formation).
East of the main Andean axis a calc-alkaline suite of andesitic to dacitic rocks
is poorly exposed below extensive covers of younger volcanics. Even so, along the
western border of the Neuquen basin, it is possible to rebuild a volcanic arc of
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age. The Mesozoic volcanics are composed by
andesites and dacites interfingered with the westernmost sedimentary sequences.
2.3 Geologic Setting of the Celestite and Barite
As was previously discussed by Ramos and Brodtkorb ( 1989), the main barite and
celestite metallotects are linked to the climax of the regressions of the Cuyano
(Early-Middle Jurassic), Lotenian (Late Jurassic) and Mendocian (Early Creta-
ceous) cycles of sedimentation. These cycles are controlled by tectonoeustatic sea
level changes such as those described by Mitchum and Uliana (1986). The precipi-
tation of celestite and barite shows a striking coincidence with those periods of
important lowstands (1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 1).
It is important to bear in mind that during this long period no shortening or
tectonic uplift took place in the Cordilleran side of the basin. The subsidence was
controlled by thermotectonic mechanisms in a tensional regime. This regime was
controlled by the early break-up phases of Western Gondwanaland fragmenta-
tion. As a result of this, a sedimentary pile up to 6 km thick filled the basin, de-
posited during a high heat flow period.
The tectonic evolution was characterized by no significant relief during the ac-
cumulation of the celestite. The provenance of the material was mainly from the
foreland, where a stable craton was only slightly eroded. Source rocks consist
mainly of medium grade metamorphic and plutonic rocks. The influx of volcanic
debris to the basin was limited to the westernmost border, as testified by the ab-
sence of ash falls, tuffs, and other volcanic materials.
The increased volcanism noted in the active margin during the rift and drift
stages has contributed to the isolation of the Pacific transgression and the devel-
opment of restricted circulation in the basin. This favored the sedimentation of
thick piles of evaporites, such as gypsum, which is closely associated with the
celestite deposits. The tectonic setting of such environments is depicted in Fig. 2.
The accumulation of celestite in this tectonic environment was thus mainly
controlled by restrictions of the seawater influx to the basin, related to tectono-
eustatic sea level changes.
This environment controlled the deposition of the primary beds of celestite in
typical stratiform ores related to the evaporitic facies. On the other hand, the same
facies controlled the precipitation of the barite beds, although the barium concen-
tration was probably not only derived from the seawater. The active volcanism of
the magmatic arc might be responsible for the local barium enrichment of the
seawater. The section of Fig. 2 shows the closer proximity of the barite deposits to
the magmatic arc, zonation which is clearly depicted in the Huitrin Formation. The
deposits of celestite of that unit are always toward the east of the barite deposits.
Important tectonism took place soon after the deposition of the Huitrin For-
mation occurrences. Strong deformation folded and thrust not only the sedimen-
- ~()<..(,
()~~~'(,<>~' N E U 0 U E N 8 A S I N
CH ILE - -ARGENT I NA
intra: ore I ) barite ores celestite ores
bas1n )
. X
+ +
+ + +
L ATE JU RASSIC - EAR LY CRE TACEO US

TECTONI C SETTI NG
Fig. 2. Schematic cross-section of the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous tectonic setting of the Neu-
quen Basin indicating the celestite and barite occurrences
tary sequences, but the ore beds. This stage was responsible for important migra-
tion and relocation in fractures and folds of some of the previous stratiform
celestite and barite beds, such as the stratabound San Jose and Julieta prospects,
of the Pichi Neuquen River area (Brodtkorb et al. 1975).
3 The Metallotects
The celestite and barite deposits of the Neuquen basin are associated with near-
shore facies and hosted in three different stratigraphic units: the Tabanos, Au-
70°
~ • BARITE AND CE LESTITE

META LLOTECTS
REFERENCIAS
17 Son Ed uo rdo
16 Dalne
15 Naunauco
14 Balsa Hu itrln IJIT1J
13 Continental Huitrfn
Form.
12 Cerro Sa I ado
II Cerro Partido
-
10 Bajada del Agrio
9 La Salida
8 Lulhemo- Monteagudo
7 Compadrilo
6 Isidore Auqu ilco
5 Llao- Llao Form .
4 Mallon Quemado
3 Cuchillo Cure
2 L oncopu~
I Arroyo Nuevo
] ~.
Form .
Fig. 3. Location of the main barite and celestite metallotects of the Neuquen Basin, Argentina
quilco, and Huitrin Formations. The Loncoque barite ore field and the Cuchillo
Cura celestite district belong to the Tabanos Formations. The Mallin Quemado,
Isidora, and Compadrito barite deposits and the Llao Llao, Luthema,
Monteagudo, and La Salida celestite ores are related to the Auquilco Formation.
In a similar way, several important celestite deposits are emplaced in the Huitrin
Formation, such as the Naunauco, Continental, Balsa de Huitrin, Bajada del
Agrio, Cerro Salado, and Cerro, described by Brodtkorb et al. (1975, 1989). Al-
though only celestite ores were described until now associated with the Huitrin
Formation, recently some barite occurrences have been located in this unit, such
as the Colipilli and Dafne Mines, west of the Sierra de Churriaca (Fig. 3).
One exception to this relationship with nearshore facies is the Arroyo Nuevo
deposit, which is emplaced in the black shales of the Los Molles Formation, close
to the base of the Los Tabanos Formation.
These deposits have been sporadically mined for the least 40 years, generally
in a rudimentary form, producing more than 300000 tons of mineral.
4 Metallotects Related to the Cuyano Subcycle

4.1 Arroyo Nuevo Mine
This deposit is the largest in the area studied. It is located south of the town of
Andacollo (Fig. 3), and has been mined during the last 20 years. The deposit con-
sists of a barite layer intercalated in shales of the Los Molles Formation, which
underlies the evaporitic deposits of the Tabanos Formation. The barite bed is
faulted and intruded by a swarm of andesitic dykes. The barite is grayish white,
mostly coarse-grained, and has a tabular habit. Some fine-grained barite is com-
monly intercalated with abundant chloritic and clay materials together with some
lenses of limestones, presenting schlierig-cloudy and phacoidal textures. The
thickness of the barite layer ranges from 1.5 to 5 m. This deposit is mined under-
ground by chamber and pillar techniques, and has more than 2000 m of mine-
works.
The barite ore composition ranges from 92.00Jo to 99.01% of BaS04 and
0.01% to 0.07% of SrS04 •
4.2 Loncopue District
The Loncopue district is composed of two groups of barite occurrences, one 7 km

east and another to the northeast of the town of Loncopue The stratiform
deposits are related to the Tabanos Formation, whereas the associated veins are
emplaced in the overlying Lotena Formation, as well as in the underlying Las La-
jas Formation.
The Tabanos Formation is mainly composed of algal limestones, locally in-
terbedded with gypsum and barite beds. Above this unit, a series of conglomer-
ates and sandstones of the Lotena Formation are intruded by Tertiary plutonic
rocks of the Los Molles Formation (Eocene).
The barite layers in the eastern sector of the area are 0.6 to 1.0 m thick and
have a run of more than 300m, as was verified in the underground works of La
Rosita Mine. The stratigraphic section in this mine is composed from bottom to
top of 5-cm-thick chert layer, a 20-40-cm-thick algal limestone, the barite bed,
and the conglomerates and sandstones of the Lotena Formation.
The other district is located at the northern slope of the Mulichinco valley, and
the barite occurrences correspond to stratiform deposits 1 to 2 m thick, such as
the Dos Guanacos and Resbalosa Mines. Some veins also occur. in the over- and
underlying units. Some chert levels and shales are interbedded with gypsum and
barite beds in the Dos Guanacos Mine, whereas some shales are present in the
La Rosita Mine. The veins are from 0.2 to 1 m thick and 30 m deep, and are ex-
posed along 100 to 300m. Exploitation is active in this district on a small-scale
basis.
4.3 Cucbillo Coni District
The evaporitic facies of the Tabanos Formation is in this area represented by lime-
stones which grade into gypsum layers toward the east. The celestite beds with an
areal extension of 7 km and thicknesses of up to 2m, are dipping 30-40°N. The
ore is characterized by textures similar to the "diagenetic crystallization
rhythmites" (DCR) described by Fontbote and Amstutz (1983) and evidence of
karstification processes is frequently observed, which have produced a late
recrystallization due to remobilization, with the formation of large celestite crys-
tals. Several mines were exploited on a small scale.
5 Metallotects Related to the Auquilco Formation
5.1 Mallin Quemado Mine
This ore field is located about 50 km north of Zapala. Subhorizontal barite layers
are found in this ore field, conformably overlying the Auquilco Formation gyp-
sum, and underlying the continental red beds of the Tordillo Formation. Tectonics
favored by the great plasticity of the underlying gypsum beds has produced a
complex structure in the deposit. As a result, abundant breccia zones containing
clasts and blocks of barite, sandstones, and gypsum are commonly found. The
original barite layer was probably hundreds of meters long, about 100m wide and
1 to 3 m thick.
Some unconformable barite bodies related to the barite beds are found in the
area, hosted in the overlying sandstones of the Tordillo Formation. These are
veins up to 1 m thick, several tens of meters long, and known up to at least 50 m
deep. Whereas the barite layers are rather pure, the chemical analyses yielding val-
ues ranging from 84o/o to 90% BaS04 , the veins are intergrown with quartz, gale-
na, and in some cases with some chalcopyrite. Exploitation has been intensified
by underground works in the last 5 years.
5.2 Llao Llao Mine
This deposit is found a few kilometers west of the Cuchillo Cura Celestite district,
and about 5 km west of the Mallin Quemado Mine. The ore is located at the inter-
section of the Cuchillo Cura and Curymil ranges (Fig. 3). The area is heavily man-
tled by Quaternary deposits and emplaced by Tertiary andesitic intrusives.
A recently dug open pit of 20-30 m diameter, permits observation of the rela-
tionship among gypsum and celestite beds, and the overlying Tordillo Formation.
The celestite has developed conspicuous diagenetic crystallization rhythmites,
which are partially recrystallized, presenting large-sized crystals (up to 10 em).
5.3 Luthema Mine
The Luthema celestite mine is located on the southeast slope of the double plung-
ing Sierra Azul anticline, about 120 km south of the town of Malargiie (Fig. 3).
It has been sporadically mined since 1950 in a trench, 90 m long, 15 m wide, and
about 12m deep. The celestite layers lie conformably within the Jurassic sedimen-
tary sequences, which mainly consist of gray marly limestones with abundant fos-
sils of the La Manga Formation, and the overlying Auquilco Formation (Fer-
nandez et al. 1987). Eocene andesites of the Los Molles Formation are emplaced
in both units.
The stratabound celestite layers crop out along strike for about 200 m and have
a subhorizontal attitude. Chemical analyses indicate values of Sr04 of about
70%-80% and 50Jo-100Jo of BaS04 • They have a typical yellow-brown color
produced by the abundant occurrence of iron hydroxides. Several textures are de-
veloped such as breccias, rosette-shaped aggregates up to 30 em in diameter, and
celesto-barite crystals. Layers of fine-grained celestite alternating with fine lami-
nated marls are also found.
The Monteagudo Mine is located 500 m west of the main Luthema Mine. The
deposit consists of a celestite layer interbedded with limestones and it is exposed
for only 50 m. It has characteristics similar to the Luthema, with large crystals
and aggregates coated by limonites.
5.4 El Compadrito Mine
This ore is located about 60 km south of the town of Malargiie (Fig. 3). It consists
of a barite bed, with a lesser amount of celestite, 3.5 to 7 m thick with a run of
200 m (Schalamuk et al. 1987). This deposit has been exploited sporadically for
the last 30 years and was the main barite mine in Mendoza. The mine is located
on the northern side of the Sierra Azul brachyanticline. The barite layer overlies
the limestones of the Caliza del Calabozo Formation and it has a zebra-like layer-
ing formed by fine-grained barite with silty clayed material and interbedded layers
of limestones with abundant iron hydroxides. A sandstone bed equivalent to the
Tordillo Formation overlies the barite layers. Andesitic rocks of the Los Molles
Formation are conformably and unconformably emplaced in the limestones.
5.5 La Salida Deposit
This deposit is located about 40 km south of the El Compadrito Mine, near the
Coihue-Co creek, and it has been only rudimentarily mined. The barite bed is
emplaced in the same sequence as the El Compadrito Mine, but here it is devel-
oped in a fold structure and is exposed for only 40 m, with a thickness of 0.70
to 1.10 m. The barite is fine-grained, associated to silty clayed material. There are
some dissolution cavities and stalactite structures up to 15-25 em long.
5.6 La Isidora Mine
The barite deposit is located in the southwestern sector of Mendoza province, ap-
proximately 60 km west of the town of Malargiie. The Puchenque Formation is
represented in this area by limestones with abundant shale interlayered. Thick
evaporite beds of gypsum and anhydrite of the Auquilco Formation overlie the
previous unit. The sedimentary sequence is intruded by Tertiary intrusive rocks.
The La Isidora Mine has been rudimentarily mined and it is emplaced in the
upper limestone beds, close to the contact with the Auquilco Formation. The
deposit consists of a lenticular barite bed conformable into the Jurassic car-
bonatic sediments. The bed is exposed along the strike for 140 m, has a thickness
of 5 m and pinches out southwards into a gypsum facies. Towards the north it
transitionally grades to limestone facies. The barite bed presents several distinctive
textures: in the lower section the barite shows a marked lamination with the devel-
opment of diagenetic crystallization rhythmite textures in which the sulfate tends
to develop a tabular-acicular habit. In contrast, in the upper section, the barite
occurs in sparry, tabular crystals, up to 5 em long, disorderdly intergrown.
Rossette-shaped aggregates are frequent, mainly in the uppermost part of the bar-
ite bed.
6 Metallotects Related to the Huitrin Formation

Several celestite deposits are found along the 70° meridian, between Zapala and
Curac6 in the province of Neuquen. The barite ore is emplaced at certain definite
stratigraphic levels, above limestones beds and below gypsum levels. The mo11t
representative ore fields are at Cerro Partido, Bajada del Agrio, Cerro Salado,
Sierra de Chorriaca, Continental, Balsa Huitrin and Naunauco (Fig. 3; Brodtkorb
et al. 1975, 1982, 1985).
The different sections examined through the upper member of the Agrio For-
mation, close to the contact with the Huitrin Formation, allowed characterization
of the evolution of the evaporite facies as a typical regressive sequence of the
Neocomian sea (Fig. 2). The upper section of the underlying lithofacies is cement-
ed by sparite, and on the basis of the textural and petrographic characteristics, has
been interpreted as intertidal sandstones of a beach environment. On the top of
these sandstones is a thin laminated carbonate of algal origin, grading laterally
into more irregularly stratified limestones. A cyclic alternation of carbonates and
celestite is observed in many areas, locally with diagenetic crystallization textures.

Following the celestite layer is a gypsum bed with a thickness ranging from 2 to
10 m. The gypsum is impure and presents frequent facies variations. The gypsum
bed presents nodular texture indicating precipitation in a subaerial environment.
Some remnants of ancient tidal channels or coastal lagoons are preserved due to
the original irregular surface. In these sectors the water stayed temporally, allow-
ing subaerial precipitation. The celestite beds have a thickness ranging from a few
centimeters up to 2 m, and together with the entire evaporite facies they can reach
12m.
Based on the different and common characteristics of the ore geometries and
textures of the several celestite deposits known to be related with the Huitrin For-
mation, these have been subdivided by Brodtkorb et al. (1975) into three different
types:
1. Syn-diagenetic, massive celestite beds several meters thick and some hundreds
of meters long, which deposited in coastal lagoons by evaporation processes.
2. Banded, layered deposits originated in the following environments:
a) supratidal facies with alternating celestite beds with limestones, algal mats and
nodular gypsum; and
b) celestite beds with diagenetic crystallization rhythmites, with the first genera-
tion composed of a mosaic of celestite and calcite grains, a second generation
made up of bipolar celestite crystals, and sometimes galena, as a third generation,
filling the interspaces.
3. Epigenetic barite or celestite veins related to the former types (1 and 2).
The first type of deposit is represented by the Cerro Salado and Naunauco dis-
tricts. There, the metallotects are characterized by conformable layers whose ge-
ometry is controlled by the post-mineralization structure. The celestite occurs in
""
: \-- ·.I ,; ·. ·\.\
'( .
J,. '\
.../1
~U 1/::.·... ·, )..'..
Fig. 4. Thick celestite bed (up to 5 m) in Naunauco Mine, province of Neuquen
granular texture with sparry habit and its color changes among the different
deposits from yellowish white to grayish brown (Fig. 4).
The second type of these ores includes the Bajada del Agrio, Continental, and
Balsa de Huitrin districts. Mineralization is represented by layers of conformable
early diagenetic celestite. The upper section has dissolution voids filled with
neoformed crystals, geodes, and stalactites. Mudcracks with evidence of sub-
aqueous sliding have been recognized in the Santa Ana Mine, belonging to the
Bajada del Agrio district. The San Barbara Mine in this latter district has a
celestite bed which grades laterally into intraclastic limestones with a brecciated
texture containing gypsum nodules. This limestone, due to the dissolution of the
nodules, shows a typical cavern texture, with voids filled with secondary micrite.
The facies changes occur within less than 1 km. The textural and petrographic
characteristics of the celestite facies would indicate an intra-supra- to supratidal
environment of deposition in which the sediments were exposed to subaerial con-
ditions for some periods of time. The celestite-bearing layer in the Balsa de
Huitriin district is up to 6 to 7 m thick and extends for 1000 m along strike.
The third type of deposit is represented, for example, by the epigenetic veins
of the San Jose Mine. The veins fill a system of secondary tensional faults, sub-
parallel to the main fault thrust. The filling is made up of barite with colloform
textures that present evidence of downward flow. It is assumed that this deposit
originated from the overlying barium-bearing celestite bed which is absent in this
flank of the anticline due to erosion. The different solubilities of BaS04 and
SrS04 produced the precipitation of barite and the migration of the SrS04 •
Barite deposits have been recently identified as related to the Huitrin Forma-
tion evaporites. Barite beds crop out in the western slope of the Sierra de Chor-
riaca in the Dafne Mine, as well as toward the west in the Colipilli district. The
San Eduardo Mine in this last district has noticeable diagenetic crystallization
rhythmites (Fig. 5). These are composed of a first generation with a mosaic of cal-
Fig. 5. Diagenetic crystallization rhythmite of Santa Ana Mine. Dark zones are microscopic mosaic
of dolomite and celestite (generation I) and white bands of bipolar celestite crystals (2nd generation)
cite and barite grains, a second generation formed by bipolar barite crystals, and
a third generation filling the intracrystal spaces with galena.
7 Isotope Data
Analyses of the 87 Sr/86Sr isotope ratios of different sedimentary facies and the
ocean water have increased rapidly in the last few years. Peterman et al. (1970),
Veizer and Compston (1974), and Burke et al. (1982) have shown that significant
changes occurred throughout geologic time based on the Sr content of fossils and
carbonatic rocks.
The isotope values of celestite and barite of some of the previously described
deposits are shown in Fig. 6. They are compared with values of hydrothermal bar-
ite vein (Omega Mine) and nearly Thrtiary andesites from the study area. Figure 6
shows a coherent relationship between the accepted bioestratigraphic age of the
Sr or Ba deposits and the isotopic values of the ocean water at different times.
0.7090
0.7080
0.7070
0.7060
X 11
0.7050
X8
X 9-10
0.7040
TERTIARY CRETACEOUS JURASSIC TRIASSIC

T C A A 8 H V 8 P P K 0 C. 8 8 T P 5 It R N
Q7030 ------L-L~-i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--
100 150 200 Mo

Fig. 6. 87 Sr/86 Sr
isotope ratios from celestites, barites, and andesites of the Neuquen basin (x). Com-
parison with data (e) from Peterman et al. (1970); (f) Veizer and Compston (1974) and(~)
Burke et al. mean values (1982). 1 Loncopue; 2 Mallin Quemado; 3 Luthema; 4 El Compadrito; 5 lsi-
dora; 6-6' celestites from Huitrin Formation; 7 andesite from Huantraico; 8 anhydrite from Luthema;
9 andesite Colipilli; 10 andesite Loncopue; 11 Omega Mine
This is a clear indication of the syn-sedimentary origin of strontium in the ana-

lyzed deposits. On the other hand, the 87 Sr/ 86Sr ratios obtained for the second
generation of celestite of DCRs of the Santa Ana Mine are slightly higher, indicat-
ing a possible enrichment during diagenesis (Gorzawski et al. 1989):
brownish celestite I 0.70798 0.70793
white celestite II 0.70837 0.70802
Sulfur isotope studies of several metallotects are in progress.
8 Concluding Remarks
Celestite is the most important strontium mineral in the exogenous cycle and pre-
cipitates mainly in evaporitic environments. Present seawater has an average Sr
content of 8 g/t. Precipitation of celestite occurs in the boundary between the cal-
cium carbonate and the calcium sulfate precipitation, when the seawater reduc-
tion reaches approximately 1/3 to 115 of the original volume. Gypsum begins to
precipitate when seawater reaches 113.35 times its original volume and therefore
celestite is often found in close association with gypsum. On the other hand,
sabkha diagenesis involves the interstitial emplacement of evaporitic minerals
within the host sediments (Kinsman 1969), but brine pans may accumulate more
soluble evaporites because of the greater evaporite losses. According to this au-
thor, celestite is a common early diagenetic mineral of the coastal sabkhas and
abundant in areas of intense dolomitization. The Sr released during the replace-
ment of aragonite (7000-8000ppm Sr) by dolomite (600-700ppm) is added to
interstitial water and forms celestite.
The previous description of the different metallotects of celestite and barite of
the Neuquen basin allows several inferences as to geologic controls of the strata-
bound deposition. Analyses of the Neuquen basin celestites rule out any feasible
mechanism for the concentration of the celestite, such as those proposed for the
Betic Cordilleran metallotects (Martinet al. 1983). The close relationship between
celestite and evaporitic facies, as already discussed, indicates the primary precipi-
tation of SrS04 in a restricted basin, in accordance with the isotopic composi-
tion of the seawater during Early Cretaceous times.
Celestite recrystallizes during early and late diagenetic processes, increasing the
87Sr/86Sr ratio (Brodtkorb et al. 1985; Gorzawski et al. 1989).
A somewhat different problem arises from the analysis of the barite genesis.
The concentration of barium in normal seawater is not enough to account for the
required barium supply. Even though the primary precipitation was controlled by
the sedimentary environment, it is necessary to take in to consideration an extra
supply of barium coming from a different source.
The barium content in seawater is relatively low (approximately 0.06 ppm;
Puchelt 1967). There are different models to explain barite layered deposits: barite
deposition in coastal areas, in distal littoral and in deep ocean regions. The previ-
ously described deposits fit the first setting, with the only exception of the Arroyo
Nuevo Mine. The source of barium in the coastal environments may be the weath-
ering of basement rocks and a later adsorption by clays. However, the close rela-
tionship to an active volcanic arc, such as that bounding the Neuquen basin to-
ward the west, could have an important role in a relative enrichment of barium
in seawater. The barite occurrences are from 100 to 150 km eastwards from the
arc within the retroarc basin.
This relationship is seen during Early Cretaceous times between the distri-
bution of celestite and barite. Most of the barite is precipitated in the hinterland
area, closer to the volcanic arc than the celestite, the occurrences of which are
facing the foreland basin border. The proximity to the active volcanism could ac-
count for the supply of extra barium to those environments. However, this rela-
tionship is well observed in the Early Cretaceous, where the basin was widely
expanded toward the east. During Jurassic times, when the basin was narrower
and deeper, the Ba and Sr ores are not clearly distributed regarding active vol-
canism.
The sedimentary control of these stratiform and stratabound metallotects, as
well as the paleogeographic and tectonic constraints, are important tools to guide
further exploration and evaluation of the celestite and barite deposits of the Neu-
quen basin, along the foreland belt of the Principal Andes of western central Ar-
gentina.
References
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Cosmochim Acta 38:1461-1484
The Polymetallic Ore Deposit of Colquijirca,
Central Peru
R.W. LEHNE 1
1 Introduction
Colquijirca is a major Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag deposit. It is situated at 76° 16' western lon-
gitude and 10° 45' southern latitude in the department of Pasco, central Peru,
about 8 km south of the department's capital and major mining center, Cerro de
Pasco. The area around the deposit has an average elevation of 4300 m above sea
level. It is characterized by a gentle morphology that reflects strong glacial activity
in former times. The sparse vegetation is typical for the inner-Andean highlands.
The accessibility to the mine is very good. Both a railway line and a largely
paved road connect the mine with the smelting center La Oroya and the country's
capital Lima. The distance from Lima to Colquijirca amounts to some 300 km
by road.
2 Geologic Setting
Rocks from Devonian to Tertiary age crop out in the environs of the deposit
(Fig. 1). The Devonian Excelsior Formation (Bellido 1969) is exposed in an anticli-
nal valley between the Condorcayan and Vista Alegre hills. It is composed of
slates, phyllites, and quartzites that strike NNW and have an almost vertical dip.
The Excelsior Formation is followed after a marked angular discordance by the
Permian Mitu Formation (Newell et al. 1949, 1953), which is distinguished in the
Colquijirca region by red sandstones and quartz-bearing conglomerates. The
Mitu Formation is overlain by the Triassic-Jurassic Pucara Group (Szekely and
Grose 1972). There is a transition from the Mitu to the Pucara Group in the
deposit area. The transition takes place without any angular disconformity, grad-
ually changing from red to yellow sandstones followed by hanky limestones and
dolomites which are characteristic for the Pucara Group. Immediately to the west
of the deposit the Mitu is followed after an erosional contact by the Shuco con-
glomerate, which mainly consists of little rounded and poorly sorted Pucara ma-
terial. Its formation, as well as its age, are somewhat controversial. Jenks (1951)
explains it as a piedmont conglomerate and states its age as Tertiary.
The Shuco conglomerate is conformably covered by the Tertiary Calera series
(McLaughlin 1924), which hosts the Colquijirca ores. The Calera series reaches a
maximum thickness of about 700 m and comprises a rapidly alternating sequence
1 Metallgesellschaft AG, Reuterweg 14, D-6000 Frankfurt, FRO

616 R.W. Lehne
D
/\/VV\.
AUUVIUM 0 \. '
~ MARCAPUNTA VOLCANICS
D CALERA
["00""1
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/\/VV\.
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~ : ·. : : : : .. ~ •. ·• ·• : : : : BB 10-N
' I .. ' ... . ...... - .
' .. - .... - ... '
,• .. '
,, '.
- .. - . ' - . ' ... ·:
, -- .• . . •.• . -· ... 'I
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• • • • . • • '
~-:~ ..-p·-~ , o\
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Fig. 1. Geologic sketch map of the mine area
of different sediments. These are mud-, silt-, and sandstones as well as marls and
limestones. Volcanic influences are manifested by frequent tuffitic intercalations.
The occurrence of chert within this rock sequence is very common. It forms nod-
ules, lenses or areally extensive horizons that generally do not exceed 2m in thick-
ness.
The Calera series is cut off in the south by the Marcapunta volcanic complex.
This complex includes subvolcanic rocks, lavas and breccias of rhyolithic to
dacitic composition of which the age was determined as Upper Miocene (Vidal
et al. 1984). It is characterized by areas of strong hydrothermal alteration that also
affected parts of the adjacent Calera series. The main alteration feature is an in-
tense alunitization of the volcanics which can be accompanied by a silicification
and pyritization. Towards the north within the Calera series the alunitic alteration
grades into a kaolinitic one.
The Polymetallic Ore Deposit of Colquijirca, Central Peru 617
w E
lu
I
iC...
m
- HOO
- 1.000
-------
-3800
~CALERA I'Sd ORE
Fig. 2. Simplified geologic cross-section (88 11 300- N) of the ore-bearing Calera series
A major tectonic element in the mine area is the north-south-trending Cerro

de Pasco fault which lies immediately east of Colquijirca. According to Jenks
(1951 }, it represents a thrust fault that became active in the late Cretaceous and
caused a relative uplift of its eastern block. The east-west-trending Condorcayan
fault cross-cuts the rocks NW of Colquijirca without any obvious major displace-
ment. Miocene folding produced a set of chevron folds within the Calera series
(Fig. 2). The fold axes strike NNW and plunge slightly to the south, where the
folding becomes rather weak.
3 Description of the Ores
The ores of the deposit are stratabound. Massive orebodies lie concordantly with-
in their host rocks; less intense, irregularly distributed ore minerals are confined
to definite horizons. The thickness of an orebody is typically less than 2 m. There
are several stratigraphic positions with sulfides and from south to north the
sulfide content shifts to relatively higher stratigraphic levels. The copper ores
close to the volcanic complex are generally more massive (Fig. 3 a}, whereas the
copper-lead-zinc ores of the deposit's central parts and especially the lead-
zinc-silver ores of the northern parts are often diluted by host rock intercalations
(Fig. 3 b). The following description by McKinstry (1936) also stresses the
stratiform character of these ores:
"The bedding is so well preserved that it is rare to find a layer of ore a foot
thick that does not show conspicuous traces of stratification; even in the thickest
orebodies there are generally beds of shale separating the ore into layers!'
Other sedimentary features of the ores, such as slumping and geopetal textures,
were described by Lehne and Amstutz (1982). The ores and their host rocks were
likewise affected by diagenetic and tectonic events; Ahlfeld (1932) shows in his ar-
ticle the photo of an orebody compressed by folding.
618 R.W. Lehne
Fig.3a-h. a Massive copper orebody (enargite with subordinate pyrite); Marcapunta mine section.
b Lead-zinc-silver orebody with shaly intercalations (dark layers); mine section Norte. c Pyrite forms
layered textures in silicified host rock. The mineral marked by a rectangle is bornite in state of decay
to chalcopyrite and idaite. d Layered textures of pyrite and enargite in silicified host rock. e Baryte
crystals have been replaced by pyrite, galena and sphalerite. The layers in the lower part of the photo
consist of sphalerite (gray) and galena (white). f Sphalerite pellets cause geopetal textures on
sapropelic coal seams in shaly host rock. g Colloform textures of pyrite (py) and sphalerite (black);
galena (gn) occurs in subordinate amounts. h Cockade ore consists of concentrically arranged pyrite
(p), chalcopyrite (cp), galena (gn), and sphalerite (sf)
The Polymetallic Ore Deposit of Colquijirca, Central Peru 619
The ore mineral paragenesis of the Colquijirca deposit is characterized by its

great variety. It was described in publications by Orcel and Rivera Plaza (1929),
McKinstry (1929, 1936), Lindgren (1930, 1935), Ahlfeld (1932), Ramdohr (1975),
and others. The main ore minerals are pyrite, enargite, galena, and sphalerite.
Subordinate to these occur chalcopyrite, tennantite, luzonite, bornite, marcasite,
and a series of less common silver and bismuth minerals: stromeyerite, jalpaite,
pearceite, polybasite, sternbergite, argentite, proustite, wittichenite, emplektite,
and klaprothite. Springer (1968) reported hexastannite and mawsonite. Native sil-
ver was abundant in cementation zones that are now largely mined out. In the
central parts of the deposit uranium minerals were observed (Rogers and Freyre
1954). Uraninite appears in small fractures and vugs of the chert. Carnotite,
autunite, and torbernite are conspicuous secondary minerals that indicate an ir-
regular uranium distribution within certain stratigraphic horizons. Arroyo (1983)
described zippeite as a further secondary uranium mineral.
The paragenesis of the ores shows a clear horizontal zonation. Proximal to the
Marcapunta volcanic complex the ores essentially consist of pyrite and enargite.
More distal to it enargite is gradually replaced by galena and sphalerite which
occur jointly with the tennantite-sulfosalt suite. Baryte is a common gangue
mineral in the distal parts of the deposit. In the uppermost parts of the ore-
bearing sequence occur iron and manganese oxides in the form of a few smaller
horizons.
The textures of the ore minerals are often the microscopic equivalents to the
macroscopic fabrics. In many instances the sulfides form layered textures
(Fig. 3 c- e) or are involved in geopetal ones (Fig. 3 f). Colloform textures are
widespread. They frequently comprise two or more sulfides which form alternat-
ing sequences (Fig. 3 g) that either result from successive precipitation or from se-
lective replacement. A peculiar phenomenon of the northern parts of the deposit
are the so-called cockade ores (Fig. 3 h), which consist of different concentrically
arranged sulfides. McKinstry ( 1929) explained their formation by a combined pre-
cipitation and replacement process.
Different genetic interpretations have been applied to the Colquijirca deposit.
Ahlfeld (1932), Lindgren (1935), and McKinstry (1936) classified it as a hydro-
thermal replacement deposit. In recent time a syngenetic origin of the ores has
been suggested (Lehne 1977, 1980; Lehne and Amstutz 1978, 1980a, b). It is main-
ly based on the perfect congruency of the ores and the host rocks on a macroscop-
ic and a microscopic scale.
References
Ahlfeld F (1932) Die Silbererzlagerstlitte Colquijirca, Peru. Z Prakt Geol 40:81-87
Arroyo G (1983) Ocurrencia de minerales uranfferos en el yacimiento de Colquijirca. Bol Soc Geol
Peru 72:75-88
Bellido E (1969) Sinopsis de Ia geologia del Peru. Serv Geol Min Lima 22, 54 p
Jenks WF (1951) 'll'iassic to Thrtiary stratigraphy near Cerro de Pasco, Peru. Geol Soc Am Bull
62:203-220
Lehne RW (1977) Nuevos aspectos acerca del yacimiento de Colquijirca. CITEM, Rev Inst Cient Tee-
no! Min Lima 3:17-26
620 R.W. Lehne
Lehne RW (1980) Die Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu Lagerstiitte Colquijirca, Zentralperu - Neue Untersuchungen

und Oberlegungen zu ihrer Genese. Diss, Univ Heidelberg, 90 p (unpublished)
Lehne RW, Amstutz GC (1978) Modelos geneticos del yacimiento polimetalico de Colquijirca. IV
Congr Peru Geol Lima (Abstr)
Lehne RW, Amstutz GC (1980a) The polymetallic ore deposit of Colquijirca, Central Peru: a new ge-
netic model. XXVI Int Geol Congr Paris (Abstr) 958 p
Lehne RW, Amstutz GC (1980b) The Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag deposit of Colquijirca. In: Ernst Wet al. (eds)
Natural Resources and Development. Institut fUr Wissenschaftl Zusammenarbeit, Ttlbingen, pp
78-81
Lehne RW, Amstutz GC (1982) Sedimentary and diagenetic fabrics in the Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag deposit of
Colquijirca, Central Peru. In: Amstutz GC et al. (eds) Ore genesis - the state of the art. Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg New York Thkyo, pp 161-166
Lindgren W (1930) Pseudo-eutectic textures. Econ Geol 25:1-13
Lindgren W (1935) The silver mine of Colquijirca, Peru. Econ Geol 30:331-346
McKinstry HE (1929) Interpretation of concentric textures at Colquijirca, Peru. Am Min 14:431-433
McKinstry HE (1936) Geology of the silver deposit at Colquijirca, Peru. Econ Geol 31:618-635
McLaughlin DH (1924) Geology and physiography of the Peruvian cordillera, departments of Junin
and Lima. Bull Geol Soc Am 35:591-632
Newell ND et al. (1949) Upper Paleozoic of Peru. Kings Crown Press, 174 p
Newell ND et al. (1953) Upper Paleozoic of Peru. Geol Soc Am Mem 59, 43 p
Orcel J, Rivera Plaza G (1929) Etude microscopique de quelques minerais metalliques du Perou. Bull
Soc Franc Min 52:91-107
Ramdohr P (1975) Die Erzmineralien und ihre Verwachsungen. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 1277 p
Rogers KJ, Freyre A (1954) Uranium occurrence at the Colquijirca mine, Central Peru. Inf Soc Min
El Brocal, 26 p (unpublished)
Springer G (1968) Electronprobe analyses of stannite and related tin minerals. Min Mag
36:1045-1051
Szekely TS, Grose LT (1972) Stratigraphy of the carbonate, black shale, and phosphate of the Pucara
group (Upper 1Hassic-Lower Jurassic), Central Andes, Peru. Geol Soc Am Bull 83:407-428
Vidal C, Mayta 0, Noble DC, McKee EH (1984) Sobre Ia evoluci6n de soluciones hidrotermales desde
el centro volcanico Marcapunta en Colquijirca - Pasco. Soc Geol Peru, vol jub, pp 1-14
The Sediment-Hosted, Stratabound Copper Deposits
of San Bartolo, Northern Chile
S. FLINT 1
1 Introduction
The San Bartolo copper deposit is situated in the gorge of the Rio Grande, some
20 km north of San Pedro de Atacama, at the northern margin of the Salar de
Atacama. This large, internal drainage basin forms a topographic low between the
Cordillera de Domeyko to the west and the High Andes to the east (Fig. 1).
~ Quo~tte rnar y Sed im~nts
a P l eistOCI!!ne ~ Reeen t Vot e•n ies
D Oligo - M •ocene Sediments
0 Cretac eou s Sed iments
~ C1eUCif:OI.IS I nt ru si ves
I
!'1 v
(v v N
..
... )v v
\v,v 30
v . v
,.r.,
+ •
.. +
Fig. 1. Summarized geologic map of Antofagasta Province, Chile, showing the position of San Bartolo
to the north of the Salar de Atacama. Enclosed area is shown in Fig. 2
1 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK

622 S. Flint
Table 1. Stratigraphy of the San Pedro/San Bartolo area
Inferred age Lithostratigraphic unit Thickness Characteristics

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (m)
Group Formation Member
Pliocene/Recent Ignimbrites, lavas, strato-

volcanoes and clastic sediments
U. Miocene San Bartolo >50 Acid/intermediate ignimbrites
with interbedded conglomer-
ates and sandstones
Unconformity (Middle Mocene)
Rio Salado > 300 Playa sandstones with in-
terbedded mudstones and
evaporites
L. Miocene
Cementario > 250 Lacustrine varved mudstones/
siltstones and green sandstones
Paciencia
Artolla > 400 Red playa mudstones and in-
terbedded sandstones. Some
evaporites. Copper mineraliza-
tion
U. Oligocene
Palicaye > 300 Brown mudstones with halite.
Saltpan facies
Barros Arana >400 Distal alluvial fan/braided
stream sediments
Unconformity
Cretaceous Purilactis >3000 Red/black conglomerate sand-
stones, shales and evaporites
During the Oligocene a series of intermontane basins developed in the vicinity

of the Thrtiary Andean volcanic arc (Coira et al. 1982). These basins were filled
with thick sequences of red beds derived from crystalline and sedimentary sources
to both east and west; examples include the San Pedro and other basins in north-
ern Chile, the Corocoro basin of NW Bolivia, and several basins in NW Argen-
tina.
The geology of the San Pedro/San Bartolo area consists of an eastwards-facing
sequence of Mesozoic/Cenozoic strata (Brtiggen 1934, 1950; Dingman 1967;
Hollingworth and Rutland 1968). Main stratigraphic units include the Creta-
ceous-Eocene Purilactis Formation, separated by an unconformity from the over-
lying 2 km thick Oligocene-Lowermost Miocene Paciencia Group (Thble 1). The
latter unit hosts the San Bartolo deposit. A further unconformity, constrained by
radiometric dating to the Lower-Middle-Miocene, separates the Paciencia Group
from upper Miocene-Recent volcanic sequences (Travisany 1978; Ramirez 1979;
Lahsen 1982).
Thble 1 shows the internal stratigraphy of the Paciencia Group. The spatial ar-
rangement of individual lithostratigraphic members is shown in Fig. 2. The Barros
Arana and Rio Salado Members, derived from the west, represent a fault-con-
trolled, unmineralized wedge of alluvial fan/braided stream sediments and playa
The Sediment-Hosted, Stratabound Copper Deposits of San Bartolo, Northern Chile 623
r:!m!ffl
l;jiJ;iiijJ Rio Salado member m Palicaye member
"" "" Barros Arana member ~~~~~~~ Artolla member
- Cementario member ~ Purilactis FM
~ San Bartolo Group I-- __ --jRecent gravels

0 2 km
Fig. 2. Distribution of the internal lithostratigraphic members of the Paciencia group (after Flint
1985a)
deposits (Flint 1985 a). The sequence exposed around San Bartolo (Fig. 3 A) repre-
sents a series of saltpan (Palicaye Member), playa mudflat/sandflat (Artolla
Member) and lacustrine (Cementario Member) environments. Copper mineraliza-
tion is restricted to the playa sandstones of the Artollo Member (Figs. 3 B, 4).
2 Description of the San Bartolo Deposits
2.1 Mining Methods and History
Mining operations in the San Bartolo area, documented between the mid-nine-
teenth century and about 1925, involved a combination of underhand stoping and
iif
\
ARTOLLA
lh
MEMBER
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--
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-vv-1"! Cu
-
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Cu
/i Cu
100
~ Cu
PALICAYE
MEMBER
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• rs ms c.s
LttholoQy Sf'<Stmtntory struc.turet
CJ Sondstont ~~ ~ Convolule lam •nohon Erostwl! contQC:t
~ Plane- lomii"'It•on 0 Soluloonvood
$ 51•9" }
f!
rn
- MudSIOI'lf
Modetote- &olurbalton
ffi Dolostone flf

I
Planar cross bedchnQ lnlornse
!/ Vorrlicol
Buuows
Hor•zontol
"""""'
IJ.z\\ 1HoMe
1 1
1
Cu Copp.er miMifl11
j:::;::--::;j Flours ~ Pataeocu nent 1
~~~~:~::::::::..
r;:::::::;) l)ppet phou port1n9
L!:=.=!J hneotton
~ Channel
m 41 . 1 .,msc.s
Grain Siz e
Fig. 3. A Summary log of the Paciencia group in the San Bartolo area. Mineralization is restricted
to the Artolla Member. B Detailed log through the Artolla Member at San Bartolo
Cu """"
Cu
Cu
-
Cu
Cu
Cu
Fig. 4. Detailed log through the vertically bedded, heavi-

ly mineralized section at the head of Quebrada Palicaye
(Key see Fig. 3)
room and pillar methods, extracting almost complete mineralized sandstone beds.
These were usually accessed directly from surface outcrop or via adits, although
in the latter stages of operation several shafts were sunk. Operations were discon-
tinued, not because of failing reserves, but owing to water problems.
626 S. Flint
Records show the deposit to have been extremely rich, with average grades of
10o/o -18% Cu. Operations were controlled in the later, larger-scale workings by
the Compania Minera de San Bartolo, registered in 1916. Investment by this com-
pany included an underground tramway and a track along the Rio Grande gorge
to transport the ore out to San Pedro de Atacama.
2.2 Field Relations
The San Bartolo copper deposit consists of three major concentrations marked
by the separate mines of Artolla, San Bartolo and Palicaye (Figs. 5, 6A, B), along
with many minor occurrences. The mining area extends along a strike length of
some 4 km. The thickest exposed succession of the Artolla Member at Palicaye
includes some 15 separate mineralized horizons within a stratigraphic thickness
of 75 m (Travisany 1978; Flint 1985b). Smaller orebodies occur discontinuously
along Quebrada Palicaye.
There is a marked grain size control on mineralization, with ore being restrict-
ed to pale gray, bleached sandstones; the interbedded red mudstones are never
mineralized. This is in marked contrast to many sediment-hosted copper deposits
of the Creta type, where siltstones and mudstones are important host rocks
(Ripley et al. 1980; Gustafson and Williams 1981 ). Mineralization within sand
0 km
~
~
c. "" P•
B•
PolrttJya Jlo'I Hn&
5an Bart oro ,~o~; ,,., .,,.
A• Af!.OOI Io M o r'll'
. Ho jOr "' ' n e s (1.,/pllode)

• .M •.,or -rll:lnji!l (s..,lp"•d•'
D A\IJO' ""'"'"* f<~111t •v • mt-lol)
O"" '"o ' .. ort.n;• c... ot• ... e IIHitorJ
Fig. 5. Mineral zonation in the San Bartolo deposits. Locations of Figs. 3 and 4 shown
bodies is stratabound but, in detail, not necessarily stratiform. Boundaries be-

tween mineralized and barren parts of the same bed are usually irregular and dis-
cordant to bedding (Fig. 6C). Individual mineralized zones have lateral extents
ranging from a few meters to about 1 m. Vertical extent is controlled by sand body
thickness, which is seldom more than 1.5 km. Thus the overall form of the San
Bartolo deposits is a series of discontinuous lenses of highly variable thickness
and lateral extent. As noted above, the main ore-bearing sandstones are situated
to the north of the San Bartolo Dome, an antiformal structure which juxtaposes
saltpan facies mudstones of the Palicaye Member against Artolla sediments. An
isolated, mineralized sandstone body, however, occurs in the Artolla Member to
the south of the dome at Funica San Bartolo (Fig. 2). This observation suggests
that the copper ores were formed before deformation of the Paciencia Group. As
such, this restricts the age of mineralization to the Lower Miocene or earlier
(Hooper and Flint 1987).
2.3 Sedimentology of the Artolla Member
The Artolla Member comprises some 400 m of red mudstones and interbedded
red and gray sandstones (Fig. 3 B). The mudstones have been interpreted as playa
mudflat sediments, deposited where shallow, high energy unconfined sheets of
flood water encountered storm-expanded lake waters. The presence of desiccation
cracks and primary nodular anhydrite in the mudstones indicates highly arid
depositional conditions.
Sandstone bodies have erosive bases, mudstone rip-up clasts and bedforms
dominated by upper plane lamination, commonly passing upwards through
trough cross bedding into climbing ripple lamination (Figs. 3 B, 4). The above fea-
tures indicate waning high energy sedimentation. Both sheet and ribbon bed ge-
ometries are found, along with a transitional winged channel morphology. The
Artolla sandstones have been interpreted as high energy playa-marginal sandflat
deposits (Flint 1985 a). Paleocurrent data indicate an easterly provenance area
now obscured by the Recent Andean volcanic arc.
2.4 Ore Mineralogy and Texture
Investigations have revealed that two styles of mineralization are present. In the
most common style, ore minerals occur as a cement to detrital and early
diagenetic minerals, commonly localized by sedimentary structures such as cross-
bedding. In the second, locally developed style, the ore is present as discordant
veinlets within brecciated sandstones.
Matrix Style Mineralization. Approximately 800Jo of all mineralization is of this

type, as exemplified by the Artolla Mine. Ore minerals in the Artolla/San Bartolo
mining area are dominated by native copper, cuprite, and tenorite. Atacamite is
ubiquitous (Fig. 6 D) while copper sulfides are absent. Galena and native silver are
present in small quantities. Oxide-cemented sands formed the most volumetrical-
628 S. Flint
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E
u
N
Q
I
()
<
10
t
\ 1),
Q.
u ...I
. ). 1..· c
r.l
'C
(!) .). J 11.., Q.
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al
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630 S. Flint
ly important ores, assaying at up to 28 wt.o/o Cu, with up to 30 ppm Ag (G. Walls

1983, pers.commun.). Ore minerals occur as poikilotopic crystals, which replace
earlier carbonate and silicate cements (Fig. 6E).
In areas of low ore grade the ore minerals occur as stringers and concretions,
commonly discordant to bedding. These features have been interpreted as miner-
alized burrows. Evidence includes the presence of morphologically similar trace
fossils in unmineralized sands and, in rare cases, the presence of pyrite, which is
partially replaced by ore minerals. Atacamite is the earliest ore phase found in
bleached sandstones, and is commonly the only copper mineral in much of the
noneconomic mineralization. It occurs as early rims around detrital grains, as in-
tergrowths with authigenic silica, and fills early dissolution voids in plagioclase
feldspars (Fig. 6D,F). Atacamite coexists with early diagenetic hematite and has
been shown to be a stable phase in the normal oxidative red bed diagenetic system
(Flint 1985 c).
The mineralogy of matrix ores changes to a mixed sulfide assemblage some
3 km along strike NW of Artolla mine (Fig. 5). Chalcocite-group minerals (i.e.,
anilite, digenite, and djurleite) are dominant, along with covellite, but in rare cases
chalcopyrite and bornite form early cements. These sulfides share an identical
paragenetic position to the native metal/oxide assemblages but differ morpholog-
ically in being small, interlocking crystals. Unfortunately, landslips along Que-
brada Palicaye make it impossible to document the exact transition zone from sul-
fide to native metal/oxide mineralogy.
Veinlet Style Mineralization. This subsidiary style of mineralization is restricted

to vertically bedded, fractured sandstones at the head of Quebrada Palicaye and
characterized by complex, botryoidal intergrowths of chalcopyrite and bornite
with later digenite (Fig. 6 G, H). These early minerals are partially replaced by
more sulfur-rich anilite, and blaubleibender and normalcovellites. Electron micro-
Fig. 6A-I. A Interbedded playa mudflat and sandflat deposits of the Artolla Member in the Rio
Grande valley, south of San Bartolo. Note angular unconformity with the overlying San Bartolo group
ignimbrites. The spoil heap of Artolla mine is seen at the right hand side of the photograph. Height
of cliff is approximately 100m. B Ore-bearing channel sandstones in deformed zone at the head of
Quebrada Palicaye. Both primary matrix and secondary veinlet styles of ore are found in this area.
Vertical height of outcrop is 20 m. C Slabbed specimen of playa sandstone showing dendritic pattern
of mineralization. D Photomicrograph of sandstone from the Artolla mine. This bed has not been
subjected to the secondary porosity generation; early calcite cement (C) is preserved. Note the small,
pore-lining analcimes (An). The large detrital grain in the center is a plagioclase feldspar showing ad-
vanced dissolution. The voids so produced are filled by atacamite (dark). Plane polarized light. Scale
bar = 0.5 mm. E Reflected light photomicrograph showing cuprite matrix ore. Note remnants of earli-
er calcite cement (Cal) and analcime (An), now separated from host grain surfaces by displacive
growth of the cuprite. Much of this mineral was originally native copper (after Flint 1986). F SEM
backscattered electron image of fibrous pore-filling atacamite (At), postdating authigenic analcime
(An) which has nucleated on detrital quartz (Qz). Scale bar = 0.5 mm. G Botryoidal, rhythmic in-
tergrowths of chalcopyrite (Cp) and bornite (Bn), with later orthorhombic digenite (Dg). Veinlet min-
eralization, Quebrada Palicaye mines. Backscattered electron image (after Flint 1986). H Digenite
(Dg) replaced along orthorhombic cleavages by atacamite (At). Palicaye mines. Backscattered electron
image. Scale bar= 0.5 mm. I Remnants of epigenetic organic residue (0) precipitated in secondary
pore spaces. This substance is considered to have acted as an energy source for bacterial sulfate reduc-
tion/precipitation of copper sulfides
probe analyses show the bornite to be slightly sulfur-rich (Flint 1985b) in common
with many other sediment-hosted copper deposits (Ripley et al. 1980). Galena is
present in the veinlet ores but to a lesser extent than in the matrix mineralization.
Moreover, underground investigations revealed that some tectonic fractures are fill-
ed by thin ( < 1 em) sheets of native copper. These are remarkably similar to the
"charque" reported from the Corocoro deposit (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964).
3 Ore Genesis
Almost without exception, the genesis of sediment-hosted, usually stratiform cop-
per deposits has, in recent years, been linked to the presence of continental red
beds and evaporites (Davidson 1966; Renfro 1974; Rose 1976; Gustafson and Wil-
liams 1981; Clemmey 1985). This association is useful in explaining possible
sources of copper and the nature of metalliferous brines within the sedimentary
basin. It does not adequately address the problem of precipitating a reduced sul-
fide/native metal assemblage in oxidized host rocks. Most sediment-hosted cop-
per deposits are, in fact, not true red bed deposits, that is they occur in reduced,
organic-rich or pyrite-bearing argillaceous sediments which have stratigraphic co-
herence with continental clastic sequences (Gustafson and Williams 1981; Eugster
1985).
Examples of significant deposits actually hosted by red beds include Yacimien-
to, USA (Woodward et al. 1974), Alderley Edge, UK (Ixer and Vaughan 1982) and
a series of deposits of the Central Andes (Flint 1989), the largest of which is Cor-
ocoro, Bolivia (Entwistle and Gouin 1955; Ljunggren and Meyer 1964). In the ma-
jority of the above occurrences, authors have attributed the necessary temporary
intrastratal reducing conditions to the presence of syn-sedimentary concentra-
tions of organic material (commonly tree trunks and logs). Such phenomena are
absent in the case of San Bartolo and arguably only of limited application in un-
derstanding many other deposits.
3.1 Source of the Copper
The simple, low temperature ore mineral assemblage, absence of structural control
on the main mineralization, and paucity of mineralization associated with the
many faults in the area argue against an igneous-hydrothermal ore fluid. More-
over, igneous rocks are absent in the Tertiary and Cretaceous stratigraphy of the
San Pedro area. The lead isotopic signatures of San Bartolo sulfides (Flint 1986)
plot in the field of Mesozoic to Paleogene calc-alkaline volcanics from southern
Peru and the Copiap6 area of northern Chile (Fig. 7). This suggests that the ores
may have been derived, along with much of the basin-fill, from the erosion of
calc-alkaline igneous rocks. The measured isotopic compositions may be due to
selective contamination of primitive arc lavas (which would plot in the Nazca
plate basalt field) by radiogenic upper crustal lead. The data preclude derivation
of the metals from highly radiogenic crustal sources such as older sediments or
ore deposits (Flint 1986).
632 S. Flint
39·0 .----.----.------.,..---""T"""---r---.
&~:.
38·0
37·5 ~_.._
+
_ ____J.___ _..___ __.__ __,____.
3.'1....
15· 7 r----r------..------+-:-::-::-:-:::-r-----r----,
Fig. 7. Lead isotopic compositions of

,_ ..-:,
••
15·6 ' copper sulfides from the San Bartolo
20~ deposit. Circles represent matrix sul-
204p6 fides, whereas squares are veinlet sul-
fides. The fields of lead isotope com-
15·5 positions for Nazca plate basalts
(npb) and Mesozoic-Paleogene
volcanics (sp) from Peru (Barriere
15·-4 L - - L - - - - - - 1 - - - ' - - - - . . . . __ __,____.
and Clark 1984) and andesites from
18·2 18·-4 18·6 18·8 19·0 the Copiap6 region of northern Chile
(ca; McNutt et a!. 1979) are shown
20~
204"P6" for comparison (after Flint 1986)
3.2 Intrastratal Chemistry and Timing of Mineralization
Between deposition of the host lithic arkosic sandstones and the precipitation of
the ore mineral assemblage, a sequence of diagenetic events and minerals com-
menced with the partial to complete dissolution of unstable ferromagnesian min-
erals (commonly within igneous rock fragments) and the production of authigenic
hematite and pore-lining analcime (Fig. 6D).
The earliest pore-filling cements are calcite, gypsum, and celestite. The highly
displacive growth of these cements is inferred to have taken place relatively early,
before significant compaction of the sediments effectively destroyed the primary
porosity (Fig. 6D).
The depositional environment of the Artolla sandstones was influential in
their subsequent early diagenesis. The arid climate and negligible source area
weathering resulted in preservation of unstable minerals which were moved
through the alluvial fan system onto the high energy, distal sandflat. The associa-
tion of the relatively permeable sandstone with interbedded mudstone, and the
sheet-like geometry of the sandstones, aided the passage of meteoric groundwater
and subsequent basin-derived fluids (see below).
With increasing burial, the Paciencia group was gradually removed from the
influence of depositional pore waters. Examination of thin/polished sections re-
veals the presence of a matrix of organic material in many mineralized samples
(Fig. 61). This substance, which predates copper minerals, shows clearly replacive
relationships with earlier calcite and zeolite cements. Its distribution appears to
Cerros De Alluvial
Purilactis fans Sandflat
Shallow
- '~
_ Artolla
Member
3 1 2 4
Fig. 8. Basin model for the Paciencia group, showing facies distribution patterns (after Flint 1985 a)
and a schematic sequence of events resulting in the formation of the San Bartolo copper deposits. (af-
ter Flint 1987 a). 1 Diagenesis of playa evaporites produces chloride-rich sulfate brines; 2 burial
diagenesis of lacustrine mudstones releases low Eh/pH solutions (soluble organic acids), which mi-
grate into basin-marginal clastics, causing secondary porosity generation. 3 Saline brines leach trace
amounts of copper from the first cycle, immature basin-fill red beds. 4 Cupriferous fluids migrate to-
wards the basin margin, into the secondary pore spaces in the Artolla sandstones. The organic residue
maintains a reducing intrastratal environment. 5 Precipitation of the economic ore mineral assemblage
be linked with secondary porosity generation. The organic material is thought to

represent an insoluble residue which marked the passage through the Artolla
sandstones of a fluid with low Eh/pH characteristics (Fig. 8). These features are
remarkably similar to those of documented insoluble residues remaining after the
passage of humate-rich groundwater containing dissolved organic acids through
red bed sandstones of the Colorada Plateaus, USA (Thrner-Peterson 1985).
Precipitation of reduced copper species took place following the subsequent
circulation of oxidized chloride-rich copper sulfate brines through the newly per-
meable host rocks. These brines were derived through burial diagenesis of the Pa-
ciencia group evaporites (Fig. 8). Sulfate reduction is considered to have been
biogenic; the restricted supply of organic precipitate (bacterial substrate) resulted
in 32S-enriched sulfide isotopic signatures (Flint 1986) (Table 2).
The veinlet sulfide mineralization, restricted to the vertically bedded sand-
stones at the head of Quebrada Palicaye (Figs. 5, 6B), shows clear cross-cutting
relationships with the earlier stratabound ores. However, the veinlet sulfides have
sulfur and lead isotopic signatures similar to the matrix ores. Coupled with the
absence of gangue minerals, the small size of the vein system and paucity of host
rock alteration, it is concluded that the veinlets represent local remobilization of
the stratabound matrix sulfide ores during middle Miocene folding, which was lo-
cally at its most intense in the Palicaye area (Hooper and Flint 1987).
3.3 Temperature of Mineralization
The copper sulfides invariably exhibit a strong single orthorhombic cleavage, indi-
cative of crystallization temperatures below 103 oc (Roseboom 1966). This is in
634 S. Flint
Table 2. Sulfur isotope compositions of copper sulfides and earlier sulfate cements in the Artolla
sandstones
Sample no. Mineral Lithology
44497 Digenite Brecciated sandstone -33.527

44620 Digenite-anilite Brecciated sandstone -33.786
45507 Djurleite Brecciated sandstone -29.680 Veinlets in sandstones
44620 Bornite Brecciated sandstone -36.483
5904 Chalcopyrite Brecciated sandstone -33.788
5894 Digenite-anilite Undisturbed sandstone -27.603
5879 Djurleite Undisturbed sandstone -23.458 Matix to sandstones
45517 Digenite Undisturbed sandstone -17.444
5895 Covellite Undisturbed sandstone -12.634
Pre-ore, diagenetic evaporite minerals
44618 Gypsum Vein in sandstone 2.445
45480 Anhydrite Nodular, bedded 4.572
45459 Celestite Cement in sandstone 6.589
45543 Gypsum Bedded, after anhydrite 3.413
accord with the common presence of djurleite, which is known to convert to high
chalcocite at 93 °C (Potter 1977), and the ubiquity of atacamite, the stability field
of which virtually disappears above 75 oc (Rose 1976; Flint 1985c).
The transition of analcime to albite, which takes place at 138 oc (Aoyaki and
Asakawa 1984), has clearly not taken place in the Artolla sandstones. The illitiza-
tion of smectitic clays is considered to commence at 75°-90 oc (Boles and Franks
1979; Dypvic 1983): the paucity of authigenic illite in the Artolla sandstones thus
supports relatively low temperatures.
Thus mineralogic data indicate that mineralization temperatures in the Artolla
host rocks probably did not exceed 100°C. A relatively high geothermal gradient
of approx. 50°-60°C/km has been proposed by Flint (1987) to account for the
observed mineralogy and textures such as the absence of sutured grain contacts
and compression-related fracturing of framework grains.
Following mineralization, renewed compression resulted in folding and uplift
of the Paciencia group. The subsequent influx of meteoric water is clearly reflect-
ed in the presence of late quartz and alkali feldspar overgrowths (Thble 3), which
in some samples overgrow and enclose ore minerals. By analogy with many sand-
stone-hosted uranium deposits of the southwestern USA, prolonged exposure to
late oxidative diagenesis is gradually destroying the copper deposit (Adams et al.
1978; Thrner-Peterson 1985).
4 Conclusion
A genetic model for the genesis of the San Bartolo copper deposits has been pro-
posed by Flint (1985b, 1986; Fig. 8). Copper was transported into the basin as
trace contents within ferromagnesian minerals and volcanic rock fragments. Sa-
line basinal brines, derived through evaporite diagenesis, leached copper from
Table 3. Generalized paragenetic scheme for diagenesis/mineralization of the Artolla sandstones
Mineral/event Early oxidative Reduction Late oxidative Remobilization

diagenesis diagenesis
Hematite
Clay minerals
Calcite
Gypsum
Analcime
Albite
K Feldspar
Celestite
Quartz
Atacamite
Mobile reductant
(? organic acid)
Porosity generation
Pyrite
Chalcopyrite
Bornite
Native copper
Chalcocite group
Cuprite
Covellite
Tenorite
Malachite
Time------
in sulfate brines. Burial diagenesis of lacustrine mudstones released low pH/Eh

fluids into the basin-marginal sandflat deposits of the Artolla Member, causing
dissolution of early carbonate/sulfate cements (secondary porosity generation)
and the precipitation of an organic residue (Fig. 8).
The subsequent influx of cupriferous brines resulted in precipitation of the re-
duced sulfide/native metal assemblage. Later uplift produced the subsidiary,
remobilized veinlet sulfide mineralization and resulted in an oxidative overprint
to the primary ore mineral assemblage.
Acknowledgments. Much of the research reported in this paper was undertaken while the author was
in receipt of a NERC research studentship at the University of Leeds, UK; supervised by H. Clemmey.
References
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related to the formation and destruction of the Jackpile-Paguate uranium deposit, northwest New
Mexico. Econ Geol 73:1635-1654
Aoyagi K, Asakawa T (1984) Paleotemperature analysis by authigenic minerals and its application to
petroleum exploration. Bull Am Assoc Petrol Geol 68:903-913
Barriero BA, Clark AH (1984) Lead isotopic evidence for evolutionary changes in magma-crust inter-
action, central Andes, southern Peru. Earth Planet Sci Lett 69:430-442
Boles JR, Franks SO (1979) Clay diagenesis in Wilcox sandstones of southwest ll:xas: implications
of smectite diagenesis on sandstone cementation. J Sediment Petrol 49:55-70
636 S. Flint
Briiggen J (1934) Grundziige der Geologie und Lagerstattenkunde Chiles. Math Nat Kl Akad Wiss,
Heidelberg, 362 p
Briiggen J (1950) Fundamentos de Ia Geologia de Chile. Inst Geogr Militar Santiago Chile, 365 p
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Group, Antofagasta Province, Chile. J Geol Soc Lond 142:533-546
Flint S (1985 b) The sedimentology, diagenesis and copper mineralization of continental sediments in
the Central Andes. Ph D thesis, Univ Leeds, UK, 403 p (unpublished)
FlintS (1985c) On the paragenetic position of atacamite in low temperature red bed copper deposits
of northern Chile. Zbl Geol Palaont Teil1 (9/10):1617-1628
Flint S (1986) Sedimentary and diagenetic controls on red bed ore genesis: the Middle Tertiary San
Bartolo copper deposit, Antofagasta Province, Chile. Econ Geol 81:761-778
Flint S (1989) Sediment-hosted stratabound copper deposits of the central Andes. Geol Assoc Can
Spec Paper 36:371-398
FlintS (1987b) The diagenesis of Tertiary playa sandstones of northern Chile: implications for An-
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Geol 75th Aniv Vol, pp 179-213
Hollingworth SE, Rutland RWR (1968) Studies of Andean uplift Part 1 - Post-Cretaceous evolution
of the San Bartolo area, north Chile. Geol J 6:49-62
Hooper B, FlintS (1987) Miocene-Recent tectonic evolution of the San Bartolo area, northern Chile.
Zbl Geol Palaont (in press)
Ixer RA, Vaughan DJ (1982) The primary ore mineralogy of the Alderley Edge deposit, Cheshire. Min
Mag 46:485-492
Lahsen A (1982) Upper Cenozoic volcanism and tectonism in the Andes of northern Chile. Earth Sci
Rev 18:285-302
59:110-125
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72:1524-1542
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The Stratiform Ag-Cu Deposit El Jardin, Northern Chile
C. K. MAYER 1 and L. FONTBOTE 1• 2
1 Introduction
TheEl Jardin mine belongs to a belt of stratabound Cu, Ag-Cu and Ag deposits
in the lower part of the Hornitos Formation (Upper Cretaceous?, Paleocene?) in
northern Chile. Other examples of this belt are: Elisa de Bordos [Ag-(Hg); see
Jurgeit and Fontbote this Vol.], Amolanas (Cu-Ag), El Venado (Ag-Cu), Boli-
viana [Ag-(Hg)], Altar de Cobre (Cu) and a great number of smaller deposits
(Fig. 1). Exhibiting differences in ore textures, the deposits show similarities in
host rock lithology, and mineralogic and geochemical composition. Vein-type
deposits occur in the same stratigraphic position. Nordenskjold (1897), Kuntz
(1923), Little (1926), Cortes (1942), and Segerstrom (1959) provided early descrip-
tions followed by Lortie and Clark (1974, 1987), Mayer and Fontbote (1984,
1986), Jurgeit et al. (1986) and Mayer (1988). This paper is based on field and
laboratory work and presents a short description of host rock lithology,
diagenetic evolution, ore geometry, composition, and zonation of the El Jardin
mine (27°45'30"S/70°11'30"W), 47 km SEE of Copiap6, capital of the Atacama
Province, N-Chile (Fig. 1). The main ore horizon is mined in several smaller mines
at a length of about 3 km. A second ore horizon, stratigraphically 40 m above the
main orebody, was mined during 1982 and 1983, but the production ceased due
to processing problems. The production is about 100 t/day with an ore grade of
1.8% Cu and 100 g/t Ag. The present description is restricted to the main orebody
in the sectors Zulema, San Pedro and San Antonio (Fig. 3).
2 Geology
The rocks found in the mining district have been deposited in intra-arc-basins
during the second substage of the Andean Orogenic Cycle (Coira et al. 1982) and
belong to the Cerrillos (lower Upper Cretaceous?) and Hornitos Formation (Up-
per Cretaceous?, Paleocene?) (Segerstrom 1959; Fig. 1). The Cerrillos Formation
(Segerstrom and Parker 1959) up to 4500 m thick, unconformably overlies the
Neocomian magmatic arc-back-arc pair represented by the Bandurrias Formation
and the Chaflarcillo Group as well as Jurassic rocks.
Based on lithologic comparison with the Abanico Formation of central Chile,
a lower Upper Cretaceous age has been suggested for the Cerrillos Formation
(Segerstrom 1968). Granites intruding the upper part of the formation yielded a
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der UniversiUit, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRG
2 Present address: Dep. de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maral'chers, CH-1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

638 C. K. Mayer and L. Font bote
~B
~
~4
Ds
06
~ 7
[[] 8
Fig. I. Location and geology of the El Jardin Ag-Cu deposit. A Hornitos Formation (Paleocene?); B Cer-
rillos Formation (lower Upper Cretaceous); E.d.B. Elisa de Bordos Ag-(Hg) deposit; 1 Alluvium; 2 Mio-
cene gravels; 3 gypsiferous sandstones with limy intercalations (Hornitos Fm.: 3 -6); 4 conglomerate;
5 unwelded top of ignimbrite; 6 welded tuff; 7 Cerrillos Fm.: volcanic rocks; 8 argillic alteration zone
KlAr age of 105 ± 10 m.y. Volcanic conglomerates, lacustrine carbonates, and

sandstones are the dominating lithologies in the lower part of this formation. The
upper 2000 m consist of andesitic lavas, dacitic tuffs, pyroclastic flows, felsic ig-
nimbrites (Zentilli 1974) and subordinated volcanic conglomerates. Composition
of the volcanics ranges between high alumina basalt and rhyolithic (Zentilli 1974).
In the mining district of El Jardin volcanic rocks of the Cerrillos Formation have
undergone intense argillic alteration in an area of about 2 km 2 (Fig. 1).
The Hornitos Formation overlies the Cerrillos Formation by a low-angle un-
conformity. The up to 2500 m thick volcano-sedimentary sequence has been de-
scribed by Lortie and Clark (1987). Granitoid intrusions of the coastal batholith
outcropping at distances of 7 km from the mine have no direct relation with the
ore occurrence. The strata dip 5 to 60° SE-ESE. Both formations have undergone
compressive tectonic events which affected them differently (Fig. 1). The main ore
body dips 10 to 50° SE (Fig. 2).
In six sections, taken in the area Elisa de Bordos/El Jardin the following units
have been distinguished in the lower part of this formation (Fig. 2; the analytical
data mentioned below are discussed in detail in Mayer 1988):
The Stratiform Ag-Cu Deposit El Jardin, Northern Chile 639
Elisa de Bordos
C!::::J 12
611
010
Rio de Copiapo
·:'-------"oo~o0o( IT] 6
~5
~4
0 3
~2
~1
100m
Fig. 2. W-E sections of the area Elisa de Bordos - El Jardin. 12 Unconformity Cerrillos/Hornitos
Formation; 11 limestone; 10 gypsiferous sandstones; 9 coarse conglomerate; 8 marls, strongly folded;
7 marls; 6 main orebody; 5 unwelded tuff; 4 welded tuff; 3 air fall tuff; 2 volcaniclastic rocks (Cerrillos
Formation); 1 volcanic rocks (Cerrillos Formation)
A) Unwelded Base of Ignimbrite (Air Fall Tuff) (0-6 m). Well-sorted pumice
fragments, ash and glass particles are the major components of the unit host-
ing the Elisa de Bordas stratiform Ag-(Hg) ores.
B) Ignimbrite (0- 90 m). The ignimbrite consists of an unwelded lower (unit A),
a welded central (B 1; 0- 80 m) and an upper unwelded unit (B 2; 0-90 m). B 1
and B 2 thin out to the North. B 1 is a pinkish gray, densely welded tuff with
abundant andesitic fragments in the lower part. The tuff is recrystallized and
the feldspar phenocrysts are completely decomposed to calcite and clay. The
Si02 content ranges from 76.6-77.5 wt.o/o in the lower part (B 1) to
69.4-75.3 wt.% in the upper part. K20 contents ranging between 4.7 and
5.5 wt.% are detected in the ignimbrite. The Cen/Ybn relation of about 5.7 is
comparable to those of Cenozoic ignimbrites described by Thorpe et al.
(1979). In the El Jardin area unit B2 consists of a relatively thin cover of un-
welded tuff whose upper 1- 3 m locally are ore-bearing.
640 C. K. Mayer and L. Fontbote
C) Cover of the Ignimbrite (2-6m). Smaller depressions developed at the top of

the ignimbrite had been filled by almost epiclastic ignimbritic material and
euxinic coal-bearing lacustrine to fluviatile deposits hosting the main
orebody.
D) Conglomerate (0 -120m). A coarse polymict volcanic conglomerate lens
grades laterally into thinly bedded marls, sandstones and lacustrine carbon-
ates, host lithology of the second ore horizon.
E) Sandstones and Marls (150-200 m). The gypsiferous thinly bedded sandstone
and marl sequence with intercalations of limestone beds is strongly folded.
3 Lithostratigraphic Units in the Main Orebody

The following lithostratigraphic units can be distinguished in seven sections taken
in the main orebody (Fig. 3):
B 2) The upper unwelded part of the pyroclastic flow occurs as the oldest unit
in the underground workings. In the southern area the uppermost 1-3 m are ore-
bearing, whereas in the northern part no or only weak mineralization can be
~1
3 2
~2
m3
g 4
8
.6
~5
S. Anton i o S. Pedro r":'"'l

L::..:a
a
5
IO:O'a g
~
Cu
-
Ag 500ppm -
5%
Fig. 3. Lithology and Ag-Cu distribution in the main orebody in the sectors Zulema, S. Antonio, and
S. Pedro. 1 Red siltstones and sandstones; 2 rhyzolites; 3 cross-bedded siltstones; 4 sandstones with
minor amount of organic material; 5 black siltstones and sandstones; 6 sandstones with coal layers;
7 sedimentary breccia; 8 sandstones; 9 sandstones with pumice fragments; 10 unwelded ash flow;
11 welded tuff
d ig dig
3 om he cpy bo cs ten py sl ga 2 om he cpy bo cs ten py sl ga
IV ~v v
·.. ........
~
~
i±:£ J--l---H+--+-:-~tl-ll-+-I-H
4~aoo
.... ...
...... L__L......JL.LJ..J---L...L...LJ.J..L- ' -- ' - - ' -- '
dig
I
6 om he cp bo cs ten py s l ga
~~ . ~~
1
y~~~v~y~~~
• iL
. .. ! ~i~
.... 1 om he cpy bo ten py s l ga
~..,
··~
2m
1m
Fig. 4. Zonation in four representative sections in the main orebody. om Organic material; he
hematite; cpy chalcopyrite; bo bornite; dig digenite; cs chalcocite; ten tennantite; py pyrite; s/
sphalerite; ga galena. Symbols for lithology see Fig. 3
detected (Fig. 3). Pumice fragments up to 10 em in size, glass and andesite frag-
ments, plagioclase phenocrysts, and fragments of hematite-ilmenite intergrowths
are embedded in ash material. Ash matrix, glass, and pumice fragments are al-
tered to clay minerals and/or calcite and/or chalcedony. Unaltered plagioclase has
been observed only in sections 3 and 4 (Fig. 3). Locally the upper part of the flow
has been brecciated.
C 1) 0- 2.5 m. Smaller NE-trending depressions are filled by fragments of the
lower units. Their characteristic greenish color can be ascribed to the presence of
chlorite. The unit is ore-bearing.
C2) 0.1-2 m. Black to dark gray breccia, carbonaceous sand, and siltstones.
The abundant organic material appears in the Zulema sector as up to 2-cm-thick
coal seams. In the lower part of this unit organic material is strongly diluted by
poorly sorted subrounded to angular pumice fragments. The upper part consists
of black finely bedded carbonaceous gypsiferous silt- to sandstones. The unit is
ore-bearing.
C3) Ore-bearing breccias and sandstones overlying unit C2 with a maximum
thickness of 1.6 m.
C4) Unit C3 grades laterally into an up to 1.2-m-thick well-sorted glauconitic
sediment of silt to fine sand particle size which exhibits cross-lamination and
rhyzolites (?). It consists mainly of carbonatized glass and pumice fragments and
clay material.
C 5) An almost barren reddish silt-to-sandstone represents a sudden change to
oxidizing conditions.
The widespread alteration (argillic alteration, carbonatization, etc.) indicates
a quite normal development during diagenesis of silica-rich volcanic glass (Fisher
and Schmincke 1984). A later hydrothermal overprint need not necessarily be tak-
en into account.
4 Ore Geometry, Composition, and Zonation

At least 95o/o of the ore occurs as disseminations both in fragments and matrix.
Veins, veinlets, stringers, small lenses, and unusual cylindric bodies (description
below) provide the rest of the ore. Main sulfide phases are chalcocite (djurleite
and anilite), digenite, tennantite (up to 1% Ag and 7% Hg), bornite, covellite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite (up to 1.5% Cd and up to 0.8% Fe), and galena
(Ag contents below detection limit of microprobe analysis). Native silver,
atacamite, malachite, azurite, and barite also occur. Cross-cutting veins contain
Fig. S. Hand specimen from Unit C4

with cross-bedding. Perpendicular to
bedding rhyzolites consisting of sul-
fides (mainly chalcocite, digenite, ten-
nantite, bornite, and pyrite) can be
recognized
Fig. 6. Diagenetic veinlet in a coal seam of unit C2 filled by quartz, tennantite, chalcocite, and
digenite. Photo length: 7 mm. Polished section, uncrossed nicols
rare pearceite, cinnabar, proustite, stromeyerite, and mckinstryite (Lortie and

Clark 1987).
Main sulfide phases of the disseminated type are chalcocite and digenite,
which often replace hematite-ilmenite intergrowths (unit B2), rim and/or replace
anatase/brookite fragments (C 1), occupy cores of former glass, pumice and pla-
gioclase fragments and fill pore space (Fig. 7). In the latter a sequence (rim to
core) of quartz-digenite-djurleite can be observed. In stringers subparallel to coal
seams of unit C2, a crystallization sequence of quartz-tennantite-digenite-chal-
cocite can be observed (Fig. 6). In this case digenite and chalcocite reveal a lam-
inar intergrowth. Chalcocite, digenite and tennantite replace early diagenetic
framboidal pyrite. The copper phases contain up to 1.6 wt.OJo Ag showing a heter-
ogeneous distribution. Silver probably occurs as smallest silver sulfide inclusions
within the copper sulfides. In pore spaces the core (djurleite) is often silver-
rich, whereas the rim (digenite) is nearly silver-free. Chalcopyrite is found in
smallest quantities as laminar intergrowth in bornite or as fine dispersions in bor-
nite.
The organic matter consists of fusinites, semi-fusinites with well-preserved cell
structures and vitrinite. Reflection measurements (50) of vitrinite yield an average
of 1.79% oil reflectivity (Teichmiiller, written commun.) which represents an
"Esskohle" with about 16% volatile components. This fact is consistent with the
about 2500 m thickness of burial. The organic matter represents probably carbon-
ized rods, sedge, and eel-grass of the genus Zostera (Lortie and Clark 1987).
Sphalerite and galena occur of ten as cell fillings.
Cylindric bodies with a diameter of up to 0.9 em and up to 15 em length occur
in unit C3 and especially in unit C4 perpendicular to bedding (Figs. 3, 5). They
Fig. 7. Glasshards in unwelded tuff (unit 82) replaced by quartz, chalcocite, and bornite. Photo
length: 0.33 mm. Polished section, uncrossed nicols
consist of chalcocite, digenite, tennantite, all of them mainly replacing early

diagenetic framboidal pyrite. In some of these bodies organic material occurs.
Parallel to bedding and cross-bedding the same sulfide assemblage is intercalated
in the siltstone. Lortie and Clark (1987) discuss these bodies as possible conducts
("pipes") of a fumarolic system. An interpretation as rhyzolites (also discussed
by the above-cited authors) is favored by the present author because of: (1) the
considerable amount of organic material in the "pipes" and wall rock, (2) the ab-
sence of alteration halos around the "pipes", (3) the absence of feeder channels
below the "pipes", (4) the presence of ore parallel to bedding and cross-bedding
without direct spacial relationship with the "pipes" and (5) the environment (levee
sequence) of which rhyzolites are a typical constituent.
In all the observed sections a clear vertical zonation can be detected (Fig. 4).
This zonation is quite similar to other stratiform Cu and Cu-Ag deposits of the
Kupferschiefer and red bed type.
5 Conditions of Ore Formation

Ore textures and the peneconcordant geometry suggest that sulfide formation
started during early diagenesis (framboidal pyrite) and culminated during final
cementation of pore space. The formation of ore in the veinlets and veins can be
explained by remobilization after lithification. Cross-cutting features like in El
Jardin are a typical component in red-bed deposits. Temperatures on base of
vitrinite reflectivity (Teichmiiller and Teichmiiller 1967) and Cu-Fe-S phase rela-
tionships (Roseboom 1966) are estimated below 103 °C. Laminar intergrowths of
digenite and djurleite indicate temperatures above this point. Fluid inclusions in
quartz of veins yielded homogenization temperatures about 140°±20°C with
maximum temperatures up to 250 oc (Lortie and Clark 1987). Sulfur isotope ana-
lyses of a few more or less coexisting sulfide and sulfate samples support low tem-
peratures and are in "permissive agreement with a bacterial reduction system"
(Lortie and Clark 1987). Supergene alteration can be documented by the oxida-
tion of pyrite, depleted zinc contents, and abundant occurrence of Cu-carbonates
in near-surface sections. As source of the metals, either the volcanic rocks of the
Cerrillos Formation or the ignimbrite itself can be considered. Leached out by
meteoric waters and probably transported as chloride or bisulfide complexes, the
metals have been trapped during diagenesis under euxinic conditions in small
basins developed on the surface of the ignimbrite and in the ignimbrite itself. A
direct supply of a part of the metals by fumarolic activity in the vicinity cannot
be excluded, but evidence is lacking. TheEl Jardin Ag-Cu deposit thus constitutes
an unusual deposit, in many respects revealing similarities with red-bed and
Kupferschiefer-type deposits. The close relationship to continental acid explosive
volcanism should be pointed out.
Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge valuable comments of Prof. Amstutz, investigations on

organic matter by Prof. Teichmfiller, and the support of the Cia. Minera San Andres, Copiap6, Chile.
This study has been supported by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst and by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft.
References
Coira B, Davidson J, Mpodozis C, Ramos V (1982} Tectonic and magmatic evolution of the Andes
Cortes JL (1942} El yacimiento de cobre de Amolanas en Copiap6. Anales 1 Congr Pan lng Min Geol
Santiago 3:1139-1144
Fisher RV, Schmincke HU (1984} Pyroclastic rocks. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York Thkyo, 472
p
Jurgeit M, Mayer CK, Fontbote L (1986} Pyroklastische Gesteine und Erzffihrung in der schichtfOrmi-
gen Silberlagerstiitte Elisa de Bordos, Formation Hornitos, Region Atacama, Chile. Berliner Geo-
wiss Abh A, Sonderbd (Geowiss Lateinamerika-Kolloq, Berlin, Abstr}, pp 149-150
Jurgeit M, Fontbote L The stratabound tuff-hosted Elisa de Bordos silver-mercury deposit, northern
Chile. This Vol, pp 647-658
Kuntz J (1923} La mineria de Copiap6. Santiago, Bol Min 35:87-100, 131-156, 165-210
Little JM (1926} The geology and metal deposits of Chile. Branwell, New York, 188 p
Lortie RB, Clark AH (1974} Stratabound fumarolic copper in rhyolitic lavas and ash-flow tuffs,
Copiap6 District, Atacama, Chile. Problems of Ore Deposition, Fourth IAGOD Symp, Varna
1:256-264
Lortie RB, Clark AH (1987} Strata-bound cupriferous sulfide mineralization associated with continen-
tal rhyolitic volcanic rocks, Northern Chile: I. The Jardin copper-silver deposit. Econ Geol
82:546-570
Mayer CK {1988} Ag- und Ag-Cu-Lagerstiitten in der Region Atacama, Nordchile. Lagerstiittenkundli-
che und geochemische Untersuchungen am Beispiel der Distrikte Chaftarcillo (Ag-[Co-Ni-As]}
und El Jardin {Ag-Cu}. Heidelberger Geowiss Abh 19:290
Mayer CK, Fontbote L (1984} Die Grube El Jardin {Provinz Atacama, N-Chile}, ein typisches Beispiel
von stratiformen Ag-Cu-Lagerstiitten in kontinentalen euxinischen Fazien, gebunden an saure Vul-
kanite. IX Geowiss Lateinamerika-Kolloq, Marburg, Thgungsheft, pp 106-107
Mayer CK, Fontbote L (1986) Paragenetische und geochemische Zonierung in der stratiformen Ag-
Cu-Lagerstiitte El Jardin, Region Atacama, N-Chile. Berliner (Geowiss Abh A Sonderbd. Geowiss
Lateinamerika-Kolloq, Berlin, Abstr), pp 159-160
Nordenskjtild 0 (1897) Dber einige Erzlagerstatten der Atacamawtiste. Bull Geol Inst Upsala
3:347-351
Roseboom Jr EH (1966) An investigation of the system Cu-S and some natural copper sulfides be-
tween 25°C and 700°C. Econ Geol61:641-672
Segerstrom K (1959) Cuadrangulo Los Loros, Provincia de Atacama. Inst Invest Geol Carta Geol Chi-
le 1,1:33
Segerstrom K (1968) Geologia de las hojas Copiap6 y Ojos del Salado, Prov. de Atacama. Inst Invest
Geol, Santiago, Bol 24:58
Segerstrom K, Parker RL (1959) Cuadrangulo Cerrillos; Provincia de Atacama. Inst Invest Geol Santi-
ago, Carta Geol Chile 1,2:33
Teichmtiller M, ll:ichmtiller R (1967) Diagenesis of coal. In: Diagenesis in Sediments. Develop Sedi-
ment 8, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 391-415
Thorpe RS, Francis PW, Moorbath S (1979) Rare earth and strontium isotope evidence concerning
the petrogenesis of North Chilean ignimbrites. Earth Planet Sci Let 42:359-367
Zentilli M (1974) Geological evolution and metallogenetic relationships in the Andes of Northern Chi-
le between 26° and 29° South. Ph D Thesis, Queens Univ, Kingston, Ontario, Can 394 p
The Stratabound Tuff-Hosted Elisa de Bordos
Silver-Mercury Deposit, Northern Chile
M. JURGEIT 1 and L. FONTBOTE 2
1 Introduction
The Elisa de Bordos deposit (70°11'W; 27°42'42"S) is situated on the southern
margin of the Chilean Atacama desert, 40 km southeast of the village of Copiap6
and about 80 km east of the Pacific coast (Fig. 1). The mine, 1100 m above sea
level, lies in the pre-Cordilleran mountain range, varying in altitude from 1200 to
2000m.
The Elisa de Bordos deposit was discovered in the last century. Production re-
cords are unknown, but Nordenskjold (1897) reported a yearly output of 12-13 t
fine silver. Mining was probably suspended in 1937; however, in 1983 Elisa de Bor-
dos was brought back into production, but only at a small-scale rate of 10-20
metric tons per day at an average grade of 150-400 g/t Ag.
The stratabound tuff-hosted deposit was mined, via two inclined shafts and
one adit, by the room and pillar method. The ore-bearing tuffs, which dip at an
average angle of 20° to the southeast, have been worked along a strike length of
1000 m and a breadth of 500 m, to a mining depth of 150m.
The first brief descriptions of the Elisa de Bordos deposit were given by
Nordenskjold (1897) and by Briiggen (1934). Area and regional geologic maps
have been published by Segerstrom and Parker (1959) and Segerstrom (1968). The
El Jardin copper-silver deposit (Mayer 1988; Mayer and Fontbote, this Vol.; Lortie
and Clark 1987), located 6 km to the south, shows similarities to the Elisa de Bor-
dos deposit and has been described as a probable red-bed type deposit which oc-
curs in the same stratigraphic position as the Elisa de Bordos mine.
Field work for this study was carried out in April 1985. The purpose of this re-
port is to describe the geology, mineralization and ore zoning in the Elisa de Bordos
occurrence. A genetic model based on these data is presented for the deposit.
2 Geologic History of the Copiapo District

Segerstrom (1968) provides an extensive description of the geology of the
Copiap6 district. During Middle Triassic and Jurassic time 2000 to 3000 m of rna-
1 Calle Baca Ortez 204, 34600 Santiago Papasquiaro Durango, Mexico

2 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches lnstitut der Universitltt Heidelberg, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg,
FRO.
Present address: Dep. de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH 1211 Geneve 4, Switzerland

648 M. Jurgeit and L. Fontbote
72°W 70°W 68°W

\
\
/
~
I
I
I
I 26°5
)
/
I
(IJ \
.::z:-
::::! ___ \;
gl..J
()(
)
i!f I
I
~
;::::
I 28°5
(
/
$
I
I
I
!#
"<(
I 0 100
( -==-=='
) km
Fig. 1. Index map showing the location of the Elisa de Bordos silver deposit in the Copiap6 district,
Atacama Province, northern Chile
rine sediments, limestones, and continental lavas with interlayered volcaniclastic

sediments were accumulated. In Neocomian time the marine Chafiarcillo Group
and the continental volcanic and volcaniclastic Bandurrias Formation were laid
down. An unconformity separates these sequences from the overlying Cerrillos
Formation of Cretaceous age, comprising up to 4500 m of andesitic and latitic
flows, and volcaniclastics. This assemblages are overlain with weak angular un-
conformity by the Hornitos Formation, which consists of felsic ignimbrites,
volcaniclastics, and lacustrine sediments. K-Ar dating (Quirt 1972; Zentilli 1974
in: Lortie and Clark 1987) indicates a Paleocene age for this formation, but an
Upper Cretaceous age is also possible (Segerstrom 1968). The periods of volcanic·
activity were commonly accompanied by the intrusion of predominantly felsic
plutonic rocks. The emplacement of the huge, north-northeast-trending Andean
batholith, west of Copiap6, took place in the early Jurassic to late Cretaceous.
According to Zentilli (1974), the age of the intrusions decreases eastward. Most
intrusions of felsic plutons, stocks, and domes east of Copiap6 were emplaced un-
til 30 m.y. ago, some are even much younger in age.
3 Geology of the Elisa de Bordos District

The northwestern portions of the map area (Fig. 2) are occupied by the Cerrillos
Formation. Segerstrom and Parker (1959) divided this formation, which is up to
4500 m thick, into two subunits. The thin basal Checo de Cobre unit includes
volcaniclastic sandstones, conglomerates, and intercalated lacustrine limestone
beds. The "Upper Unit" (Segerstrom and Parker 1959) is composed mainly of
andesitic to latitic flows with subordinate interlayered volcaniclastic sandstones,
conglomerates and pyroclastic rocks. The Cerrillos Member was gently folded
and partly eroded before the volcano-sedimentary Hornitos Formation (mini-
The Stratabound Thff-Hosted Elisa de Bordos Silver-Mercury Deposit, Northern Chile 649
HORNITOS FORMATION 0 2 3
D Quater nary alluvium E}J welded ignimbrite flows km
~ Miocene pediment ~ volcaniclastic - evaporitic - - fault

~ gravels ~ succession ..,..---..... thrust fault
volcanic lastic --\-- anticline
granodiorite
fanglomerate -1;- syncline
domes of rhyolite nonwelded to weakly
welded ignimbrite
--Y-
....,-4
overturned syncline
strike and dip
-
CERRI LLOS FORMAT ION of bedding
monzonite andesitic to latitic ~ mine
-
f lows and volcaniclastics * Cu prospect or mine
~- contact-metamorphic 1200 attitude in meters
~ Cerrillos strata ~ road
Fig. 2. Geologic map of the Elisa de Bordos/ Buenos Aires area (modified after Segerstrom and Parker
1959)
mum thickness 2000 m) was deposited. This lies in a northeast-trending belt in the
southeastern part of the map area (Fig. 2).
Mapping of the Elisa de Bordos/Buenos Aires district outlined the presence
of five lithologic members in the Hornitos Formation (Jurgeit 1987); numbered
from the oldest to youngest as follows:
1. A local lower member, up to 60 m thick, of nonwelded or weakly welded

rhyolitic ash-flow tuff.
2. Thick lenses of a very coarse- to medium-grained volcaniclastic conglomerate,
intercalated with sporadic thin beds of lacustrine limestone incorporating gyp-
sum layers and sandstones. The rounded to subrounded pebbles and boulders
are mostly of andesitic or latitic composition.
3. A volcaniclastic-evaporitic succession varying in thickness between 400 and
900 m. This sequence consists predominantly of immature sandstones contain-
ing lenses of conglomerates, breccias, siltstones and lacustrine limestones with
gypsum, chert, and hematite. The rock fragments of the clastic sediments usu-
ally have an andesitic to latitic composition. Rare lenses of nonwelded to weak-
ly welded rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs occur.
4. Thick lenses of a rhyolitic ignimbrite member reaching a maximum thickness
of more than 700 m and comprising numerous predominantly strongly welded
ash flow layers.
5. An upper, volcaniclastic-evaporitic member resembling the third member,
reaching a thickness of at least 700 m.
The lens-shaped lower members 1 and 2 reveal that the basal Hornitos strata
were deposited in topographic depressions surrounded by highlands. The clastic
material of the Hornitos Formation most probably was derived from erosion of
the underlying Cerrillos Formation.
In places the volcano-sedimentary pile was intruded by small rhyolite domes,
presumably associated with the felsic ash-flow tuffs of the Hornitos Formation,
and by high-level stocks of Paleocene or post-Paleocene granodiorite. A pre-Hor-
nitos monzonite intrusive body is centered near the Agrandada mine (Fig. 2).
Middle Tertiary (Segerstrom 1963) gravels, now exposed as terraces, overlie un-
conformably the older units (Fig. 2).
The Hornitos Formation and the underlying older units were affected by a pe-
riod of ductile deformation in the late Paleocene (Jensen 1976). In the Elisa de
Bordos terrain (Fig. 2) the Hornitos and Cerrillos strata generally dip 20- 30° SE.
Complicated small-scale folding appears in the sandstone-dominated members 3
and 5 of the Hornitos Formation, especially in the southern parts of the map ar-
ea. This feature is well illustrated by intercalated limestone beds that commonly
show tight overturned folds plunging to the southeast. The basal ash-flow and
conglomerate member are nonfolded. The central thick ignimbrite member 4 act-
ed competently during the period of compression, resulting both in the develop-
ment of many tectonic contacts with the footwall and hanging wall members, and
in a thrust fault east of the Buenos Aires mountain complex (Fig. 2).
Besides the Elisa de Bordos silver deposit, the investigated area contains nu-
merous small-sized copper occurrences. Some are of vein type but most of them
The Stratabound Tuff-Hosted Elisa de Bordos Silver-Mercury Deposit, Northern Chile 651
are restricted to the stratiform manto type, hosted by sandstone, conglomerate,

siltstone, and shale horizons within the Hornitos and Cerrillos units.
3.1 Mine Geology
The tuff/tuffite-hosted Elisa de Bordos deposit lies on the northern edge of a

paleobasin filled by the lower Hornitos members 1 and 2. The ash-flow tuff and
the overlying conglomerate wedge out in the mine area due to the northerly adja-
cent paleohighlands (Fig. 3). The lithologic sequence, with decreasing age, is as
follows:
- latitic and andesitic flows and pyroclastic deposits of the Cerrillos Formation;
the lower Hornitos strata which are subdivided into four distinct units:
I) 1 to 3m thick unit of ash-fall tuff and tuffite having the composition of
rhyolite and containing sporadic clasts of intermediate volcanic rocks. Thicker
horizons contain conglomerate lenses comprising clasts of andesite and latite
in a tuff matrix. They clearly represent deposition within troughs on the paleo-
surface of the Cerrillos Formation. The now-altered tuff matrix originally
consisted chiefly of pumice lapilli less than 1.5 mm in diameter plus accessory
phenocrysts of feldspar.
II) A southwardly thickening rhyolitic ash-flow tuff. In the mine area this light-col-
ored rock is nonwelded and reaches a maximum thickness of about 40 m. In
\ ' \ '.
basin
)
c:J
ash-flow tuff
unit II
tfZ?J
present outcrop
of un it II
wedge-out of
unit II
CJ
Cerrillos Form ation
0 m 400
Fig. 3. Reconstruction of the paleorelief in earliest Hornitos time. Past elevation is contoured in meters
relative to the surface (wedge-out = 0 m) of the basin-filling ignimbrite (unit II). Negative contour
heights correspond approximately with the thickness of the ash-flow tuff. Superimposed is the posi-
tion of the Elisa de Bordos mine with shafts and workings within the tuff unit I in the footwall of
unit II. A-B represents the line of section in Fig. 4
thin section, shards, now altered to microcrystalline quartz and clay minerals,
can be recognized in the lower and upper zones of the ignimbrite sheet. In
the central part of the ash-flow tuff shard outlines are strongly or totally ob-
scured through crystallization of anhedral interlocking quartz grains ranging
in size from 0.04 to 0.1 mm. This feature is inferred to be related to the cool-
ing of the ash flow.
III) A 2- to 7-m thick, well-bedded unit includes tuffite and minor tuff with a
variable matrix composition of shards, pumice spheres, irregularly bounded
fragments of pumice, and phenocrysts of feldspar. Unit III contains some
conglomerate lenses, up to 3 m thick, with clasts of andesite and latite up to
20 em in diameter set in a tuff matrix. The conglomerate-bearing strata ap-
pears to have accumulated within shallow troughs on the eroded surface of
the ignimbrite. Unit III was formed both by reworking of units I and II dur-
ing downslope transport of debris derived from the northerly adjacent high-
lands, and by ash fall.
IV) A coarse- to medium-grained volcaniclastic conglomerate, which wedges out
north of the mine and thickens to 90 m in the southern mine area. The pinch-
ing out of unit IV and its interdigitation with evaporitic gypsum-bearing
sandstones, siltstones, and shales (Lortie and Clark 1987) 6 km south of the
Elisa de Bordas deposit in the El Jardin mine area suggests that the conglom-
erate represents an alluvial fan.
NW SE
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 m

Hornitos Formation Cerri llos Formation
1:-.. :\
sandstone·:>-:::1 ~ alluvial fan ~ volcanic flows
~ cong lome rate ~ and vo lcaniclastics
conglomerate
~. ~ £:::___=:::J tu If, unit Ill
~ and breccia
[:;.':::-] ignimb rite, unit II
1:0:'- - -l limestone workings within unit I and Ill
- t u f f . unitl
Fig. 4. Geologic cross-section through a northeastern portion of the Elisa de Bordos mine area. The
ignimbrite (unit II) and the alluvial fan conglomerate (unit IV) correspond to the Hornitos members
I and 2 respectively. The Hornitos member 3 comprises sandstones with intercalated beds of lime-
stone, conglomerate, and breccia
Unit II and IV are identical with the larger-scale stratigraphy of the Hornitos
members 1 and 2 respectively.
In the Elisa de Bordos mine the lower Hornitos units strike approximately
N 40° E, and dip principally at 15-35° SE. Mining is limited to unit I and to a
lesser extent to unit III. The relief on the pre-Hornitos unconformity in the Elisa
de Bordos area was reconstructed by using the varying thicknesses and dip angles
of units I, II, and IV (Fig. 3). The spatial distribution of the lithologic units in
the mine is shown in Fig. 4.
The deformation event in the late Paleocene caused shearing and foliation in
unit I and III, especially at the contact with the competent ignimbrite sheet.
Mylonitic shear zones and slickenside planes occur immediately above and below
the ash-flow tuff.
Early pre-tectonic alteration products in the tuff units I and III include
microcrystalline quartz and clay minerals. Irregularly distributed minor amounts
of early interstitial calcite cement are likely to have formed by groundwater pass-
ing through the permeable tuff units I and III.
Syn- and post-tectonic alteration products comprise muscovite and subordi-
nate talc, defining the foliation, as well as quartz, calcite, and clay minerals.
3.2 Mineralization
Mineralization in Elisa de Bordos occurs predominantly disseminated within

units I and Ill, and less commonly in the uppermost 1 or 2 m of the ignimbrite
flow. The dominant metallic minerals are silver amalgam (about 30 wt.% Hg) and
acanthite, together with chlorargyrite and embolite near the surface. The silver ha-
lides are doubtless supergene. Minerals of minor abundance are cinnabar,
pearceite, tennantite (3- 22.5 wt.OJo Ag), argentian sulfosalts (containing Cu, As,
Fe, S), and an unidentified mineral with the approximate composition
Hg4Ag 10S7 analyzed by electron microprobe. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, and covellite
were observed only rarely. Thin flakes and sheets of silver amalgam, in part re-
placed by acanthite, occur along fracture, shear, and foliation planes. Ore miner-
als are generally of a grain size less than 0.2 mm and are found dispersed through-
out the tuff country rock in varying amounts (0- 3 OJo ). The bulk of the ore miner-
als crystallized post-tectonically, some of them display syntectonic deformation
features, e.g., deformation and breaking.
Veins and veinlets ranging from 1 mm to 3 em in width appear locally and are
developed parallel to shear zones of unit I, or are orientated discordantly within
all tuff units and in the uppermost part of the underlying Cerrillos Formation.
Their filling comprises a gangue of calcite, barite, and quartz with sporadic aggre-
gates of silver amalgam (about 40 wt.% Hg) weighing up to 100 g, minor acanthite,
and sulfosalts. Vein acanthite displays anisotropy and a lamellae texture, which in-
dicates a transformation from cubic argentite to monoclinic acanthite. The conver-
sion temperature from argentite to acanthite is 176 oc (Ramdohr 1975), thus the
formation of some of the veins required temperatures above 176 °C.
Silver amalgam and Hg 4Ag 10S7 represents the earliest phases in the tuffaceous
rocks. Their grain margins are commonly replaced by pseudomorphs of acanthite
or rims of chalcopyrite. Replacement of silver amalgam is accompanied by the ap-

pearance of small flakes of cinnabar. Rarely, small subhedral crystals ( < 0.2 mm)
of tennantite are intergrown together with silver amalgam and chalcopyrite. Ten-
nantite replaces the latter, which reveals that it is late in the paragenesis. Most of
the acanthite, pearceite, cinnabar, sulfosalts, chalcopyrite, covellite, and tennantite
are probably of supergene origin. This is supported by decreasing quantities with
increasing depth, replacement textures, and their post-tectonic crystallization.
High-grade portions of the deposit attain 300 to 1300 g Ag/m with peak values
up to 6000 g/t in shear zones just below and above the ignimbrite. The silver-rich
zones display a clear spatial relationship to the pre-existing relief. In unit I they
are restricted to topographic highs. The highest silver contents in unit I are found
in the vicinity of the wedge-out of the ash-flow tuff (unit II). The richest ore zones
in unit III and the upper 1 or 2 m of unit II, which normally is free of silver, are
likewise found adjacent to the wedge-out of unit II and formed apparently within
shallow northeast-trending troughs on the surface of the ignimbrite.
4 Genetic Model
The model outlined below, although not necessarily the only possible explana-
tion, is consistent with data presented in this paper. Although there are no
diagenetically crystallized ore minerals preserved, it is strongly believed that the
deposit represented originally a red-bed, or affiliated type of deposit, which was
subsequently subjected to important modifications. The following facts support
a syndiagenetic origin of the primary ore:
a) The Elisa de Bordas deposit is situated at a paleobasin margin in the immedi-
ate footwall of a fan complex radiating outward from the hinterland.
b) The close spatial relationship between the ore-rich parts and the paleorelief.
Highest silver values occur close to the basin margin, at the wedge-out of unit
II, and within elongated troughs on the paleosurface of the ignimbrite.
c) The crudely stratabound character of mineralization, which is mainly restrict-
ed to the tuff units I and III.
The alluvial fan conglomerate and playa sediments together with the
lacustrine-evaporitic facies indicate deposition in an arid or semi-arid closed
basin. Under such climatic conditions, with sporadic rainfall, high chloride con-
tents in surface and groundwater can be expected. This fact, as well as the
paleogeography and the lack of Cu, Pb, and Zn in this mercurian silver deposit
are particularly important in considering appropriate transport and concentration
mechanisms.
The paleogeographic high located to the north of the mineralization and
formed by the volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Cerrillos Formation is re-
garded as the metal source area. Because a very large volume of these rocks would
be needed for scavenging of background values of silver and mercury by chloride
solutions, it is assumed that low-grade mineralization was present in the source
region. Silver and mercury were transported from the highlands to the basin mar-
gin by surface water and groundwater(?), and subsequently precipitated as a result
The Stratabound Thff-Hosted Elisa de Bordos Silver-Mercury Deposit, Northern Chile 655
41 ~ I s
Fig. 5. Sketch map showing the inferred distribution of highland and basin areas. Note the relation-
ship of the position of ore formation to paleogeography and paleofluid flow. 1 Alluvial fan conglom-
erate; 2 evaporite-bearing sandstones and siltstones; 3 volcano-sedimentary Cerrillos assemblage of
the highland region; 4 surface and groundwater flows; 5 areas of ore formation. Mountains are out-
lined by contour lines
of changing physiochemical conditions such as pH, Eh and concentration

(Figs. 5, 6). Dissolved silver values of 100 ppb and mercury values of 50 ppb are
quite adequate for the formation of this deposit. Solubility of silver as AgCli
complex is enhanced in response to increasing chloride concentration (Rose 1976).
One hundred ppb of Ag are easily carried in solution with 0.06 mol/1 Cl- . De-
creasing chloride concentrations would have caused precipitation as chlorargyrite.
Transport of mercury takes place both colloidally and, depending on pH, as
HgC1 2 , HgOHCl, or HgOH 2 complexes (Hem 1970). High chloride values in-
crease the solubility of mercury by enhancing the formation of the chloride com-
plexes.
Figure 7 illustrates the Eh-pH dependence of silver, mercury, and copper in
chloride-bearing solutions, the stages of metal transport and precipitation during
ore formation: Field I (Fig. 7) includes Eh-pH conditions of surface water in the
highly oxidizing environment of an arid climate (Tucker 1985, p. 184). Under
these conditions in the metal source area silver and mercury are dissolved and
transported toward the basin margin. A moderate chloride concentration (less
than 0.1 mol/1) is assumed. In surface water the solubility of copper is limited to
about 1 ppm by carbonates even in the presence of chloride (Rose 1976, p. 1046).
The precipitation of silver and mercury ores (Field II) at the basin margin was
probably produced by a sudden change to slightly reducing conditions. This took
place when the metal-bearing surface fluids lost contact with the atmosphere dur-
ing flow above and below the relatively nonpermeable ignimbrite sheet through
highland arid basin

N s
Eh =•0. 3 V Eh =- 0. 3 V
I
~+ ~- ~' ~. !.'<·.'·.'': .:_:! I I 1--1 1------1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 6. Schematic cross-section (not to scale) illustrating the separate enrichment of silver-mercury and
copper ores in the basin area during the accumulation of the alluvial fan conglomerate of the basal
Hornitos Formation. 1 Volcanics and volcaniclastics of the Cerrillos Formation; 2 to 5 basal Hornitos
units: 2 tuff unit I; 3 ignimbrite (tuff unit II); 4 alluvial fan conglomerate with tuff unit III in the
footwall; 5 evaporite-bearing sandstones and siltstones. Partly ephemeral lacustrine environment with
bacterial sulfate reduction; 6 zones of silver-mercury or copper ore formation; 7 surface and ground-
water flows; 8 upper limit of the paleobasin filling
units I, III, and IV (Fig. 6). Mixing with more reducing, and chloride-poor,
groundwater in the subsurface environment may have had a strong influence on
fixation. Silver amalgam presumably was a dominant primary ore mineral fixed
at Eh values below about + 0.3 V (Fig. 7). A decrease in chloride concentration,
possibly caused by groundwater mixing, could precipitate chlorargyrite and
calomel at Eh values above about +0.3 V. Fixation of silver and mercury ores was
partially coincident with the formation of cement in the mineralized zone. Beyond
the mineralization groundwaters continued to move down the paleoslope to the
south towards the lowest part of the basin (Figs. 5, 6, and Field III in Fig. 7). Un-
der an intermediate reducing environment (Field II and III), and an increasing
chloride concentration (up to 0.5 mol/1 NaCl?) in the inner basin due to evapora-
tion, Cu displays high solubility (Fig. 7). Thus it is leached together with Pb, Zn
and Ag from the basin-filling conglomerate. Considerably more reducing condi-
tions are necessary to precipitate copper sulfides from the chloride-rich brines. It
is assumed that organic material which is present in the El Jardin copper-silver
deposit (Mayer 1987; Lortie and Clark 1987), 6 km south of Elisa de Bordas, gen-
erated a sufficiently reducing environment (Field IV). Fixation of copper ore in
the El Jardin deposit probably took place by bacterial sulfate reduction (Lortie
and Clark 1987), or by replacement of biogenic pyrite.
The early-diagenetic mercurian silver mineralization at Elisa de Bordas most
likely was affected by a post-tectonic hydrothermal event, possibly induced by em-
placement of granodiorite bodies, or late- to post-Paleocene volcanic activity. The
burial depth of the ore deposit was at least 2000 m. It is assumed that circulation
of water heated by igneous activity remobilized and slightly redistributed earlier
6 ppm --,. QJ
+-
'---. E ---.. 0.5 ppm
...
0
u
0
0
>
..r:
w
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
pH
Fig. 7. Eh-pH diagram for copper, silver, and mercury in the system 0-H-S-Cl at 25 °C. Solid lines
are for to- 4 moll! (6 ppm) and to- 5 moll! (0.6 ppm) Cu at to- 0·8 moll! Cl- as NaCI. Dashed lines
are for Ag= to- 6 molll (100ppb) at to - 0·8 and to-t.Smolll Cl - . Dotted lines are for
Hg = to - 6 ·6 moll! (50 ppb) at 10-1.5 moll! Cl- . S = to - 4 moll!. For Cu and Ag the diagram was
calculated with data from Rose (1976) and for Hg with data from Hem (1970). Fields /to IV represent
successive stages of metal transport and precipitation. Further explanations see text
matrix ores. Evidence for this process is given by post-tectonic crystallization of

silver amalgam and Hg4Ag 10S7 , and also by high silver contents in late veins and
shear zones. The temperature of this stage possibly varied between 150° and
250 °C. This temperature range is inferred by the appearance of K-mica and talc
in the mineralized tuffs, and the inference of original cubic argentite as a vein
mineral in this stage.
Replacement of silver amalgam by acanthite, and crystallization of cinnabar,
tennantite, and some chalcopyrite are considered to be formed through a super-
gene influence which began in middle Tertiary time. The supergene sulfide miner-
als diminish with depth in the mine. Recent supergene processes in the mine are
characterized by the appearance of chlorargyrite and embolite down to about

40 m beneath the surface.
Acknowledgments. We thank C. Mayer for aid with the electron microprobe analyses and constructive
suggestions. We acknowledgeS. Hopf, E. Cedillo, R.A. Zimmermann (all University of Heidelberg),
and P. Seccombe (University of Newcastle, Australia) for helpful discussions, inspiration, and careful
proof reading of the manuscript.
References
Briiggen J (1934) Grundziige der Geologie und Lagerstllttenkunde Chiles. Math-Nat Kl Heidelberger
Akad Wiss, Heidelberg, 360 p
Hem JD (1970) Chemical behavior of mercury in aqueous media. In: Mercury in the environment.
US Geol Surv Prof Paper 713, 67 p
Jensen 0 (1976) Geologia de Ia cordillera de las nacientes del rio Copiap6 entre los 27° 53' y 28° 20'
de latitud sur. Prov de Atacama, Chile. Mem de Titulo, Univ Chile, 249 p (unpublished)
Jurgeit M (1987) Die schichtgebundene Hg-fiihrende Ag-Lagerstlltte Elisa de Bordos, Nordchile. Di-
ploma thesis, Univ Heidelberg, 155 p (unpublished)
Lortie RB, Clark A (1987) Strata-bound cupriferous sulfide mineralisation associated with continental
rhyolitic volcanic rocks, northern Chile: I The Jardin copper-silver deposit. Econ Geol 82:
546-570
Mayer C (1988) Ag- und Ag-Cu-Lagerstlltten in der Region Atacama, Nordchile. Lagerstllttenkundli-
che und geochemische Untersuchungen am Beispiel der Distrikte Chafiarcillo (Ag(Co-Ni-As)) und
El Jardin (Ag-Cu). Heidelberger Geowiss Abh, v 19, 290 p
Mayer F, Fontbote L The stratiform Ag-Cu deposit El Jardin, Northern Chile. This Vol, p 637-646
NordenskjOld 0 (1897) Silberminen von Los Bordos. In: Ober einige Erzlagerstlltten der Atacamawii-
ste. Bull Geol Inst Upsala 3:343-351
Quirt OS (1972) A potassium-argon geochronological investigation of the Andean mobile belt of
north-central Chile. Ph D thesis, Queens Univ, Kingston, 240 p (unpublished)
Ramdohr P (1975) Die Erzmineralien und ihre Verwachsungen. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1277 p
Segerstrom K (1963) Matureland of northern Chile and its relationship to ore deposits. Geol Soc Am
Bull 74:513-518
Segerstrom K (1968) Geologia de las hojas Copiap6 ojos del Salado, Provincia de Atacama. Inst Invest
Geol Santiago, Bol 24, 58 p
Segerstrom K, Parker RL (1959) Cuadrangulo Cerrillos, provincia de Atacama. Inst Invest Geol Santi-
ago, Carta Geol Chile 1 (2), 33 p
Thcker ME (1985) Einfiihrung in die Sedimentpetrologie. Enke, Stuttgart, 265 p
Zentilli M (1974) Geological evolution and metallogenetic relationships in the andes of northern Chile
between 26° and 29° south. Ph D Thesis, Queen's Univ, Kingston, 295 p (unpublished)
Origin of the Copper Ores at Corocoro, Bolivia
W. A VILA-SALINAS 1
1 Introduction
The metallogenetic role played by the Corocoro copper mine (La Paz Department,
Bolivia), formerly considered to be the most important producer of copper in Bo-
livia, has been emphasized by several authors in their detailed studies. This impor-
tant role explains in part, why the genesis of these cupriferous ores has, in the
past, led to strongly controversial discussions. Lincoln (1917), Singewaldt and
Berry (1922), Briiggen (1934), Berton (1937), and more recently, Ahlfeld and
Schneider-Scherbina (1964) envisaged an epigenetic origin for the copper-rich
structures displayed through the mined sites. On the other hand, a syngenetic af-
filiation of the chalcocite-rich ores of Corocoro was invoked by, among others,
Entwistle and Gouin (1955), Pelissonier (1964), Ljunggren and Meyer (1964).
A considerable part of the discussions of the genesis of the Corocoro Mine em-
phasized the apparent analogy existing between Corocoro and another classical
stratiform copper deposit, the White Pine mine (Michigan). Likewise, the nature
of its formation was also described in a controversial way, for example in papers
by White and Wright (1954), by Brown (1971) and by Sales (1959).
In contrast to the scholarly interpretation elaborated previously on the origin
of the Corocoro ores, the present chapter shows new evidence in favor of a re-defi-
nition on the ore deposit as an example of the peneconcordant type, a term used
by Finch (1959), i.e., new among the evaporite-related copper-bearing deposits of
the central Andes.
2 Geologic Outline of the Corocoro Region

The Corocoro mining district lies on the northern segment of the Bolivian
Altiplano (17°09' latitude S, 68°20' longitude W) at a distance of more than
270 km SW of the city of La Paz, and about 70 km from the southern shores of
Lake Titicaca. At present, Corocoro is an abandoned copper mine, belonging to
the Corporaci6n Minera de Bolivia (Fig. 1).
The Corocoro region forms a substantial part of the Tertiary intermontaine ba-
sin in the northern Altiplano, that is distinguished by its molassic development
which lasted from Late Cretaceous to Early Pliocene. The region studied is char-
acterized by its moderate relief, consisting of rounded hills and steep-sided hog-
1 Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia-Casilla, 5829 La Paz, Bolivia

660 W. Avila-Salinas
>- LEGEND
0::
·....··.
\·.a·;.···. ~load ALLUVIUM
·.. .···. w
·. 3} ·.... - .. ~(§!]TERRACES
- ::J
Tea. 0
Teo
~ CAQUIAVIRI FM.
~~ KOLLU- KOLLU FM.

~
-.. , vv ' '---'
" ..; v
v v . / . .,·, :
/ ' ..d/ .., : ;
~~TeoJ CONIRI FM.
v TJ / v .-b/ ~ : ' w
v v -z.1' /-9-- ~ "' .· . t-~ JALLUMA Gypsum.
v v .' P/ 'II v : .·
.. ~'...tJ.. l
-=
·. v v v_.· ·:.: /REVERSE FAULTS.
GENERAL .··.: ,
···. - :PANDO ~:·:·..· .
11: ,;. s: " Tea. /OVER THRUSTS
v ..· Tea 68° 20' w.
FIG. 1-W. AVILA -S
Fig. 1. Geologic sketch map of the Corocoro region, showing the location of Jalluma gypsum in the
Tertiary sequence of the mining area
backs, contrasting with the flat-lying volcanic layers of the surrounding areas as
dissected ignimbritic mesas.
The sedimentary sequence exposed in the Corocoro region shows a predomi- ·
nance of the red-bed type of continental sediments, and subordinate felsic
volcanics, ranging from the Lower Eocene to the Upper Pliocene (Evernden et al.
1977). The copper-rich series outcropping in the mined area of Corocoro was fre-
quently given the general local terms Ramos and Vetas series (or members), in re-
ferring to the copper-bearing strata of the deposit. This frequently caused
stratigraphic and/or sedimentologic misinterpretations of the metallogenetic role
assigned to the beds. However, such traditional nomenclature cannot be neglected
entirely, and will have to be referred to in this chapter. Recent stratigraphic studies
undertaken in the northern Altiplano region (Ascarrunz 1973) lead to a systemat-
ic review of the former nomenclature (Ahlfeld 1953; Meyer and Murillo 1961) of
the sequence at the Corocoro Mine. Cherroni (1974) redefined these Tertiary units
and also assumed the existence of the Tiahuanacu, Coniri, Kollu-kollu, Ca-
quiaviri, Rosapata, and Taraco Formations in the Corocoro region and surround-
ing areas of the Altiplano basin. The basal Tiahuanacu Formation (Ascarrunz
1973) that overlies the Late Cretaceous strata in its type section - the southern
range around the prehistoric Tiahuanacu (or Tiwanaku) ruins - consists mostly
of dark red laminated sandstones, red siltstones, and scattered conglomerate
lenses.
Small exposures of the Tiahuanacu Formation lie near the Corocoro Mine, in-
cluding a saline diapir (with the so-called Jalluma gypsum), that was squeezed up
Origin of the Copper Ores at Corocoro, Bolivia 661
during the Middle-Miocene orogenetic movements related to the main Quechua

phase (Steinmann 1930; Avila-Salinas 1985). Consequently, the faulting of the
Corocoro anticline took place immediately before the saline intrusion. The over-
lying Coniri Formation (Ahlfeld 1953) is mainly composed of coarse basal con-
glomerates, red sandstones, and gypsiferous siltstones. In addition, this formation
grades conformably into the overlying Kollu-kollu Formation (Ascarrunz 1973),
that consists mainly of red sandstone beds and related light red gypsiferous
siltstones, alternating sporadically with conglomeratic horizons and scattered
copper-bearing fragments of carbonized plants, as well as some light brown gyp-
siferous mudstones, recognized elsewhere (Ascarrunz 1973; Cherroni 1974;
Rodrigo and Castaiios 1975).
The uppermost sandstone beds of the Kollu-kollu Formation are equivalent to
the Ramos series from the Corocoro mine. These layers are characterized by their
native-copper bearing structures (so-called charquis). The Late Oligocene to Early
Miocene rank assigned to the Kollu-kollu Formation was inferred from the K-Ar
data of a unit of felsic tuff, located near the base of this nonfossiliferous forma-
tion (Cherroni 1974). Thus, Evernden and collaborators (Kriz and Cherroni 1977)
obtained an age of about 33 m.y. for the volcanic layer considered. In a similar
way, McBride (1977) indicated a K-Ar age of about 15 m.y. for a sample of anoth-
er tuff, located within the uppermost Kollu-kollu beds.
The Caquiaviri Formation (Ascarrunz 1973) overlies unconformably the
Kollu-kollu strata, and its sequence is composed predominantly of red sand-
stones, conglomeratic lenses, and laminated dark red siltstones. Moreover, the
basal conglomerate of the Caquiaviri Formation contains some dark gray colored
phenoclasts of andesite with occasional coatings of copper-bearing minerals (Ent-
wistle and Gouin 1955). Furthermore, the Vetas series of Corocoro is equivalent
to the lowermost Caquiaviri beds, as Ascarrunz (1973) demonstrated originally.
The predominant psammitic layers of the Caquiaviri Formation are composed
mainly of arenites, lithic subgraywackes and lithic feldspar-bearing arenites. The
sedimentologic analysis (Rodrigo and Castanos 1975; Tellez 1975) has not re-
vealed any arkose layers throughout the Corocoro sequence. One of the most re-
markable features of the Caquiaviri Formation is the ubiquitous presence of a fos-
sil flora examined at the Pontezuelo river (Singewaldt and Berry 1922), containing
genera and species similar to those described by Berry (1939) from the Caracoles
tuff within the volcanic series of the Cerro Rico de Potosi porphyry dome. Both
floras apparently belong to a Middle Miocene rank, as inferred from the available
K-Ar data of the volcanics from Corocoro (McBride 1977) and from Potosi
(Grant et al. 1979), respectively.
3 The Cupriferous District
The area mined in the Corocoro district is limited to a small site extending over
4 km in length and 550 m in width, that follows the axial zone of a faulted anti-
cline oriented towards the northwest (Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina 1964; Ent-
wistle and Gouin 1955). The western flank of this anticline is occupied by the
chalcocite-rich Vetas series, whereas the native copper-bearing sandstones from
w COROCORO HILL
E
__.,-~~ 4 - 155 m.
0 50
©
Fig. 2. Schematic cross-section through the southern end of the Corocoro Mine, at Corocoro hill,
showing the gypsiferous diapir related to the Corocoro fault line. The Vetas series and galleries of the
mine are also indicated
the Ramos series are located on the eastern side of the fault that divides both
limbs of the anticline (Fig. 2). The richest chalcocite ores belong to the so-called
San Marcos Formation within the Vetas series (Fig. 2), whereas the chalcocite oc-
currences in the lower red sandstones of the Toledo formation are disseminated
ores of speckled appearance (Entwistle and Gouin 1955) within the Vetas series.
In contrast, certain sandstone layers from the Ramos Series, belonging to the
uppermost series of the Kollu-kollu Formation, lie unconformably beneath the
Vetas strata. Within the Ramos Series of the mine at least 14 mantos rich in native
copper have been recognized, but only seven of them were mined through 22 lev-
els, totaling a working depth of 800 m.
The Ramos Series is mostly composed of red sandstones, dark red or maroon
siltstones, subordinate felsic tuffs, and gypsiferous layers. It is important to state
that certain bleached sandstone beds from the Ramos Series contain the native
copper-bearing structures from dendritic patches of discolored arenite, contrast-
ing to the reddish tone of the barren sandstones associated with them. In general
terms, certain structural features of the Corocoro Mine have been suggested as
factors controlling copper deposition. Among them, the germanic faulting of the
Coniri and Kollu-kollu Formations (Entwistle and Gouin 1955), the unconformi-
ty existing between the Kollu-kollu and Caquiaviri Formations (Cherroni 1974),
the faulting of the Corocoro anticline (Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina 1964),
the Guallatiri overthrust (Briiggen 1934) and the squeezing of the Jalluma diapir
(Cherroni 1974) have been considered the most important ones. Therefore, their
tectonic meanings have been discussed in previous papers (Ahlfeld and Schneider-
Scherbina 1964; Entwistle and Gouin 1955; Ljunggren and Meyer 1964;
Singewaldt and Berry 1922).
4 Sedimentologic Constraints
Sedimentologic research on the Kollu-kollu and Caquiaviri Formations led to the
following more advanced considerations about the composition and environment
of deposition of the copper-bearing lithologies.
The sequence prevailing in the Kollu-kollu Formation (Rodrigo and Castaiios
1975) consists of red siltstones, sandy siltstones, fine-grained sandstones classified
as quartz-bearing arenites and "lithic" subfeldspathic arenites, alternating with
certain felsic tuffs, conglomerates, and gypsiferous horizons within the psammitic
lithology. Proper "arkose" is lacking elsewhere (Rodrigo and Castaiios 1975;
Tellez 1975).
The matrix of the Kollu-kollu arenites is composed mostly of variable amounts
of clay minerals, mainly illite, montmorillonite, and subordinate amounts of
kaolinite, vermiculite, chlorite, and allevardite (Rodrigo and Castaiios 1975).
However, calcite and hematite are also of widespread occurrence as minerals ce-
menting the sandstone grains.
The Kollu-kollu sequence shows only small amounts of organic matter; this is
in contrast to the basal member of the overlying Caquiaviri Formation (equivalent
to the Vetas series), in which some coaly lenses and scattered fragments of fossil-
ized plants were remarkably abundant (Entwistle and Gouin 1955; Ljunggren and
Meyer 1964; Singewaldt and Berry 1922) and especially related to the chalcocite
deposition.
The environment of deposition of the Kollu-kollu strata (Rodrigo and
Castaiios 1975) was investigated and indexed according to a system elaborated by
Doeglas. The following percentages were obtained: tidal flats 170Jo; river 12%;
delta 90Jo; loess 15%; lagoon 31 %; estuary 16%.
Similarly, Tellez (1975) envisaged the predominance of the quartz-bearing
wackes and lithic-bearing subfeldspathic arenites at the boundary between the up-
permost Kollu-kollu psammitic layers and the lowermost Caquiaviri strata. Both
formations exhibit analogous contents of accessory (heavy) minerals, such as
magnetite, ilmenite, tourmaline, epidote, rutile, zircon, staurolite, hornblende, and
hydrobiotite (Tellez 1975). The respective indexes from Doeglas provided the fol-
lowing values for the Caquiaviri Formation: river 37%; tidal flats 25%; shore
12.5%; lagoon 12.5%, delta 12.5% (Tellez 1975).
The lithologic distribution of the Kollu-kollu sediments shows a great oscilla-
tory sequence, characterized by its terrigenous contributions from alluvial,
deltaic, and eolian provenances, related to evaporite deposition, as also interbed-
ded pyroclastic ash-falls, settled in a slow subsidence basin. Similar analyses made
through the sequence of the Caquiaviri Formation exhibit predominantly certain
alluvial contributions, related to deltaic, or lagoonal sediments, deposited in a
basin of fast subsidence regime.
5 Mineralogy of the Ores
Although the Corocoro Mine has been described as a predominant chalcocite ore
deposit (Entwistle and Gouin 1955}, the widespread occurrence of several other
copper-bearing species and related ore minerals cannot be neglected. The follow-
ing is a brief description of all major ore minerals.
1. Chalcocite. It belongs to the orthorhombic variety (Kohanowski 1944) and is

the main copper ore mineral in the Vetas Series, in which it replaces of fills
pseudomorphically some histologic details of the carbonized plants, assuming the
shape of "sooty" chalcocite impregnations, but also cements the ash-bearing ma-
trix of a breccia-tuff unit located on the Upper Vetas Series. Chalcocite (called
chafra by the native miners) forms copper-rich ore, containing 30o/o- 40o/o Cu at
the Vetas.
2. Native Copper. In its native state, copper is a common ore mineral within the
Ramos strata. It forms impregnations, flatty aggregates, dendrites, and elongated
plates (so-called charquis, in allusion to their similarity to dry cattle meat}, with
exceptions such as certain pseudomorphic replacements of polysynthetic twins of
aragonite by native copper, discovered by Domeyko (1879) at the San Agustin and
Marcucoya sections of the mine. The remarkably high As content of some native
copper plates (Ahlfeld and Muftoz-Reyes 1955) consists of solid solutions
(whythneyite) with scattered distribution at the Ramos levels. Similarly, important
volumes of native silver have been mined in the past from the Buen Pastor section
(Bruggen 1934).
Native silver presents dendritic aggregates, irregular impregnations in the ma-
trix of certain Ramos sandstones, and occasionally it exists as coatings on the sur-
face of some native copper charquis (Ahlfeld and Muftoz-Reyes 1955).
3. Minor Sulfides. Galena associated with chalcocite cemented a tuffaceous brec-

cia in the Upper Vetas series (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964). Isolated occurrences
of galena, sphalerite, and chalcocite have been reported in previous papers (Ent-
wistle and Gouin 1955) near the south end of the Corocoro deposit. Sphalerite
belongs to an amber-colored variety with low Fe content. Some covellite results
from a later alteration of chalcocite-rich ore of the Vetas series.
4. Copper-Bearing Arsenides. Alpha-domeykite and algodonite are arsenides of

scattered distribution at the Corocoro Mine. Domeykite, discovered by Forbes
(1866) forms scarce disseminations in the matrix of a tuffaceous layer of the Mer-
cedes Formation, at the upper Vetas sequence. Domeykite aggregates show thin
coatings of olivenite and cuprite as their main alteration products. Algodonite
was examined at the Buen Pastor section (Ahlfeld and Muftoz-Reyes 1955), form-
ing nodular aggregates of a pisolitic type, containing some domeykite admixtures.
5. Arsenates. Olivenite is the only cupriferous arsenate found at Corocoro. Yellow-

ish green coatings of secondary olivenite resulted from the supergene alteration
of domeykite. From waste heaps, isolated clusters of olivenite related to tenorite

were mentioned (Ahlfeld and Mufioz-Reyes 1955).
6. Oxides. Cuprite forms euhedral cubic or octahedral crystals related to certain

native-copper plates in the Ramos sandstone (Ahlfeld and Mufioz-Reyes 1955).
Supergene cuprite is also an alteration product of chalcocite and domeykite.
Tenorite consists of thin coatings covering slightly oxydized native copper
charquis. Secondary massicot coatings were found as an alteration product of ga-
lena at adit 1, Marcucoya section, north of the town of Corocoro (Ahlfeld and
Mufioz-Reyes 1955).
7. Carbonates. Pseudo hexagonal aragonite twins, 1 - 3 em across, sometimes re-

placed by native copper, were discovered in the red sandstone beds of the Ramos
series (Domeyko 1879), mainly at the San Agustin and Marcucoya sites. On the
other hand, small tabular crystals of azurite related occasionally to malachite
crusts were found by Ahlfeld at the Quimsa Cruz adit, and fissure veins from the
Marcucoya section have been filled by malachite (Ahlfeld and Mufioz-Reyes
1955). Cerussite derived from the supergene alteration of galena occurs as ce-
menting material of the sandstone grains at Marcucoya.
8. Chlorides. The only cupriferous chloride found at the Corocoro Mine is

atacamite forming minute acicular aggregates, characterized by the grass-green
color. Atacamite is related to secondary brochantite coatings, observed in some
outcrops and in waste products from the mine (Ahlfeld and Mufioz-Reyes 1955).
9. Sulfates. Among the existing sulfates, occurrences of baryte, celestite, anglesite,

chalcanthite, brochantite, chalcophyllite, and copper-bearing selenite may be de-
scribed in summary as follows: The presence of some nodules of baryte is a note-
worthy feature of the red siltstone layers of the Ramos series.
Celestite of bluish shade forms geodes and lenses disseminated through the
gypsiferous marls of the Ramos. A peculiar variety of barytocelestite, discovered
by Domeyko (1879) has the following composition: SrO 44.40Jo, BaO 12.8%, CaO
0.7%, S03 42.0%. Celestite also accompanies the native copper- and domeykite-
bearing fill of certain transversal veins of the upper Vetas.
Brochantite presents scattered coatings through the argillaceous matrix of
some Ramos arenites. It also fills certain transversal veins in the form of minute
darkgreen crystals. Coatings and crusts of chalcanthite are of a widespread occur-
rence in outcrops and old galleries of the mine.
Chalcophyllite, discovered by Ahlfeld at the Camino adit (Ahlfeld and Mufioz-
Reyes 1955) near the Viscachani section, forms minute hexagonal crystals, dull
green in color, characterized by their pearly luster.
Acicular aggregates of bluish green cupriferous selenite, recently discovered by
the author in the area of the Toledo shaft, result from the recrystallization of gyp-
sum. Their greenish shade is due to chalcanthite admixtures. Very low tempera-
tures of homogenization of the fluid inclusions, in the order of 50° to 60 °C, were
found to consist of a liquid phase containing halite as a daughter mineral, but
no signs of boiling were observed in inclusions of a primary type.
6 Role of the Evaporites

The important ore-forming role played by the thick gypsiferous sequence of the
Corocoro basin during the deposition of copper and related metals was prelimi-
narily suggested by Rose (1976). He referred to the solubility and transport of the
copper ions as cuprous chloride complexes dissolved by the flow of subsurface
waters of meteoric origin that characterize the low-temperature deposition (below
75°C) of the red-bed type of copper deposits elsewhere.
In the present situation observed at the Corocoro Mine, the probable transport
of the cupriferous solutions, by means of the highly saline waters circulating
through the mine, is strongly supported by the pressure exerted by the Jalluma
diapir (Fig. 2), as well as by many other gypsiferous beds disseminated within the
entire Corocoro strata and underlying the formations. These solutions provide the
high halite content recognized through the underground waters of the mine, in-
creasing 900 times at depth. Thus, Entwistle and Gouin (1955) noted a remarkable
increase in Na content, from 53 ppm Na at the third level to the high content of
4.50Jo (wt.) Na on the 14th level. Similarly, Cl values increase from 87 ppm Cl to
7.8% (wt.) Cl for the levels referred to.
In addition, mineralogic evidence for the existence of certain cupriferous chlo-
rides in solution at the Corocoro Mine is provided by the scattered occurrences
of atacamite, and the saline residuum of halite traces resulting from the heating
of some primary fluid inclusions contained in cupriferous selenite crystals.
Furthermore, the importance of the partial dissolution of gypsum layers in the
Ramos Series may be demonstrated by the bleaching of the copper-rich sand-
stones, as well as by the widespread occurrence of the sulfate-bearing minerals de-
scribed above.
7 Structure of the Copper Ores

According to their relative positions with reference to the stratification, the ore
structures at the Corocoro Mine could be classified in two main categories: (a)
Concordant or congruent structures (Amstutz 1961) and (b) transversal or non-
congruent structures.
1. Congruent Structures. The prevailing structures of the copper ores of Corocoro

mine are stratabound (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964) and/or stratiform lenses or
mantos (Entwistle and Gouin 1955), that lie parallel to the bedding planes of the
Vetas Series, in which the chalcocite-rich occurrences are preferably mined, in
contrast to the rich native copper mantos deposited within the Ramos Series
(Fig. 2).
Moreover, additional occurrences of chalcocite ore are disseminations of
speckled appearance (Entwistle and Gouin 1955), observed within the red sand-
stone beds of the San Marcos Formation, in which chalcocite forms small isolated
clusters, oriented according to the predominant direction of the bedding planes.
Similarly, the native copper mantos of the Ramos lie mostly conformable to
the related gypsiferous layers in which the dendrites of native copper are con-
tained in some gypsiferous layers.
2. The Noncongruent Structures. The following features of the Corocoro se-

quence may be considered to be the main transversal structures. The proper veins,
fissure veins, veinlets, and finally the irregular disseminations of ore minerals of
the red-bed series.
Proper veins filled by baryte, celestite, gypsum, and domeykite were observed
at the Toledo section (Ahlfeld and Muiioz-Reyes 1955). Fissure veins, composed
of azurite and malachite, were found at the Buen Pastor section, within the
Ramos strata (Ahlfeld and Muiioz-Reyes 1955), and similar discoveries of veinlets
have been reported from the Marcucoya section. Moreover, veinlets composed of
native copper are of common occurrence in the Toledo shaft area, near the fault
line (Fig. 2).
In addition, a unique feature, consisting of chalcocite microveinlets cutting
some grains of quartz from the Vetas sandstones, has been examined by Entwistle
and Gouin (1955). Furthermore, irregular disseminations of certain ore minerals,
such as galena, domeykite, and anglesite, were observed within the cineritic matrix
of a unit of felsic tuff, related to the Mercedes Formation (Ahlfeld and Mufioz-
Reyes 1955).
Despite the "post-mineral" status suggested (Entwistle and Gouin 1955) for
the Corocoro fault, Lincoln (1917) indicated the discovery of native copper plates
in El Dorado ores as the ore-filling of the fault line.

From observations reported here, the following conclusions may be drawn. The
main problem to be solved is the proper origin of the cupriferous solutions, and
the mechanism of their emplacement as stratabound ores, within the Tertiary se-
quence examined.
Consequently, certain genetic interpretations made on the origin of the Cor-
ocoro Mine will be discussed briefly and then compared to the main conclusions
reached in the present work, with the aim of obtaining more satisfactory results
than those obtained in the past.
I. The Syngenetic Interpretations. Among the most important hypothesis formu-

lated on the origin and emplacement of the copper ores at the Corocoro Mine,
those of Entwistle and Gouin (1955) and Ljunggren and Meyer (1964) have been
selected here, in view of their accuracy and timing. Both interpretations quoted
are based on the prevailing role assigned to the organic matter. This matter pro-
vides certain reducing conditions during chalcocite deposition; also, these authors
underline the stratabound nature of the predominant ore structures (Ljunggren
and Meyer 1964); in these the paleochannels (Entwistle and Gouin 1955) and cer-
tain "cuvettes", or shallow-water depressions within the sequence, are favorable
features for chalcocite formation. Moreover, the biochemical activity of some sul-
fate-reducing bacteria has been invoked (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964) as a factor
controlling the syngenetic deposition of chalcocite through stagnant waters.
Nevertheless, both theories avoided, in part, the ore-forming role of the trans-
versal structures, such as veins or veinlets, of widespread occurrence (Ahlfeld and
Mufioz-Reyes 1955) at the uppermost levels of the mine. Analogously, they do not
consider in their arguments the ubiquitous presence of some copper-bearing
arsenides (domeykite, algodonite), disseminated in tuffs, far from the apparent
status assigned to the chalcocite ore solely. furthermore, their conclusions do not
explain accurately the considerable gap existing, both in space and time, between
the deposition of the Ramos and Vetas Series, separated by an angular unconfor-
mity and faulted.
In such a way, the apparent synsedimentary deposition of the chalcocite ore
in the Vetas Series (Entwistle and Gouin 1955; Ljunggren and Meyer 1964) is not
applicable in respect to the post-sedimentary occurrence of the native copper
mantos from the Ramos Series, for which a late-diagenetic, or lithogenetic forma-
tion (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964) does not seem to be correct.
2. The Epigenetic Interpretations. Several authors (Berton 1937; Brtiggen 1934;

Lincoln 1917; Singewaldt and Berry 1922; Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina 1964)
suggested an epigenetic origin for the copper ores at Corocoro, as the final result
of some hydrothermal processes believed to have been active in, or around the
mine area. Thus, Lincoln (1917) described the occurrence of native copper from
El Dorado ores, as a "dragging" from both the Vetas and Ramos series through
the fault line. This model was criticized by Singewaldt and Berry (1922), who be-
lieved in a kind of underlying dioritic magma, as the source rock for copper from
which "the Comanche stock is an offshoot".
Similarly, Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina (1964) believed in the ore-forming
role of some telemagmatic solutions which deposited uniformly native copper
from certain admixtures of telethermal solutions and free-circulating waters; in
addition, they suggested a lateral penetration of the hydrothermal copper-bearing
solutions within the sandstone strata by way of an exhalative process.
However, these opinions conflict with the following facts. The existence of
both magmatic solutions and their intrusive source rocks has not been demon-
strated below the mined area; yet some dacite stocks of Miocene age, such as the
Chacapa and Cumpucu porphyries, lie near Corocoro town. However, they are
barren rocks, without copper.
Also, the red-bed sequence shows no hydrothermal alteration in the Corocoro
grounds. In contrast, the bleaching of some Ramos sandstones was produced by
a low-temperature dissolution of gypsum. A subsequent leaching of the cement-
ing hematite, without any hydrothermal component, is observed.
In conclusion, the hydrothermal derivation of the copper ores at Corocoro is
not supported by petrologic, mineralogic, or geothermal constraints, and, conse-
quently the hydrothermal model can be left out in future studies of the mine.
3. Validity of the Peneconcordant TjJpe. Considering the simultaneous existence

of both stratabound ores and transversal structures at the Corocoro mine, the
copper-bearing deposit must be redefined in the category of "peneconcordant"
ore deposits, suggested initially by Finch (1959) for some uranium-bearing red-
bed type of ore deposits from the western United States, in which the role of the
main stratabound ores is related to occurrences of subordinate veins and vein-
lets.
Moreover, the complexity of the structures at the Corocoro Mine can be ex-
plained by the ore-forming role of the gypsiferous beds, and the transport of cop-
per-bearing solutions, as well as the deposition of certain cupriferous ores con-
trolled by diapirism (Rose 1976). In such a way, the Jalluma diapir squeezed
through the Corocoro fault line (Fig. 2), providing both the accurate mechanism
for the simultaneous emplacement of the chalcocite ores within the Vetas Series,
as also the native copper mantos in the Ramos Series; the latter were controlled
by chemical constraints, such as pH and Eh.
In addition, some evidence of the presence of the high chloride solutions at
Corocoro mine, early suggested by Rose (1976), is provided by the scattered occur-
rence of atacamite (Ahlfeld and Muiioz-Reyes 1955) and the circulation of halite-
rich brines, contained in the unterground waters of the mine (Entwistle and Gouin
1955).
Also the close relationships existing between the native copper plates and the
underlying gypsiferous layers at the Ramos Series can be explained in terms of
a partial dissolution of gypsum through the bedding planes of certain sandstones
that became bleached in part.
In contrast, the chalcocite deposition, also observed in the Vetas Series, can be
explained by the reducing behavior of the organic matter, and probably the addi-
tion of some H 2S, and/or sulfate-reducing bacteria (Ljunggren and Meyer 1964)
to the circulating brines through certain paleochannels, fissures, and open spaces
in the fabric of the sandstone layers. Consequently, this leads to a widespread oc-
currence of chalcocite ore controlled by both bedding and cross-cutting features.
Furthermore, the copper deposition at the Corocoro Mine was also increased
by a partial dissolution of halite and gypsum from the Jalluma diapir. Such a pro-
cess, on the other hand, is considered as a post-sedimentary event, in relation to
the "squeezing" of gypsum, after the entire lithification of the Ramos Series, and
probably late in respect to the diagenesis of the Vetas Series, in which veinlets of
gypsum have been reported (Entwistle and Gouin 1955).
The most probable source for copper, which is unrelated to magmatic rocks,
may be considered the underlying sequence of the Tiahuanacu and Coniri Forma-
tions, synsedimentary occurrences of some copper-bearing minerals having been
noted at the northern Altiplano basin (Rodrigo and Castaiios 1975). The main
conclusions of the present study are the following:
a) The Corocoro copper ore deposit belongs to a peneconcordant type (Finch
1959) of stratiform red-bed environment in which the deposition of the ore solu-
tions is linked to diapirism, i.e., the pressure exerted by the rising Jalluma gyp-
sum. Consequently, the partial dissolution of halite and gypsum caused the trans-
port and geochemical re-distribution of copper, by means of meteoric waters of
a very low temperature, unrelated to hydrothermal events.
b) The contemporaneous deposition of copper ores in both the Kollu-kollu
Formation (Ramos Series) and the Caquiaviri Formation (Vetas Series) is a post-
sedimentary process linked to the syntectonic emplacement of the Jalluma diapir
through the Corocoro fault.
c) The post-sedimentary deposition of copper ores at the Corocoro Mine is as-
sociated with the category of endogenous-epigenetic type of cupriferous deposits
(Amstutz and Fontbote 1985).
Acknowledgments. The author is indebted to Professor Amstutz of Heidelberg University, who kindly
provided his valuable papers about the metallogeny of stratabound ore deposits used during the
preparation of this manuscript.
References
Ahlfeld F (1953) Die Metallprovinz des Altiplano. N JbMin 85:1-53
Ahlfeld F, Muiioz-Reyes J (1955) Las especies minerales de Bolivia. Imp lnd Bilbao, Spain
Ahlfeld F, Schneider-Scherbina A (1964) Los yacimientos minerales y de hidrocarburos de Bolivia. Bol
Dep Nac Geol La Paz 5:1-388
Amstutz GC (1961) El origen de dep6sitos minerales congruentes en rocas sedimentarias. Bol Soc
Geol Peru 36:5- 30
Amstutz GC, Fontbote L (1985) Correlative observations on the lead-zinc (barite-fluorite) occurrences
in the Germanic Thiassic lithofacies of central Europe. Geol Jb 70:179-211
Ascarrunz R (1973) Contribuci6nal conocimiento geol6gico del area comnprendida entre los pueblos
de Viacha, Corocoro y Umala. Bol Soc Geol Bol 20:29-64
Avila-Salinas W (1985) Evoluci6n tectomagmatica de los Andes de Bolivia. Rev Communicaciones,
Santiago, Chile 35:1-3
Berry EW (1939) The fossil flora of Potosi, Bolivia. Hopkins Univ Stud Geol13:1-67
Berton A (1937) The Corocoro copper district of Bolivia. Am Inst Min Eng Thans B 126:540-558
Brllggen J (1934) Grundzllge der Geologie und Lagerstiittenkunde Chiles. Akad Wiss Math Natur-
wiss, Heidelberg 47:362
Brown AC (1971) Zoning in the White Pine Copper deposit, Ontonagon County, Michigan. Econ Geol
66:543-573
Cherroni C (1974) Geologia de Ia regi6n de Corocoro. Rev Tecnica YPFB La Paz III (2): 125- 154
Domeyko I (1879) Mineralogia. Santiago, Chile
Entwistle LP, Gouin LO (1955) The chalcocite-ore deposits at Corocoro, Bolivia. Boon Geol50:555-570
Evernden J, Kriz SJ, Cherroni C (1977) Potassium-argon ages of some Bolivian rocks. Econ Geol
72:1042-1061
Finch WI (1959) Peneconcordant uranium deposit - a proposed term. Econ Geol 54:944-946
Forbes D (1866) Researches on the mineralogy of South America. Phil Mag 30:135-136
Grant JN, Halls C, Avila-Salinas W, Snelling NJ (1979) K-Ar ages of igneous rocks and mineralization
in part of the Bolivian tin belt. Econ Geol 74:838-851
Kohanowski N (1944) Geologia de los yacimientos cupriferos de Bolivia. Min Bo11:9-21
Lincoln FC (1917) Corocoro copper mines. Min Sci 115:461-463
59:110-125
McBride SL (1977) A K-Ar study of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia and its regional setting. Doct thesis,
Queens Univ, Can (unpublished)
Meyer HC, Murillo C (1961) Sobre Ia geologia de las provincias: Aroma, Pacajes y Carangas. Bol Dep
Nac Geol La Paz 1:1-109
Pelissonier H (1964) Structure geologique et genese du gisement de cuivre de Corocoro (Bolivia). Bull
Soc Geol Fr Vl(7):502-514
Rodrigo LA, Castaiios A (1975) Estudio sedimento16gico de las formaciones: Tiawanaku, Coniri,
Kollu-kollu del Altiplano Septentrional Boliviano. Bol Soc Geol Bol 22:85-124
Sales RH (1959) The White Pine copper deposit (Discussion). Econ Geol 54:947- 956
Singewaldt JT, Berry EW (1922) The geology of the Corocoro copper district of Bolivia. Hopkins
Univ Stud Geol1:1-116
Steinmann G (1930) Geologie von Peru. Winter, Heidelberg
Tellez J (1975) Apreciaciones sedimento16gicas de Ia secci6n Caquiaviri-Ajnocollo. Rev Tee YPFB La
Paz 4:89-114
White WS, Wright JC (1954) The White Pine mine copper deposit, Ontonagon county, Michigan.
Econ Geol49:675-716
Stratabound Uranium Deposits in the Argentinian Andes
R. E. FERREYRA and L. E. LARDONE 1
1 Introduction
The western part of the Argentinian Republic is occupied by the southern and
middle sections of the orogenic belt of the Andean Cordillera. In this wide area
are located the most important uraniferous districts of the country (Fig. 1). Some
of the districts cover wide areas, showing that similar metallogenic conditions de-
veloped over such zones; these conditions include source rock, leaching of urani-
um, transport, precipitation by reduction, and preservation of enriched strata. In
the Argentinian Andes, as in other places of the world, uranium accumulations
are associated with continental episodes in post-Carboniferous times (Table 1).
Some deposits were mined in three of the districts (Tonco Amblayo, Malarglie,
Guandacol-Jachal) and one is being mined at present time (Sierra Pintada). Pre-
liminary investigations on other districts have not shown important economic
concentrations, but their characteristics let suppose interesting results after more
detailed searching.
The present chapter does not deal with uranium occurrences associated with
rhyolitic and rhyodacitic ignimbrites and tuffs of Miocene-Pliocene age. Some oc-
currences are known in the Aguiliri district and in other parts of the Argentinian
Puna and have been described by Stipanicic et al. (1985). They belong to a belt
also known in Bolivia (Sevaruyo) and Peru (Macusani) and which could be con-
sidered to display some stratabound patterns on a regional scale.
2 Tonco-Amblayo District
This is one of the most important uranium districts in Argentina, placed in the
southern limit of the eastern Cordillera. The main part of the district has a size
of 60 km length and 25 km width; other minor uranium bodies have been found
outside this area. Two large parallel synclines, trending north-south, host the ura-
nium mineralizations. The synclines are formed by Cretaceous Tertiary sediments.
The eastern syncline (Amblayo) shows some interesting occurrences, but less im-
portant than those lying in the western syncline (Tonco ). The Tonco syncline was
partially mined (Don Otto ore deposit), but some valuable resources still remain.
1 Gerencia de Exploraci6n, Comisi6n Nacional de Energia Atomica, Avda. Libertador 8250, (1429)
Buenos Aires, Argentina

672 R. E. Ferreyra and L. E. Lardone
REPUBLICA ARGENTINA
60°
26°
32 o STRATABOUND URANIUM
ACCUMULATIONS
34 o ANDEAN OROGENIC BELT
AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
0 200 400km
58°
f - Tonco - Ambloyo District
CORDILLERA ORIENTAL
2- Tinogosto District
SISTEMA FAMATINA
3-Guondocol - Jacha l District
PRECORDILLERA
4- Sierro Pintado District
BLOQUE SAN RAFAEL
5- MolorgUe District
CORDILLERA PRINCIPAL
6- Rohueco District
CORDILLERA PRINCIPAL
7 - Los Chihuidos District
NEUQUEN EXTRANDINO
- - ANDES LIMIT
520 ~$ ,.vm:~R,~IITARTI~~.
60° ~ :
~-
Fig. 1. Location of stratabound uranium occurrences in the Argentinian Andes

[J)
Table 1. Comparative scheme
~
Host-rock Environment Age of host Age of ore Primary U Principal ore Other elements
g.
District Geological 0
type of host rock rock deposition minerals controls s::
setting ::sp..
Shales and Rim basin Late Late Uraninite Lithology Cu, V, Ti, c...,
1. Tonco-Amblayo Cordillera Ill
sandstones Cretaceous Cretaceous? organic material ::s
Oriental a·
Early Permian Early Permian? Uraninite Lithology Organic material 3
2. Tinogasta Sistema de Limy shales Lacustrine
Famatina ...0
'0
Fluvial Late Early Permian Uraninite Sedimentary Organic material ~

3. Gmindacol- Precordillera Sandstones ~·
Jachal and shales Carboniferous structures
and organic
s·
material ...g.
4. Sierra Pintada Bloque San Sandstones Eolian Early Permian Early Permian Uraninite Rim basin None ~...
Rafael (260-270m.y.) brannerite and thinning
coffinite of strata g.
iii"
Late Oligocene Uraninite Asphalt Cu and asphalt ::s
5. Malargiie Cordillera Sandstones Fluvial
Principal and Cretaceous (29m.y.) >
::s
p..
conglomerates ...
"'
6. Rahueco Cordillera Sandstones Fluvial Late Jurassic ? Uraninite Organic Cu and organic
Principal material material
7. Los Chihuidos Neuquen Sandstones Fluvial Early ? Not found Organic
Extrandino Cretaceous material Cu, V and
organic material
Most of the uranium deposits in the Argentinian Andes are located in continental environments: fluvial and lake sediments. The most important deposit of
Argentina is located in a volcaniclastic sequence, in rocks of eolian origin.
Permian and Cretaceous rocks yield the main part of the uranium resources of Argentina.
It seems that in several important deposits the ore-forming process took place shortly after the formation of the host rock.
Organic material played an important role in the formation of these ore deposits.
In the Argentinian Andes, uranium accumulations are usually associated with continental episodes in Post-Carboniferous times.
0\
.....
w
The Don Otto deposit, which provided 500 t of U 30 8 with a grade of 1%o U 30 8 ,
is situated at the southwest end of Tonco syncline. In this area the Salta Group
and other Tertiary and Quaternary sediments cover Precambrian basement rocks.
Three subgroups form the Salta Group (Cretaceous to Early Tertiary): (a) the con-
tinental Pirgua Subgroup (conglomerates, sandstones, and mudstones), (b) the
Balbuena Subgroup (Late Cretaceous), which hosts the mineralization in the
Yacoraite Fm. (limestones, sandstones and mudstones of coastal environment),
and (c) the upper part of the Salta Group, psammites and petites of the Santa Bar-
bara Subgroup (Early Thrtiary). The Yacoraite Fm. is the most important level
from the point of view of uranium; it is mineralized in the upper part, with a total
thickness of 15m of rich layers. Uranium is fixed mainly in pelitic rocks with or-
ganic material, but secondary mobilization of minerals has redistributed the ele-
ment, impregnating nearby sandstones (Antonietti et al. 1984). Mineralized levels
show three enrichment beds, separated by barren strata several meters thick; the
second bed is the richest of the three, having an average thickness of 1 m and more
than 2000 min length (in surface) in strike direction. Below surface (and out of
the zone of alteration and dispersion of uranium), the ore is distributed in bodies
having lenticular form. These bodies reach a length of up to 250 m in the direction
of plunge of strata. The ore develops in a general way concordant with stratifica-
tion planes. On the surface, uranium-bearing layers appear intensely bleached. In
deep levels the ore mineral is uraninite, but in the upper parts there are only sec-
ondary ("yellow") minerals: tyuyamunite, carnotite, metautunite, phosphur-
anylite, uranophane, etc. The deposit has been defined as peneconcordant and
epigenetic (Antonietti et al. 1984).
Uranium is associated with vanadium minerals, which represent an important
ore in the northern part of the Tonco syncline; in this zone vanadium grades reach
four times those of uranium.
3 Tinogasta District
This district is located in the Sistema de Famatina (Catamarca), and has several
stratabound and vein-type uranium occurrences (Gorustovich and Solis 1975; An-
tonietti et al. 1984). Stratabound accumulations are present in continental Perm-
ian sediments (De la Cuesta Fm.) composed of conglomerates, sandstones,
mudstones, and marls; beds are usually red-colored. Uraniferous layers occur in
the upper part of the sequence; they are gray limy siltstones, varying from several
centimeters to 3 m in thickness. The main uranium mineral is uraninite, associated
with sulfides and sparse organic material.
A syngenetic origin for these uranium occurrences has been postulated (An-
tonietti et al. 1984), and that the host rocks formed in a lacustrine environment
under reducing conditions.
Stratabound Uranium Deposits in the Argentinian Andes 675
4 Guandacol-Jachal District
The Precordillera is the geologic setting of this district. The Panacan Fm. (Car-
boniferous) is the host rock of a number of occurrences; this formation consists
of red and whitish arkosic sandstones, intercalated with mudstones with vegetal
debris. Cross-bedding and other sedimentary structures can be found.
Uranium occurrences develop over a zone 200 km long; minor mineralizations
and mined deposits exhibit similar characteristics. Stratiform and epigenetic ura-
nium deposits, lenticular in shape, are located in grayish or reddish sandstones;
they occur usually in paleochannels and were deformed by intrusions and faults
developed after the ore-forming process. Mineralized lenses reach up to 50 min
length, and the thickness is usually less than 1 m, but sometimes reaches 5 m. The
high grade of some lenses (3%o U 3 0 8) allows economic development, in spite of
the small size of bodies (Belluco et al. 1974a). Uranium minerals present are
uraninite and numerous "yellow" species: tyuyamunite, carnotite, schroeck-
ingerite, uranophane, etc. Some sulfides of Fe and Cu and their alteration prod-
ucts have been found. The ore is associated with organic matter. The mineralizing
process took place in Early Permian times (270 m.y., Stipanicic 1970). Occur-
rences showing similar characteristics cover a huge area, demonstrating that the
genetic process of uranium mineralization took place over the whole region. It is
convenient to emphasize that the host rock is an arkosic sandstone; this type of
rock usually has a high uranium background; groundwater could leach a portion
of the element, and a great amount of rocks affected could, eventually, become
a source of important resources.
The scheme of uranium mineralization in this district involves groundwater cir-
culation through permeable sandstones, partial confinement controlled by beds
rich in clay minerals, and organic matter creating a reducing environment favor-
able to uranium precipitation.
5 Sierra Pintada District

This district is located in Bloque San Rafael (Mendoza). Uranium concentrations
have been detected at several levels of the stratigraphic column (Fig. 2) in
stratiform and vein-type forms. The Dr. Baulies ore deposit is the most important
accumulation of the district; ten other bodies and occurrences complete the
resources of the area.
5.1 Mineralogy, Petrology, and Morphology
The host rock is a sandstone named the Areniscas Atigradas Member, reaching
75 to 100m in thickness in the ore deposit area. This rock has fine to coarse grain
size, and thin or laminar bedding caused by distinct granulometric and composi-
tional changes. This parallel set of strata is sometimes interrupted by isolated
large-scale cross-beds. These are eolian arkosic sandstones deposited in desert en-
vironment (Spaletti and Mazzoni 1972; Rodriguez and Valdiviezo 1970). The rock
STRATIGRAPHIC GEOLOGICAL URMIUII

PERIOD
Ill ITS PROCESSES OCCURREIICE
Fluvial and eolian sedimentation

QUATERNARY SEVERAL UNITS Basic volcanism Occurrences
-- ''\i'\1\ru'V\.. Angular unconformity •o..IVVV
La Sandia Fm
Fluvial sedimentation
Rio Seco del Zapallo
Basic volcanism
Fm '\lvvvvvvvv Unconformity ''l.lvvvvv\/\IV
TERTIARY
Aisol Fm Fluvial sedimentation
'V\I\IVV\.. PE-neplanation-Hiatus '\IVVV
Fluvial sedimentation Stratabound

Pues to Viejo Fm Basic and acid effusives occurrences
TRIASSIC ~~~~ Disconformity ~
"-
::::> co Carrizal ito Vein-type
0 Acid val can ism
- - - - Cl"' Fm occurrences
e------
~
-...J Agua de
..- los
Noques Fm
Oac i tic v ol can ism
.."'"'
N
u Quebrada del Vein-type

Basic volcaniSm
0
Pimiento Fm occurrences
u
Acid and mesosil icic explosive
Agua de los Burros val can ism
Fm Fluvial sedimentation
~~~Angular unconformity
PERMIAN Arroyo Punta Stratabound
'!
del Agua Fm occurrences
Explosive volcanism
....
::0: ~~~ Disconformitv~~
•·~
"- Vieja Areni~ Stratabound
::::> "'0z Gord~ cas Ore depos i ts
0
"' >
Cl
::::>
Mbr Atigr!!_ •<><• ..
volcanism Eolian
UJ (Or. Baulles
das
-u "'"'
0
sedimentation ore deposits)
Mbr
:I: 0
..
u ...J
0
u
u Psefiti co Mbr
> E::xplos ive volcanism
Anaular unconfonni t:y 'V\r
El Imperial Fm Marine an continental sed1ment! Stratabound
CARBON I FEROUS
~'V\rtl~~~la~ 1 ~~~~!~~~ity ~·~J occurrences
DEVON IAN Rio Seco de los
Seashore sed imen tat ion
Cas taiios Fm
ORDOVICIAN - La Horqueta Fm
-Marine ~ -sedimentati~
DEVON IAN? Dynamic metamorphism
'\/\/\.'\1\.·'VV\/\.. Unconformity '\·'\.IVV\.'\/V\1\.
CAMBRO - Penon Trehue Fm Marine sedimentation
ORDOVICIAN
·'\l\lv·vvvv\/\, Un conf o nni ty •vvvvv-..?vv"
PRECAMBRIAN Cerro La Ventana Fm Plutonism - Metamorphism
Fig. 2. Sierra Pintada, simplified stratigraphic scheme
is an arkosic sandstone mainly composed of quartz and feldspar; plagioclase

(oligoclase-andesine) being clearly more abundant than orthoclase, and impor-
tant quantities of pyroclastic material and some devitrified shards are present
(Chaar and Latorre 1970; Chaar and Ferreyra 1978). Usual accessories are apatite
and zircon. Kaolinite, carbonates, chlorites, and sericite are widespread products
of alteration (Ferreyra 1981). Organic matter (organic carbon: 0.8o/o -1 o/o) is
scarce and is present as small particles. Main uranium minerals are uraninite and
brannerite. The first appears in well-crystallized form or in thin stringers; the sec-
ond replaces anatase. There is also coffinite cementing clasts of host rock.
Uranophane is the secondary ("yellow") mineral present. Sulfides (pyrite,
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, marcasite) are scarce.
The following depositional sequence of uranium minerals has been estab-
lished: coffinite-uraninite-brannerite; pyrite, marcasite, titaniferous magnetite,
and anatase were formed before crystallization of uranium species.
Mineralization is lenticular, peneconcordant, having two enriched beds sepa-
rated by barren or slightly mineralized rocks. The orebodies are 4000 m long and
600 m wide. The thickness varies from a few centimeters at the boundary of the
body to 20-25 m in the central parts. The grade is 1%o U 30 8 ; 2000 t U 30 8 have
been removed and the remaining resources represent 12000 t U 30 8 •
5.2 Tectonic Framework
The ore deposit is located in the western flank of a brachyanticline: the length of
the fold (trending N 25 oW) is about 15 km.
The folding (a discontinuous type of deformation) was contemporaneous with
deposition of the host rock sediments (Lardone and Giordano 1984); uplifted
blocks of pre-Permian basement brought deformation of sediments without hori-
zontal compressive stress.
The brachyanticline is traversed by a fault system, which affects also the
orebody. The throws of the fault vary from a few centimeters to 100 m, forming
blocks of different size and inclination.
5.3 Mineralizing Age
No determination of the age of the uranium minerals has been made. It is never-
theless possible to know the age of the ore process, using data of related rocks
from the Toba Vieja Gorda Member and the Quebrada del Pimiento Fm. Rocks
from the latter cut the orebody (Linares et al. 1978); their age is Early Permian
(270- 260 m.y.).
5.4 Genesis of Ore Deposit
The Toba Vieja Gorda Member was supposed by some to be a source of uranium.
Its content of U is about 1 ppm; the primary content was about 3 ppm (estimated
by the Th/U ratio). Some leaching of U has been deduced, also for recent times,
based on the presence of daughter products of the uranium decay series. Another
source of uranium could be the host rock itself. The arkosic composition and
pyroclastic components of the sandstone represent good conditions for such a
function; furthermore, some levels show anomalously low uranium content in this
type of rock: less than 0.5 ppm U (Ferreyra 1982), revealing high leaching. Leach-
ed uranium and other elements (Ca, Fe, CO:J, etc.) are carried by groundwaters.
Dissolved C02 facilitates this process, because it increases uranium solubility,

forming complex carbonate ions. This groundwater moved through the Areniscas
Atigradas Member. Uranium deposition could have taken place inside a mixture
zone of acid-bearing uranium solutions and oxygenated alkaline groundwaters;
this model was also sustained for other volcaniclastic sequences (Curtis 1981).
Furthermore, the thinning of sandstone beds towards the brachyanticline center
could have helped the process of trapping and precipitating uranium.
6 Malargiie District
The Malargiie district occurs in the Cordillera Principal. The sedimentary se-
quence contains volcanic rocks (Choiyoi Group) and continental layer (Triassic),
covered by marine and transitional sediments of a Mesozoic geosyncline
(Jurassic-Cretaceous age); the series ends with Tertiary and Quaternary clastic
layers, intrusives, and volcanic rocks.
The Neuquen Group (Late Cretaceous) has many uranium occurrences, scat-
tered over a wide region. The sediments are made up of conglomerates, sand-
stones, and mudstones of fluviatile origin.
The Huemul uranium deposit (69°40' W-35°45' S) is located in sediments of
the Neuquen Group: arkosic sandstones, conglomeratic sandstones, and con-
glomerates, usually limited to the bottom and/or to the roof by red mudstones.
Carbonates cement the sandstones. The deposit is divided into three bodies, cov-
ering a total length of about 2 km. The richest body extends over 300 m (in the
direction of the plunging host rock), 100m in width and around 1m in thickness.
Uranium enrichment (spatially associated with copper mineralization, Linares
1966) shows typical zonation of secondary ("yellow") minerals near the surface
(carnotite, tyuyamunite, uranophane, etc. Brodtkorb 1966), and below a transition
zone appears uraninite. Uranium was probably extracted from the host-rock prop-
er or from associated volcanics, and transported by groundwater. The orebody de-
velops in beds impregnated with asphaltic pyrobitumen, which was probably ex-
pelled from a nearby oil-bearing basin (Linares 1956). The close association of
uranium with this organic material demonstrates that such compounds created fa-
vorable conditions (reduction, adsorption) for precipitation of ore minerals. The
deposit has been classified as epigenetic. Uranium grade is 1.5%o to 2.5%oU30 8
(Belluco et al. 1974 b). The associated copper reaches a grade up to 4o/o. Vanadium
minerals are usually present in the orebody; ore grades are 1% to 2% V20 5 • This
mine supplied 300 t U30 8• The age of ore formation is estimated to be Oligocene
(29 m.y.), according to geologic and isotopic determinations (Stipanicic 1970).
7 Rahueco District
The Rahueco district is located at the south end of the geologic setting named
the Cordillera Principal (Neuquen). The host rock is the Tordillo Fm. (Kim-
meridgian), formed of red sandstones and conglomerates covered by green tuffs
and limy beds. These rocks were formed in a fluvial and lake environment. In
some layers there are high contents of carbon debris.
Mineralized horizons are distributed at several places in the stratigraphic sec-

tion. Enriched (U and Cu) beds are limited by clay layers and usually the minerals
are concentrated by carbonized plant debris; sometimes, sandstones surrounding
such places are also impregnated by uranium and copper. Some kinds of enrich-
ment have been found in connection with stratification planes showing carbon de-
bris (Latorre 1962). Mineralized bodies are small (less than 3 m in thickness and
25 m in length); they have an erratic distribution and lenticular form. Minerals
present are uraninite and secondary ("yellow") uranium minerals, copper sulfides,
and carbonates (Latorre 1962). Although these bodies with ore minerals are abun-
dant, they are not mined, because their tonnage is too small and they are scattered
over a wide area. The most important occurrences have 1.9%o U 30 8 and 50%o Cu.
The formation process began with the leaching of U (and Cu) from tuffs of host
rocks by gr~undwaters, followed by the deposition of minerals in reduced environ-
ments created by organic material (Ramos 1975).
8 Los Chihuidos District

This district is located in the geologic setting called Neuquen Extrandino (Neu-
quen 69°45' W, 38° S). There are about 20 occurrences of this type (Belluco et al.
1974b), the most important being Maria Teresa and Palo Quemado. Uranium oc-
currences are present in fluvial sediments (Rayoso Fm., Albian), formed by
mudstones, sandstones, and thin levels of gypsum. The mineralized rocks are
arkosic and lithic sandstones, showing red color, medium grain size, cross-bed-
ding, clay clasts, and carbon debris.
Mineralization is represented only by secondary ("yellow") uranium and vana-
dium minerals (Del Vo and Davis 1962): carnotite, tyuyamunite, and volborthite;
some secondary copper minerals have been found.
Uranium occurrences are always related to organic material, for example car-
bon debris, sometimes dispersed on stratification planes. The enrichment bodies
are lens-shaped, limited by planes of cross-bedding, less than 0.3 m thick and 4 m
long.
Resources known at present are poor; average grades for the Palo Quemado
occurrence are as follows: 2.5%o U 30 8 , 20%o V20 5 and 19%o Cu. Sharp zonation
and inverse relation of contents of U and Cu have been found.
Common association of U, V, and Cu and textural characteristics have permit-
ted postulating the genesis of the mineralization (Ramos 1975). It is supposed that
the elements were deposited in reducing microenvironments of sandstones in late
syngenetic to epigenetic stages; such conditions could be present during rhesistasy
periods.
References
Antonietti C, Gorustovich S, Valdiviezo A, Benitez A, Saucedo P (1984) Geologia y metalogenesis de

los dep6sitos uraniferos de Argentina. Parte 1: Acumulaciones con control sedimentario. In: Geol-
ogy and Metallogenesis of Uranium Deposits of South America. IAEA, pp 49-86
680 R. E. Ferreyra and L. E. Lard one
Arcidiacono E, Saulnier M (1980) Contribucion a Ia interpretacion genetica de los yacimientos

uraniferos de Sierra Pintada, San Rafael, Mendoza. Asoc Min Petrol Sed XI:1-14
Belluco A, Diez J, Antonietti C (1974a) Los depositos uraniferos de las provincias de La Rioja y San
Juan. V Congr Geol Arg II: 9-33
Belluco A, Diez J, Antonietti C, Achen H, Valerdi C (1974b) Los depositos uraniferos de las Provin-
cias de Mendoza y Neuquen. V Congr Geol Arg II:35- 53
Brodtkorb M (1966) Mineralogia y consideraciones geneticas del yacimiento Huemul, Provincia de
Mendoza. Rev Asoc Geol Arg XXI (3):165-179
Chaar E, Ferreyra RE (1978) Estudio sedimentologico mineralogico sobre muestras de sondeos del
Yac. Los Reyunos, Sector La Terraza, Sierra Pintada. CNEA, Tech Int Rep 1407:37 pp
Chaar E, Latorre CO (1970) Estudio sedimentologico, petrografico y mineralogico sobre muestras del
Yacimiento "Dr. Bauliecs", Sector Tigre I. CNEA, Tech Int Rep 419:50 pp
Curtis L (1981) Uranium in volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks; examples from Canada, Australia and
Italy. In: Goodell PC, Waters AC (eds) Uranium in volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. AA PG-Stud
Geol 13
Del Vo A, Davis NC (1962) Aspectos salientes de las concentraciones uraniferas del Chihuido medio,
Dt. Aftelo, Prov del Neuquen 1. J Geol Arg III:196-206
Ferreyra RE (1981) Caracteristicas generales del Sector Tigre 1, Yac. Dr. Baulies, Sierra Pintada.
CNEA, Tech lnt Rep 1603: 6 pp
Ferreyra RE (1982) Consideraciones sobre los depositos uraniferos de Sierra Pintada, Mendoza.
CNEA, Tech lnt Rep 1858:22 pp
Gorustovich SA, Solis JA (1975) Area La Alumbrera, nueva zona de interes uranifero de Ia Provincia
de Catamarca. II Congr Iberoam Geol Econ V:297-315
Lardone L, Giordano N (1984) Caracteristicas estructurales y morfologicas del yacimiento Tigre I -
La Terraza, Sierra Pintada, Provincia de Mendoza. IX Congr Geol Arg 1:260-269
Latorre CO (1962) Los yacimientos cupro-uraniferos de Rahueco, Neuquen. Rev Asoc Geol Arg XVII
(1-2):102-124
Linares E (1956) El yacimiento Cerro Huemul, Malargiie, Provincia de Mendoza. Thesis, Universidad
Buenos Aires
Linares E (1966) Geologia isotopica del yacimiento Huemul, Provincia de Mendoza. Rev Asoc Geol
Arg XXI (3):181-189
Linares E, Manavella MA, Pineiro A (1978) Geocronologia de las rocas efusivas de las zonas de los
yacimientos Dr Baulies y los Reyunos, Sierra Pintada de San Rafael, Mendoza, Republica Argenti-
na. VII Congr Geol Arg II:13-21
Nicolli H, Chaar E, Latorre C (1973) Caracteristicas y Genesis de los yacimientos nucleares Dr.
Baulies y Los Reyunos, Departamento San Rafael, Provincia de Mendoza. Acad Nac Cienc Bol
50:147-166
Nicolli H, Gamba M, Ferreyra R (1981) Geochemical characteristics and genesis of sandstone-type
uranium deposits, Sierra Pintada District, San Rafael, Mendoza, Argentina. In: Geoinstitute (ed)
26th Int Geol Congr Paris, Sect 13 .2.2, pp 163 - 187
Ramos V (1975) Los ciclos sedimentarios y Ia bio-rhexistasia en el control de las manifestaciones
cupriferas de Neuquen extrandino-Argentina. II Congr lberoam Geol Econ V:373- 394
Rodriquez EJ, Valdiviezo A (1970) Exploracion geologica semiregional, Sierra Pintada. CNEA, Tech
Int Rep 418:40 pp
Spaletti L, Mazzoni M (1972) Paleocorrientes del miembro medio de Ia formacion Yacimiento Los
Reyunos, Sierra Pintada, Provincia de Mendoza, Republica Argentina. Asoc Arg Min Petrol Sed
Rev III ( 1 - 2):77- 90
Stipanicic PN (1970) Conceptos geoestructurales generales sobre Ia distribucion de los yacimientos
uraniferos con control sedimentario en Ia Argentina y su posible aplicaci6n de los mismos en el
resto de Sudamerica. In: Uranium exploration geology, IAEA-PL-391/24
Stipanicic P, Belluco A, Nicolli H, Gorustovich S, Salfity J, Vullien A, Suriano J, Koukharsi M, Abril
E (1985) Uranium occurrences in the volcanic rocks of northeastern Argentina. In: Uranium
deposits in volcanic rocks. Proc Meeting El Paso Texas (April1984) Int Atom Energy Agency, Vi-
enna, pp 301-314
The El Laco Magnetite Lava Flow Deposits,
Northern Chile:
An Up-To-Date Review and New Data
J. FRUTOS 1 , J. 0YARZDN 2 , Y. SHIGA 3 and G. ALFAR0 1
1 Introduction
The clear volcanic and subvolcanic character of the El Laco iron-oxide deposits
has transformed this volcanic complex into a unique phenomenon. As far as
known, no other magnetite lava flows have been described except for small, volca-
nic-type iron-oxide bodies appearing about 12 km south of El Laco, yet magmatic
injection bodies of magnetite are widely recognized and some are thought to have
been intruded at comparatively shallow depths (Park 1961; Ruiz 1965).
As has been pointed out by Oyarzun (1985), after the important Lower Creta-
ceous iron-apatite deposit belt was emplaced in a back-arc position during that
extensional period (Oyarzun and Frutos 1984), no other important iron ore for-
mation in the Central-Meridional Andes took place, with the only rare exception
of the 1.9 m.y. El Laco iron deposit (Bellon in Pichon, 1981; Fig. 1).
Besides its volcanic character and magnitude (1000 million t of 500Jo Fe), the
El Laco ore deposit is also unique in that it is the only iron oxide occurrence along
the Cenozoic Andean Chain. Its exceptionally young, geologic setting, not ob-
scured by tectonic or metamorphic processes, may provide a real key to the under-
standing of older deposits of a similar mineralogy and tectonic environment.
2 Geology of the El Laco Volcanic Complex

The El Laco volcano is located at the same latitude as Antofagasta, 320 km east
of the coast line (Fig. 1). It is part of the main Plio-Quaternary Andean volcanic
chain which in this sector is composed of many other volcanoes grouped in the
so-called Cordon de Puntas Negras (Fig. 2).
These volcanic rocks directly overlie a Paleozoic basement composed of Or-
dovician marine, mature platform-type, sedimentary rocks, which definitely
emerged during the Devonian (Frutos and Oyarzun 1975) due to the Acadian
Orogeny. These rocks consist of quartzites and micaceous sandstones and include
at different sites of this area thin beds of ferriferous clastic materials (Thomas
1969). To the east of the El Laco area, the sedimentary iron deposit of Zapla in
Argentina formed at the same time, in a littoral environment.
1 Department of Geology, University of Concepcion, Chile

2 Department of Mines, University of La Serena, Chile
3 Institute of Geological Sciences, Kagoshima University, Japan

682 J. Frutos et a!.
Apatitt- amptuboh teo - btattng fto n ~It s .
Artqu rpa- Pomp.-nn Ron9e:s mas'itf1 Pre_

cambr ian lowtr Po reo:roic: Arc,
/ Ntocomton morginal bnsm t a5 t rn Lt m 1t
0 Ntocornian rt10gmohc arc
E3
*
PoltOtOie ~OSt nCIInal OrtO
El Loco
OtJorernary voreonre ore
Fig. 1. Tectonic and paleogeographic frame of the Mesozoic iron belts of the Andes and the El Laco
magnetite lava flow ore deposit (Oyarzun and Frutos 1984)
El Laco formed on a peneplained basement of Lower Paleozoic marine rocks,

unconformably covered by thin Mesozoic and Cenozoic detrital continental sedi-
ments and the extensive Middle-Upper Tertiary rhyolitic flows. Its first volcanic
activity probably began during the Upper Miocene-Lower Pliocene with a
stratovolcanic stage of andesite deposition, which appears to form the base of the
volcanic pile (Fig. 2). The andesitic lavas, partially silicified and cut by magnetite
veinlets, present a porphyric texture, with plagioclase clinopyroxene, orthopyrox-
ene and magnetite phenocrysts (Oyarzun 1985). This stage was followed during
the Pliocene by the explosive extrusion of large amounts of pyroclastic materials,
including ashes, which covered a large area around the volcanic center. The corre-
sponding collapse of the central part of the volcano, whose concentric subcircular
structures can still be observed, formed a small explosion caldera with a diameter
of 4- 5 km (Frutos and Oyarzun 1975). According to the regional geology and the
TheEl Laco Magnetite Lava Flow Deposits, Northern Chile 683
'Y
'(
'( 'Y
y '(
y '(
!-;:,
. .
y 'Y •·}
'(
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y
'Y
.I•.,k
:~
'Y 'Y ·uI •

!
Strtom tinu.
'(
111"
'( y I',,. lovQ How•.
'( !· \,,.. Road ,
Frocturu.
'( \ '
; ' ....
Younqer unoll erot1rt
~--., and epithermal vlnft
.li\Citnt Coldrra,
//.
......__...1 Km .
Q
1:_95-~--~~~\. _fJq Sc.A.LE

-- -- ---
A'
A 5.000m
4.000
~ M.oonttlte deposltt : o)moulv•

·~r.. bl dll m•mb.rtd bod itt Plioctnt lgnimbr itu .
O'Uoltrnory morainic dtpoti.tJ.
Crttacf'OUa-Ttrtiary continltntal
Quottrnory Jalint udimtniJ . ITII:!TI.J lgnimbritu .udimtnts.
Ouotttr\ory anduit.-J . E:!3 RPiyo·docitu. lowtt Paltoroic fttr uginou.t

•chlttt.
~ Pyroclut ic: udim~PnU . ~ Pliocrnt·P itiJtoctnf onduitu .
Fig. 2. The El Laco geological map (Frutos and Oyarzun 1975)
local stratigraphy of the volcanic pile, the slow extrusion of a rhyodacitic central
needle (6.5 m.y., Deruelle 1979) followed during the Upper Pliocene. The nearby
ignimbritic deposits are probably cogenetically associated with them.
One of the last stages in the development of the volcanic complex is represent-
ed by an hypabyssal intrusion (feeder fissural-type bodies) and the extrusion of
684 J. Frutos et al.
an iron-oxide magma through five subsidiary (satellitic) craters (Fig. 2; Park 1961;
Llaumett 1967). They are located around the El Laco rhyodacitic central dome,
and are controlled by the subconcentric collapse structures (Frutos and Oyarzun
1975; Fig. 2). This process possibly occurred during the Pleistocene. The develop-
ment of an important and pervasive hydrothermal alteration stage, mainly of an
epithermal, highly silicic type, the vents of which are approximately located in the
same subcircular position as the iron bodies, also began during this period. Some
copper veinlets appearing around the rhyodacitic central dome seem to be associ-
ated with this stage, together with gypsum, alunite, quartz, and sulfur. The
fumarolic activity is at present still important.
During the Quaternary, the western slope of the El Laco volcanic system was
blanketed by younger andesites from a nearby volcano, eroded by glacial pro-
cesses and partly covered by moraines and glaciofluvial deposits.
3 The Iron-Oxide Ore Deposits

The eruptive magnetite-hematite bodies form a subcircular arrangement 4-5 km
in diameter and are given the following names (Fig. 2): (1) Laco Sur; (2) Laquito;
(3) Laco Norte; (4) Rodados Negros; (5) Cristales Grandes. The last one and La-
quito being dyke-type structures. In the other places, the iron-oxide bodies (mag-
netite and subordinate primary hematite) correspond clearly to extrusive (lava
flows) and subvolcanic (dykes and pipes) structures. These bodies appear to have
solidified from a magma composed almost entirely of iron oxides and abundant
gas. Occasionally the amygdules are filled with apatite, actinolite and quartz, at
least close to the contact areas.
The magnetite lava flow structures are comparable in some places with aa-type
lava or, particularly, in places with ropy surfaces, with the pahoehoe type. Park
(1961) was the first to recognize the shallow intrusive and extrusive character of
the iron-oxide bodies, and to describe the different lava types. In the subvolcanic
part of the bodies (observable at Laquito, Rodados Negros, Cristales Grandes and
San Vicente Bajo), massive magnetite, with abundant apatite crystals, predomi-
nates, whereas in the lava flows magnetite structures of idiomorphic, spherulitic
and dendritic types are more abundant (Laco Sur, Laco Norte, San Vicente and
Rodados Negros) (Fig. 3).
The magnetite shows variable degrees of oxidation to hematite, depending on
the relative proximity to areas of circulating post-magmatic fluids (faults, vents,
etc.).
The gas escape tubes (several meters long and about a decimeter in diameter)
and some vesicles are lined with an inner layer of well-developed octahedral crys-
tals of magnetite (1-5 em in the longest dimension). Parts of the tube walls are
extremely porous and spongy (Park 1961). The contact aureoles between the mag-
netite bodies and the host rocks do not show evidence of excessively high tempera-
ture, and consist chiefly of a narrow (0.5- 2 m) actinolite-scapolite-quartz aure-
ole.
The magnetite lava flows reached the surface through subparallel (Laco Sur)
and partly curved feeder fissures (Laco Norte, San Vicente Alto). The first volca-
The El Laco Magnetite Lava Flow Deposits, Northern Chile 685
Fig. 3. Air photograph (stereoscopic pair) of the El Laco volcano
nic product extruded by these fissures was a pyroclastic magnetite-bearing materi-

al, with a thickness of about 30m. Later, magnetite flows (approximately 50 m
thick), covering the former material, were in turn overlain by a second pyroclastic
unit (20m thick) that contains massive magnetite fragments (Henriquez and Mar-
tin 1978).
4 Mineralogic Characteristics of the Iron Bodies

The iron-oxide bodies are composed principally of magnetite, the primary
hematite being mainly restricted to the degasification pipe structures. The magne-
tite bodies include subordinate minerals such as maghemite and goethite. The
gangue minerals are quartz, apatite, goethite, limonitic material and in some cases
silicate minerals (mainly pyroxene). Pyrite traces are common.
Mineralogic and geochemical determinations made by an electron probe
microanalyzer of 12 selected samples of the magnetite flows and intrusions show
that the up-to-date oxidation grade of the magnetite occurred in at least two main
stages, characterized by the following properties:
1. A high temperature stage replacement of magnetite by hematite, with the devel-

opment of lath-shaped euhedral crystals of hematite (Fig. 4A, B).
2. A supergene stage replacement of magnetite by hematite, generally associated
with goethite and maghemite (Fig. 4C). These samples show martitization, often
with part of the magnetite left over in a pseudo-breccia pattern. In other cases
a true breccia was converted to hematite starting from the rims of breccia pieces.
• ...
I,.~"
. ....
.~
....,..
~DI
.. ~
"
.
•
" Mg -·
.. , ... .. ,
~
•
....
·a
Mg
,..,.
Fig. 4. Selected microphotos of El La co ores. a Magnetite (Mg) replaced by hematite (Hm) ( x 20, par-
allel nicols). b Typical martitization texture (x40, crossed nicols). c Goethite with colloform texture
and hematite replacing magnetite (x20, parallel nicols). d Brecciated or fragmental magnetite (x5,
parallel nicols) partly replaced by goethite and hematite
This could indicate that magnetite was deformed and brecciated at a relatively
early stage (Fig. 40). The martitization process includes replacement parallel
to both the border and the octahedral cleavage.
Magnetite contains extensive traces of vanadium, but maghemite (which has
been interpreted as supergene alteration of magnetite) does not. Nevertheless,
maghemite contains Ca und Si, suggesting the substitution of Fe3 + by Ca2 + and
Si4 + in the structure. Haggerty (1970) has reported traces of rutile, pyrite and an
iron phosphate Fe4 (P0 4h-
The magnetite from the lava flows presents three different growth habits:
1. A dendritic magnetite, formed by a subparallel arrangement of very thin
laminae. This habit, which also appears at Kirunavaara and at the El Romeral
Cretaceous iron-apatite deposit of northern Chile, has been interpreted as typi-
cal for rapid growth (Henriquez and Martin 1978).
2. Spherulitic magnetite (1.8 to 4.5 em in diameter) with a fibrous, internal tex-
ture.
3. Octahedral magnetite, mainly associated with a hydrogen-rich gaseous phase
(Henriquez and Martin 1978).
5 Geochemical and Genetic Considerations

Frutos and Oyarzun (1975) and Oyarzun (1985) analyzed the trace elements in
magnetite and the apatite rare earth contents of the El Laco ore deposits, compar-
ing them with the compositions of other localities and modes of formation (rocks
and ore deposits). The results of these analyses (summarized in Th.ble 1 a, b) show
Table 1 a, b. Trace elements contents of the El Laco magnetites and com-

parison to magnetites from different origins (a from Frutos and Oyarzun
1975)
a)
Magnetites V(ppm) Cr (ppm) Ti (ppm)
El Laco ore 300-400 30-100 100-200

Quaternary andesites 1000-1300 400-500 20000-36000
(El Laco area)
New Zealand lavas 4500-8000 47-100 51000-72000
Ferruginous schists 120-200 70 200
b)
Magnetites Ti (ppm)a V (ppm)a Cr (ppm)a
La Cabana 223 722 161

(38°30'S/73°15'W)
Mahuilque 367 758 150
(38° 15'S/73°15'W)
Northern Chile iron- 400 1910 23
apatite belt
El Laco (magnetite) 53 800 20
El Laco (hematite) 10 800 10
Kirunavaara (high P) 175 1425
Kirunavaara (low P) 825 1325
Quaternary andesites 28000 1200 450
(Northern Chile)
New Zealand andesite 61000 6200 570
a Mean values.
a very low content of V, Cr and Ti (V 800 ppm; Cr 20 ppm; Ti 50 ppm) in the

El Laco magnetites, contrasting with the high values of these elements (especially
the Ti content) in the magnetites from the Andean Quaternary andesites (includ-
ing those from the El Laco volcano) and from the New Zealand lavas (V
1200-6200 ppm; Cr 450-600 ppm; Ti 25000-60000 ppm).
These results (especially the low Ti content) are in contrast to the hypothesis
that considers the fractional crystallization as a segregation mechanism of the
magnetite, thus being also contrary, as pointed out by Oyarzun (1985), to a segre-
e: EL LACO APATITE I LOPEZ,I975, PERS.COMMJ

10.000
0: EL ROMERAL APATITE I BOOKSTI;Q.l, 1979)
9.000
8.000
+: KIRUNA VAARA APATITE IPARAK,1973)
7.000 X :CERRO MERCADO APATITE I YOUNG ET AL,1969)
6.000
o : MAGMATIC APATITE I NAGASAWA AND
SCHNETZLER, 1971 J
5.000 •: SEDIMENTARY APATITE I EL KAMMAR ET AL, 1979)
4.000
....-+
<, \
1500
3.000
r ''o
2500 I I
~ 2.000 i i
"'...z
0
0 1.500 i I
\. I.
j\
~
... i
a:0"' \~
. .\ I.o '.
0 \ .
z 1000 I I
.I .\ /\\ .
0
:r 900
0
800
...'z 700
I \\~ "'~
...z"' 600 f \ fo
0
0
...;:"'
500
II \1 \ ~\\
!\ .\I.
\
,\\
. ~· 'I I \
400 . ~
"...
" JI /r·. . .~'·........+.
I i
300
+ f 1
'\ ..
V
il
il 'I
l/ \\ \ \ /+
1 \ I 1 + i\
i ,,
/1 \
\ v·
I \\
200
I I ,·,, \
iI \
I\ \\~
I
~
ISO
I I \\ \\-·-·-X
100 • I
I I \•,
\ II "-, _,. . . .......\ ·---·

\ __../
I 1 .. 1 /
\~I ....
/
Y La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er (Tm) Yb Lu
Fig. 5. REE contents of the El Laco apatites and comparison with apatites from different origins
gation by separation of magmatic "liquids" as it has been proposed for the

nelsonites.
On the other hand, the comparison of REE results from apatites of different
origin (Oyarzun 1985) shows a striking similarity of the apatites from El Laco and
those from a normal primary magmatic origin, especially in the europium anoma-
ly, not present in the Kirunavaara apatites. This similarity points to a segregation
of plagioclase from the original magma (L6pez, L. 1974, pers. commun.). TheEl
Laco apatites characteristically show a high degree of fractionation favoring a
light rare earth element spectrum, which, as is shown in Fig. 5, is very similar to
that of the Cerro Mercado magnetite ore deposits of Mexico (Young et al. 1969;
Sillitoe 1976). These deposits were formed in close genetic association with a
rhyolitic dome and lavas of a 30-m.y.-old caldera system located in the Sierra
Madre Occidental.
The El Laco apatites appear to have been formed from a highly differentiated
magmatic fluid that had already undergone a plagioclase fractionation (Eu anom-
aly). This fact suggests a possible genetic relation between the magnetite bodies
and the rhyodacitic central needle (rhyodacite production by plagioclase fraction-
ation of an andesitic magma) as pointed out by Oyarzun (1985).
In this respect the observations of Hildebrand (1986) on the Precambrian
"Kirunavaara" type Great Bear iron deposit of northwestern Canada seem to be
of great importance. This study shows the genetic connection of the magnetite ore
with a highly differentiated Fe-rich magma (alkali- and halogene-rich) whose vol-
atile fluid content would be comparable with that of an ignimbrite.
A remarkable aspect of the El Laco lavas is also the fact that, in contrast to
the normally amphibole-rich andesites of the local volcanoes, those of El Laco
contain pyroxene instead (Oyarzun 1985). Another notable point is the especially
high magnetic susceptibility value (2066x 10- 5 Si) of the El Laco andesites
(Gardeweg et al. 1984).
A high fluid content of the iron-rich magma, together with a favourable tec-
tonic-structural condition (collapse caldera and perhaps a coincidental compres-
sional stage of the magma chamber) may represent some of the factors that could
explain the magnetite lava flows of El Laco Volcano.
Acknowledgments. The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable suggestions and critical revision
of the manuscript from Prof. Dr. G. C. Amstutz. Fieldwork and laboratory investigations in Chile
were supported by FONDECYT (Project 89-697), the Japan International Cooperation Agency
(JICA) and the University of Concepci6n. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation made the pre-
sentation of this work possible through the research fellowship granted to J. Frutos at the
Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitat Heidelberg.
References
Bookstrom AA (1979) The magnetite deposits of El Romeral, Chile. Econ Geol 72:1101-1130
Deruelle B (1979) Petrologie d'un volcanisme de Marge Active: Atacama et Andes Meridionales.
These d'Etat (Sci Nat), Univ Paris XI (Orsay), 417 pp
El-Kammar AM, Zayed MA, Amer SA (1979) Rare earths of the Nile Valley phosphorites, Upper
Egypt. Chern Geol 24:69-81
690 J. Frutos et a!.
Frutos J, Oyarzun J (1975) Thctonic and geochemical evidence concerning the genesis of El Laco .mag-
netite lava flow deposits, Chile. Econ Geol 70:988- 990
Gardeweg M, Ishihara S, Matsuhisa Y, Shibata K, Terashina S (1984) Geochemical studies for Upper
Cenozoic igneous rocks from the Altiplano of Antofagasta, Chile. In: Report No. 7911 ITIT. Geol
Survey of Japan-Sernageomin, Chile (Tokyo), pp 79-100
Haggerty SE (1970) The Laco magnetite lava flow, Chile. Carnegie Inst, Wash Year Book 68:329- 330
Henriquez F, Martin RF (1978) Crystal-growth textures in magnetite flows and feeder dikes, El Laco,
Chile. Can Mineralogist 16:581 - 589
Hildebrand RS (1986) Kiruna-type deposits: their origin and relationship to intermediate subvolcanic
plutons in the Great Bear magmatic zone, northwest Canada. Econ Geol 81:640-659
Llaumett C (1967) Los dep6sitos de fierro de El Laco, Provincia de Antofagasta, Chile. Unpubl Rep,
Cia Minera Santa Fe, Santiago
Nagasawa H, Schnetzler CC (1971) Partitioning of RE, alkali and alkaline earth elements between
phenocrysts and acidic igneous magma. Geochim Cosmochim Acta: 35:953-968
Oyarzun J (1985) Metallogenie Andine: Cadre geologique, petrologique et geochimique et essai d'in-
terpretation. These d'Etat Universite de Paris, Fac Sc Orsay
Oyarzun J, Frutos J (1984) Thctonic and petrological frame of the Cretaceous iron deposits of north-
ern Chile. Mining Geology (Tokyo) 3 (1):21-31
Parak T (1973) Rare earth in the apatite iron ores of Lappland together with some data about the Sr,
Th and U content of these ores. Econ Geol 68:210-221
Park Jr CF (1961) A magnetite "flow" in northern Chile. Econ Geol 56:431-436
Pichon R (1981) Contribution a I' etude de la ceinture du fer du Chile. Les gisements de Bandurrias
(Prov. de Huasco). These Doct. 3eme Cycle Univ de Paris-Sud (Orsay), 326 pp
Ruiz C (1965) Geologia y yacimientos metaliferos de Chile. Instituto de Investigaciones Geol6gicas,
Santiago, Chile, 305 pp
Sillitoe RH (1976) Andean mineralization: a model for the metallogeny of convergent plate margins.
Geol Assoc Can, Spec Pap 14:59-100
Thomas A (1969) Beitrag zur Tektonik Nordchiles. Geol Rdsch 59:1013-1027
Young EJ, Myers AT, Mundson EL, Conklin NJ (1969) Mineralogy and geochemistry of fluorapatite
from Cerro de Mercado, Durango, Mexico. US Geol Survey Prof Pap 650-0:84-93
Volcanic Sulfur Deposits in the Andes of Northern Chile
F. FERRARIS 1 and T. VILA 2
1 Introduction
Native sulfur occurrences, which are very common in the Andes of northern Chile
(18-28° Slat), are usually found directly related to summits, craters, and/or along
flanks in almost all Upper Cenozoic volcanic edifices, mainly as sulfur mantos,
breccias, veins, and amygdaloidal fillings. Other less common occurrences in these
environments are sulfur flows, such as in the Lastarria volcano (Naranjo 1985).
Sulfur deposits in the Andes of central (33 -46° S lat) and southern Chile
(48- 56° S lat) are scarce and very subordinate, being absent between 28 and 33 o
and 46 and 48° Slat. This general distribution pattern reflects Plio-Pleistocene in-
tensity of volcanic activity (Lahsen 1985), related to changes in the angle of sub-
duction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate (Jordan et al. 1983).
Native sulfur as amygdaloidal fillings, breccias, or mantos may also be present,
although generally not of economic interest, as a product of ancient (Upper
Miocene) hot spring activity not directly related with volcanic vents. In these
Miocene deposits a structural control is normally present, and sulfur is hosted by
porous tuffaceous rocks.
Evidence of hot spring activity is also found in association with Paleogene
continental volcanic flows, tuffs, and domes of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic composi-
tion of central northern Chile between 21 and 25° Slat. Native sulfur occurrences
here are of the amydaloidal filling type in extremely silicified rhyolitic flows and
domes. Relatively high concentrates of As, Hg, Sb, Ba, and Mn along with pre-
cious and base metal mineralization have been reported in association with some
Miocene volcanic systems carrying native sulfur of the hot spring type (Siddeley
and Araneda 1985; Maksaev et al. 1984). Anomalous, although erratic, base and
precious metal contents are also present, associated with a younger Plio-Pleisto-
cene volcanism, to which important manto-type sulfur deposits are linked (Corne-
jo 1987).
2 Geologic Setting
Volcanic activity in the Andes of northern Chile shows a continuous development
from the Miocene (23 m.y.) up to the present (Lahsen 1982) and corresponds es-
1 Geostudios Ltda., Genova 2095, Santiago, Chile

2 Minera Anglo American Chile Ltda., Clasificador 31, Correo 9, Santiago, Chile

692 F. Ferraris and T. Vila
sentially to two episodes overlapping in time and space: large volumes of ignim-
brite sheets of rhyolitic to dacitic composition and volcanic to volcanoclastic
rocks of mainly dacitic to andesitic composition (Gardeweg et al. 1984; Cornejo
1987), giving rise to composite strato-volcanoes that crown the Andean Range
above 6000 m.a.s.l. Although Plio-Pleistocene volcanic activity was very intense,
represented by more than 470 volcanoes in the area, only 17 remain active at pre-
sent with fumarolic emanations (Ruiz 1965; Gonzalez 1972; Lahsen 1976), and
only six have shown igneous activity in historical records (Bruggen 1950).
Older volcanic rocks, mainly andesites and · rhyolites of Paleogene age
(41-66 m.y.) are exposed in central northern Chile, representing remnants of an
ancient volcanic chain of active continental margin (Fig. 1).
Host rocks comprising lavas, tuffs, breccias, and/or ashes with up to 700fo po-
rosity, are intensively altered and leached.
2.1 General Description of Deposits
According to their geometry, sulfur deposits can be classified in four main catego-
ries (De Wijs, unpubl. report 1943): mantos, breccias, vein filling, and/or
stockworks and amygdaloidal fillings (Figs. 2, 3).
The most common and important deposits from an economic viewpoint are
those of the manto type, that correspond to relatively shallow, homogeneous, and
continuous sulfur lenses of variable thickness (0.5- 20 m), exposed generally in
conformity with the surficial volcanic flows. Manto deposits, as subhorizontal to
35° dipping lenses, are concentrated, on the concave portions of volcanic flanks,
where they can reach 1 km2 in extension. Sulfur here is deposited in the micro-
scopic to submicroscopic pores of highly porous tuffaceous host rocks (Fig. 4).
A 0.5- to 5-m-thick barren (5% -25% S) overburden or "costra", composed of
volcanic ashes and debris, generally covers the sulfur caliche lenses
(50%- 80% S), although the limit between them is not always well defined, with
a progressive decrease in S towards the upper costra zones. In some volcanoes
(Theora, Ollague), two or more sulfur mantos may be present interlayered with
barren or low S grade units.
Sulfur breccias may occur either as relatively small, pipe-like bodies emplaced
as crater or volcanic vent fillings or as irregularly shaped subhorizontal bodies.
In both cases, native sulfur cements angular volcanic fragments of variable size.
Copper sulfides, dominantly covellite, have been reported within a sulfur breccia
in a volcanic vent at the Aucanquilcha deposit (Ruiz 1965; Clark 1970). This un-
usual association is of hypogene origin and it appears to have formed essentially
in the same period during post-volcanic hydrothermal activity (Clark 1970).
Vein filling corresponds to single or multiple bright yellow to orange, massive,
subtranslucent sulfur veins that fill random cracks and fissures, criss-crossing sul-
fur mantos and/or bleached barren volcanics. Sulfur veins are generally subver-
tical, narrow (less than 1 m) and do not exceed 50 m in length, with anastomosing
shapes. As sulfur veins and veinlets increase in density, a sulfur stockwork is de-
veloped, generally present at the bottom of manto type deposits. Sulfur grade in
vein fillings is normally higher than 70%.
Volcanic Sulfur Deposits in the Andes of Northern Chile 693
~ ~~c~~·.~~~~::~~ 11g!~0 ~~nf~~~i~~')

g ;:~oyc~~~~~~~b5~itts intt rbtddtd with udimtn-
[[IIJ ~~~~~~rr.· j~~~~~!i~a':4o:'f,~'it~::r:.•n·,:rj~~~i!" Fig. 1. General distribution

mentor~ StQutr~cu
'---1=--+-----c:~--' ~ Mloctl"lt volcanic bflt of sulfur deposits in north-

0 Au-Ao (Cu) tpitl'ltrmol dtposif ern Chile. Geologic frame-
Porphyry copptr dtpos it
work after Gardeweg et a!.
Sulfur dtposit
(1984)
VOLCAN IC CRATER
FRAGMENTAL LANOSLIOE
ANOESITIC - OACITIC STRATifiED L AYERS
Enlarged zone in Fig. 3
UNALTERED ROCKS v v
Fig. 2. Generalized sections showing relationship between different native sulfur occurrences with geo-
logic structures and hydrothermal alteration (after De Wijs, unpubl report 1943)
Amygdaloidal fillings occur mainly as sulfur nodules of variable size

(0.01 - 0.5 m), associated with fumarolic vents or with hot spring activity. They
also may be present related with several other sulfur occurrences, although not
of economic interest. Sulfur associated with hot spring activity, as amygdaloidal
and/or vein fillings, may be accompanied by disseminated pyrite.
An uncommon sulfur occurrence is represented by sulfur flows, such as in the
Lastarria volcano (Naranjo 1985). Here, two main 10-20-cm-thick sulfur flows
of 220 to 350m in length occur in the northwestern flank of the volcano in-
terstratified with a pyroclastic flow. Sulfur flows range in color from pale greenish
yellow near the source to gray at the distal ends, showing pahoehoe structure and
surface textures. These flows appear to have been formed by melting of previous
fumarolic sulfur deposits caused by a heat rise due to reactivation of volcanic ac-
tivity (Naranjo 1985).
According to the color and concentration of S, two main caliche types can be
distinguished: the most common corresponds to a bright yellow to orange, pow-
dery aggregate, with S ranging from 450Jo to 75%; a subordinate type is represent-
ed by a dark red-brown to grayish material, locally called negrillo, with
80%-95% S, normally present at the base of the manto deposits (Vila 1953) or
in the inner part of fracture filling and vents (Naranjo 1985).
Retained color differences are probably due to distinct temperatures of forma-
tion (Meyer 1976). The yellow orange, brittle crystalline sulfur aggregate is evi-
dently the result of sublimation processes taking place between the boiling point
LEACHED POROUS , STRONG SILICIFIED-CHALCEDONIC

ROCK . SEAMS AND POCKETS OF NAT IVE SULFUR,
ALUNITE ANO GYPSUM.
30 - 70 "'o SULFUR MANTO ( HIGHER ORIGINAL

POROSITY?). NORMALLY SULFUR GRADE
INCREASES WITH DEPHT (80%) . LOCAL 81-
GASEOUS HaS AT DI;PHT
v
v
~L tOm.
~SUB VER:AL FILLED FRACTURES WI TH VITREOUS,
TRANSLUCENT, WELL CRYSTALLIZED SULFUR.
Fig. 3. Enlarged zone indicated in Fig. 2 showing some details of manto, amygdaloidal, and fracture-
filling sulfur occurrences
Fig. 4. Remnants of stratabound sulfur mantos on highly porous tuffaceous rocks

of water (83- 84 °C at this altitude) and the melting point of sulfur (113 °C),
while red-brown to black sulfur is formed probably above 250 °C. The dark color
is due to inclusions of organic bituminous matter. Other elements that normally
accompany sulfur deposits are As (0.10o/o -0.002%), together with traces of Sb
(less than 15 ppm), Se (less than 30ppm), and Th (less than 20ppm).
Available analytical data also show a general increase of As with diminishing
grade of sulfur ore. Early isotopic analyses were published by Amstutz (1959).
2.2 Hydrothermal Alteration
All sulfur occurrences are associated with very intense hydrothermal alteration of
the acid-sulfate type (Heald et al. 1967) and bleaching of the host rocks, conform-
ing "color anomalies" that can be seen from many kilometers away. Hydrother-
mal alteration produced in this high sulfidation environment is originated by
heated, extremely acid fumarolic emanations (mainly water steam with dissolved
C02 and H 2S) that destroy the original feldspars and ferromagnesian minerals,
transforming the rock into a highly porous, white to light grayish amorphous or
cryptocrystalline silica aggregate (Fig. 4). The oxidation of H 2S reacting with the
removed AI, Mg, Na, or K produces several sulfates, mainly gypsum and alunite,
deposited at short distances from or even within sulfur deposits. White clays
(kaolinite) are also often produced by feldspar alteration.
Field evidence suggests that hydrothermal alteration slightly precedes or is con-
temporaneous with sulfur deposition.
2.3 Genesis
Sulfur transport and deposition is controlled both by chemical and physical pro-
cesses, although the shape of primary volcanic deposits appears to be highly de-
pendent on physical characteristics (porosity).
Field evidence clearly demonstrates that in general sulfur was, and is presently
being deposited, filling voids and microfractures in the rock as sublimates from
the rapid cooling of H 2S-rich steam in the proximities to volcanic vents. Primary
sulfur deposition from a dominantly molten stage is unlikely, considering the
bright yellow color of sulfur, characteristic of lower (up to 113 °C) temperatures
(Meyer 1976).
The extremely pure (70% -90% ), massive, subtranslucent yellow native sulfur
present as vertical, vein-like fracture fillings superimposed over manto deposits,
suggests a downward migration of previously deposited sublimates, originated by
intermittent increase in the thermal gradient.
Chemically, sulfur deposition may be generated by partial oxidation of H 2S
by atmospheric oxygen and/or by oxygen dissolved in groundwaters. This last
mechanis~ places a depth constraint to which a deposit may extend.
From the above, it follows that there are at least two requisites for the genesis
of sulfur deposits:
a) A favorable, highly porous and permeable host rock. This feature is provided
by the strongly altered and bleached tuffs and lava flows, generating thus the
common manto-type deposit.
b) Atmospheric oxygen. Sulfur deposition is then restricted to a shallow zone
where oxygen is available, between surface and, probably, the deepest zone of
meteoric groundwater infiltration.
3 Short Description of Two Selected Native Sulfur Deposits
1\vo representative Andean native sulfur deposits were selected for a short de-
scription: the Plio-Pleistocene Tacora volcano deposits, near the Peruvian border,
and the more deeply eroded Miocene (19.2±3.9 m.y.; Cornejo 1987) Gorbea vol-
cano deposit, in the central part of the sulfur belt (Fig. 1).
The Tacora volcano appears to have one of the largest sulfur reserves in Chile.
Relatively thick (2-6m) sulfur caliche mantos covering areas of 0.2-0.3 km2 are
located between 4300 and 5700 m altitude, along the northern and eastern flanks,
as well as in the crater beneath a thin barren volcanic ash overburden. Sulfur in-
termixed with volcanic ashes is mainly cementing volcanic debris, that include an-
gular fragments of variable size of altered andesites, basalts, and volcanic brec-
cias. At the NW flank of the volcano, three stacked 1- to 6-m-thick sulfur mantos
occur interlayered with barren, gray, slightly consolidated volcanic ashes (Vila
1953). Sulfur color changes from bright yellow in the upper manto (60<1/o S) to
dark brown in the lower one (75%-85<1/o S), showing very low contents of As and
Fig. 5. Extinct geyseritic vents

Sb. Gypsum nodules with a crystallized native S nucleus are common in the lower
manto (Vila 1953).
Fumarolic activity is common, especially in the uppermost eastern flank, rep-
resented by emanations of steam, C02 , and H 2S, with crystallized native sulfur
being actively deposited on the walls of the fumarolic conduits. Evidence of an-
cient geyser activity corresponds to groups of geyseritic subsymmetric cones, up
to 1.5 m high and 1m in diameter, formed by an extremely hard, rugged amor-
phous mass of gray opaline silica, intermixed with travertine and gypsum (Fig. 5).
At the Gorbea volcano (5200 m.a.s.l.), sulfur occurrences (500Jo- 60% S) corre-
spond mainly to 2-6-m-thick stratabound mantos selectively emplaced on highly
altered and bleached porous ashes and andesitic flows. Bright yellow sulfur occurs
as very fine and pure crystalline aggregate, filling voids, and micropores in
1- 5-cm-thick seams within the mineralized mantos, probably reflecting higher
original porosity. Relatively small and irregular yellow sulfur bodies, although
very pure (97%) are also present in spatial association with silicified chimney-like
vents, indicating extinct fumarolic activity.
In the deepest eroded portions of the area, strongly silicified hydrothermal
breccias and vein-like siliceous structures are common, probably representing con-
duits for late hydrothermal fluids. Hydrothermal alteration is predominantly
strong silicification, with patches of advanced argillic (alunite, kaolinite) zones.
Barite is also common in association with silicified veins.
4 Hot Spring Sulfur Occurrences Associated

with Lower Cenozoic Volcanism
An ancient volcanic chain of active continental margin, represented by the

westernmost outcrops of Lower Cenozoic volcanic rocks (41-66 m.y.) in this part
of the Andes, extends in central northern Chile at elevations of 1500 to 2000 m,
between 21 and 25° Slat (Naranjo and Puig 1984). This volcanism is characterized
by a lower, essentially andesitic member, and an upper rhyolitic one.
Widespread subvolcanic rocks of dacitic, latitic, and rhyolitic composition in-
truding the lower andesitic member represent probable effusion centers and/or
feeders for the upper rhyolitic volcanism.
A moderate hot-spring activity was developed generally in association with the
subvolcanic environment, probably related to late geothermal cycles. Hot spring
areas appear to have a major structural control by NNE-trending normal faults
and lineaments. Individually, hot spring areas are generally emplaced in porous
rhyolitic volcanic rocks showing subrounded bright yellow vitreous sulfur nodules
(0.5 -1.0 em) and veinlets randomly distributed in a pervasively silicified ground-
mass. A light gray 0.1-0.5-cm-thick rim of volcanic glass (perlitic) is normally
developed around sulfur nodules. Strongly silicified hydrothermal breccias with
angular fragments of variable size in an aphanitic opaline siliceous matrix, as well
as patches of argillic (kaolin) alteration, are also a common feature in these areas.
Special mention should by made of a unique vein-like sulfur filling emplaced in
anEW-oriented fault zone affecting subvertical Jurassic clastic sedimentary rocks
(Vila 1953). The area, located approximately 40 km NW of Chuquicamata, shows

a complete absence of volcanic rocks and only narrow fresh diorite dykes evidence
late intrusive activity.
The sulfur deposit corresponds to a subvertical massive, bright yellow sulfur
vein of variable width (0.2- 0.8 m), that extends up to 60 m in length. Narrow sul-
fur veinlets, subparallel to the main vein, as well as sulfur disseminations, extend
up to 2 m on both sides of the central vein.
Hydrothermal alteration affecting host rocks corresponds to intense pervasive
silicification (chalcedony) with narrow kaolinite selvages developed close to the
sulfur vein. Several small veinlets of chalcedonic quartz, alunite, and native sulfur
criss-cross the argilized selvages. Native sulfur of the central filling shows
scorodite (FeAs04 ·2H20) and opaline silica veining (De Wijs unpubl. report
1943). Soluble sulfates are also present in the proximities of the sulfur vein.
All these areas with evidence of ancient hot spring activity have soils highly
anomalous in As ( 100 ppm up to 1OOJo ), with lower contents of Hg (up to 5 ppm),
Mn (up to 0.7%), and Zn (up to 0.2%). Anomalous, although generally erratic
values of base and precious metals are also present, showing elongated anomalies
after prominent structural features.
Several epithermal Ag-Au deposits are also emplaced in this Paleogene volca-
nic environment (Caracoles, Cachinal, Guanaco, Fig. 1), generally related to large
and intensively hydrothermally altered zones, characterized by strong silicifica-
tion, advanced argillic, and outer propylitic alteration.
5 Relationship of Volcanic Native Sulfur

with Epithermal Mineralization
NativeS locally accompanying As, Hg, Sb, Band Au deposition as an integral
part of the uppermost levels in modern geothermal systems, as well as in precious
and base metal-mineralized epithermal systems, that are regarded as their pro-
bable ancient analogs, has been described and summarized by several authors
(White 1955, 1967 ,1981; Weissberg et al. 1979; Henley and Ellis 1983; Maksaev
et al. 1984; Siddeley and Araneda 1985). Furthermore, a spatial and temporal re-
lationship of epithermal mineralization above porphyry copper deposits in
Miocene (e.g., El Indio; Walthier et al. 1985) and in Plio-Pleistocene volcanic
complexes (e.g., Aucanquilcha, Chile; El Queva, Argentina; Sillitoe 1973, 1975,
1988 a) has been proposed.
Precious and base metal mineralization in this upper-level environment is typi-
fied by the High Sulfur Model (Bonham 1986) or the Acid-Sulfate 'JYpe Model
(Heald et al. 1987), for volcanic-hosted epithermal deposits, characterized essen-
tially by ore minerals of diagnostic high sulfidation state (e.g., enargite, covellite,
native sulfur), as well as by an argillic and advanced argillic alteration (alunite,
kaolinite, pyrophyllite, chalcedonic silica). Ore deposition may exhibit an impor-
tant structural control, by pre-ore faults, resulting thus in complex vein systems,
such as in El Indio (Siddeley and Araneda 1985) and Guanaco (Camus 1985) or
disseminations in irregularly shaped hydrothermal breccias, as in Choquelimpie
(Sanchez unpubl. report 1970).
Available data of disseminated precious metal contents in caliches from Plio-

Pleistocene sulfur deposits in northern Chile show anomalous although erratic
Ag ( > 3 ppm) and Au ( > 0.04 ppm) values. The general distribution of precious
metal anomalies suggests a weak increase in Ag contents (up to 10 ppm) as sulfur
percentage diminishes, whereas Au shows no definite spatial relationship with sul-
fur.
As a final comment, it is clear that the Andes of northern Chile represent a
highly prospective region for precious metal mineralization, especially when con-
sidering the sulfur-rich character of the Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene volcanism.
Acknowledgments. We are greatly indebted to Claus Bunger for helpful comments and valuable sug-
gestions for improving the manuscript. We also wish to thank Victor Garrido for drafting the maps,
and Maria Antonieta Maeztu for typing the revised manuscript.
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de Chile. Aetas, I Congr Geol Chile 1:B105-B128
Lahsen A (1982) Upper Cenozoic volcanism and tectonism in the Andes of Northern Chile. Earth Sci
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Lahsen A (1985) Origen y potencial de la energfa geotermica en Los Andes de Chile. In: Frutos J,
Oyarzlin R, Pincheira M (eds) Geologia y Recursos Minerales de Chile. Univ Concepci6n, Chile,
pp 423-438
Maksaev V, Moscoso R, Mpodozis C, Nasi C (1984) Las unidades volcanicas y plut6nicas del
Cenozoico Superior en la Alta Cordillera del Norte Chico (29°-31 •s): Geologia, alteraci6n
hidrotermal y mineralizaci6n. Rev Geol Chile 21:11- 51
Meyer B (1976) Elemental sulphur. Chern Rev 76:367-388
Naranjo JA (1985) Sulphur flows at Lastarria volcano in the North Chilean Andes. Nature (Lond)
313 (6005):778-780
Naranjo JA, Puig A (1984) Rojas Thi-Thl y Chanaral, Regiones de Antofagasta y Atacama. Carta Geol
Chile 62-63, Serv Nac Geol Min, Santiago, Chile
Ruiz C (1965) Geologia y yacimientos metaliferos de Chile. Inst Invest Geol, Santiago, 305 p
Siddeley G, Araneda R (1985) Gold-silver occurrences of the El Indio belt, Chile. In: Geology of the
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precious metal deposits of the Western United States, Symp Proc Geol Soc Nevada, p 233-257
Vila T (1953) Recursos minerales no-metalicos de Chile. Ed Universitaria, Santiago, 449 p
Walthier TN, Sirvas E, Araneda R (1985) TheEl Indio gold, silver, copper deposits. Eng Min J 186
(10):38-42
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White DE (1981) Active geothermal systems and hydrothermal ore deposits. Econ Geol 75th Anniv
Vol
Salar Deposits in Northern Chile
T. VILA 1
1 Introduction
The salt deposits of continental origin in the coastal desert of Northern Chile
have been subject to many scientific studies since the end of the 19th century, es-
pecially with respect to the Na-K nitrate ore deposits, unique in type in the world
(Noellner 1867; Darwin 1890; Briiggen 1928; Wetzel 1928; Ericksen 1981, 1983;
van Moort 1985). Although not as extensive and continuous as these, different
types of salt deposits, locally known as salares, that carry only traces of nitrates,
occur at the same latitude but with a much wider distribution to the east.
The first published modern work on both deposit types was the pioneer work
of Ericksen (1961, 1963). More recent investigations on the geology of salars are
relatively scarce, but comprehensive, and descriptive in character (Chong 1971;
Stoertz and Ericksen 1974; Vila 1975a, b; Ericksen et al. 1976; Chong 1984; Vila
1985).
Very few publications on the detailed geology of Chilean salars are available,
treating mainly the Salar de Atacama (Moraga et al. 1974; Ide and Kunasz 1986),
Salar de Bellavista-Pintados (Ericksen et al. 1970; Vila 1976a), Salar de Huasco
(Tricart 1969/1970) and Salar de Surire (Salas 1975). Papers on the geology of
Argentinian, Bolivian, and Peruvian salars are also scarce and describe B and Li
deposits, especially those of the Salar Hombre Muerto (Muessig 1966; lgarzabal
and Poppi 1980; Nicolli et al. 1982; Viramonte et al. 1984; Alonso and Viramonte
1985a; Alonso and Viramonte 1985b) and the Salar Uyuni (Ericksen et al. 1978;
Risacher 1978a, b; Rettig et al. 1980), which is the largest of all South American
Salars (9000 km2). This chapter is aimed at giving a synthesis of the present
knowledge of the geologic, structural, mineralogic and genetic characteristics of
these deposits in Chile and their economic potential in brines and salts. Detailed
descriptions are not the scope of this work, and the reader is referred to the above-
mentioned literature (see also Alonso and Viramonte this Vol.).
2 Geographic Setting
A wide variety and quantity of salars (e.g., playas, sabkha, salina, pan), are
known in the northernmost part of Chile, NW Argentina, SE of Peru and SW
1 Minera Anglo American Chile Ltda., Av. P. de Valdivia 295, Clasificador 31, Correo 9, Santiago, Chile

704 T.Vila
~ C)- 67°
l v - - - .....
\\ ' I
I I
I \ LEGEND
I \
Tacna 0
''
Oruro\ 1
\ [[] Nitra t e deposits
\
''
Central Depression Salars
,go
0 [ill Pre- Andean Sa Iars
.,
(._)
• Andean Salars
zo•
\
\ • Coastal Ranqe Salars
Ll...
Predominantly silt-clay playas
21°
(._) Andean Lakes
' Moximun extension of

(0)
~,
'<{
\ Mio- Pleistocene Lakes (
22°
Cl. Geothermal areas
H
~ \ Caldera
23° '->'
o Main ci ties
9~====50--100
·· knl
0
LIST OF CITED SALARS
I.Surirt 9- A;uat Colfentu I

2- Uyuni 10 - Pujsa
3 -Hu otco U-.. A;uas CaHt,tn II
4-Stllowiato -PintadO'S •2- Atacama
13-Et Lqco
7_ Tara 15- Ptdernalu

8 - 0uitquiro
Topographic profile A- A
2700
A~:~;: A'
6.0 00
4.000
2.000
;' o-L~=========--------------Lo
Fig. 1. Distribution of salars in northern Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Peru

Salar Deposits in Northern Chile 705
of Bolivia, in an area of approximately 650000 km2 that represents one of the

world's largest evaporitic complexes of continental origin. In this extensive region,
about 100 salars and saline lakes are distributed at altitudes ranging from 800
m.a.s.l. in the coastal and central region of Northern Chile up to 4500 m in the
Puna or Highlands (Fig. 1). As a whole, saline bodies represent an approximate
area of 40000 km 2 •
Salars range in size from 0.5 to several thousand km2 , occupying the more de-
pressed zones of extensive endorreic basins (5000-20000 km2). Present perennial
saline lakes are scarce and small in surface, although most of the salars are the
final stage of the dessication of Pliocene-Pleistocene saline lakes (Lago Soledad;
Brtiggen 1950; Lago Minchin and Ballivian; Ahlfeld and Branisa 1960).
Present climatic conditions show a progressive increase in precipitations (5 to
370 mm/year) from S to N, W to E, and with altitude, while the precipitation and
evaporation rate decreases with altitude (300 to 100 mm/year). Strong cold winds
predominantly from NW and SW, a low relative humidity (20"7o- 30% ), and a
high daily thermic oscillation (20°- 30 oq are also characteristic of the area.
The increase in precipitation to the N is reflected by the higher proportion of
lakes in the NW extreme of Chile, SW of Bolivia, and SE of Peru.
3 Geologic-Structural Setting
The genetic dependence of salars on climatic conditions, which in turn are highly
dependent on altitude, determines the existence of the four main salar types dis-
tributed along N-S-oriented belts (Vila 1975; Fig. 2):
a) Andean Salars (3500-4500 m.a.s.l.).
b) Pre-Andean Salars (2500-3500 m.a.s.l.).
c) Central Depression Salars (1000-2000 m.a.s.l.).
d) Coastal Range Salars (700-800 m.a.s.l.).
This distribution reflects the morpho-structural development of the region
during Miocene-Pliocene time, in which successive compression-distension events
took place. As a result, parallel, submeridian-oriented horst-graben systems were
developed, conforming the present orographic units in northern Chile: Coastal
Range, Central Depression, or Pampa graben, compression horst-graben systems
of the Domeyko range and Pre-Andean basins and the Andean Range (Frutos and
Oyarzun 1974; Godoy and Davidson 1976). Later movements deformed these
original NS-trending systems, resulting in general orientations that are NNW
north of22°00'S lat, NS between 22°00'-24°00'S lat, and NNE south of 24°00'S
lat (Vila 1975 a).
Most of the area occupied by the Andean salars, along with the eastern zone
of Pre-Andean basins, is covered by extensive Miocene-Pliocene flows of rhyolitic
to rhyodacitic lavas, ignimbrites, and volcaniclastic rocks (Clark et al. 1967; Galli
and Dingmann 1962; Salas et al. 1966; Baker 1981; Gardeweg and Ramirez 1987).
Interstratified with this rhyolitic formation, a predominantly dacitic-andesitic
volcanism was developed conforming to the Mio-Pleistocene compound volca-
noes of the High Andes.
706 T. Vila
Andean Ranqe
1
Al tiplano
6J)00
4000
2000
Coastal
Ranqe
I
0"'
--------------
10 C!OKm
Control of
Plio Pleistocene Volcanism
-...!1e I>
'4 --...:./Jnto
"deo~~9ro
Olors
Fig. 2. Structural control of salar basins, northern Chile (after Frutos and Oyarzun 1974)
The western limit of the Pre-Andean basins is formed by the Domeyko Range,
which corresponds essentially to compression horsts with nucleus of volcano-sed-
imentary and intrusive Paleozoic rocks (Godoy and Davidson 1976). At the NW
border of the Atacama Salar basin, thick sedimentary-volcanic sequences with
evaporitic facies of Cretaceous and Tertiary age are exposed (Briiggen 1950;
Dingmann 1965, 1967; Moraga et al. 1974).
Salars in the central depression are concentrated along its western margin,
close to the Coastal Range, which in this area is essentially formed by thick se-
quences of andesitic lavas and marine sediments of Jurassic age intruded by Cre-
taceous granitic intrusives.
The diverse geologic and climatologic environments in which salars are
emplaced, according to their geographic and tectonostratigraphic position, result-
Table 1. Distribution of salars in northern Chile
Salar type No. Total area Average area

(km2) (km 2)
Andean 34 (720fo) 1511 (23%) 44.5

Pre-Andean 5 (1 1%) 4072 (61%) 812.0
Central Depression 7 (15%) 815 (12%) 116.0
Coastal Range 1 (2%) 245 (4%) 245.0
Total 47 6643
ed in different salar types with particular morphologic, hydrogeologic and

mineralogic features, even within a single belt unit. The concurrence of more fa-
vorable climatic (intensive evaporation), lithologic (higher proportion of readily
soluble salt materials) and morpho-structural (extensive and deep basins with in-
ternal drainage) conditions in the Pre-Andean region determine the relative areal
predominance of this salar type (Table 1).
4 Geology of Salars
The basins in which Andean salars occur are relatively small and shallow
(50-100m), with a basin/salar ratio less than 5. They may correspond to local
tectonic depressions (e.g., Huasco, Pedernales Salars), to topographic depressions
controlled by recent volcanic flows (Ascotan, San Martin) or occupying volcanic
calderas (Aguas Calientes, Pujsa, Quisquiro, Tara). On the contrary, Pre-Andean,
Central Depression, and Coastal Range salars are developed in deep (up to 400 m)
tectonic depressions of regional character, with basin/salar ratio higher than 5.
The sedimentary fill, predominantly clastic (950Jo) is represented by a complex
of interrelated depositional subenvironments dependent on the inflow character-
istics (Hardie et al. 1978). These subenvironments correspond to coarse alluvial
fans in the periphery grading progressively into sand flats, dry mud flats, and
ephemeral saline lake facies (Fig. 3). Thick sequences of finely stratified lacustrine
facies (silts and clays) are developed in the central and deeper parts of the basin.
Lacustrine facies may include relatively thick (5- 30m) and deep interstratified
evaporitic levels (gypsum-anhydrite levels). Diatomite-rich lenses are common in
the upper lacustrine levels, some of them with characteristic thermal spring fauna
(Muessig 1966). In the periphery of Andean and Pre-Andean salars there is an im-
portant development of black yellowish organic muds, rich in carbonate, with
Fig. 3. Depositional model of salars (after Eugster and Hardie 1975)

708 T. Vila
local disseminations of pyrite, auripigment, and native sulfur, especially close to

violent discharges of boiling (83 oq thermal springs (Salar de Surire).
The present deposition of evaporites is concentrated on the surface as saline
crust and efflorescences above the water table, where they can reach thicknesses
between a few mm in the periphery and up to 2-3m in the nucleus. Saline sur-
faces are extremely irregular and of different types and ages, depending on the
depth, salinity, chemical composition and velocity of ground waters. The existence
of constant winds and night fogs may substantially modify the salt crust mor-
phology by redissolution or deflation.
Saline precipitation below the water table occurs intermixed with clays and
silts, as very fine-grained (0.5 -1 mm) white gypsum and minor ulexite. Isolated
ulexite (cotton ball) nodules, up to 1 em in diameter are also common in this zone.
Evaporite precipitation becomes progressively less significant with depth.
4.1 Mineralogy and Saline Zoning
A total of 42 saline minerals (carbonates, sulfates, borates, chlorides, nitrates,

iodates, and chromates) have been identified in salt deposits of northern Chile,
including those of nitrate fields (Ericksen 1981, 1983; Ericksen et al. 1970). Not-
withstanding, the mineralogical composition of the salt crusts in salars is relative-
ly simple and is represented mainly by Ca-, Na-, Mg- and K-sulfates and -chlo-
rides, with subordinate Na-Ca borates. Ca-Mg carbonates and Na-K nitrates are
absent or occur only as traces. As a consequence, not more than seven minerals
represent 950Jo of the saline fraction in evaporitic crusts: halite, gypsum, anhy-
drite, tenardite (Na2S04), mirabilite (Na2S04 ·10H20), glauberite [Na2Ca(S0 4) 2]
and ulexite [NaCa(B 50 6)(0Hk 5 H 20]. Some potassic minerals such as glaserite
(K2Na(S0 40h), polihalite (2CaS0 4 ·MgS04 ·K2S04 ·2H20) and syngenite
[CaK2(S04) • H 20] may reach high local concentrations, especially in salars of
the central depression (Salar Bellavista-Pintados; Vila 1976a).
A generalized vertical profile in the core of a salar is as follows (Fig. 4):
0.00 up to 1.00 m. White to translucent massive halite, with clay and silt coating.
May contain subordinate pulverulent gypsum as nodules (50Jo- 200Jo ). In its lower
section variable proportions (1OJo- 5 OJo) of other sulfates (glauberite, tenardite,
mirabilite, and glaserite) may be present. This upper halite level is normally miss-
ing in the Andean salars, due to the relatively low evaporation rate and higher wa-
ter recharge in that area.
1.00-1.5 m. Pulverulent, finely crystallized white-grayish gypsum (800Jo -900Jo in

vol.) with halite in vugs and veinlets, and traces of glaserite, glauberite, syngenite,
and polihalite in its upper section. In some salars, instead of this gypsum level,
a mirabilite-tenardite horizon is developed, evidencing a higher Na/Ca ratio in the
system.
Below 1.5 m. Brown-reddish to black clays and silts finely stratified, with nodules
(0.1-1.0 em) and/or lenses of ulexite and gypsum.
Hard hummocky-arborescent white-grayish halite crust;

may contain subordinate gypsum and traces of K- salts.
Normally coated with wind- transported si lts and cloys.
This unit is absent in andean solors
Medium to fine grained crystallized, massive and/or pulve-
rolent gypsum (anhydrite). May contain subordinate halite.
Medium to fine crystallized and/or pulverulent white tenor-
dite at the top and mirobilite at the bose. This unit is not always
present and is more common in the Central Depression Solors.
Borate (ulexite) lenses and nodules, interstratified in gray
reddish silts and cloys . This unit is developed mostly in andean
solors. May contain some gypsum • mirabilite nodules.
Finely stratified dark grayish cloys and si lts. Organic

~ matter is common in some andean salars, with traces
0
;o of disseminated pyrite, Auripigment and, ocasionally,
native S. Diatoms and ostracodes -rich lenses may be
also present.
II
I
Fig. 4. Generalized stratigraphical column of evaporite crusts
The water table depth is variable with respect to evaporitic crusts. In Andean
and Pre-Andean salars it is usually immediately below the gypsum level
(0.1-0.5 m), while in some places it may reach the surface. In the Central Depres-
sion salars the water table depth increases progressively to the E from 0.1 m to
30-40m.
4.2 Hydrogeology and Genesis of Evaporitic Crusts
The surficial and groundwater recharge of the basins normally generates in the
salar area a relatively shallow phreatic level, with cyclic fluctuations. Evidences of
flooding stages (Pliocene?) are the very well preserved paleocoast lines that may
reach up to 150 m above the present salar surface (Figs. 5-7). Discharge is pro-
duced mainly by evaporation, although in some basins part of the waters are proba-
bly lost through fractures in the basal rock. This process may account for the coex-
istence in similar climatic and geologic conditions of salars and saline lakes (Montti
and Henriquez 1979). A generalized hydrogeologic model is shown in Fig. 8.
The higher evaporation in the salar area, due to groundwater proximity to sur-
face, generates a gradient in saline concentration that may reach up to 400 g/1 of
T.D.S. (total dissolved solids). As a result, a chemical zoning of groundwaters is
achieved that changes progressively from Na-Ca sulfate waters in the basin's pe-
riphery to Na-chloride brines in its central part. ·
A higher evaporation rate in parts of the basin along with stagnant ground-
water conditions may reach a K-Mg chloride composition with 20o/o- 30% T.D.S.
(Vila 1975a, 1976b; Fig. 7). Nevertheless, the final chemical composition of
brines and the mineralogy of associated saline crusts depends heavily on the origi-
nal groundwater composition and on the saline constituents of basal rocks.
710 T. Vila
Fig. 5. Vertical aerial photograph of Tara

Saline lake. Note the extremely well-
preserved paleocoast lines. Scale is ap-
proximately 1:60000
Fig. 6. Assymetrical saline zoning in

Laguna Azufrera, due to W predom-
inance of water recharge. A Saline mud-
flats, B gypsum crusts, C gypsum+ halite
crusts. Paleocoast lines remnants can be
seen at the NE border of the basin. Ap-
proximate scale 1:60000
A chemical stratification of aquifers has also been confirmed in some basins

a few km away from the salar area through deep groundwater exploration drilling
(e.g., Punta Negra Pre-Andean basin). Chemical stratification is characterized by
a 50-60-m-thick aquifer with a slightly saline upper level (2- 3 g/1 T.D.S.) resting
on a 10- 20-m-thick level of concentrated brine (130-150 g/1 T.D.S.).
Saturation with Ca(Mg) carbonates is reached at an earlier stage of ground-
water chemical concentration (Vila 1976b), precipitating as cement in peripheral
alluvial sand and mud flat facies. Remnants of stratified travertinic levels
(aragonite), as paleocoast lines up to 150m above the salar level (e.g., Salar Punta
Negra), evidence precipitation from surficial waters associated with thermal
Fig. 7. Elevated gypsum-(halite) crust in Salar de Pujsa. A dissolution structure can be seen in
foreground (arrow)
~ Direction of Groundwottr Ftow

Intermittent Streom
Spring
E'laporotion
Fig. 8. Hydrogeologic model of salars (after Montgomery and Harshbarger 1985)
spring carbonate-rich waters. Successive precipitations of saline facies with in-

creasing solubility towards the nucleus of the salar produces a general lateral
mineralogic zoning of carbonates-sulfates-chlorides. Borate layers, locally associ-
ated with sulfate facies, may also be present.
The important E-provenance of groundwater recharge, especially in Pre-An-
dean and Central Depression salars, determines in them a NS-elongated hydro-
712 T. Vila
L E G E NO
~ -tO m
D. 40- 50m
~ 0 - ~00 ppm ..··
.•~···· Solar t>ou ndar '1
~
. I:',:.: ''A [ill]
-
10 - 20m ~0 - 60m 500 - 1000 ppm No- '5ulpMte deposlls
~ ,. 20m
m:mJ > 60m 1000 - 2000 ppm ~ No- K sulphote dtp0'5 it'
rn 20-30m Groun4j-woler in flo w

E3 > 2000 ppm .an]~ K- sulphOte cteposiU
~ 30- 40m Sprin-9
0 t51<m
Fig. 9. Maps showing A depth of groundwater and 8 saline concentration in groundwaters. Salar
Bellavista-Pintados (after Castillo 1960)
chemical and mineralogic zonation along belts (e.g., Salar Bellavista-Pintados;

Vila 1976a; Fig. 9).
The overall vertical distribution of evaporitic facies in salar crusts and its rela-
tionship with the phreatic level evidences a saline precipitation through capillary
suction, that generates a constant vertical growth. According to the regeneration
time of salt efflorescences in old workings for potassic salts, a growth velocity of
0.5 to 1.0 em/year is estimated.
Capillary suction originates a constant increase in volume of saline crusts, de-
termining extremely dynamic units that show morphologic and mineralogic
changes of cyclic character. Strong explosion-like noises can be heard sporadically
during the hottest hours of the day due to the salt crust cracking.
4.3 Source of Salines
The most probable source of saline materials is the extensive (150000 km2) and
thick (800 m) rhyolitic volcanic sequence that covers most of the Andean region
(Zeil and Pichler 1967). It has been demonstrated that these rocks contain be-
tween 500 and 3500 ppm of soluble saline elements in meteoric waters at 25 °C
(Ericksen 1961, 1963). More recent work on geothermal systems in the region
(Surire, Puchuldiza, Thtio) have determined up to 13 000 ppm of dissolved saline
compounds (mainly Na, Cl, K, Ca, B, Li, Si02l in thermal spring waters (Lahsen
1976; Cusicanqui et al. 1975; Mahon aild Cusicanqui 1980) that may discharge
in salar basins.
Leaching of thick marine Jurassic and continental upper Cretaceous to lower
Tertiary evaporite-rich sequences (gypsum-halite) may have contributed with
important amounts of dissolved salts to some Pre-Andean basins (Atacama
Salar).
4.4 Mineral Deposits
Stratabound saline deposits of economic interest, generated by evaporitic concen-

tration of brines 2 and capillary suction, are present in several salars of northern
Chile. Important borate deposits, mainly in the Andean salars, led Chile to be the
largest world producer at the beginning of this century. Sodium-K-sulfate and
chloride deposits occur predominantly in the Pre-Andean and central depression
salars. Associated brines in salars may reach significant concentrations of Li, K,
Mg, and B, with subordinate Cs and Rb. At present, however, only the Atacama
Salar brines are pumped to evaporation ponds, due to its comparatively much
higher content in all these elements (Thble 2; Ericksen et al. 1976).
2 Brine is defined in this work as a water body with ~ T.D.S. content higher than 35 000 mg/1, the
approximate seawater saline concentration.
714 T. Vila
Table 2. Chemical analyses of Li-K-rich brines in salars, northern Chile (g/1)
Salar basin T.D.S. Na K Mg Ca Li Cl so4 HC0 3 B pH
Atacama (5) 425.0 88.0 27.5 14.34 0.39 4.15 199.3 15.6 1.32 6.6
(nucleus)
Atacama (5) 454.0 76.0 35.0 16.91 0.57 6.00 205.1 10.77 1.21 6.5
(nucleus)
Atacama (5) 411.4 115.0 21.5 10.42 0.46 3.40 195.0 16.36 1.16 6.7
(nucleus)
Atacama (6) 374.0 88.5 23.5 12.39 0.66 1.51 194.5 10.76 0.18 0.54 6.66
Surire (2) 167.2 54.0 8.7 1.25 0.75 0.34 79.8 20.30 0.09 1.82 7.5
Huasco (5) n.a. 38.0 10.0 1.75 0.84 0.13 83.6 13.60 n.a. 2.20 6.0
Ascotan (4) 116.7 37.3 3.35 1.05 0.92 0.17 65.0 2.20 0.66 0.59 7.75
Aguas 81.4 25.4 1.18 1.36 2.53 0.15 46.7 3.15 0.0 0.47 7.7
Calientes I (2)
Pujsa (1) 89.3 28.5 1.29 0.65 0.37 0.13 27.6 28.11 0.0 0.67 8.6
Punta Negra (5) 271.9 86.0 10.0 2.62 2.08 0.32 164.5 4.48 n.a. 2.23 7.1
Maricunga (5) n.a. 34.5 20.5 20.5 35.9 1.42 226.0 0.30 0.0 0.0 5.3
Bellavista- 86.9 28.1 2.26 0.0 3.60 om 50.3 2.15 0.0 0.20 10.4
Pintados (3)
Lagunas (4) 395.6 126.8 16.8 4.3 0.05 0.48 169.9 70.4 0.44 1.10 6.8
n.a., not analyzed.

(1) Vila 1975; (2) Vila 1976b; (3) Vila 1976a; (4) Vila unpubl. data; (5) Corfo unpub. data; (6)
Moraga et al. 1974.
4.4.1 Sodium Sulfate
These deposits are almost exclusively developed in central depression salars (Salar
Bellavista-Pintados; Fig. 9). They correspond to 0.2-0.5-m-thick lenticular layers
of relatively pure white-grayish primary mirabilite, with crystals up to 1 em resting
on water-saturated red silts and clays. Gypsum nodules occur widespread in these
lower layers. The mirabilite layer shows in its upper section a 0.1 - 0.2-m-thick
tenardite horizon, product of the dehydration of mirabilite. Tenardite lays in turn
beneath an impure, hard 0.5-0.7-m-thick halite layer with traces of gypsum and
tenardite.
The only important Na sulfate deposit in Andean salars occurs in the Salar de
Huasco (Fig. 1) basin, at 4000 m.a.s.l. The deposit consists in a 0.5 -1.0-m-thick
mirabilite layer beneath a thin granular gypsum crust intermixed with halite and
wind-transported silt and clays. The absence of significant tenardite lenses can be
explained by the low medium brine temperature (8°-12 °C) in these salars, con-
sidering the higher (17.5 °C) temperature dependence for mirabilite-tenardite tran-
sition (Chretien 1929). Beneath the mirabilite layers, carbonate-rich organic muds
are present, with rare isolated 0.1-0.5-cm-thick native sulfur nodules.
4.4.2 Potassic Salts
Significant amounts of K-salts in salars have been recognized only in crusts at the
western and southern border of the Bellavista-Pintados Salar (Fig. 9), where an
intensive evaporation rate acting on shallow and stagnant groundwaters results in

a comparatively high K-Mg enrichment of brines and salts. These deposits,
worked at the beginning of the 20th century (von Arend 1931), cover an area of
approximately 5 km 2 and correspond to 0.2-0.5-m-thick arborescent efflores-
cences made up of halite with variable K-contents (20fo-80fo), mainly as
polihalite, glaserite, syngenite, and leonite. Thin, irregular rnirabilite-tenardite
lenses occur beneath these K-rich salts, and immediately above the water table.
4.4.3 Borates
Borate salt deposits of economic importance occur mainly in Andean salars

(Surire, Ascotan) although minor occurrences are present in Pre-Andean (Punta
Negra, Pedernales) and Central Depression (Bellavista-Pintados) salars, in the
r
LEGEND
• BORATES (U lEX I TE) DISTRI BUTION
IIIID BORATE MINING WORKS
~ SUl fATE CRUS TS
~ SUl fA TE -C HLOR IDE CRUSTS
D CHlORIDE- SULFATE CRUSTS
0 SALI NE L AKES
.... , fAULTS
~RAILWAY
" ROADS
o', - -_ _ _ ___Jr Km
Fig. 10. Geologic map of Ascotan Salar, showing borate distribution

716 T. Vila
Andean boratiferous belt (Vila 1975b) or the boratiferous metallogenic province

(Alonso and Viramonte 1985 a, b) (see also Chapter 57 on borate deposits by
Alonso and Viramonte, this Vol.).
Andean salar borate deposits occur as irregularly distributed, 0.2-0.8-m-thick
ulexite-rich lenses beneath a 0.1-0.5-m-thick surficial gypsum-rich horizon
(Fig. 10). Rounded ulexite nodules, up to 10 em in diameter, are present in the
same ulexite lenses, showing a general progressive decrease in size away from the
richer and thickest borate layers. Similar observations in Argentinian salars
(Alonso and Viramonte 1985b) away from extinguished travertinic B-rich springs
have been reported.
Fine-grained pulverulent ulexite intermixed with gypsum, silts, and clays is the
common mineralogic assemblage in Andean borate deposits. Other subordinate
borates are gowerite (Salas 1975, unpubl. report) as well as traces of kaliborite,
inyoite, and hydrochlorborite (Hurlbut et al. 1977). Borate concentration, ex-
pressed as boric acid, seldom exceeds 300Jo, with an average of 20% -25%.
Borate occurrences in Central Depression salars correspond essentially to
1- 10-cm ulexite nodules in wet silt and clays beneath the halite-gypsum surficial
crust.
4.4.4 Brines
All salars in northern Chile have associated Na-sulfate and/or chloride-rich

brines with a variable concentration of T.D.S., that ranges between 35 to 200 g/1
in Andean or Central Depression salars up to 400 g/1 in the Atacama Pre-Andean
salar. Although most ofthe salars have brines with relatively high K-Mg-B-Li con-
tents (Vila 1976a, b), the Atacama salar brines are by far the richest in these ele-
ments and the only ones being presently worked (Thble 2).
The only exception is the Salar Lagunas in the central depression, where Na-
sulfate-rich brines are evaporated to obtain mirabilite-tenardite aggregates.
5 The Atacama Salar

The Atacama Salar, emplaced in a Pre-Andean basin (ca. 20000 km2) is the larg-
est of the Chilean salars (3050 km2) and exhibits characteristics different from
other saline deposits in the region. It is developed in a deep tectonic basin, slightly
tilted to the S and limited by normal and reverse faulting of regional extent.
The sedimentary fill in the basin corresponds to alluvial and fluviodeltaic
facies, mainly in its northern portion. Dry mud flats and ephemeral saline lake
subenvironments (Hardie et al. 1978) are developed predominantly in its northern
and eastern borders, consisting of calcareous silts and clays with lenses of
diatomite and/or ostracode-rich volcanic ashes. As revealed by exploration drill-
ing, the central and southern part of the salar (nucleus) is formed by a relatively
homogeneous, porous, up to 400-m-thick evaporitic aggregate of well-crystallized
halite with nodules and inclusions of black organic matter, native sulfur, and
brown-reddish silts and clays. Lenses of coarse-grained salt-cemented clastics, up
to 10m thick, are present close to the border of the salar.
Systematic X-ray analysis of two boreholes in the nucleus of the salar reveal
that halite is a constant and predominant mineral throughout them, with subordi-
nate amounts of sylvite, kieserite, and kainite, together with traces of gypsum,
anhydrite, mirabilite, polihalite, carnallite, kernite, ulexite, and borax. No evident
vertical saline zoning is seen from available X-ray data. Sedimentary lenses show
a predominance of gypsum with subordinate halite filling vugs or fractures. The
coarse clastic fraction is composed mainly of subangular fragments of quartz,
plagioclase, K-feldspar, amphiboles, and brookite, while clays are essentially Na-
montmorillonites with subordinate halloysite and illite. Zeolites, probably as a re-
sult of the reaction between supersaturated brines with volcanic ashes and/or in-
terlayered tuffs (Eugster and Hardie 1978), are also common at depth, corre-
sponding mainly to natrolite, clinoptilolite, and heulandite, with subordinate
phillipsite, mordenite, and lawmontite. At least one interbedded rhyolitic tuff has
been recognized in the northern part of the salar, with an K-Ar (biotite) age of
ca. 7 m.y. (Upper Miocene).
The slightly tilted surface of the salar to the S generates a slow groundwater
movement and a progressive saline concentration towards the nucleus of the salar.
The extremely intensive evaporation rate calculated for the salar surface
(139001/s; Ide 1978), produces highly concentrated (100J'o-400J'o T.D.S) K-Mg
chloride brines (Moraga et al. 1974), that bear the highest Li content in brines
in the world (Th.ble 3).
Factors that favored the important development of evaporitic precipitates and
brines in the Atacama Salar are a relatively ancient endorreic basin (Lower-Tertia-
ry?) with arid climate conditions through most of its geologic history, as evi-
denced by 300-500 m thick paleo-salar deposits (stratified gypsum-halite) in its
NW border (Lower Tertiary San Pedro Formation, Briiggen 1950). The great
thickness of salt deposits in the Atacama basin suggests significant subsidence
processes.
The great similarity in the geologic setting and chronology of the Miocene
borate deposits at Tincalayu (Salar Hombre Muerto), Argentina, with the San Pe-
dro formation, open up attractive perspectives for borate exploration in the NW
border of the Atacama basin.
Table 3. Comparative average analyses of brines (g/1) (Crozier 1986)
Atacama Great Salt Dead Sea Silver Peak Atacama

salar Lake (Utah) (Nevada) reserves (mt)
K 22.4 6.3 7.0 1.9 53.0

Li 1.7 0.05 0.02 0.3 4.3
so4 21.7 20.0 0.6 n.a. n.a.
Boric acid 4.4 n.a. n.a. n.a. 11.0
n.a., not available.

718 T. Vila
6 The Salar Grande

This saline body (5x60km) is emplaced in a deep tectonic Coastal Range basin
at 700 m.a.s.l. The geologic framework here corresponds essentially to volcanic
and sedimentary marine Jurassic rocks, intruded by granitic plutons of Cretacic
age. The essential difference of the Salar Grande lies in the total absence of pre-
sent water recharge, it being in this sense a "fossilized" salar.
According to three old deep drill holes for K-salt exploration, the saline body
reaches a maximum depth of 140m, overlying anhydrite-rich, silt-clay sediments.
The salt mineralogy, as in the Atacama salar nucleus, is extraordinarily homoge-
neous along the drill holes and corresponds to very well, and coarse crystallized
halite with small pockets of gypsum and tenardite. Chemical analysis of cores
show almost no variation in NaCl (up to 99.50?o), content although a slight in-
crease inK (0.05% to 0.10%), Ca (0.02% to 0.15%) and 804 (0.2% to 1%) is ev-
idenced between the surface and the deepest parts of the saline body.
The origin and genesis of this salt body is uncertain; however, considering its
similarity with the nucleus of the Atacama Salar, it is a probable remnant of a
Lower Miocene(?) paleo salar (Chong 1984), related to the Gran Lago Soledad
(Briiggen 1950).
7 Further Work Needed
The processes involved in salars genesis are of a hydrological, chemical, biologi-

cal, and sedimentological nature and closely related to each other. Investigations
on salars in Chile have stressed the chemical and mineralogic aspects of evaporites
and brines, from a strictly economic viewpoint, but no attempt has been made
to study the physico-chemistry of salar complexes, regarding them as closed sys-
tems of interrelating solutions and minerals.
Hydrogeologic aspects are so far the best understood, as a result of the contin-
uous search for groundwater resources in this extremely arid land. Little is known
of the biological aspects of salars and almost nothing of the sedimentology of
present and ancient salar complexes.
Salar complexes provide therefore a highly interesting subject for multi-disci-
plinary studies in a field with many unsolved problems.
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Borate Deposits in the Andes
R.N. ALONSO and J. G. VIRAMONTE 1
1 Introduction
The main South American borate reserves are located in the Central Andes.
The principal regions with borate deposits in the Central Andes are from West
to East: Pampa del Thmarugal-Depresi6n Central (Chile), main volcanic Cor-
dillera (Peru-Bolivia-Chile-Argentina), Altiplano, and Puna (Bolivia-Argentina).
The borate deposits were formed between Miocene and Holocene time. The
oldest known deposits are about 6 m.y.; many are Pleistocene, approximately
1.5 m.y., and several are Late Quaternary. Two examples of active borate genera-
tion occur; one of these in the Antuco thermal spring on the northern slope of
the Quevar volcano on the Argentine Puna (high plateau), and the other is a ther-
mal spring on the edge of the Surire Salar in Chile. In both cases the mineral ulex-
ite is being actively deposited.
As similar geologic conditions existed before Miocene times, borate deposits
older than 6 m.y. may also exist.
The main mineralogic species of borate in the region are ulexite, borax,
hydroboracite, and colemanite. The hydroboracite deposits are the largest reserves
in the world, while the other borates are subordinate in size to those found in Tur-
key and the United States, the two other major borate-producing regions (Kistler
and Smith 1983; Barker and Lefond 1985; Alonso and Viramonte 1985b; Alonso
1986; Sureda et al. 1986).
2 JYpes of Borate Deposits in the Andes

The borate deposits are closely associated with the development of the Cenozoic
volcanic arc. Three types of borate deposits are recognized in the Andes: (1) Bo-
rate beds interlayered with Tertiary sediments, (2) borates deposited within hot
springs and geysers, and (3) evaporite borate in recent salars (playas). In all cases,
the borates are interbedded with clastic or chemical sediments.
Types 1 and 2 are exclusive to the Puna and type 3 is the most common occur-
rence in the Central Andes.
1 Universidad Nacional de Salta and CONICET, Buenos Aires 177, (4400) Salta, Argentina

722 R.N. Alonso and J.G. Viramonte
2.1 Borate Beds Interlayered in Tertiary Rocks
There are three localities with borate deposits of economic value interlayered in
Upper Miocene rocks: (a) Tincalayu; (b) Sijes and (c) Lorna Blanca (Fig. 2). These
are located on the eastern border of the Puna.
a) Tincalayu. Tincalayu is the name of a low hill located in the northeastern cor-
ner of Hombre Muerto salar that contains an important sodium borate deposit.
The deposit lies between 67°03' Wand 25° 16' S at an altitude of 4100 m. Among
the most important references describing this deposit are: Muessig and Allen
(1957), Aristarain and Hurlbut (1967 a, b), Hurlbut et al. (1973), Hurlbut and Erd
(1974), lgamibal and Pappi (1980), Cornejo and Raskovsky (1981), Alonso et al.
(1984), Alonso (1986).
Clastic and evaporitic rocks of the Late Miocene Sijes Formation unconfor-
mably covered by Pleistocene sediments and basaltic flows constitute the princi-
pal geologic features of the deposit. A thick borate bed is conformably in-
terlayered between salt rock in the base and overlying pelites (Fig. 1). These units
can be identified as stratigraphic members of the Sijes Formation.
The salt rock substratum was drilled as far as 145m and the base was still not
reached. The borate member is 30 m thick and is integrated by massive borax in
pure beds or with argillaceous or tuffitic matrix in several ratios. There are also
thin stratified layers of claystones, siltstones, sandstones, tuffs, and tuffites. The
borate section is covered by siltstones, claystones, and sandstones reddish brown
in color with a thickness of 25 m. The Sijes Formation is strongly folded and
faulted in the borate deposit area.
A tuff sample near the top of the borate section yielded a K-Ar date of
5.86 m.y. (B. Watson pers. commun.). This indicates the Late Miocene age of the
deposit. This borate section is composed of borax and minor kernite. There are
also several uncommon and rare mineral species such as ulexite, tincalconite, pro-
bertite, macallisterite, strontioginorite, ginorite, inyoite, inderite, kurnakovite,
searlesite, and some exclusive minerals from Tincalayu such as ezcurrite, ame-
ghinite, rivadavite, and aristarainite.
The borate minerals found in a playa lake fed by thermal springs carrying bo-
ron solutions related to volcanic activity at Ratones stratovolcano located a few
kilometers NE of the deposit. The borate crystal formation took place both with-
in the mud and at the water-mud interface at the bottom of the lake. Deposition
occurred due to oversaturation of boron in water as a consequence of evaporation
in the arid climate.
b) Sijes. The Sijes range, located in the eastern border of Pastas Grandes salar,
is a chain of low hills of Tertiary rocks of the Sijes Formation. Several deposits
of calcium borate and calcium magnesium borates occur in this area. The Sijes
range is 30 km long in a NNE-SSW direction and approximately 4000 m in eleva-
tion.
Turner (1960), Pratt (1961), Schalamuck et al. (1983), Alonso et al. (1984),
Alonso and Viramonte (1985 a, b), and Alonso (1986) carried out the main investi-
gations in the area.
Borate Deposits in the Andes 723
THICKNESS MINERALOGY AGE (m.y.)
25
30 Bx
5.86 TINCALAYU
Kn
+ 145
+ 2000
Col
Col- In 6.81 SIJES

700
Hb
+ 300
200
In
30 Bx 6.99 LOMA BLANCA
Ux
+ 100
REFERENCE
Bx . Bor ox Ux: Ulexite - LAC:usnuNE sEc n oN coNTAINING aoRuEs
!!!..; l nyoite Col : Colemonite rzi] CLASTI C ANO PvAocLAs n c Roc~<.s
Kn: Kerni t e Hb : Hydroborocite ~~£)'1 ROC~ SALT
Fig. 1. Main Late Miocene borate deposits in the Argentine Puna showing the stratigraphic position
of borate-bearing beds
The borate beds lie within the Sijes Formation, which rests conformably above
the thick sequence of salt rock of the Pozuelos Formation and is unconformably
covered by the conglomerates of the Singuel Formation (Alonso and Gutierrez 1986).
The borate beds are rhythmically interlayered with clastic beds (claystones,
siltstones, and sandstones), pyroclastites (tuffs and tuffites) or evaporites (gyp-
sum, anhydrite). The borate beds reach 1m in thickness, but their normal thick-
ness is around 0.50 m (Fig. 1).
The Sijes Formation has two main borate sections. The lower section or Monte
Amarillo member, with hydroboracite as the principal borate phase, and Monte
Verde, where colemanite and inyoite are dominant. Both members are approxi-
mately 700 m thick. From the Monte Amarillo member two samples of tuff were
dated by K-Ar methods at 6.8 and 6.2 m.y., and indicate a Late Miocene age for
this deposit (B. Watson pers. commun.). The borate beds are folded and faulted,
showing a north-south strike, and tilted to the east.
Hydroboracite and colemanite are the principal borates in the Sijes range.
These hydroboracite reserves are the largest in the world. Other important subor-
dinate mineral species are inyoite and ulexite. Rare species are meyerhofferite,
nobleite, gowerite, and probertite.
Hydroboracite and colemanite occur in synsedimentary strata and are very
similar in appearance to limestones with a yellowish white color. The hydrobora-
cite beds are massive, pure, or with different clay or tuff contents. Borate facies
grade laterally into gypsum-anhydrite evaporites and then into clastic or
pyroclastic materials.
The presence of different sedimentary structures associated with the borate lev-
els, such as mud cracks, rain prints, and bird tracks, indicates an environment of
small periodically dessicated shallow lakes. The lakes were fed by thermal springs
with high boron and calcium-magnesium concentration, possibly related to the
volcanic activity of Quevar volcanic complex north of the deposit area.
The areal distribution of borate deposits indicates an interconnected lake chain
with water bodies 1 to 4 km long.
c) Lorna Blanca. Lorna Blanca is a deposit of sodium, calcium-sodium, and calci-

um borates located 70 km southeast of the point where Argentina, Bolivia, and
Chile meet. The Lorna Blanca deposit lies between 23°03' S and 66°27' W, ap-
proximately 4150 m high. Previous work on this deposit is summarized in
Aristarain and Hurlbut (1968), Alonso (1986), and Alonso et al. (1988).
The borate beds are interlayered with sediments correlated with the Sijes For-
mation, which is the borate-bearing formation in the Puna high-plateau region.
In Lorna Blanca, the Sijes Formation (Late Miocene) is formed by tuffites, tuffs,
and green claystones. The substratum of this section is an ignimbrite that covered
red sandstones (Eocene?) which rest on Ordovician marine rocks, representing the
oldest rocks in the region.
The borate beds occur in a lacustrine sequence of tuffites and claystones,
greenish or gray in color, 30 m thick. In this section there are ten borate beds 1
to 3 m thick. The borate mineral species are inyoite, ulexite, and borax; they all
appear as crystals grown in mudstone. Other subordinate borates are colemanite,
tincalconite, and teruggite.
A description of the vertical sequence of borate beds shows a well-defined
chemical zonation with an evolution from base to top in following order: calcium-
calcium, sodium-sodium-calcium, sodium-calcium. This development of borate
facies indicates an order of solubility in the precipitation of borates in the old
salar of Lorna Blanca. The borates were exposed at the surface for a long time,
where a strong transformation into calcite occurred. However, it is still possible

to see the original crystals as pseudomorphs.
The Lorna Blanca borate deposit is 2 km long. Laterally the borate lacustrine
deposits grade to fluvial facies.
A tuff sample collected from the base of the borate zone yields a K-Ar age of
6.99 m.y. (Watson pers. commun.). This age allows it to be correlated with other
borate deposits lodged in the Miocene rocks of the Puna region, such as Sijes
(6.8- 6.2 m.y.) and Tincalayu (5.8 m.y.).
Unlike the other borate deposit in Miocene rocks of the Puna, Lorna Blanca
is gently folded with small anticlines and synclines. The strike of the beds is
north-south and the inclination is 20° to the east approximately.
The deposit originated in a small playa lake within a region of intensive volca-
nic activity. The old lake was fed by a thermal spring related to Coyahuaima vol-
canic complex immediately to the east of the area. Inyoite, ulexite, and borax crys-
tals grew in a soft sediment during the strong evaporation period. At present there
are some salars (i.e., Thri Lari, Lina Lari, Cauchari) in the Puna that show borax
beds similar to the Lorna Blanca deposit, a testimony to the evaporite origin of
these deposits.
3 Borates in Thermal Springs and Geysers

Borate beds can also originate directly from hot springs and geysers. The borates
can be found around the vent or interlayered with travertine in the structure of
thermal deposits. This type of occurrence is found only in the Puna. Barnabe
(1915}, Muessig (1966}, Alonso and Gutierrez (1984}, Alonso and Viramonte
(1985a}, and Alonso (1986) are the principal references on this topic.
Thermal deposits with borates can be classified under two types: geysers and
springs. The geysers are characterized by a conical structure, while the springs
have a tabular-shaped structure. Both occur along small streams located on the
ranges surrounding the salars. This type of occurrence is normally well preserved.
In addition, there are also borate deposits at geysers and springs located along the
faults on the border of salars generally disturbed by erosion or sedimentation.
Seventeen localities with borates formed from thermal springs are now known
(Fig. 2). Some of these localities have only one vent; in other cases there is a group
of springs. For example, Ttopapete is an isolated geyser while Arituzar consists
of many geysers and springs grouped in a small area.
Almost all localities with thermal springs are extinguished or show only residu-
al activity characterized by scarce saline waters, C02 or sulfhydric gas. However,
there is an active thermal spring that is currently forming a borate deposit (ulex-
ite) known as Antuco on the west slope side of the Quevar volcano.
Ulexite is the principal borate deposited by thermal springs, but commonly
little borax is found. Only in one locality was pinnoite found in the Socacastro
geyser (Alonso and Viramonte 1985 a), the first discovery of primary pinnoite in
geysers.
Thermal waters rich in boron ascend to the surface through weak zones such
as faults or unconformity boundaries between Ordovician and Tertiary rocks. In
71°
Arequipa
• 01
PERU 0 0
BOLIVIA
• Uyuni
• Salta
0 50 100 Km.
other cases, the waters ascend directly through Ordovician rocks. There are also
localities where the thermal waters have overflowed in alluvial flat deposits. The
borate beds are interlayered principally with travertines and minor iron-manga-
nese muds.
The region with the greatest density of borate geysers and springs is the Coran-
zuli district in the eastern slope of the Coyahuaima volcanic complex. The most
spectacular borate-bearing geysers in the world are found in this area (Muessig
1966).
4 Borates in Salars
This is the most common occurrence of borates in the Andes. There are more than
100 salars in Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru, but only about 40 contain bo-
rate facies in the chemical and detrital basin deposits (Fig. 2).
Grabens containing salars were formed by block tectonics during Quaternary
times after the Diaguite diastrophic phase (Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary). The
concurrence of the N-S-trending Cordillera and slightly oblique NNW-SSE volca-
nic chains (Viramonte et al. 1984) caused the closed system of the basins.
The main sources of information on borate in salars of the Central Andes are
Reichert (1907), Caplain (1912), Catalano (1927, 1964a, b), Muessig (1966),
Chong (1984), and Alonso ( 1986). A summary of the geology of the Chilean salar
deposits is given in Vila (this Vol.).
The borates occur in the upper part of salars, either outcropping or below an
overburden composed of salts and clastic materials, no more than 0.5 m thick.
The thickness of borate beds reaches 1.5 m, but normally is 0.2 to 0.4 m.
The substratum of borate beds varies from place to place; clastic material,
evaporites, or travertines can be found. The substratum can be black clays with
abundant organic matter. The water table is normally near the surface and below
the borate facies.
Although deep boreholes have been made in salars, borates have not been
found at deep levels. However, these holes are scarce and the presence of borate
at depth is still a possibility.
Fig. 2. Distribution of principal borate localities in the Andes. The Roman numeral (/) indicates ni-
trate salars with borates in the Pampa del Thmarugal region (North of Chile). Arabic numbers indicate
the salars with recent borate deposits in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. They are: 1 Lagune Sali-
nas; 2 Cosapilla; 3 Chilcaya; 4 Coipasa; 5 Empexa; 6 Uyuni; 7 Chiguana; 8 Ollague; 9 Carcote;
10 Ascotan; 11 Pastos Grandes; 12 Capina; 13 Mamacoma; 14 Curuto; 15 Chalviri; 16 Luriques;
17 Laguna Vilama; 18 Zenobia; 19 Dioloque; 20 Jama; 21 Olaroz; 22 Laguna Guayatayoc; 23 Salinas
Grandes; 24 Cauchari; 25 Rincon; 26 Pastos Grandes; 27 Pozuelos; 28 Centenario; 29 Ratones;
30 Diablillos; 31 Hombre Muerto; 32 Aguas Calientes; 33 Pajonales; 34 Aguas Amargas; 35 De Ia Isla;
36 Aguilar; 37 Infieles; 38 Lagunas Bravas; 39 Pedernales; 40 Maricunga; 41 Atacama; 42 Punta
Negra. Small letters indicate the places with geysers and hot spring borate deposits such as a Coya-
huaima; b Arituzar; c San Marcos; d Volcancito; e Libertad; f Tropapete; g Antuco; h Socacastro;
i Blanca Lila. Capital/etters indicate the main Late Miocene borate deposits: A Tincalayu; B Sijes;
C Lorna Blanca
The dominant mineral in salars is ulexite, and borax in minor proportion. The
ulexite occurs in two types: nodules, the classic "cotton ball" called "papas" (po-
tatoes), and massive beds called "barras" by the miners of the region. The size
of nodules is from 1 or 2 em to 30 em in diameter, but the common diameter is
around 5 to 10 em. The borax occurs in euhedral evapocrystals, grown in mud,
that reach 25 em in exceptional cases, being usually 1 to 2 em long. The matrix
where borax crystals are enclosed is normally grayish green or reddish brown in
color. In addition, inyoite has been found in only two places, Laguna Salinas in
Peru (Muessig 1986) and Lagunita (Argentina).
The borate deposits in salars are directly related to the supplies of boron-rich
thermal waters. In general, the deposits occur in situ around the thermal spring
vents. Other boron and salt supplies are from the weathering and leaching of vol-
canic rocks as well as elements adsorbed in fresh volcanic ash. This source of ele-
ments probably contributed to the oversaturation of the brines in the salars.
Usually, travertine deposits indicate the previous locations of old thermal
springs. Hot waters ascend along graben boundaries and then evaporate and pre-
cipitate, forming minerals. The size and shape of borate deposits are directly relat-
ed to the original lake where they were formed.
It is possible to see in some salars a gross lateral zonation from travertines to
different ulexite types (Alonso and Gutierrez 1984). The evapofacies zonation in
the Andean salars is not clear. However, the borates are located between gypsum
and salt lateral facies. The travertines are generally along the edges of the basins.
A generalized distribution of facies from the border to the center of a basin is
travertine, gypsum, borate, and halite.
A special type of borate deposits is the Pampa del Tamarugal, where the ulexite
is present together with nitrates.
5 Metalogenetic Provinces
The borates in South America are located exclusively in the Central Andes seg-
ment associated with concurrent volcanism, hot springs, arid climate, and closed
basins. In this metallogenetic province it is possible to distinguish divisions based
on distribution, origin, ages, structural setting, mineralogy, etc. Based on these
criteria, three regions have been differentiated and considered as borate-bearing
subprovinces by Alonso and Viramonte (1985 b). They are: Pampa del Th.marugal,
High Andean, and Eastern Puna (Fig. 3).
The above-mentioned subprovinces enclose the following geographic regions:
Argentine Puna, Bolivian-Peruvian Altiplano, pre-Andean depression of
Atacama-Punta Negra (Chile), Central Valley of Northern Chile and main volca-
nic Cordillera.
6 Central Andean Borate-Bearing Province

The exact position of the province in South America can be seen in Fig. 3. Its
boundaries are Laguna Salinas in Peru to the north, Salar Maricunga in Chile to
BOLIVIA
ARGENTINA
0 50 100 KM.
Fig. 3. Map showing the shape and size of the borate-bearing subprovinces. West to east they are: Pam-
pa del Tamarugal (vertical lines), High Andean (dots), Eastern Puna (black area)
the south, Salinas Grandes-Guayatayoc in Argentina to the east, and Central Val-
ley in Chile to the west.
The province lies 16°-27° S and 66°-77° W. Its maximum axis is 1500 km
north-south and 450 km east-west. The global reserves of this province are around
100 million tons of borates, according to present knowledge.
6.1 Pampa del Tamarugal Borate-Bearing Subprovince
This subprovince (Fig. 3) is a long narrow basin between the Coastal Range in the
west and the Domeyko Cordillera in the east. It is approximately coincident with
the famous nitrate-bearing province and it stretches from lquique in the north to
Thl-tal in the south.
The principal borate mineral is ulexite, which occurs in small nodules 1 mm
to 2 em long, as well as in small lenses. The ulexite is normally in the upper part
of the nitrate deposits (Chong 1984). Besides ulexite, Chong (1984) also men-
tioned ginorite, hydroboracite, kaliborite, probertite, colemanite, gowerite, but on-
ly as rare mineralogic curiosities. The genesis of the nitrates and borates in this
region is discussed by Vila (this Vol.).
This metallogenetic subprovince is clearly defined by its occurrence, mineralo-
gy, etc., and is isolated from the other boratiferous region in the Andes.
6.2 High Andean Borate-Bearing Subprovince
This is the most extensive region with borates in the Central Andes. This sub-
province (Fig. 3) contains the borate-bearing salars located in the Peruvian-Bolivi-
an Altiplano, Atacama basin, main volcanic Cordillera, and Puna, as well as the
borate deposits related to geysers and other hot springs.
The principal borate mineral is ulexite, which occurs in the upper part of the
basin fillings. It appears in nodules grown in the mud or lenses or massive beds.
The beds containing ulexite are less than 1.5 m thick. Other borate is borax or tin-
cal, which occurs in evapocrystals grown in the mud, such as the Cauchari, Rin-
con, and Turi Lari salars in Argentina and the Carcote salar in Chile. All borate
deposits in salars are the result of the thermal spring activity in the basin.
Together with borates there are also other salts, such as sodium chloride, sodi-
um sulfate, calcium sulfate, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, etc., represent-
ed by halite, mirabilite, gypsum, calcite, aragonite, trona, and others.
6.3 Eastern Puna Borate-Bearing Subprovince
This subprovince includes the "fossil" borate deposits of the Argentine Puna
(Fig. 3). The deposits lie between 23°-25°30' Sand 66°30'-67° W at an elevation
of 4000 m.a.s.l. In comparison to the other subprovince mentioned before, it is the
smallest in size but the most important from the economic point of view because
of its high concentration of borates. It is located at the eastern border of the Puna
and is built up by the Tertiary rocks that include stratabound borates.
This subprovince is 300 km long, but since the borate deposits are normally
buried, its boundary may be modified by future discoveries.
All Tertiary borate deposits in the Puna are Late Miocene and their radio-
metric ages are grouped near 6 ± 1 m. y. before present.
The main deposits in the subprovince are Tincalayu (borax-kernite). Sijes (sev-
eral deposits with hydroboracite, colemanite, inyoite, and ulexite}, and Lorna
Blanca (borax, inyoite, and ulexite).
Acknowledgments. We thank Drs. Brian P. Hansback (California State University) and Ricardo J.
Sureda (Universidad Nacional de Salta) for constructive reviews of the manuscript; Barry N. Watson,
Robert B. Kistler (U.S. Borax and Chemical Co.), and Cahit Helvaci (Dokuz Eylull Universitesi,
Thrkey) for discussing the borate deposits and providing data. We are grateful to Dr. Luis De Rito and
Mr. Carlos Elias (Industrias Quimicas Baradero, Buenos Aires) for their continued and generous help,
and the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas (CONICET) for grant PID
3-919102.
References
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Argentina. Thesis, Univ Nac Salta, Argentina, 196 p
Alonso RN, Gutierrez RV (1984) Zonacion de ulexita en los salares de Ia Puna Argentina. Asoc Geol
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Alonso RN, Gutierrez RV (1986) Litoestratigrafia del Neogeno terminal, Puna sudoriental. Rev Inst
Geol Min 6:29-47, Jujuy, Argentina
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Alonso RN, Viramonte JG (1985b) Provincia Boratifera Centroandina. IV Congr Geol Chile, An-
tofagasta 2:45-63
Alonso RN, Gutierrez RV, Viramonte JG (1984) Megacuerpos salinos cenozoicos de Ia Puna Argenti-
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Aristarain LF, Hurlbut C (1967a) Ameghinite, Na20·3B20 3 ·4H 20, a new borate from Argentina.
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Aristarain LF, Hurlbut C (1967 b) Macallisterite, 2 MgO · 6 B20 3 • 15 H 20, from Salta, Argentina. Am
Mineral52:1776-1784
Aristarain LF, Hurlbut C (1968) Teruggite, a new mineral from Jujuy, Argentina. Am Mineral
53:1815-1827
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Colorado, 274 p
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Mineral Min, Buenos· Aires 10(5):283- 320
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Catalano L (1964a) Cuenca de Diablillos y Boratera de Antuco. Secretaria de Mineria, Ser Argentina
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layu. II Jornadas Argentinas de Ingenieria en Minas, San Juan 1:232-242
Hurlbut CS, Erd RC (1974) Aristarainite, a new mineral from Salta, Argentina. Am Mineral
59:647-651
Hurlbut CS, Aristarain LF, Erd RC (1973) Kernite from Tincalayu, Salta, Argentina. Am Mineral
58:308-313
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Northern Ohio Geol Soc, Cleveland, pp 151-159
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Part III General Geochemical Topics
Minor and Trace Elements
in the Polymetallic Stratabound Ore Deposits
of the Central Peruvian Andes
P. SOLER 1 and M.A. LARA 2
1 Introduction - Regional Metallogenetic Setting
The p.olymetallic province of central Peru forms a 120-km-wide-800-km-long belt

which corresponds with the western Cordillera and the high plateaus of the Andes
between 7 and 14°S (Bellido et al. 1969; De las Casas and Ponzoni 1969; Soler
1986). This province is limited to one segment of the liminar intracratonic Andean
chain (Sillitoe 1974; Soler et al. 1986; Fig. 1).
Polymetallic vein and skarn deposits associated with Cenozoic magmatism are
the principal metal producers (they account for 70, 87, and 960Jo of Zn, Pb, and
Ag production respectively) (Soler 1986), but stratabound deposits have gained in
importance during the past 20 years, mainly as Zn providers; currently they ac-
count for 30, 13, and 4% of Zn, Pb, and Ag production respectively. Two princi-
pal sedimentary metallotects have been identified.
- the Pucara limestone platform Group of Triassic-Liassic age, with volca-
no-sedimentary deposits (Soler 1986; Dalheimer this Vol.) and syndiagenetic de-
posits without associated volcanism (Fontbote this Vol.).
- the Santa limestone platform Formation of Valanginian age, with volcano-sed-
imentary deposits (Samaniego 1981).
Three additional stratabound deposits or districts have been described: the
Jurassic exhalative-sedimentary deposit at Cercapuquio (Soler 1986; Cedillo this
Vol. gives an alternative genetic hypothesis); the Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary
district of Hualgayoc (Canchaya this Vol.); the Miocene lacustrine volcano-sedi-
mentary deposit at Colquijirca (Lehne and Amstutz 1978; Soler 1986; Lehne this
Vol.).
The variety in ages and types of polymetallic deposits made this province an
especially attractive target for a comprehensive study of the distribution of minor
and trace elements such as Ag, Bi, Cd, In, Ge, Ga, Sn, etc. in polymetallic ores
on a regional scale.
Beyond its direct economic interest, such a study (Soler 1982, 1987; Soler and
Lara 1983; Lara et al. 1983) provides a detailed quantitative and qualitative evalu-
ation of the distributions of these elements in accordance with the characteristics
of the deposits (geographic setting, metallogenetic type, nature and age of the
country rock, time of mineralization, mineral associations, age and chemistry of
1 ORSlOM - lnstitut Fran~ais de Recherche Scientifique pour le Developpement en Cooperation,

213 rue Lafayette, 75010 Paris, France
2 INGEMMET, Pablo Bermudez 210, Jesus Maria, Lima, Peru

736 P. Soler and M.A. Lara
B RAZ L
15'
Fig. 1. The polymetallic belt of central Peruvian Andes (Soler et a!. 1986)
associated magmatism, etc.) and shows that in absence of clear field evidence the
knowledge of minor and trace elements contents in a deposit or a prospect of the
studied province would permit, in various cases, determining the actual type of
the deposit or prospect, with evident consequences for exploration.
In this chapter, we present data concerning the stratabound deposits defined
above. The results concerning the polymetallic vein and skarn deposits associated
with Cenozoic magmatism will be used for comparison, but will not be discussed
in detail here (see Soler 1987).
The data were obtained from unsorted mine ore samples and Pb and Zn con-
centrates (see Appendix). Very few data are available for separate minerals, so that
Minor and ll:ace Elements in the Polymetallic Stratabound Ore Deposits 737
a detailed study of the actual minor and trace elements contents in sulfides and
sulfosalts, and of the distribution of these elements between co-existing minerals,
as discussed by Macintire (1963), Ghosh Dastidar et al. (1970), or Bethke and
Barton (1971), is not still possible here.
2 Minor and lhlce Elements Associated

with Zn (Cd, In, Ge, and Ga)
In the polymetallic ores, these four elements are known to concentrate preferen-
tially in sphalerite (Fleisher 1955; Vlasov 1968; Ivanov 1966, 1968; Geldron 1983).
As far as our samples are concerned, the highest Cd, In, Ge, and Ga contents are
actually observed in Zn-rich ores and Zn concentrates. The contents in the Zn
concentrates of polymetallic ore deposits are highly variable (by a factor of 100
for In, Ga, and Ge, by a. factor of 10 for Cd; see Thble 1). These elements do not
appear under their proper mineralogic forms, except at Cercapuquio, where
greenockite (CdS) is observed.
2.1 Cadmium and Indium Contents
Cadmium. Comparisons between the Cd contents observed in ores and those ob-
served in Zn concentrates show that cadmium is found almost only in sphalerite.
However, cadmium is observed in minerals other than sphalerite in the Pucara
stratabound deposits without associated volcanism, where the relative Cd content
as compared to Zn decreases considerably from the ores to the Zn concentrate.
The Cd content in galena, which may be evaluated from the contents in Pb con-
centrates, is very low ( < 5 g/t) and cannot account for the difference observed be-
tween ores and Zn concentrate. The Cd contents in the other ore-forming minerals
Table 1. Orders of magnitude of Cd, In, Ge and Ga con-

tents in Zn concentrates from the stratabound polymetallic
deposits of central Peru
Maxima Deposits Minima Deposits

(ppm) (ppm)
Cd 5400 El Extraiio 700 Carahuacra

In 290 Carahuacra 10 San Vicente
10 Gran Bretaiia
Ge 130 Shalipayco <10 Santa deposits
90 Gran Bretaiia
Ga 855 Sayapullo 6 Shalipayco
240 Hualgayoc 8 San Vicente
12 Gran Bretaiia
(pyrite, chalcopyrite) are also much too low (Fleisher 1955; Vlasov 1968) to ac-
count for it. Therefore cadmium probably occurs with considerable contents in
some gangue minerals, possibly in the bituminous layers interbedded in the
Pucara limestones and/or in smithsonite, a mineral which may contain commonly
more than 2000 ppm of cadmium and is not concentrated by flotation.
In the province, the mean cadmium content of sphalerite varies considerably
from one ore deposit to the other [the ratio Cd(ppm)/Zn(OJo) ranges from 10 to
120]. There is no rule which makes it possible to relate the Cd content to the tem-
perature of ore formation. Some types of ore deposits are homogeneous in their
Cd contents, while other types show contents which vary considerably from one
ore deposit to the other.
Both types of stratabound deposits associated with the Pucara Group are ho-
mogeneous concerning the Cd contents, but with different level of content: the
volcano-sedimentary ore deposits are characterized by low Cd contents
(Cd < 1000 ppm in sphalerite), while the syndiagenetic stratabound deposits with-
out associated volcanism are characterized by Cd contents in sphalerite amount-
ing to about 2500 ppm. In the latter, in particular at San Vicente (Fontbote et al.
this Vol.), Cd content is lower in light, diagenetically evolved sphalerite than in
dark "primary" sphalerite, which may be interpreted as the result of a "diagenetic
distillation" of sphalerite.
The Cercapuquio exhalative-sedimentary deposit (for another genetic interpre-
tation, see Cedillo this Vol.) differs from all the other deposits in its very high Cd
contents (higher than 1OJo in the ore) and the presence of greenockite.
The ore deposits of the Hualgayoc district are rather homogeneous and charac-
terized by Cd contents ranging from 4500 to 7000 ppm in sphalerite, while the
stratabound deposits associated with the Santa Formation are highly heteroge-
neous concerning their Cd contents in sphalerite, which range from 1500 ppm at
Huanzala to 7500 ppm at El Extrafto.
The Colquijirca deposit presents an estimated Cd content in sphalerite in the
range 2000- 2500 ppm.
Cd content in sphalerite does not allow to distinguish stratabound deposits
from vein and skarn deposits associated with Cenozoic magmatism. As a matter
of fact, skarn deposits are characterized by Cd contents in sphalerite in the range
2000-4000 ppm, and vein deposits form a highly heterogeneous group with Cd
contents in sphalerite ranging from 1000 to 8000 ppm, with a tendency to higher
Cd contents in the deposits from the northern part of the polymetallic province
(Soler 1987).
Indium. The hypothesis according to which indium is concentrated exclusively in

sphalerite is inaccurate in almost all ore deposits. For the Pucara stratabound
deposits without associated volcanism, the previous hypothesis with respect to
cadmium remains valid. The other deposits, where the In/Zn ratio decreases con-
siderably from the ores to the Zn concentrate, show complex mineral associations
with abundant sulfosalts. Indium is much more ubiquitos than cadmium, and
minerals such as chalcopyrite, enargite, wolframite, and mainly tin minerals
(cassiterite, stannite) can contain large amounts of indium (Anderson 1953;
Vlasov 1968).
Minor and Trace Elements in the Polymetallic Stratabound Ore Deposits 739
In the province, the indium contents of sphalerite vary considerably from one
deposit to the other; the ratio of In content (in ppm) to Zn content (in percent)
(here referred as In/Zn) ranges from 0.2 to more than 5. There is no rule which
makes it possible to relate the In content in sphalerite to the temperature of ore
formation. It is classically considered that sphalerites from mesothermal and
high-temperature deposits are richer in indium (Anderson 1953; Fleisher 1955)
but, as it is emphasized by Fleisher, "numerous exceptions to this generalization
have been noted".
Both types of stratabound deposits associated with the Pucara Group are ho-
mogeneous concerning the In contents, which at the same time makes it possible
to distinguish the two groups: the volcano-sedimentary ore deposits are character-
ized by high In contents (ln/Zn of about 3 to 5, that is to say 200 to 350 ppm
In in sphalerite), while the syndiagenetic stratabound deposits without associated
volcanism are characterized by very low In contents (ln/Zn lower than 0.5, that
is to say less than 30 ppm In in sphalerite).
The Cercapuquio deposit shows low In content (ln/Zn = 0.54, that is to say
30 to 40 ppm In in sphalerite).
The ore deposits of the Hualgayoc district are more homogeneous and charac-
terized by In contents in sphalerite ranging from 130 to 200 ppm, while the strata-
bound deposits associated with the Santa Formation are more heterogeneous con-
cerning their In contents in sphalerite, which range from 180 ppm at Huanzala
to 13 ppm at El Extrafto.
The Colquijirca deposit shows very high In contents (ln/Zn of 8.7 in the ore).
In content in sphalerite does not allow to distinguish stratabound deposits
from vein and skarn deposits associated with Cenozoic magmatism which form
a highly heterogeneous group with estimated In contents in sphalerite ranging
from 10-15 ppm to 200-300ppm (Soler 1987).
When considering jointly Cd and In contents, two large groups of ore deposits
can be distinguished (Fig. 2):
A group of deposits with low to mean Cd contents and high In contents, the
In/Cd ratio being higher than 0.10.
A group of deposits with mean to high Cd contents and low to mean In con-
tents, the ln/Cd ratio being lower than 0.05.
The latter includes most of the Cenozoic skarn and vein deposits, the Pucara
syndiagenetic deposits without associated volcanism, the Hualgayoc district, and
the stratabound deposits of the Santa Formation. The former includes the Pucara
volcano-sedimentary deposits, the Colquijirca deposit and some vein and skarn
Cenozoic deposits, the common feature of which is the fact that they are situated
in the Excelsior Formation of Lower Paleozoic and/or at the very bottom of the
Meso-Cenozoic cover, within or around two dome structures of the Paleozoic
basement (Soler 1987).
Both groups include a great variety of ore types, so that the occurrence of these
two groups could not be related to the typology of ore deposits. The presence of
lower Paleozoic country rock appears as the decisive factor concerning the high
In content and the rather low Cd content of the deposits from the first group. The
genesis of all the ore deposits belonging to this group is controlled by fluid circu-
N
c
......
I
• oColquijlrca
I 1•
A
418
1A *4
• 5
.e ()~
-2
• 3
o 5A 7.5
/ '!IG
,~
l>#
l ./
t Carahuacra • / odf' • 5
,c.~"'
i : •. /
./·'~
..
AHuaripampa / • •/
•
/ . . . . .l[t;:;.;---- -*
. /.-.. . . . . . . *'*X
/
,...A'~
_ _.. .- ..-_...
•!!uanzala /
.......... / e
••
• _/!!ayoc
-------- '
•
carcapuquio
2.5
/ • • • ..... .. Pachapaqui ..
Cd/Zn
• /. Gra B 18 - - - _ -•EI Extrano
• SanVIcent'l efS n re na • •
/,../ • ·~. ~halipayco: •
25 50 75 100 125
Fig. 2. Diagram Cd (ppm)/Zn(DJo) versus In(ppm)/Zn(DJo ). 1 Strababound deposits in the Pucara

Group (A syndiagenetic without associated volcanism, B volcano-sedimentary); 2 Jurassic sedimenta-
ry exhalative deposit; 3 volcano-sedimentary deposits in the Santa Formation; 4 Hualgayoc district;
5 deposits associated with Cenozoic magmatism (A skarn and vein deposits, B volcano-sedimentary
deposit). The plotted data correspond to the contents in the Zn concentrates, except for a few deposits
(arrows) where they correspond to the average ore analyses
lations related to magmatism (either to the Liassic volcanics or to the Cenozoic

subvolcanic intrusions). The differences observed between these two groups sug-
gest the contribution of elements extracted from the close country rock: In (and
also Ga and Sn - see above) from the basement; Cd from the Andean cover.
However, these differences appear as second-mte geochemical variations for the
ore deposits linked to the Cenozoic magmatism which are very similar in their
mineral associations, zonations, alterations, chemical composition of the associ-
ated calk-alkaline magmatic rocks whatever the country rock may be (Soler et al.
1986), which suggests that the metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag) are not recycled from the
immediate country rock and have a deep-sealed crustal or mantellic origin.
2.2 Germanium Contents
The results concerning germanium contents are summarized in Fig. 3.

Among the stratabound deposits associated with the Pucara Group, the volca-
no-sedimentary one deposits are characterized by very low Ge contents (lower
than 10 ppm), while the syndiagenetic deposits without associated volcanism are
characterized by mean to high Ge contents ( 130 ppm in Zn concentrate from Gran
Bretaiia). These high Ge contents are not surprising; it is quite normal to find
such contents in low-temperature ore deposits such as, for instance, those of
Minor and 'Ihlce Elements in the Polymetallic Stratabound Ore Deposits 741
In --,
200
100
/ 0 Colquljirca
,
•
•
.6 Gran Bretana
//1
/ I
--
/ I
Cercapuquio / I
4---
//
San Vicente
_
~
.6Shallpayco
Ge
5 10 20 50 100 200 300
Fig. 3. Ge(ppm)-In(ppm) Diagram. (Symbols as in Fig. 2)
Mississippi valley type (Fleisher 1955; Vlasov 1968; Geldron 1983). The germani-
um contents observed in Peru remain low even when compared to those observed
in other areas (Missouri, Poland, French Massif Central). In the case of germani-
um there is, as was noted for Cd and In, a "diagenetic distillation" of sphalerite.
This phenomenon may account for the fact that the San Vicente ore deposit,
where diagenetic recrystallization is considerable (Gorzawski et al. this Vol.),
shows Ge contents which are lower than in the Shalipayco or Gran Bretafia
(Azukocha) deposits where these phenomena are much less pronounced.
The Cercapuquio deposit shows low Ge contents (lower than 10 g/t), in agree-
ment with the statement of Geldron (1983): "generally, syngenetic sphalerites are
poor in germanium".
The stratabound deposits of the Santa Formation also show very low Ge con-
tents and cannot be distinguished, in this respect, from the vein and skarn
deposits associated with the Cenozoic magmatism in which, with a few excep-
tions, sphalerite are germanium-poor (contents lower than 5-10 ppm) (Soler
1987). This is a significant result from an economic and metallogenetic point of
view, and it is after all rather unexpected as far as mesothermal and epithermal
ore deposits are generally considered a priori as favorable to germanium concen-
trations (Fleisher 1955; Vlasov 1968; Geldron 1983). Some mesothermal vein
deposits, all situated in the northern part of the province, are consistent with this
general rule, and outstanding in the Peruvian context with high Ge contents in
sphalerite (400 ppm in the Shalipayco deposit, 70 ppm in the Santo Toribio
deposit) (Soler 1987).
The deposits of the Hualgayoc district show low to mean germanium contents
(10 to 40 ppm in Zn concentrates) and therefore they differ from most of the
deposits linked to Cenozoic magmatism. However, it would be risky to infer that
this particular geochemical feature of Hualgayoc ores gives evidence of the specif-
ic origin of the deposits of this area (Canchaya this Vol.). In fact, the other volca-
no-sedimentary deposits of the province (associated with both Pucara Group and
Santa Formation) show very low germanium contents and we have just seen that
there is a regional "positive germanium anomaly" in the north of the province
concerning the Cenozoic hydrothermal deposits. Therefore we may consider that
the anomalous Ge contents of the Hualgayoc deposits are part of this regional
Ge anomaly and are linked rather to Cenozoic hydrothermal processes than to
Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary processes.
2;3 Gallium Contents
Of the four elements associated with Zn, Ga shows the most erratic distribution.
The Ga contents in Zn concentrates vary considerably in the province and even
in the same area. The ratio of Ga (expressed in ppm) to Zn (expressed in percent)
(here referred to as Ga/Zn) ranges from 0.06 to 18. It is generally considered
(Fleisher 1955; Vlasov 1968) that gallium is more abundant in epithermal
deposits. In these case of the studied province, this rule does not apply, and galli-
um contents appear as quite independent of the temperature of ore formation.
The Pucara syndiagenetic stratabound deposits without associated volcanism
and the Cercapuquio deposit are characterized by very low Ga contents (Ga/Zn
lower than 0.2, that is to say less than 14 ppm Gain sphalerite}, while volcano-
sedimentary deposits of the Pucara Group show higher, though erratic, Ga con-
tents (Ga/Zn up to 3).
c: Colquijirc.}®
N
.........
-c: 7.5
-.,op""
.,....,
A ~arahuacra
' ' •
<1
p.IIE.P.
• 5
• ' '
', 1\e.llll
• ' ' •
';... Huaripampa •
!l011 1
*"-~\!lnzala
. . ----- * \
-1{
;"""'- ..
• - - -
Huatgayoc 2.5
-----~
a; Cercapuquio
m•
c
"
•
I! ~~xtraiio
••
..
\~San Vicente
• •
•• Pachapaqui
• Ga/Zn
Shalipayco 2.5 5 7.5 10
Fig. 4. Ga(ppm)/Zn(OJo)-ln(ppm)/Zn(OJo) diagram (Symbols as in Fig. 2)

The stratabound deposit of the Santa Formation shows a large variation of Ga

contents (Ga/Zn varies from 0.1 at El Extraiio to 2.1 at Huanzahi) and cannot
be distinguished, in this respect, from the Cenozoic hydrothermal deposits.
The deposits of the Hualgayoc district show mean gallium contents (Ga/Zn
ranging from 1 to 6). The same observation can be made for gallium and for ger-
manium or indium, namely that this positive anomaly is probably linked to
Cenozoic hydrothermal processes, under regionally "anomalous" conditions, as
suggested by the high Ga contents found in various mesothermal vein deposits of
the northern part of the province (Soler 1987).
The deposits located within or near the domes of Paleozoic basement, previ-
ously characterized by a high In content, including the Colquijirca deposit, show
also high Ga contents and a In-Ga correlation may be drawn (Fig. 4).
3 Silver Contents
In the Pucara stratabound ore deposits, silver contents are very low, both in the
volcano-sedimentary deposits and the syndiagenetic deposits without associated
volcanism. The latter are distinguished from the former by higher Pb contents
and an excellent Pb-Ag correlation (Fig. 5). Galena is the only notable silver-bear-
ing mineral in these deposits, with Ag contents ranging from 1400 to 1800 ppm.
The Cercapuquio deposit shows very low Ag contents associated with high Pb
contents (Fig. 5). In this deposit galena is virtually Ag-free (Ag content< 10 ppm).
The stratabound deposits of the Santa Formation show Pb and Ag contents
higher than those of the Pucara Group. Silver is concentrated mainly in galena
with a content ranging from 1500 to 2500 g/t. On average, Ag contents remain
low in the Santa deposits when compared to those observed in the Cenozoic
hydrothermal vein deposits (Fig. 5).
The deposits of the Hualgayoc district and the Colquijirca deposit show Pb
and Ag contents and Ag/Pb ratios which are similar to those observed in skarn
and mesothermal vein deposits associated with Cenozoic magmatism (Fig. 5).
4 Bismuth Contents
Bismuth occurs as native bismuth, as proper minerals (bismuthinite, tellurobismu-
thinite, tetradymite, emplectite, etc.) and in replacement or micro-inclusions in
sulfides and sulfosalts (mainly in pyrite, galena, and tennantite-tetraedrite).
Both syndiagenetic deposits without associated volcanism and volcano-sedi-
mentary deposits of the Pucara Group are characterized by low to very low Bi
contents ( < 30 ppm) associated with their low Ag contents (Fig. 6). Bi contents
do not allow discrimination between the two groups.
The Cercapuquio deposit is distinguished by its very low Bi content associated
with its very low Ag content (Fig. 6).
The stratabound ore deposits of the Santa Formation show Bi contents ranging
from 350 to 6 ppm. The latter vary in inverse proportion to Ag and the available
data suggest a crude correlation with the temperature of ore formation, the most
500 1000 1500
Fig. 5. Ag(ppm)-Pb(lllo) diagram (Symbols as in Fig. 2, but for each deposit the plotted data corre-
spond to the average of ore analyses; the dashed area is the envelope of the data from the Cenozoic
skarn and vein deposits, Lara et a!. 1983)
proximal deposit (El Extrafio) showing the highest Bi contents and the lowest Ag
contents and inversely in the most distal deposit (Pachapaqui). A similar correla-
tion between Bi content and temperature of ore formation has been demonstrated
for the Cenozoic skarn and vein deposits (Soler 1987).
The ore deposits of the Hualgayoc district show Bi contents in the range
50-100 ppm, similar to those presented by Cenozoic mesothermal vein deposits,
while Bi contents in the Colquijirca deposit are close to those found in Cenozoic
skarn deposits (Fig. 6).
10oo Bi
le---
---.-----
••
•/
500 I
I e ,'
I COLOUIJIRCA®\~EL.EXTRANO
~I
-- ',,
\ •
I ,,'
'' .,. --- e',

,r. •
;'
100 1! ____ ~_.,'

""" I e e ',
e e ',
.
HUALGAYOC ~~
50 I , • ..,.HUANZALA e>
I -.;~~X'u • /
I. ~ /
SAN VICENTE :.0. \ /
\ /
~ --;;.~
10 ,..._
I e - - - • PACHAPAOUI
I - - ....
5 I t'
I \
...
HUARIPAMPA & : e e)
I e :
~·\ •)
/
\~·
------/ ;'/
Ag
5 10 50 100 500 1000
Fig. 6. Ag(ppm)-Bi(ppm) diagram (Symbols as in Fig. 2 but for each deposit the plotted data corre-
spond to the average of ore analyses)
5 Tin Contents
Tin is systematically present in the ore deposits of the province either in its proper
mineralogic forms (seldom cassiterite, most often stannite, stannoidite etc.) or in
replacement mainly in sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and tennantite-tetraedrite, the Sn
content of ores ranging from less than 10 to more than 1000 ppm (Soler 1987).
In the stratabound deposits, the range of Sn contents is more limited
(16 -181 ppm), but Sn content cannot be used for metallogenetic discrimination.
Both types of stratabound deposits of the Pucara Group and the Cercapuquio
deposit show mean to low Sn contents (102 ppm at Gran Bretafta, 93 ppm at
Shalipayco, 16 ppm at San Vicente, 181 ppm at Huaripampa, 19 ppm at
Carahuacra, 32 ppm at Cercapuquio), with a clear Sn-Hg correlation in the syn-
diagenetic deposits without associated volcanism. In the stratabound deposits of
the Santa Formation, Sn contents fall in the same range (151 ppm at Huanzala,
127 ppm at Pachapaqui, 20 ppm at El Extrafto). Similar contents (40-130 ppm)
are observed in the deposits of the Hualgayoc district.
The Colquijirca deposit, with 1070 ppm of tin (average analysis of ore sam-
ples), constitutes an exception; such high Sn contents are also found in various
vein deposits associated with Cenozoic magmatism and located in the lower Pa-
leozoic basement. For these deposits, including Colquijirca, the Sn positive anom-
aly correlates with the above discussed In and Ga positive anomaly.
6 Conclusions
The main geochemical features of polymetallic ores from the stratabound
deposits of the polymetallic belt of central Peru are summarized in Table 2.
Among these deposits, three families are demonstrated to present specific dis-
tinctive geochemical features:
the syndiagenetic deposits without associated volcanism and the volcano-sedi-
mentary deposits of the Pucara Group, with low Ag and Bi contents and very
low Cu contents. The metallogenetic distinction between the two Pucara
Groups, suggested by Soler (1986), is confirmed through geochemical features
of the ores. The two groups differ largely by their Ge and Hg contents (charac-
teristically high in the syndiagenetic deposits), and Pb, In, Cd, Mn, and Hg
contents (Table 2).
Table 2. Summary of the principal geochemical features of ores from the stratabound deposits of the
central Peruvian Andes
Country rock and type Principal geochemical features
1. Pucara Group (Trias-Lias)

A) Syndiagenetic without asso- Common features Specific features
ciated volcanism Low Ag contents High Ge contents - Low In contents
Low Bi contents Pb-Ag correlation
Absense of Cu High Hg contents with a Sn-Hg cor-
Low Ga contents relation a - Low Mn contentsa
B) Volcano-sedimentary Low Se contents High In contents - Low Ge contents
Very low Cd contents
Absence of Pb
Very low Hg contents a - High Mn
contents a
2. Chaucha Formation (Maim) Very high Cd contents
Sedimentary-exhalative High Pb contents associated with very low Ag contents
(Cercapuquio) Low Ge and Ga contents - Mean to low In contents
Very low Bi contents
Very low Se and Hg contents
3. Santa Formation Very low Ge contents
(Valanginian) Mean to low Ag contents (higher in the more distal deposits,
Volcano-sedimentary lower in the more proximal deposits)
Ag-Pb correlation and inverse Ab-Bi correlation
High Sn contents - Low Cu contents
4. Hualgayoc district Mean to high In, Ga and Ge contents
(Cretaceous) Mean Bi contents
Volcano-sedimentary with Notable Hg and Sn contents
superimposed Cenowic skarn
and vein
5. Calera Formation Very low Ge contents
(Miocene) High In, Ga, and Sn contents
Miocene lacustrine volcano- Very low Mn contents a
sedimentary (Colquijirca) High Bi, Hg and Se contents
Presence of U a
a Not discussed in the text, see Soler (1987).

the exhalative-sedimentary deposit at Cercapuquio with very high Cd contents,

very high Pb contents associated with very low Ag contents, and very low Bi
contents.
On the contrary, the geochemical features of the stratabound deposits of the
Santa Formation and of the Hualgayoc district, and of the Colquijirca deposit,
appear as hardly specific. They do not permit a real discrimination between these
volcano-sedimentary deposits and the skarn and vein deposits associated with
Cenozoic magmatism, and therefore do not introduce new arguments into the
present metallogenetic discussions with respect to the genesis of these stratabound
deposits. Hence it may be inferred that there are no fundamental differences in
composition and nature between the fluids responsible for the formation of the
Cretaceous and Miocene stratabound volcano-sedimentary deposits and those re-
sponsible for the Oligocene and Miocene skarn and vein deposits, although geo-
metric features and the current process of deposition of ores are different. This
suggests a similar source for these fluids, which may be related with the Andean
calk-alkaline magmatic activity associated with the subduction process.
Appendix. This study has been realized as part of a research program conducted jointly by the Peruvi-
an Instituto Geologico, Minero y Metalurgico (INGEMMET) and the French Institut Francais de Re-
cherche Scientifique pour le Developpement en Cooperation-ORSTOM, with financial and analytical
support by the Societe Miniere et Metallurgique de Pefi.arroya through an ORSTOM-Pefi.arroya settle-
ment and with financial support from the Compafi.ia Minera Huaron S. A. and the Compafi.ia Minera
Milpo S. A. through a settlement between INGEMMET and both mining companies.
Minor and trace elements were determined in the laboratory of the Pefi.arroya smelting plant at
Noyelles-Godault (France). Zn, Pb, Cd, In, Ge and Sn analyses were carried out through XRF spec-
trometry, Hg, Ga and Bi analysis through AA spectrometry, and Ag analyses through dry process.
Acknowledgments. The authors thank E. Ponzoni and G. Flores, successive Directors of Geology at
INGEMMET and F. Foglierini, previously Director of the Mines-Exploration division of Pefi.arroya.
Special thanks to the INGEMMET geologists F. Zuloaga and A. Galloso, who participated in the first
part of the study, and to the numerous Peruvian mining companies who provided sampling facilities.
The invitation for this contribution by the board of editors of the present volume was greatly appreci-
ated. Special thanks toY. Cavalazzi (ORSTOM) for translating into English a previous version of this
paper and for improving the final one.
References
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Canchaya S Stratabound ore deposits of Hualgayoc, Cajamarca, Peru. This Vol, pp 569-582
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pp 537-553
Dalheimer M The Zn-Pb-(Ag) deposits Huaripampa and Carahuacra in the mining district of San
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Lead Isotopes in the Chilean Ores
A. PUIG 1
1 Introduction
The present chapter is a very compact synthesis of the knowledge of Pb isotopic
composition used as a monitor of geologic processes in the Andean evolution.
The Pb isotopic data reported here have been obtained through analyses either in
trace Pb in rock or Pb minerals in ore deposits. The discussion presented is mainly
based on data published by McNutt et al. (1979) Tilton et al. (1981), Puig (1985)
and Puig (1988). These works present the Pb isotopic analyses from ore deposits
related to its geologic and metallogenic significance throughout the Chilean
Andes. Previously published data came from analyses of mineral deposits, mostly
vein, breccia pipe, and stockwork systems, but some are considered stratabound
deposits. Because their Pb isotopic data are indistinguishable, stratabound
deposits will be treated in the general context (see also Fontbote et al., this Vol.).
2 Introduction to Lead Isotope Geochemistry

The isotopic composition of Pb has been used as a monitor of geologic processes
since specialists in that field ("plumbologists") have established important steps
in the knowledge of the evolution of Pb in the earth. They have attempted to build
models of Pb evolution using measurements of Pb isotopic composition of com-
mon Pb minerals from different geologic environments in the earth. In the early
stages, the studies were focused on obtaining the age of mineral deposits, but the
"anomalous" data obtained were evidence of the fact that the Pb isotopic compo-
sition is a consequence of U and Th decay and the proportion of U/Th/Pb in the
source region.
Pb is widely distributed throughout the earth and occurs not only as the radio-
active daughter of U and Th decay. It had an original isotopic composition
(primeral Pb) which has been changing with time due to radioactive processes. Pb
forms its own minerals, from which U and Th are excluded; thus, the Pb isotopic
composition remains constant in this sort of "common Pb" minerals.
Pb is frequently associated with other sulfide minerals in the ore systems, and
it is highly abundant in rocks as a trace element. Thus its isotopic composition
in the different rock types and ore minerals contains a record of the chemical envi-
ronment conditions in which these rocks or minerals were formed. Each of these
1 Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Casilla 10465, Santiago, Chile

Present address: CODELCO-Chile, Divisi6n El Teniente, Millan 1020, Rancagua, Chile

750 A. Puig
environments has different U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios that will affect the isotopic
evolution of Pb.
The attention focused on the "common Pb" minerals (Pb mineral where U/Pb
and Th/Pb ratios are very low) has attempted to model the Pb evolution in the
earth (Nier et al. 1941; Holmes 1946; Houtermans 1946; Russell and Farquhar
1960; Kanasewich 1968; Cumming and Richards 1975; Stacey and Kramers 1975;
Zartman and Doe 1981, among authors). The early models, like that of Holmes-
Houterman, attempt to determine the age of ore deposits, based on the change
of U/Pb ratio, only as a result of radioactive decay of U to Pb. Thus the isotopic
composition of Pb on galenas ("common Pb" mineral) reflects the isotopic com-
position of Pb at the time of formation of this galena, which has remained un-
changed until the present. Because these ages were not always correct, more recent
models have recognized that the isotopic patterns reflect a chemical distinction
between specific geologic environments which have a different U/Th/Pb ratio.
The U/Th/Pb ratio has been interpreted as a continuous change in the Pb
source region (Cumming and Richards 1975), but other authors have considered
that these changes have occurred as the result of dynamic processes forming new
U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios. Stacey and Kramers (1975) suggested a major worldwide
geochemical reorganization, resulting in a change in U/Th/Pb ratios at about
3.7 Ga, when it is presumed the first rigid crust was formed. Doe and Zartman
(1979) and Zartman and Doe (1981) have argued that the Pb isotopic patterns are
produced by radioactive decay creating isotopic differences during long periods
of isolation between reservoirs with different U/Th/Pb ratios. Dynamic processes
such as orogenies cause the mixing of these reservoirs. In their view, the evolution
of the continental crust involved more or less evenly spaced orogenesis that mixed
some fraction of mantle with portions of pre-existing continental crust, to form
new segments of crust, with new U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios, allowing a different
growth of radiogenic Pb isotopes according to those new concentrations.
These studies have revealed that, if an interval of time as geologically short as
the Mesozoic-Cenozoic (- 250 m.y.) is examined, the Pb isotopic composition re-
flects the specific composition of environments with different U/Pb and Th/Pb
ratios rather than its radiogenic, time-dependent evolution. Thus the isotopic evo-
lution of Pb is affected fundamentally by chemical differences between source re-
gions having different U/Pb and Th/Pb, as is the case of the mantle (including
oceanic crust) and upper and lower continental crust in the earth. These source
regions have been considered as Pb reservoirs by Zartman and Doe (1981 ).
The latter ideas must be taken into account in order to study the Pb isotopic
composition in the Andes.
3 Lead Isotopic Composition in the Chilean Andes

Important mineralization has occurred in the Central Andes since the Late Paleo-
zoic, and the nature of its metallogenesis has been significantly modified through
time (Clark et al. 1976). Many authors have recognized a longitudinal zonation
of the metal ore parallel to the Andean chain (Sillitoe 1972; Ericksen 1975; Sillitoe
1981; Boric and Diaz 1984) attributing this zonation to variations in P-T condi-
Lead Isotopes in the Chilean Ores 751
tions in the zone of magma generation (Sillitoe 1972; Oyarzun 1986). However,
this interpretation is not yet well assessed and still remains controversial. In fact,
throughout the Meso-Cenozoic Andean evolution a close temporal and spatial re-
lationship of the hydrothermal mineral deposits with magmatic activity is remark-
able. This fact has allowed the formulation of petrogenetic models based either
on Pb isotopic composition from igneous rocks (trace Pb in feldspar) or ore min-
erals (Tilton 1979; McNutt et al. 1979; Tilton et al. 1981; Harmon et al. 1984;
Puig 1985), drawing similar conclusions.
Based on isotopic composition of Pb from igneous rocks, McNutt et al. (1979)
have suggested that a possible source for metals may have been the uppermost lay-
ers of the subducted oceanic crust, comprising pelagic sediments and metalli-
ferous nodule fields, and the contribution of continental crust may have occurred
directly through the selective transfer of chemical elements to the ascending
magmas, and less probably, by partial melting of material abraded from the conti-
nental leading edge (tectonic erosion). However, their data could not discriminate
between the various possible sources.
Tilton et al. (1981), on the basis of Pb isotopic ratios from ore minerals (not
galena), concluded that Precambrian crustal rocks could have supplied the
nonradiogenic Pb required to explain the Pb isotopic data for ore and igneous Pb.
They also see good evidence locally for crustal mixing processes and in this mixing
model a mantle component has had an important role.
Pb data reported by Harmon et al. (1984) for Late Cenozoic volcanic rocks
from the Andes distinguished varieties in Pb isotopic ratios between the Central
and Southern Andes. These differences are attributed to the different thickness
of the crust in these two regions. The ratios of the central part are attributed to
be a result of the interaction of magmas with heterogeneous continental crust.
The ratios of the southern region indicate that the volcanic rocks are the most
primitive lavas of the Andes, with Pb isotopic ratios very close to those of the
mantle.
Puig (1985, 1988) reported Pb isotopic compositions in galenas from 81 mines
between 18° and 53 °8. They were grouped in 48 mining districts along the Chil-
ean Andes and the result of these analyses, as well as some from the Argentinian
side of the Andes, are shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1. These Pb data are the best-fit-
ted values, because all the analyses were done in pure galena, with the best analyti-
cal conditions. This allowed internal discrimination between the Pb ratios from
different ores and inferring more specific conclusions about the source of Pb.
Nevertheless, the data considered as a whole are in very good agreement with pre-
viously published Pb ratios, and support these interpretations. The Pb isotopic
data from other geologic environments as a Pb source for the Andes are shown
in Fig. 1. They may have played an important role in the Mesozoic-Cenozoic evo-
lution of the Andes (i.e., Nazca Plate basalts, East Pacific basalts, and metal-
liferous sediments).
In the plumbotectonic model by Zartman and Doe (1981), the Pb ratios from
galenas show a general agreement with the average orogenic growth curve, but in
an oblique trend reflecting that, during the Andes evolution, a mixture of Pb res-
ervoirs took place (Fig. 1). This linear trend does not represent an isochron, be-
cause it cuts the other growth curves of the Zartman and Doe (1981) model at
Table 1. Lead isotopic composition from Andean mining districts -..1
VI
N
Nos. Mining a 206/204 207/204 208/204 Coordinates Geologic relationships Type
cor. District Errors 2-sigma level
±0.130Jo ±0.140Jo ±0.190Jo
1 Ticnamar 1 18.49 15.62 38.43 18°33'/69°27' Andesitic tuff Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary Vein
2 Puntillas 1 18.51 15.62 38.50 21 °59'/69°49' Sandstone-quartzite-shale Upper Paleozoic Vein
3 Cerritos Bayos 1 18.68 15.65 38.72 22°38'/69°10' Jurassic marine sedimentary rocks intruded by Lower Vein
Tertiary plutons
4 Caracoles 4 18.59 15.63 38.56 23°03'/69°00' Jurassic limestone intruded by Lower Tertiary tonalite Vein
5 Magallanes 1 18.68 15.63 38.62 23°59'/69°30' Pz-Tr ryolite intruded by Tertiary subvolcanic plutons Vein
(CoBoquete)
6 Chimborazo 1 18.67 15.65 38.74 24°11'/69°14' Lower Cretaceous shale and lavas intruded by silicic Vein
dykes
7 La Escondida 1 18.60 15.62 38.56 24°16'/69°04' Upper Pz andesite, sandstone intruded by Lower Ter- Stockwork
tiary bodies (-40m.y.)
8 Irnilac 1 18.61 15.64 38.62 24°06'/68°59' Paleozoic plutons 2 km vein
9 Sierra Argomedo 2 18.69 15.63 38.72 24°40' /69° 19' Triassic porphyryc tonalite Vein
10 Cachinal de Ia Sierra 3 18.58 15.61 38.55 24°55'/69°32' Lower Tertiary lavas and tuff intruded by Lower Ter- Vein
tiary dacites (-59 m.y.)
11 Guanaco 1 18.62 15.62 38.59 25°10'/69°35' Lower Tertiary tuff/silicic dykes Vein
12 El Salvador 1 18.51 15.60 38.45 26°15'/69°34' Lower Tertiary andesites, and porphyritic bodies Stockwork
13 Chaftarcillo 1 18.43 15.59 38.28 27°50'170°24' Calcareous breccia Lower Cretaceous Stratabound
14 Sierra La Galena 4 18.43 15.59 38.28 28°04'170°29' Lower Cretaceous limestone, volcanogenic ore-related Vein and stratabound
15 Zapallar 2 18.38 15.59 38.40 27°36'/69°59' Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary andesites Vein
16 Sierra Lomas Bayas 1 18.53 15.60 38.50 27°46'170°05' Upper Cretaceous-Lower Cretaceous tuff and breccia Vein
17 Domeyko 1 18.47 15.61 38.37 28°52'170°45' Lower Cretaceous marine limestone and lavas inter- Vein
bedded. Upper Cretaceous porphyry bodies
18 Los Morteros 1 18.45 15.59 38.40 28°32'170°27' Granodiorite Tertiary
19 Condoriaco 1 18.43 15.58 38.32 29°40'170°48' Lower Tertiary volcanic and subvolcanic rocks Vein and breccia pipe
20 Lambert 1 18.47 15.60 38.35 29°49'171 °09' Lower Cretaceous andesites intruded by diorites Vein
21 Arqueros 1 18.45 15.59 38.31 29°55'170°40' Lower Cretaceous andesites Vein
22 Talcuna 2 18.42 15.59 38.29 29°53'170°53' Lower Cretaceous andesites and tuff Vein and stratabound
23 San Lorenzo 4 18.39 15.58 38.25 30°01'170°50' Upper Cretaceous andesitic lavas
?>-
Vein 't1
24 Monte Patria 1 18.45 15.58 38.32 30°50'170°44' Granodiorite Vein r::
0<;"
25 Mantos de Hornillos 2 18.52 15.61 38.46 31 °06'/71 °37' Jurassic dioritic pluton Vein h
~
26 Cogoti 1 18.39 15.58 38.25 31 °05'/71 °54' Lower Cretaceous andesitic rocks Vein p.
27 Las Galenas 1 18.50 15.60 38.37 31 °09'/70°34' Cretaceous andesitic lavas and tuff Stratabound .....
(Combarbahi) s"'
28 El Bronce de '0
7 18.38 15.57 38.22 32 o11 '/70° 58' Lower Cretaceous volcanic-subvolcanic system Vein &l
Petorca s·
29 Bellavista de 3 18.32 15.58 38.18 32°40'/70°47' Upper Cretaceous breccias and lavas intruded by Vein &
Putaendo andesitic dykes
30 Rio Colorado 1 18.61 15.62
"'(")
38.56 32°32'/70°16' Lower Tertiary alteration zone in andesitic lavas e:
31 Batuco 1 18.34 15.56 38.15 33°15'/69°40' Lower Cretaceous lavas and tuff Vein ~
32 Yerba Loca 1 18.58 15.59 38.44 33°14'/70°16' Lower Tertiary lavas Miocene intrusive-related Vein p
"
33 Disputada 1 18.58 15.60 38.47 33 °09' /70° 18' Lower Tertiary andesitic lavas Vein 0
34 El Teniente 3 18.57 15.60 38.49 34 °06' /70° 20' Miocene andesitic rocks intruded by tonalite breccia- Breccia pipe a
pipe (4- 5 m.y.)
35 Chanc6n 3 18.38 15.58 38.22 34°04'/70°50' Upper Cretaceous andesitic lavas and tuff Miocene Vein
subvolcanic bodies-related
36 Rio Teno 1 18.63 15.62 38.57 35 °00' /70° 30'
37 Alto Colbun 1 18.49 15.58 38.35 35°50'/71 °00' Diorite Vein
38 El Toqui 3 18.52 15.62 38.48 45°01'/71 °54' Lower Cretaceous submarine andesitic-rhyolitic tuff Stratabound and vein
and lavas system Vein
39 Pto. Sanchez 1 18.55 15.62 38.48 46°30'/72°40' Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous shale and sandstone
40 Paula 1 18.57 15.63 38.52 46°36'/72°10' Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous host rocks
41 Lago Cochrane 2 18.51 15.64 38.60 47°16'/72°10' Pre-Jurassic metasedimentary rocks Vein
42 E. Wolsley 1 18.63 15.68 38.56 51 °30'/72°30' Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous shale
43 Canal Gajardo 2 18.63 15.65 38.54 52°41'/72°56' Pre-Jurassic metasedimentary rock Stratabound
44 Cutter Cove 1 18.66 15.66 38.55 53°17'/72°27' Pre-Jurassic filites thermal event (190m.y.) Stratabound and vein
45 Aguilar Rep. 1 18.03 15.63 38.01 23°20'/65°50' Ordovician sedimentary rocks intruded by 130m.y.
Argentina Granitic bodies
46 Helvecia Rep. 1 18.09 15.60 38.01 Lat. 29 os Thrusted over Orddivician Carbonaceous Syngenetic?
Argentina metasedimentary rocks
47 S. E. Loncopue 1 18.46 15.60 38.38 Lower Cretaceous? Stratabound
Rep. Argentina
48 Pumahuasi
Rep. Argentina 2 18.30 15.65 38.46 22°20'/65°35' Ordovician shale and metasandstone Vein
-I
a Number of samples analyzed from different mines for each mining district. VI
w
754 A. Puig
0 "' /
.lJ Jtl'
a. +galena error bars Oc,.///
"
0
0 "/ '
/ro
/~0
N
'
.lJ
~388
0
PS
/' rn
Ma
0
N
/.'o
38.6
38.4
38.2
38.0
+galena error bars
18.0 16.2
---·--- 6
16.6 16.6
2osPb/2o4 Pb
12 3 4 56 7
0000[QJCQJ88
Fig.l. Pb isotopic composition of published data for the Andes, modified from Puig (1988). Growth
curves after Zartman and Doe (1981). PS field of pelagic sediments (Chow and Patterson 1962); MS
field of metalliferous sediments (Dasch 1981), NPB field of Nazca plate basalts (Unruh and Tat-
sumoto 1976); ORL oceanic regression line; RL regression lines (Puig 1985). Symbols used: 1 Tilton
(1979); 2 McNutt et al. (1979); 3 Barreiro eta!. (1981); 4 Tilton et a!. (1981); 5. Barreiro and Stern
(1982); 6 Harmon eta!. (1984); 7 galena analyses by Puig (1985) from the Chilean side of the Andes;
8 galena analyses by Puig (1985) from the Argentinian side of the Andes
different times, which Puig (1985, 1988) interpreted as the time when that specific
environment (mantle, upper and lower crust) played a significant role in the evolu-
tion of the Pb ore source. This supports the idea that in the evolution of Chilean
Andes the Pb source conditions were changing with time (Puig 1985).
Another noteworthy aspect of Pb isotopic composition is its very limited range
of composition throughout the evolution of the Andes. Such an aspect has been
mentioned by Harmon et al. (1984) and Puig (1985, 1988) as a most striking char-
acteristic of Pb ratios in the Andean evolution, and this could be the result of a
very thorough mixing between reservoirs during the dynamic processes related to
the different diastrophisms which occurred during its evolution.
The mining district studied by Puig (1985), in which the country rocks are
Jurassic or Pre-Jurassic, define a field above the orogenic growth curve of the
model by Zartman and Doe (1981). This range of composition (close to the upper
continental crust growth curve) reflected the fact that more differentiated conti-
nental material was involved during the evolution of these districts. In the
e
thoro genic diagrams 081204 Pb vs. 2061204 Pb) the distribution also indicates that
a high Th/U source material was involved during the Early Mesozoic. The field
of ore minerals belonging to mining districts emplaced in Lower Cretaceous coun-
try rocks cuts the orogenic growth curve and is displaced below this line. This rela-
tive position in the diagrams could reflect a higher mantle influence on these ore
deposits than on the others. This is based on the fact that the mantle growth curve
of Zartman and Doe (1981) is developed below the orogenic line in both the
uranogenic and the thoronogenic diagrams, reflecting that the sources of Pb had
lower U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios. The third field defined by Puig (1985) and shown
in Fig. 2 represents the Pb isotopic composition of the ore deposits emplaced in
Late Cretaceous to Tertiary country rocks. The Pb isotopic data define a field
overlapping both previous fields, and they are in a closer agreement with the oro-
genic growth curve, reflecting that the mixture of reservoirs was in the same theo-
retical proportion as that inferred by Doe and Zartman (1979) and on which they
built up their average orogenic growth curve in the plumbotectonic model. This
field had a more variable Pb isotopic composition, interpreted as a product of the
variety of the rock pile where the hydrothermal system worked.
According to these data (Puig 1985, 1988) it is possible to infer that the source
of Pb for hydrothermal systems was the country rock. This also would explain
why there is no clear correlation of Pb isotopes from galenas with the age of the
ore systems. Alternatively, it is possible that both ore systems and country rocks
have had a common Pb source which has changed with time. This is also support-
ed by the similarities in Pb isotopic composition from ore Pb or trace Pb in feld-
spar from igneous rocks.
On the other hand, the Pb isotopic composition from the Argentinian side of
the Andes (samples no. 45, 46, 48, Th.ble 1) represents a different evolution and
possibly a different Pb source, as was also suggested by Tilton et al. (1981). This
is supported by the isotopic ratios of Pb, which plot far away from the Chilean
galenas. These samples have lower radiogenic Pb isotope contents, reflecting that
the Pb was extracted from older rocks than on the Chilean side or that no
rehomogenization of U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios took place during Meso-Cenozoic
evolution.
756 A. Puig
.0
Q._
"0
N
'
.0
Q._
"'0
N
38.6
38.4
38.2
400Ma
38.0 0 0
.0
Q._
<t
0
N
error bars
'
.0
Q._
UPP£R
cRUST
....
0
N
15.65
18.1 18.2 18.3 10.4 10.5 10.6

Z06Pb/ 204Pb
rn m o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 0 0 0 0 1~,~~1 1-·-1
Fig. 2. Pb isotopic composition from galenas, modified from Puig (1988). Growth curves after Zart-
man and Doe (1981). The outline of the different symbols shows the age of the country rocks: 1 Pre-
Jurassic; 2 Jurassic; 3 Lower Cretaceous; 4 Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary; 5 Miocene; 6 unknown;
7 Argentinian galenas. The shading of the symbols depicts the time of mineralization; clear unknown;
half blackened Tertiary; fully blackened Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary. Fields according to the age
of the country rocks; 8 Pre-Jurassic to Jurassic country rocks; 9 Lower Cretaceous country rocks; 10
Tertiary country rocks
4 The Lead Isotopic Composition

of Chilean Stratabound Deposits
According to Table 1, the stratabound deposits exhibit no marked differences in
Pb isotopic composition compared with other kinds of mineral deposits such as
vein or stockwork in the Chilean Andes. One possible explanation is based on the
correlation which exists between the Pb isotopic composition and its country
rocks, where the hydrothermal systems are emplaced, suggesting either that the
processes of concentration of Pb to form galena were produced more or less con-
temporaneously with the formation of the country rocks, or if later, that galena
Pb was essentially derived from the country rock and preserved their original iso-
topic signature. Moreover, most of the products of igneous activity have a marked
spatial and temporal relationship with hydrothermal alteration zones.
Therefore, it is suggested that more detailed studies of the isotopic composi-
tion of Pb, for those deposits which have been considered stratabound such as
El Plomo, Sierra La Galena, Thlcuna, Las Galenas de Combarbala, El Toqui, Ca-
nal Gajardo, Cutter Cove from Thble 1, should be carried out.
5 Conclusions
1. The Pb isotope pattern in the Andes is apparently derived from a mixing of

Pb sources. This mixing could have been mainly between upper to intermediate
continental crust and mantle sources.
2. The Pb isotopic composition of ore Pb minerals has a composition equivalent
to those of trace Pb in igneous rocks, which allows the inference of a common
Pb source for the mineral deposits and igneous rocks.
3. Pb in the hydrothermal systems could be assumed to leach from the country
rock, based on the correlation between the Pb isotopic composition and the
age of the country rock, and not correlation with the time which has been con-
sidered to form the ore minerals. It may also be concluded that the Pb sources
were changing with the evolution of the Andean orogenes.
4. No detailed mechanisms responsible for enrichment in radiogenic Pb of the ore
and country rocks can possibly be assessed by a Pb isotopic study alone.
Acknowledgments. The isotopic Pb data published by Puig (1985, 1988) were done thanks to the facil-
ities offered by the Isotope Geology Unit of the British Geological Survey in 1984-1985, and to the
support of the Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria.
References
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published)
Barreiro BA, Stern CR (1982) Pb isotopic composition of recent calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from the
southernmost Andes, trans. Am Geophys Union 63:1148
758 A. Puig
Barreiro BA, Cameron K, Grunder A (1981) A lead isotope study of silicic and intermediate volcanic
rocks from South-Central Chile and the Sierra Madre Occidental Mexico. Carnegie Inst Washing-
ton Yearb 81:494-498
Chow TJ, Patterson CC (1962) The occurrence and significance of lead isotopes in pelagic sediments.
Geochim Cosmochim Acta 26:263- 308
Clark AH, Farrar E, Caelles JC, Haynes SJ, Lortie RB, McBride SL, Quirt OS, Robertson RCR, Zen-
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ton 01, Farquhar RM (eds) Radiometric dating for geologists. Wiley, New York, pp 147-223
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tudes 26° to 29°S; petrogenetic and metallogenic implications. Econ Geol 74:827-837
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of geologic times. III Phys Rev 60:112-116
Oyarzun J (1986) Magmatismo y metalogenesis andina en Chile. In: Frutos J, Oyarzun R, Pincheira
M (eds) Geologia y Recursos Minerales de Chile. Univ Concepcion 2:442-468
Puig A (1985) The geological and metallogenic significance of lead isotope abundance studies on gale-
na occurrences in the Chilean Andes. M Phil Thesis, Oxford Polytechnic, England, 73 p (unpub-
lished)
Puig A (1988) Geologic and metallogenic significance of the isotopic composition of lead in galenas
of the Chilean Andes. Econ Geol, vol 83, pp 843-858
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67:184-197
Sillitoe RH (1981) Regional aspects of the Andean porphyry copper belt in Chile and Argentina. lnst
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Tilton OR, Pollak RJ, Clark AH, Robertson RC (1981) Isotopic composition of Pb in Central Andean
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Metal Sources in Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes
(Andean Cycle) - Lead Isotopic Constraints
L. FONTBor:E 1•2 , K.A. GUNNESCH 1• 3 and A. BAUMANN 4
1 Introduction
The scope of this paper is to discuss the major constraints posed by lead isotopic
ratios with respect to possible metal sources in stratabound ore deposits of the
Andean Cycle. This is based on a compilation of all available lead isotopic ratios
of ore minerals from stratabound ore deposits. A few additional new analyses are
also presented. In the present chapter only main patterns observed on a large re-
gional scale will be dealt with; the reader is referred to the cited publications on
the different ore deposits for additional details. Since information on lead isoto-
pic ratios on host rock samples is fragmentary and, is in many cases lacking, the
discussion will refer mainly to ore lead data.
Ore lead isotopic ratios from 19 ore deposits are considered. These data repre-
sent a fairly good coverage for the main types of stratabound ore deposits of the
Andean Cycle (Mesozoic-Recent) in the Central Andes. Thble 1 and Fig. 1 indicate
the metallogenetic stage to which the considered ore deposits belong, according
to the scheme presented by Fontbote (this Vol. a), which is based on the geotec-
tonic position of the host rock. It can be seen that lead isotopic data from most
geotectonic positions exist already.
2 Available Information on Lead Isotopic Ratios

The ore deposits dealt with in this chapter are described in other parts of this Vol-
ume (see references in Table 1). Figure 2 is a compilation of all available lead iso-
topic data of ore minerals of stratabound ore deposits in the Andean Cycle. It in-
cludes data of Gunnesch and Baumann (1984, 1986}, Gunnesch (1986}, and Gun-
nesch and Baumann (1990) from the ore deposits San Vicente, Huaripampa,
Carahuacra, Machcan (stratiform part}, El Extraiio, Cercapuquio, Los leas, Raul,
Condestable, and l..eonila-Graciela; of Mukasa (1984) from Raul and l..eonila-
Graciela; of Puig (1988 and this Vol.) from Thlcuna, Maria Cristina, El Plomo,
Triunfo-Carola; and El Soldado of Flint et al. (1986) from Caleta Coloso; and
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitllt Heidelberg, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg,

FRG
2 Present address: Dep. de Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Genl:ve 4, Switzerland
3 Present address: U.A.N.L., Facultad de Ciencias de Ia Tierra, Ap. 104, 67700 Linares, NL, Mexico
4 Zentrallaboratorium ftlr Geochronologie, Institut fiir Mineralogie, Correnstr. 24, D-4400 Miinster,
FRG

760 L. Fontbote et al.
Table 1. Metallogenetic stages (according to Fontbote this Vol. a) of the ore deposits with available
lead isotopic data. References of isotope data in text. MVT: Mississippi Valley-type
Stage Ore deposit References (description of ore deposit)

with lead data
Central Andes (5°- 42 •s)

Stage I (Triassic-Liassic). Ore deposits in a carbonate platform without apparent relation to a pair
magmatic arc-back-arc basin (Pucara basin, Peru)
Ia) Volcanic-associated polymetallic Carahuacra, Dalheimer this Vol.
deposits (in part massive sulfides) Huaripampa, Dahlheimer this Vol.
Machcan Hirdes this Vol.
Ib) MVT deposits at the base of the Shalipayco Fontbote this Vol. b
carbonate sequence
Ic) MVT deposits within the carbonate San Vicente Gorzawski et al. this Vol.
sequence
Stage II (Liassic-Albian). Ore deposits in the ensialic paleogeographic pair magmatic arc-back-arc
basin, and in the platform at the continent edge
IIa) In volcanic sequences at the
magmatic arc
lib) In volcaniclastic basins near the Caleta Coloso Flint and Turner this Vol.
volcanic arc (in part developed as Talcuna Camus this Vol.
intra-arc basins)
lie) In volcano-sedimentary sequences Los leas, Raul Wauschkuhn 1979; Cardozo this Vol.
in back-arc basins (in part de- Leonila-Graciela Vidal 1987; Fontbote this Vol. a
veloped as marginal basins)
lid) Ore deposits in marine sedimen-
tary sequences in back-arc posi- Triunfo-Carola Diaz this Vol. b
tion El Plomo, Jaula, Diaz this Vol. a
Las Caiias Fontbote this Vol. a
lie) In platform sediments attached El Extraiio Samaniego 1982; Fontbote this Vol. a
to the foreland Huanzala Carrascal and Saez this Vol.
Cercapuquio Cedillo this Vol.
Hualgayoc Canchaya this Vol.
Stage III (Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic). Ore deposits in continental intra-arc and foreland basins
Ilia) Fluvial-lacustrine basins in inter-
mediate to acid volcanic environ-
ment
IIIb) Molasse sequences in inter- S. Bartolo Flint this Vol.
montane basins
Illc) Deposits related to Cenozoic
alkaline volcanics
Southern Andes (south of 42° S)
SIIc) Ore deposits in Mesozoic back- El Toqui Wellmer and Reeve this Vol.
arc basins
of Flint (1986) from San Bartolo; of MacFarlane (1989) from Hualgayoc of Soler
and Rotach-Toulhoat and Soler (pers. commun.) from Huanzala; from Shali-
payco, Jaula and Las Canas (this Chap). All previous data are of ore deposits oc-
curring in the Central Andes. The only results from an ore deposit outside the
central Andes are those from the El Toqui Zn-Pb deposit, located in the southern
Andes (Puig this Vol.). With the exception of the data from Caleta Coloso, San
Metal Sources in Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes (Andean Cycle) 761
STRATABOUND ORE DEPOSITS IN THE

CENTRAL ANDES (ANDEAN CYCLE)
w ISTAGE
r- IDa--!
ml E
[I)
Cu • Pb · Zn - Ag
Sub - Andean b.
r-------';..._-mb-=---i mc Cu(U.V)Zn - Pb
Cu - (U, V )
ISTAGE II I
[S] m
1-II c---; r-- n e ____,
Cu , Zn - Ba· Cu Zn - Pb-(Cu - Ag)
, A LG EX HU CO
~ ·.···
L. Cretac .
CA (Th) LB -I)
El El
I · - ·II a - - 1 II b 1-II d-----1 1 - l ie- - l
Cu /Cu. n, Fe'- Fe . Ba , Pb - Zn Ba - S r( Pb)
-"
T CC MA JA
7;:: '/,J.'.',~#i~@
CA [B- Ij M. Juras. - L. Cre tac.
ISTAGE I
m
1---- I a --1 f -I c--1
~ Pb - Zn(Mn , Fe ,Cu , Ba) Zn - Pb(Ba - F)
~ VA SV
Fig. 1. Schematic W-E cross-sections indicating geotectonic position of selected ore deposits with
available lead isotope compositions in the Central Andes. Additional information on location and
geologic background of the cross-sections is given in Fig. 2 of Fontbote (this Vol. a). CC Caleta Col-
oso; CQ Cercapuquio; EX El Extrafio; HU Huanzahi; JA Jaula-Bellavista and Las Canas;
LG Leonila-Graciela; MA Triunfo-Carola and El Plomo; RA Raul; SB San Bartolo; SH Shalipayco;
SV San Vicente; TA Thlcuna; YA Carahuacra and Huaripampa
762 L. Fontbote et a!.
lb Shalopayco Ia Volcantc -associ"ted Ic San Vic. en e

IMVT central western Pucara I VT eastern Pucara)
I
Pucara I
39 . 5
t errorbars
0
3 9.0
38 . 5 Stages
Upper Triassic -
Liassic (Pucara-G.)
II Liassic- Lower
Ill
Cretaceous
III Upper Cretaceous -
Tertiar
18.4 18. 6 18 .8
1 s.s-r--- - - - - - -- - - - - - -------.
...,.
Sl
0..
N
~ 15.7
..
....0..
N
15.6 +error
bars
18 .4 18.6 18 .8 19.0 19.2
o Cale a Coloso ~ Rau l o f l Extraiio

[I Talcuna o Leo nita- Grac i ~ Ia o Cercapuquio
• Tr iunfo-Carola, El Plomo. ~ EI Sold ado t> Hualgayoc
Jaula. Las Caiia s
• Shalopayco x Machc.in
El Toqui
* San Vic ente
v
"' S. Bartolo
<) los leas
-+ Carahuacra- Huar1pampa
Fig. 2. Compilation of lead isotopic compositions of ore minerals from stratabound ore deposits in
the Central Andes (references in the text). Evolution curves of Doe and Zartman (1979)
Bartolo, and one analysis from Raul which correspond to copper sulfides, all oth-
er plotted points are of galena analyses.
Information on pre-Andean stratabound ore deposits is available only from
Aguilar (Brown 1962) and from Helvecia (Brodtkorb and Brodtkorb 1982) and
will not be considered further.
3 Lead Isotopic Composition and Geotectonic Setting

The classification of the stratabound ore deposits based on their geotectonic and
paleogeographic position summarized in Table 1 is remarkably coherent with the
lead isotopic ratios represented in Fig. 2. The lead isotopic data correlate closely
with the geotectonic position of the correspondent ore deposit. There is a consis-
Table 2. Location, short description, and lead isotopic composition of analyzed samples
Mine Coordinates Sample Analyzed mineral 206pb;204pb 207pb;204pb 208pb;204pb

I
(/)
g
(l
Shalipayco 10°50'S/75°58'W FYA-56 Galena as cement in basal conglomerate 18.560±0.011 15.637 ±0.012 38.536 ± O.o38 !)I
FSH-19 Galena in coarsely-grained dolomite, lower manto 18.564±0.014 15.655 ±0.015 38.595 ± 0.044 ::r
Las Caii.as 28°51'S/70°52'W FX-66 Galena in a barite diagenetic crystallization rhythmite 18.442 ±0.010 15.582 ± 0.011 38.239 ± 0.032
FX-67 Galena as cement of a volcaniclastic breccia 18.445±0.013 15.578 ± 0.013 38.228 ± 0.040
Jaula 28°12'S/70°38'W FX-80 Galena in carbonate sample at lower part of the manto 18.392±0.009 15.574±0.010 38.176 ± 0.033 i
g
Analyses carried out at the Zentrallaboratorium fiir Geochronologie, Inst. fiir Mineralogie, Munster, with a Teledyne NBS-type 12"90 solid source (thermal s.
ionization) mass spectrometer. Additional analytical procedures can be found in Gunnesch and Baumann (1990). Errors according to the calculation suggested 0
(il
by Brevart et al. (1981)
?(
'8
~·
"'s·
&
<1>
~
Q.
!)I
~
::s
Q.
§
~
E
__,
"'.....
tent trend towards more radiogenic Ph-isotopic ratios from west to east, i.e., from
ore deposits located near the magmatic arc to ore deposits in carbonate platforms
attached to the foreland. This is particularly clear for 206Pb/204Pb ratios but it is
also recognized for the 207Pb/204Pb and 208 Pb/204Pb ratios. The trend does not
depend on the age of the ore deposits which, with the exception of San Bartolo,
comprises a relatively narrow age span of about 100 million years (Liassic-Al-
bian). The following groups which, in general terms, become progressively more
radiogenic moving from the magmatic arc to basins at the continent edge can be
distinguished (Fig. 2).
Magmatic Arc-Back-Arc (Stages lib, //d). The ore deposits of northern Chile in
Lower Cretaceous rocks in intra-arc position (stage lib, Caleta Coloso, and
Thlcuna) and in the back-arc Atacama basin (stage lid, El Plomo, Thiunfo-Carola,
Maria Cristina, Jaula y Las Canas) plot in a distinct field which represents the
least radiogenic ratios of all stratabound ore deposits of the Central Andes. All
values plot in a noteworthy tight cluster except for a few analyses from Caleta Col-
oso. The homogeneity of the lead isotopic ratios of these deposits, which occur
over a north-south distance of about 600 km, should be emphasized.
Marginal Basin (Stage 1/c). Lead isotopic ratios from ore deposits in the Lower
Cretaceous aborted marginal basin of central Peru (stage lie, Los leas, Raul,
Leonila-Graciela) show more spread and their 206Pb/204Pb ratios are distinctly
more radiogenic than those in the Chilean intra-arc and back-arc basins. Two sub-
fields are recognized. The ratios of the copper deposits of Raul-Condestable and
of Los leas are less radiogenic than those of the Zn-Ba deposit of Leonila-
Graciela. There is good agreement between the data of Gunnesch and Baumann
(1986) and those of Mukasa (1984) for the respective ore deposits. The only value
available of El Soldado plots also in this field.
Shalipayco (Stage /b) plots in a position similar to Raul.
Foreland Platform (Stage //e) and Central Pucara (Stage I a). The ore deposits of
stage lie in the Santa Metallotect (El Extrafio, Huanzala), in Hualgayoc and in
Cercapuquio, and the volcanic-associated deposits in the Pucara Group (stage Ia,
Huaripampa, Carahuacra, stratiform part of Machcan) plot in fields character-
ized by 206Pb/204Pb ratios slightly more radiogenic than the previous groups. The
shape of these fields suggests mixing lines.
San Bartolo (Intra-Arc Basin in Stage III) falls in a field with similar 206Pb/204Pb
and 208 Pb/204Pb ratios, but with distinctly lower 207 Pb/204Pb ratios than the ore
deposits in the foreland platform of stage lie.
Carbonate Platform at the Margin of the Brazilian Shield (Stage /c). San Vicente
forms a completely separate population characterized by highly radiogenic ratios.
It can be seen that the lead isotope data are coherent with the geotectonic posi-
tion of the host rock. The metallogenetic stages presented before correspond to
clear fields of lead isotopic ratios. The first conclusion which can be drawn from
these results is that the lead isotopic composition varies according to different
lead sources and does not depend on the age of formation of the ore deposits.
This is illustrated, for example, by the San Vicente data (stage Ic), which are much
more radiogenic than younger deposits in stages II and III, and also by comparing
the available lead isotopic ratios of ore deposits in central Peru of stages lie and
lie. Although all these latter deposits are hosted by Lower Cretaceous rocks, the
lead isotopic ratios are different, depending on their geotectonic position.
4 Discussion
4.1 Potential Metal Sources
In Fig. 3 the reviewed data are compared with the modern fields for lead isotopic
ratios of MORB, primitive and mature arc, upper crust, lower crust, and pelagic
sediments. These fields cover a wide isotopic range: between compositions for up-
per crust and compositions of primitive island arc environments. Possible sources
for the lead in Andean ore deposits and magmatic rocks have been discussed by
McNutt et al. (1979}, James (1981}, Tilton et al. (1981}, Barreiro (1984}, Sillitoe
and Hart (1984}, Puig (1988), and Gunnesch (1986). The main theoretical sources
are the reservoirs proposed by Zartman and Doe ( 1981 ): (1) mantle reservoir, (2)
upper old crust, (3) lower old crust, and (4) orogene reservoir (Fig. 4); in addition
Sillitoe (1972) suggested that (5) subducted pelagic sediments could also contrib-
ute as a significant lead source.
4.2 Metal Sources in the Different Geotectonic Positions
In the case of the stratabound ore deposits reviewed here, a reasonable hypothesis
is based on the mixing of the following three "end members":
1. "Mantle" component represented mainly by the basic to intermediate magmat-
ic arc in stage II. The homogeneity of the values observed in the Chilean ore
deposits in arc and back-arc position can only be explained by a common reser-
voir. Whether the slightly more radiogenic values of these deposits relative to
MORB is a function of enriched mantle source (Mukasa and Tilton 1985}, or
to mixing with crustal components, is not relevant for the present discussion.
The latter is more likely, as enriched mantle requires ocean island-type basalt
- not feasible in this case.
2. "Orogene" component, i.e., recycled upper and lower continental crust, ex-
pressed by moderately radiogenic values of numerous deposits of stages Ia, lie,
and III.
3. "Upper continental crust" component mainly expressed by the highly radio-
genic 206Pb/204Pb ratios of San Vicente.
The fourth theoretical reservoir proposed by Zartman and Doe (1981}, i.e.,
lower continental crust, is not thought to play a significant role in the investigated
ore deposit because the lack of clearly low radiogenic ratios. It should be men-
LOWE R
....... --._
/ \
lc MVT eastern Pucara
I X I
I +o / Ia Volcanic-associated
\ ...._ __ / western Pucara
CRU ST Foreland platform
II C Marginal basin
lla,b,d Magmatic arc. back arc
M O RB
A
37 ':":::---'-_L_---:-::-I--1,_---,-;;-'-;::---'----,~.,..--.L_--,~
16 .50 17 .50 18.50 19.50 20.50
206 r b/2o • r b
CRUST
B
20 ,50
Fig. 3. Main fields of stratabound ore deposits in the Central Andes compared to the modern field
for mantle, upper crust, lower crust, orogene, and pelagic sediments according to Zartman and Doe
(1981). A mantle; B orogene; C upper crust; D lower crust
tioned, however, that near Arequipa the influence of lower continental crust in
rock leads has been traced (Mukasa and Tilton 1985).
The predominance of one or the other reservoir determines the large-scale dis-
tribution pattern of the lead isotopic ratios shown in Fig. 2 which largely corre-
lates with the geotectonic position of the ore deposit or district. Considering the
results more in detail, the mixed character of the lead isotope composition is
clearly demonstrated in several districts (e.g., Cercapuquio, Shalipayco, San
Vicente). The lead isotopic data show comparatively larger scatter of the
207 Pb/ 204 Pb values with respect to smaller variations in the 206 Pb/ 204Pb ratios
(Fig. 2). The resulting narrow steep fields can be interpreted by mixing between
components with different 1.1 values. In some cases the available host rock data
make it possible to discuss which local sources are involved. This discussion is be-
POS SIBL E ME TAL SOURCES

I ideal cross s ot ion ce ntral Peru Lower Cre aceous )
WSW ENE
Upper cr ust
(Precambr ian
Bra zilian Shield l
IZI B rsJ [1] 12JB

- 50 km
less radiogen ic more
(l ead l
Fig. 4. Potential metal sources in an ideal cross-section trough central Peru during Lower Cretaceous
yond the scope of the present paper and the reader is referred to more detailed
publications (e.g., Gunnesch and Baumann 1990, Puig 1988).
In the following the major lead sources in the different metallogenetic stages
will be discussed. For a better comprehension it will be begun with stage lL As
mentioned above, stage II is characterized by the existence of a clear polarity from
west to east between a subduction-related volcanic arc and a back-arc basin which
is reflected by a consistent trend towards more radiogenic lead isotopic ratios
moving from the magmatic arc to ore deposits on the platform at the edge of the
continent.
The ore deposits in the northern Chilean magmatic arc and back-arc (stages
lib and lid) plot in a tight cluster which represents the least radiogenic ratios of
all stratabound ore deposits in the Central Andes. They plot in the field of mod-
ern primitive volcanic arcs. Even the ore deposits originated without direct partic-
ipation of volcanic processes such as, for instance, the small Mississippi Valley-
type (MVT) Pb-Zn mine of Las Canas, show the same lead isotopic signature. It
appears that the mainly basic volcanism at the magmatic arc is the predominant
reservoir for these deposits.
The consistent trend observed in stage II in central Peru towards more
radiogenic lead isotopic compositions in ore deposits close to the magmatic arc
(west) to ore deposits in the foreland (east) is explained by the interaction of the
two first components (Fig. 5). In central Peru the Lower Cretaceous back-arc is
developed as an aborted marginal basin (see Fontbote this Vol. b). Spreading and
subsidence have lead to a thinning of the continental crust. The fact that the two
subfields of ore deposits in the central Peruvian marginal basin (stage lie) are
slightly more radiogenic than those near the magmatic arc in northern Chile
Marginal Basin East Platform Maran on Brazilian Shield

Geanticline
rn II!
WSW El ENE
San Vicente
,. . :· ~~! y • • w .· -=-
~"'"
~ , " ,'...', / ,, ......
~\' "'a,,,, ' ' ....,:
~:;;fi; ·,;;::::-::}
leaching and erosion
PC upper crust :
source of radiogenic
lead
(mantle contribution erosion and igneous activit y
at the marginal basin) at/through Paleoz .- PC Permian rift-related
continental crust : Mitu volcanics : source
,...-.,. Erosion "orogene" source of low radiogenic Pb ?
0 Neocomian to Albian least trough!
~ Neocomian to Albian I west trough)
- SO km
~ Triassic- Jurassic
~ Mitu IPm- T1 l [SI[IJ!2JE3

less radiogenic more
5Sl Paleo zoic and Precambrian basement
(lead)
Fig. 5. Geotectonic position of selected stratabound ore deposits in central Peru. Arrows indicate sche-
matically lead isotope composition. Geology according to Megard (1987)
(stages lib and lid) could be attributed to segmentation factors, i.e., to systematic
differences in the crust and/or upper mantle along the orogene. However, the con-
siderable spread in the 206Pb/204Pb ratios of the Peruvian deposits makes it more
reasonable to assume that the spread and the relatively increased 206Pb/204Pb ra-
tios are the result of different amounts of upper crustal contamination of MORB
material. This hypothesis seems to be supported by the internal differences in this
group, with clearly more radiogenic lead isotopic ratios in Leonila-Graciela, oc-
curring in the eastern Casma facies, compared to Raul and Los leas, which are
located to the west. The west to east lithologic polarity observed in the marginal
basin, with progressively increasing amounts of sedimentary rocks towards the
east, is consistent with these isotopic differences. Interesting is also the fact that
the Zn-Pb deposit El Toqui, which occurs in a back-arc position in the Southern
Andes, plots in the same field as the massive sulfides in the central Peruvian mar-
ginal basin. It appears that, despite a north-south distance of over 4000 km, a
comparable geotectonic position results in similar lead isotope ratios, and proba-
bly in similar metal sources.
A mantle contribution at the magmatic arc is in accord with geochemical in-
vestigations on Mesozoic magmatic rocks in the Coastal Range in northern Chile
(Berg and Breitkreuz 1983; Rogers and Hawkesworth 1989), and in the volcanic
rocks in the Peruvian aborted marginal basin (Atherthon et al. 1983, 1985). Dif-
ferent degrees of crustal contamination are assumed.
The ore deposits at the eastern platform in central Peru (stage lie) show slight-
ly more radiogenic lead isotopic ratios than the previous groups. It is interesting
to note that both ore deposits related to volcanogenic processes (El Extrafio,
Huanzahi), and those without direct volcanic influence (Cercapuquio) display
similar isotopic ratios. The fact that the lead isotopic ratios become less
radiogenic moving towards the west can be explained by the increasing influence
of the mantle reservoir with respect to the oro gene reservoir in the marginal basin.
A common feature of these deposits is that they are located in zones of thicker
continental crust than the previous group and that none of the respective basin-
fill sequences were sourced by the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous magmatic arc.
Finally, let us discuss the results from ore deposits in stage I, that is, deposits
hosted by rocks of the Upper-Triassic Peruvian Pucara basin. As displayed in Ta-
ble 1, the Pucara basin formed essentially before the beginning of the paired mag-
matic arc-back-arc basin which controlled the evolution of stage II. For this rea-
son, a comparable west to east polarity is not present, and the distribution of met-
al sources responds to other schemes.
The volcanic-associated ore deposits in the western Pucara (stage Ia,
Carahuacra, Huaripampa, stratiform part of Machcan) show lead isotopic ratios
very similar to those of the eastern foreland platform of stage lie. The data indi-
cate mainly a contribution of the orogene reservoir. Leaching of the Paleozoic
basement is probably the main source (Gunnesch and Baumann 1990).
The peculiar isotopic signature of the MVT deposit of Shalipayco (stage lib),
which is much less radiogenic than the other ores of the Pucara Group, and plots
in the same field as those of the Lower Cretaceous Peruvian aborted marginal ba-
sin, can be explained by its paleogeographic position.
The orebodies in Shalipayco occur at the base of the Pucara transgressive se-
quence, directly over a volcaniclastic conglomerate of the Mitu Group (Permian).
The Permian Mitu volcanism has alkaline and peralkaline characteristics and is
interpreted in relation to an aborted tardi-Hercynian rifting process (Noble et al.
1978; Kontak et al. 1985). Leaching of Permian volcanic material could explain
the lead isotopic signature of Shalipayco. This hypothesis is consistent with the
analysis reported by Gunnesch (1986) of a Mitu group sample in the Atacocha
district yielding similar ratios to those found in the ores of Shalipayco. Additional
data would be necessary to confirm this lead source.
Mixing of "mantle" and "orogene" end members can explain the main distri-
bution patterns of the lead isotope ratios of all stratabound ore deposits in the
Central Andes except those of the San Vicente belt (stage Ic) which are character-
ized by highly radiogenic values. These compositions can be compared to the J-
lead range of the Mississippi Valley district, which are characterized by negative
or "future" model ages. This behavior is typical of upper crustal leads in cratonic
regions and of many Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits sourced from such envi-
ronments (Doe and Zartman 1979). The highly radiogenic values in San Vicente
are related to a third end member which represents an "extra-Andean" factor. This
factor corresponds to the role played by weathering and erosion of ancient upper
crust of the Brazilian Shield, and/or leaching of detrital sediments derived from
it. This is consistent with the paleogeographic position of San Vicente at the west-
ern margin of the Brazilian Shield, and explains the different metal source of the
belt in the eastern Pucara with respect to the other Andean stratabound ore
deposits.
In summary, in Pucara-hosted deposits contributions of three main reservoirs
must be considered: (1) orogene reservoir (stage Ia, Carahuacra-Huaripampa,
Machcan), (2) leaching of volcanic material related to a Permian rifting (stage lb,
Shalipayco), and (3) leaching of old upper crust of the Brazilian Shield (stage Ic,
San Vicente).
4.3 General Aspects
It is remarkable that the data of ore deposits in stages Ia, lie (and the only one
analyzed of lllb), as well as numerous nonstratabound ore deposits, plot very
closely. This requires a homogeneous source in parts of the Central Andes lasting
from Liassic to Cenozoic times. This source matches the theoretical "orogene"
reservoir (Zartman and Doe 1981) calculated on the basis of recycling and mixing
of upper and lower continental crust.
Subducted Pacific pelagic sediments are not considered here as a significant
lead source. The lead isotopic composition of metalliferous pelagic sediments on
the Nazca Plate show lead isotopic ratios very similar to those of numerous An-
dean ore deposits. This fact was used to support the hypothesis of deriving metals
from subducted pelagic sediments (Silltoe 1972; Sillitoe and Hart 1984). However,
as seen in Fig. 3, the field of pelagic sediments coincides with the "orogene" reser-
voir. This is, as also observed by Sillitoe and Hart (1984), because the lead of
pelagic sediments and manganese nodules is derived mainly from continental
crust. Therefore, actually, there is no need to invoke subducted metalliferous sedi-
ments as a significative metal source. The hypothesis of deriving a substantial part
of the metals required for the Andean hydrothermal ore deposits from metallifer-
ous sediments on the Nazca Plate during subduction has been rejected by several
authors (Burnham 1981; Tilton et al. 1981; see also discussion in Field and Dasch
1981), and a mixing model with significant contribution of sialic crust is favored.
The lead isotope data on stratabound ore deposits reviewed here gives more evi-
dence to rule out mobilization of subducted pelagic sediments as a potential lead
source. All results indicate that the lead isotope composition of the considered de-
posits responds to large-scale distribution patterns consistent with the geotectonic
position of the host rocks. Thus, ore deposits associated with volcanic activity
and those formed by other processes such as diagenetic cementation in the same
geotectonic environment often display similar isotopic compositions. It is very im-
probable that discrete lead reservoirs could determine such regional patterns.
And, last but not least, the ore deposits linked to the subduction-related magmat-
ic arc show a distinctly less radiogenic lead isotopic composition than pelagic sed-
iments (Fig. 3).
A last point should be underlined. Tilton et al. (1981, p. 811), in their review
of the lead isotopic composition of hydrothermal ore deposits in two transects in
the Central Andes, note that "one of the most remarkable features of the Pb data
is the similarity in isotope patterns from each of the study areas in spite of their
greatly differing tectonic setting?' The present discussion shows definitely that in
the case of the stratabound ore deposits a clear correlation exists between lead iso-
topic composition and geotectonic position and nature of the host rocks.
5 Conclusion
The lead isotopic investigations on stratabound ore deposits in the Andes indicate
clearly that mixing of different sources was involved relative to the geotectonic po-
sition. The observed lead isotopic ratios are consistent with a model based on the
different degree of mixing of three "end members". They are a mantle component
(ore deposits of stage II located near the magmatic arc), an "orogene" component
(mainly represented in deposits in the platform basin in stage lie but also in in-
tramontane basins of stage lila, and in stage Ia), and old upper continental crust
(in deposits of stage lc in the carbonate platform at the margin of the Brazilian
Shield). The participation of subducted pelagic sediments is not necessary to ex-
plain the lead isotope ratios in the investigated stratabound ore deposits. These
isotopic results are coherent with tectonic, paleogeographic, and paragenetic evi-
dence, which indicates that ore genesis is directly related to immediate geologic
environment. The latter may or may not be, in turn, a result of the subduction
process.
Note added to proof. Ore lead isotope ratios from additional Andean stratabound
ore deposits (Buena Esperanza, Carolina de Michilla, Cifuncho, El Jardin, Man-
tos Blancos, Mantos de Catemu, Punta del Cobre, Santo Domingo) are given in
Fontbote et al. (1990).
Acknowledgments. This investigation was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Previ-

ous versions of this manuscript have benefited from critical reading by E. Cedillo (Univ. of Guana-
juato, Mexico), and St. Flint (Shell Research, Netherlands). The first author wish to thank especially
A. Puig (Sernageomin, Chile) for making available unpublished lead isotope data during the prepara-
tion of the manuscript. The figures have been drafted by H. SchOnfelder.
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Appendix
Main Characteristics
of Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Deposits
and General Index of Districts, Mines, and Occurrences
(Printed Lists of a Data Base)
L. Fontbote 1
This appendix contains the following two parts:

A) Printed lists of a data base with the main characteristics of about 180 represen-
tative Andean stratabound ore deposits. This information is arranged ( 1) from
north to south, and (2) alphabetically.
B) Index of about 520 districts, mines, ore occurrences, and prospects mentioned
in the book, including also about 230 non-stratabound ore deposits.
In all cases the same abbreviations have been used.
For references of individual ore deposits see the respective contributions in this
book. Additional sources of information are given in Fontbote (this Vol., pp.
79-110).
A) Printed Lists of a Data Base with the Main Characteristics

of Representative Andean Stratabound Districts, Mines, Ore Occurrences,
and Prospects
The lists contain synaptical information on about 180 representative Andean

stratabound districts, mines, and ore occurrences. The following abbreviations are
used:
Name of the ore district, mine, ore occurrence, or prospect.
Magn Magnitude. The intention is to give some idea of the relative impor-
tance of the various deposits.
M3: probably over 10 million t ore
M2: probably 1-10 million t ore
M1: probably 0.1-1 million t ore
0: ore occurrence, probably less then 0.1 million t ore
Pr: ore prospect. No data on magnitude.
1 Mineralogisch-Petrographisches lnstitut der Universitlit, INF 236, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRO.

Present address: Dep. Mineralogie, 13, rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Geneve, Switzerland

778 L. Fontbote
Country
Lat. S Latitude. "N' before the value indicates north latitude. All other
values are south latitude.
Long. W West longitude.
Stage Metallogenetic stage as defined in Fontbote (this Vol., see pp. 80 and
83). In addition PC: Precambrian, Sub: Sub-Andean basins (Lower
Cretaceous-Eocene).
Elem Main elements of economic interest. In addition, BIF: banded iron
formation, ironstone: mainly oolitic iron ore, MS: massive sulfide,
RB: red bed-type.
Host rock Information usually includes lithology, stratigraphic unit (F: Forma-
tion, G: Group), and age.
Page Page(s) on which the ore deposit is mentioned in the book. References
can be found in the respective contribution(s).
The same information is

(1) arranged from north to south (pp. 779-784)
(2) arranged alphabetically (pp. 785- 790)
Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and Dep:>aits Arranged fran North to South
Name Magn Country Lat. S Long. W Stag Elern Host :r:oclt Page ~
~
Bailadores M2 Venezue N08gll 1 7lg501 Pl Zn-Pb-Cu MS Pyrocl. & P,Yllita, IU:!idlachS F., U. Carbo 82
Hioogrande Pr Colanbi N06. 7g 76.5g NIIo CU- ( Zn) MS VolCAIIOHd. ~~eq., eq. Barroso F.?, L. Cretac.? 102 1 379ff l
El Roble M2 Colanbi N()5g56 I 76gll 1 NIIo CU-(Au) MS Thol. basalt & chert, Callasgordas G., Cretac. 102, 379ff
E1 Dovio Pr Colanbi N04.5g 76.lg NIIo CU-(Zn) MS Volcanoeed. seq, equiv. cal!asgordas G.?, Cret. 102, 382ft
w
El Azufral Pr Colanbi N06.6g 75.3g NIIo CU-(Zn) MS Ophiolite ccmplex in the Central Cordillera 382, 386
La Plata Ml. Ecuador 00g25 I 78g55 1 NIIo CU-Zn-Au MS Volcanosed. seq., Macuchi F., u. Cretac.-Eoc. 102, 389ff
Macuchi Pr Ecuador 00g58 I 79g041 NIIo CU Pb Zn MS Volcanoeed. seq., Hacuchi F., u. Cretac.-Eoc. 102 I
Tarrbogrande M3 Peru 04g54 1 80g041 IIc CU-Zn-Ag MS Volcanosed. seq., Las Lanas Group, Apt.-Alb. 42, 48, 83, 93, 95
Bay0var 0 Peru 06g05 1 80g5QI III P Continental sed., zapayal F., Miocene 41, 49
Las Coloradas (Hualgayoc o.) M2 Peru 06g45 1 78g39 1 lie? Pb-Zn-Ag-Au Subvolc. and li.mest., Pulluicana F., Albian 49, 579
Hualgayoc District M3 Peru 06.6g 78.5g IIe? Pb-Zn-Ag-Au-cu see Las Coloradas, Pczos Rices, Carolina 41, 48, 56, 83, 98, I
100, 569ff,
735ff, 759ff ~
::r
Bella Uni6n (Hualgayoc o. l Ml. Peru 06g46 1 78g37 1 IIe? Pb-Zn-Ag Carbonate :r:oclts, Chulec F. , Albian 48, 577ft I
Carolina (Hualgayoc o.) M2 Peru 06g46 1 78g381 lie? Pb-Zn-Ag Subvolc. & carbonat. :r:oclts, Chulec F., Albian 48, 575ff g
Pczos Rices (Hualgayoc o.) M2 Peru 06g46 1 78g38 1 IIe? Pb-Zn-Ag SUbv. & carbonate rocks, Pariatambo F., Albian 49, 52 ;.
Santa Hetallotect Peru IIe see El Extrailo, Huanzala, Pachapaqui 48, 83, 9Bff.
737ff
El Extra& (Santa Metal.) M2 Peru 09gl4 1 77g57' IIe Zn-Pb Carbonate :r:oclts, Santa F. , Lower Cret. 41, 48, 99, 557'
737ff, 759ff
Olaqlla (near Harao) 0 Peru 09g5QI 75g48 1 Ic Pb-F Dolanite (+OCR), Tambo Marla F., Norian-Hett. 256ff
Huanzala '(Santa Hewllotectl M2 Peru 09g501 76g57 1 lie Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu Skarn, Santa F., Lower Cret. 41, 99, 555ft, 759
Aida Unica (Santa Metal.) Ml. Peru 09g52 1 72g21 1 lie Zn-Pb-Ag Carbonat.-silicicl. & tuff, Santa F., L. Cret. 41, 48, 99, 562ff
Pachapaqui o. <santa Metal Mi Peru lOg 77g IIe see A!da Unica 99, 555ft, 744
Paclloo Llama.c (Santa Mitt... Ml. Peru 10gl2 1 76g58 1 IIe Carbonate rocks, Santa F., Lower Cretaceous 99
San Roque (near Oxapampal 0 Peru 10g32 1 75g26 1 Ic Zn-Pb Dolanite, Oxapampa Formation, Sinen.Jrian 256ff
Macl'lcim Ml. Peru 10g33 1 76gl71 Ia Pb-Zn-<:u-Ag MS Massive py & vole. & carb., Chambara F., 42, 256ff, 279,
302ff' 759ff
Ishcay Cruz (Santa Metal.) M2 Peru 10g38 1 76g35 1 IIe Zn-Pb-Ag-cu MS Carbonate rocks, Santa F., Lower Cret. 41, 48, 99, 583ff
Cerro de Pasco M3 Peru 10g42 1 76gl6 1 Pl? Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS Phyllites & shales, Excelsior F., Devonian 41, 82
Tambo Marla o Peru 10g44' 75gl9 1 Ic Zn Dolanite (+OCR), Tambo Marla F., Norian-Hett. 263
Colquijirca M2 Peru l0g46 1 76gl3 1 Ilia Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu Pyroc.-~., Calera Memb., J?oc;Obamba F., Cenoz. 41, 49, 50, 56, 83,
101, 615ff, 735ff
Shalipayco K2 Peru l0g50 1 75g58 1 Ib Zn-Pb-Ag Dolanite, Chambara F., u. Trias-Hett. 42, 47, 83, 84,
256ff, 737ff, 759ff :::l
10
Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and Deposits Arranged fran North to South -.I
Name Magn Country Lat. S Long. W Stag Elem Host rock Page ~
Pariatambo Fm., V OE'88 in the Peru lie V see Mina Ragra 595ff
Mina Ragra Ml Peru 10g51' 76g33 1 IIe V Asphaltite, 1~, Pariatallbo F., Albian 42, 49, 83, 100,
595ff
Ulcunayo Ml Peru 10g56 1 75g51 1 Ib Zn-Pb Dolanite, a-mra F., Upper 'l'riasaic 256, 262
Pichi~ caluga Ml Peru llg07 1 75g23 1 Ib Zn-Pb dolanite, Pucara G., u. Trias-Liassic 256ff
san Vicente M3 Peru llgl2' 75g21 1 Ic Zn-Pb Dolanite (+OCR), 'l'alrbo Marla F., Norian-Hett. 42, 47, 55, 83,
84_,256ff, 279,
305ff, 737ff, 75f)ff
Chilpes (san Vicente belt) Ml Peru llgl5 1 75g21 1 Ic Zn-Pb Dolanite (+OCR), Tambo Marla F., Norian-llett. 256ff
Negra Huanusha 0 Peru llgl8' 75g53 1 P2 CuRB Red beds, Mitu Group, Permian 42, 44, 82, 123ff
Malpaso area 0 Peru llg25 1 76g01 1 Ia ttl, Ba (Ag) carbt.tuff gyps. sill, F.,Norian-Lias
Chantlara 260, 279
Mar!a Teresa (casma Metal. l Pr Peru llg30 1 77g16 1 lie Ba-Pb-Ag Sed. & vole., casma F., middle Albian 48,94
Katy, Manto Ml Peru llg35 1 76g07 1 Ia Cu-Pb-Zn MS Tuff, massive pyrite contact Mitu-Pucara, Lias. 83, 261, 279
Venturosa <santa Metal.? l Ml Peru llg37 1 76g25' lie? Pb-Zn Skarn, limestones, santa FoDnation, L. Cret. 48
Pengo de Andaychagua 0 Peru llg40' 76g10 1 P2 Cu-Pb-Zn Volcaniclastic layers, Mitu G., Permian 44
Tingocancha. (llano de Yauli D.) Sec Peru llg40 1 75g59 1 Ia carbt., tuff, vole., Aramachay-Cond. F., Lias. 260, 279ff
Yauli District, llano de M3 Peru llg42 1 76g05' Ia Zn-Pb-Cu-BaAgHS see carahuacra and Huaripampa 256ff, 267ff, 279ff
Huaripampa (llano de Yauli D.) M2 Peru llg42 1 76g05 1 Ia Zn-Ag-Pb MS carbt., tuff, vole., Aramachay-Cond. F., Lias. 47, 83, 84, 261,
279 ff, 302, 759ft
carahuacra (llano de Yauli D.) M2 Peru llg43' 76g04 1 Ia Zn-Ag-Pb MS carbt., tuff, vole., Aramachay-cond. F:, Lias. 47, 52, 83, 84,
261, 279ft, 302,
737ft, 759ff
Sincos 0 Peru llg48' 75g24 1 I v (Se) Bitum. shale and tuffs, Aramachay F., Liassic 42, 47, 256ff,
596ff
Ultimatum 0 Peru llgSO' 76g00' P1 Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag Basic subvolc. & vole., Excelsior G., Paleoz. 115ff, 268
casma Metallotect Peru IIc see Leonila Graciela, Palma, Juanita, etc. 48, 407ff
Aurora Augusta (casma Metal.) Ml Peru llg55 1 76g52 1 lie Ba Vole. & sed., casma F., middle Albian 48,94
Leonila-<>raciela (Casma M.) M2 Peru llg56' 76g01 1 lie Zn-Ba MS Vole. & sed., casma F., middle Albian 41, 48, 56, 83, 94,
759ff
Juanita <casma Metal. l M2 Peru llg56 1 76g34 1 lie Zn-(Pb) MS Vole. & sed., casma F., middle Albian 48, 94
Miraflores 0 Peru 12g03 1 75g42 1 lie Zn-Pb-Ba carbonate rocks, base Chaucha. F., M. Jurass.? 99
Palma (casma Metallotect) Ml Peru 12g05 1 76g35' IIc Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba MS Sed. & vole., casma F., middle Albian 42, 48, 83, 94, r
413ff 61
Balducho ( Casma Metallotect) Pr Peru l2g19 1 76g36: IIc Ba-Zn Vole. & sed., casma F., middle Albian 94 a
Copara Metallotect Peru lie Cu MS aee Raul, Condestable, Los leas 48, 83, 395ff
I
Condest.able (Copara Metal.) M2 Peru 12g24. 7bg.36' Ire Cu MS Volcano-sed. seq., Copara F., lCMer Albian 41, 48, 53, 55, [/}
404ff, 759ff
Cobriza 113 Peru 12g25' 74g30' P2? Cu-Ag Limest. & skarn, caliza Cobriza, Tarma G, Carb. 41, 43, 53, 82,
129ff
Cercap>quio M2 Peru 12g26' 75g25' lie Pb-Zn-cd Carbonate rocks, Chaucha F., Middle Jurassic? 83, 41, 98, 537ff
ig
::s
p.
735ff. 759ff
Cantera (casma Metallotect) o Peru 12g36' 76g36' lie Ba, py Vole. IY sed., casma F., middlr! Albian 94
0
(i
Rnttl (Copara Metallotect) M3 Peru 12g42 1 7G•J35.5' lie Cu MS Volcano-sed. seq., Copara F., lower Albian 42, 48, 53, 54,
94ff, 404ff, 759ff
Macusani Pr Peru 14g02 1 70g27' IIIc U Rhyo.-rhyodact. ignmbr., Quenamari F., 4.2 m.a. 41, 51, 83, 102, i"'
:=.·
671 "'
Los leas (Copara Metal.) Pr Peru 14g20' 75g28' lie zn-cu-Ba MS Volcanosed. seq., Copara F., LCMer Cretac. 41, 48, 94, 407,
759ff
San Martin, Manto (Copara M.) M2 I'eru 14g20' 75g28' Ilc Cu Volcanosed. seq., Copa.ra F., Lower Cretac. 41, 48, 408ff
Ocucaje
Ana Maria
0
M1
Peru
Peru
14g21 1
14g40'
75g40'
69g27'
III
Pl
P
Au
Continental sed., Pisco F., Miocene
Ananea Volcanics, Ordovician
49
(z
43
San Jose/Amarete Bolivia 15g20' 68g58' P1 sn Shale & quartzite, Silurian 82, 147 ~0"
Mina Rosario Bolivia 15g25.2' 68g34.0' P1 w Marine shales, Capinota F., Ordovician 81 I
Kellhuani District M3 Bolivia 16g04' 68g04' Pl Sn-(W-Bi) Shale & quartzite, catavi Fm., U. Silurian [/}
82, 147ff
Chilicoya, Cordillera Real M1 Bolivia 16g33 1 67g53' Pl Au Meta ss & shales, Amutara F., u. Ordovician 81, 143
Matarani Pr Peru l f.; 58' 72g08' PC Fe BIF Metamor[Ylic rocks, Arequipa Massif, Precambrian 39, 81
~
Tarpuy 0 Peru 17.0g 72.1g PC Fe BIF Metamorphic rocks, Arequipa Massif, Precambrian 39, 42, 81
San Francisco (A. Chapare D.) Pr Bolivia 1 7g03' 65g37' Pl Mg Metf. dol., gyps. bor, Cristalmayu F., cambr. 81
Monte Blanco Bolivia 17g04' 67g16 1 P1 Sn Shales and quartzites, Silurian 147
Minillo (Alto Chapare D.) M3 Bolivia 17g06' 65g33' Pl Mg Metf. dol., gyps. bor, Cristalmayu F., cambr. 81
Limbo (Alto Chapare D.) Pr Bolivia 17g08' 65g36 1 Pl Mg Metf. dol. , gyps. bor, Cristalmayu F., cambr.
Corocoro Ml Bolivia 17gl0 1 6Bg29' IIIb CuRB Red beds, Olig.-Miocene 102, 659ff
Alto Chapare M3 Bolivia 17.lg 65.6g P1 Mg see Crista! Mayu, Limbo-Locotal or Minillo 81
Huachipato (Arica) Ml Chile 18g01.5' 69g40' III Mn Rhyolitic tuff, Huaylaj F., Pleistocene 101
Poopo District Ml Bolivia 18.2g 66.9g P1 Sn Llallagua Fm., Silurian, see candelaria
Santa Cruz (Poopo District) Ml Bolivia 18g15' 66g58' P1 Sn Shale & quartzite, Llallagua Fm., Silurian
Candelaria (Poopo Distdct) Ml Bolivia 18gl9' 66g58 1 P1 Sn Shale & quartzite, Llallagua Fm., Silurian
Sevaruyo Pr Bolivia 19g25 1 66g55' IIIc U Dacit. tuffs & ignimbr., Los Frailes F., Cenoz. 83, 102, 671
Saga sea M3 Chile 20g12' 69g21' III Cu Tertiary conglomerate 101
Eureka Ml Argenti 2lg54' 66g13 1 III Cu-(Au) RB Red sandstone, Cabrerla F., Oligocene 73
Jarcas-Negra Muerta 0 Bolivia 22g 72g32.8' P1 Fe (ironstone) Metaf. wackes anq ss, cancaniri F., Ordovician 178
Sierra de la Victoria Pr Bolivia 22g 72g32.8' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metaf. wackes and ss, Kirusillas F., Silurian 178
La Negra F., Cu ores in Chile see Buena Esperanza, Susana, Santo Domingo 313ff, 319ff -.1
Buena Esperanza M2 Chile 22qll' 70q14' 00
Ila Cu Basalt to andesite, La Negra F., Jurassic 88, 319, 313ff, 771
Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Oc=rences and Deposits Arranged fran North to South (Continued) -.1
Name Magn Country Lat. S Long. W Stag Elem Host rock Page ~
ExOtica M3 Chile 22gl9' 68g54' III Cu Tertiary gravels 101

San Bartolo M2 Chile 22g43.5' 68gl4' IIIb Cu RB Red beds, Paciencia G., Olig. 621ff, 759ff
Carolina de Michilla District M2 Chile 22g44' 70gl4.4' IIa Cu Basalt to andesite, La Negra F., Jurassic 88, 319ff, 771
Susana (Carolina de Michilla) M2 Chile 22g44' 70gl4.4' IIa Cu Basalt to andesite, La Negra F., Jurassic 313, 319ff
Aguiliri District Pr Argenti 23gl5' 66g55' IIIc U Rhyo-dacitic ignmbr. & tuffs, Pliocene 83, 671
El Agu~lar (Sierra Aguilar D.) M3 Argenti 23gl5' 65g42' Pl Pb-Zn-(Ag) Hornfels & quartzite, Aguilar Quartzite, Ordov. 64, 81, 16lff, 753
Mantas Blancos M3 Chile 23g25.8' 70g03.7' IIa Cu Vole., La Negra, Jurassic 88, 313, 319, 771
Caleta Coloso Ml Chile 23g45.9' 7c~26.4' IIb Cu Sandstone, El Way F., Lower Cret. 83, 92, 339ff,
759ff
El Laco M3 Chile 23q48' 67g30' III _Fe Andes, rhyod, ignimbr. Pleistocene 510, 681ff
0 de octubre mine (Zapla belt) M3 Argenti 24gl4' 65gl0' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, LipsOn F., Silurian 64, 178
Zapla District, Sierra de M2 Argenti 24g 65.lg Pl Fe (ironstone) see 9 de Octubre mine, Unch:irOO, Puesto Viejo 82, 178ff, 681
Santa Barbara (Zapla belt) M2 Argenti 24gl5' 64g30' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, Lipe0n F., Silurian 178
Unch:irOO (Zapla belt) M3 Argenti 24g25' 64g55' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, Lipe0n F., Silurian 64, 82, 179
Puesto Viejo (Zapla belt) M3 Argenti 24g27' 64g57' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, Lipe0n F., Silurian 178
Los Colorados 0 Argenti 24g44' 66gl3' III Cu RB Red sandstone, Geste F, Oligocene-Miocene 73
Santo Dcrningo M2 Chile 25g06.4' 7Qg29.3' IIa Cu Vole., La Negra F., Jurassic 88ff, 313, 319, 771
J:lc.<ll'!yko Cord., Chaco Quebrada 0 Chile 25g08' 69g21' IId- Ba Carbonate & clastic rocks, Lower Cret. 83
Custodio Ml Argenti 25.lg 65.7g Sub Cu-(U, V) RB Red beds, Pirgua Subgr., cretac. 70, 103
Cerro PlatD (R. Juramenta D.) Ml Argenti 25.2g 65.lg Sub Pb-Zn-<:u Dolanite-lirrestone, Yacoraite F., Maestr. 103
Incahuasi District Pr Argenti 25gl7' 67gl7' Pl Cu-Au Ordovician 64
Juramento, R!o Ml Argenti 25.2g 65.lg Sub Pb-Zn-<:u Dolanite-limestone, Yacoraite F., Maestr. 83, 103
Cifuncho 0 Chile 25g43' 70g35' I Pb Fe Cherty lirrestone, Hettangian 771
Tbnco-Amblayo District M2 Argenti 25. 7g 65.8g Sub U see Don otto and Los Berthas
Don otto (Tbnco Amblayo D.) M2 Argenti 25.7g 65.8g Sub U Detr. sed., Yacoraite F., U. Cretac. 70, 103, 67lff
Los Berthas (Tbnco l\mblayo) Ml Argenti 25,7g 65.7g Sub "u Detr. sed., Yacoraite F., u. Cretac. 103
Altamira District M2 Chile 25g49.7' 69g53 1 Ila Cu Vole. Jurassic, see Frankenstein 92
Frankenstein (Altamira D.) M2 Chile 25g49.7' 69g53' IIa Cu Vole., Jurassic 92
Carmen M3 Chile 26g20.5' 70g08.4' lib Fe Volcanics, Bandurrias F., Lower Cret. 355, 356ff, 510
Punta del Cobre District 113 Chile 27g29.7' 70gl5.4' Ilc Cu see Mina Agustina and Socavan Rampla 68, 83, 93, 95,
42lff, 495, 771 r
Socavan Rampla (P. Cobre D.) M2 Chile 27g29.7' 70gl5.4' IIc Cu Bas.-interm. vole., P. Cobre F.,Tithon? L.Cret. 95, 421
Agustina (Punta del Cobre D.) H2 Chile 27g29.7' 70gl5.4' lie Bas.-interm. vole., P. Cobre F.,Tithon? L.Cret. 95, 42lff 61
Manolete District M1 Chile 27g33,5' 70g20' lid Fe Cherty lirrestone, Nantoco F., Lower Cret. 83, 97, 355, 357ff, &
510 !a
<>·
Elisa de Borclos M2 Chile 27g42.5 1 70g11 1 IIIa Ag-Hg Ignimbr. , Horni toe F. , Upper Cret.? 70, 101, 637, 647ff
El Jardin M2 Chile 27g4S.S' 70g11.5' IIIa Cu-Ag-Zn Ignimbr • -1acustr • sed. , Hornitos F., U.Cret 83, 101, 647,
653ft, 771 g.~
El Plcrro 0 Chile 27g49.6 1 70g23.5 1 Ild Pb-Zn LUmestone, Lower Cretacern~s g
Bandurriaa· M3 Chile 27g51' 70g35' IId Fe Limestone & tuff, Nantoco F., L. Cret. 68, 83, 97, 355, p.
=
356ff, 495, 505ff
l\nolanas M2 Chile 2Bg02 1 70g03 1 IIIa Cu-Ag Ignimbr. & acid vole., Hornitos F. Upper Cret.? 70, 101, 637 w
Mamilla M2 Chile 2Bg0.3' 70g28 1 IId Ba Limestone (+OCR), Nantoco F., L. Cret. 68, 83, 97, 495,
523ff
~
Triunfo-carola (Mamil'ia belt) Ml Chile 2Bg04 1 70g29' IId Ba-(Pb) limestone and vole. , Nantoco F., L. Cretac. 83, 97, 523, 759ff
i"'
Boqueroo Chafiar M3 Chile 2Bg04' 70g42' IIb Fe Metavolcanics, Bandurrias F., Inwer Cret. 67, 355, 356ff, "'
510
Mar!a Cristina 0 Chile 28g04.3' 70g29.5' IId? Pb Limest. & subvolc. intr., Nantoco F., L.Cretac 759ff
j
Tinogasta Ml Argenti 28.lg 67.9g P2 U RB Red beds, de la Cuesta Fm., Permian 82, 674 8.
Jaula-Bellavista Ml Chile 20g12.3 1 70g37.8' IId Zn-Ag-(Ba) Limestone-volcanicl., Nantoco F., L. Cretac. 83, 97, 495, 513ff, z
759ff §.
Chile 28g 71g IIb Mn see La Negra, Porvenir, Coquirnbana, and Venus 92, 365ff ::r
La Negra-<:oquimbana District I
La Negra Ml Chile 28g20 1 70g50' IIb Mn Lim.-volc.,. Bandurrj.as F., Lower Cret. 365ff v.l
Porvenir Ml Chile 28g21 70g51 IIb Mn Lim.-volc., Bandurrias F., Inwer Cret. 365ft
Chaiiar Quemado M2 Chile 28g22' 70g51 1 IIb Fe Metavolcanics, Bandurrias F., I..c:7Ner Cret. 83, 92, 355, 510 ~
Ccquimbana Ml Chile ~Ag22.3' 70g51.8' IIb Mn Lim.-volc., Bandurrias F., Inwer CrP.t. 83, 92, 365ff
Venus Ml Chile 28g24' 70g52' IIb Mn Lim.-volc., Bandurrias F., r.o...ter Cret. 365ff
Las Cai'i'as Ml Chile 28g51.2' 70g41.6 1 IId Pb-Zn-Ag-(Ba) Limestone-volcanicl., Inwer Cret. 83, 97, 760ff
Guandacol-Jachal Ml Argenti 29g05' 69.1g P2 U RB Red beds, Panacan Fm., Carboniferous 82, 671
La Helvecia Ml Argenti 29. 5g 68.9g P1 Pb-Zn-Ba Limestone, S. .Juan F. , Ordovician 81, 187ff
Talcuna (Cu) M2 Chile 29g53.4' 70g55 1 IIb Cu Volcanicl. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret. 69, 83, 92, 449ft,
752, 759ff
Talcuna (Mn) M2 Chile 29g53.4' 70g55' IIb Mn Volcanic!. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret. 83, 449ff
El Ranero (Mn) M1 Chile 29g55.9' 70g54 1 IIb Mn Volcanic1. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret.
La Liga Ml Chile 30g07 1 70g57' IIb Mn Volcanic!. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret.
Arrayan Ml Chile 30gll,1' 70g56.3' IIb Mn Volcanicl. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret.
Corral Quemado Ml Chile 30g15 1 70g56.3' IIb Mn Volcanicl. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret. 92
Fragua Ml Chile 30g20' 71g00.2 1 IIb Mn Volcanicl. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret. 92
Las Galenas, Conbarbala Chile 31g09 1 70g34' III? Pb-Zn-cu-Ag Cretaceous tuffs and lavas 753
Guayacan Ml Chile 32g31 1 71g05 1 IIc Cu Sed. channel filling amygdal. lava, L. Cret. 96, 449ft
Cerro Negro M2 Chile 32g34.5' 70g57.4' IIc Cu-(Ag) Volcanicl. ss. & lim., Las Chilcas F., L. Cret. 69, 96, 449ft,
463ft -.1
00
Canota M1 Argenti 32g35 1 68g50 1 P1 Ba Black shales in flysch seq., Empozada F., Ordo. 193ff ...
Portales District M1 Chile 32.Sg 69.8g IIc Cu-(Pb-Zn) Volcanicl. ss. +lim., Las Chilcas F., L. Cret. 464
Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and DefOsits Arranged fran North to South (Continued) -...I
Name Magn Country Lat, S Long. W Stag Elem Host rock Page ~
El Soldado M3 Chile 32g38,8' 7lgOG,9' IIc Cu Interm, volcanics, La Prado F., Lower Cret. 68, 83, 95ff,
435ff, 465
San Pedro (M. de Catemu D,) Ml Chile 32g35' 71g05 ,1' IIc Volcanicl. ss. + lim., Las Chilcas F., L. Cret.
Mantes de Catemu District M2 Chile 32.40 1 70.55' IIc Cu-(Pb-Zn) Volcanicl, ss. + lim., Las Chilcas F., L, Cret, 69, 83, 96, 449ff,
464, 771
La Aguirre M2 Chile 33g26,8' 70g56' IIc Cu Basic-interm. vole., Veta Negra F., L. Cret. 96
Sierra Pintada M2 Argenti 34.lg 69.3g P2 U Permian, Triassic, see Dr. Baulies deposits 82, 671
Dr. Baulles (S, Pintadas D.) M2 Argenti 34,lg 69.3g P2 U Tuff & sandstone, Cochico Group, Permian 82, 675
Mendoza District Ml Argenti 35g30' 69g50 1 IId- Ba-Sr Carbonate-eva);Orite, Upper Jurassic 606ff
Malargue District M2 Argenti 35g45' 69g40 1 IIe u Neuquen Group, see Huemul-Agua Botada 671
Huemul-Agua Botada (Malargue) Ml Argenti 35g45' 69g40' IIIb U-cu R8 Red beds, Diamante F,, Upper Cret,-cenoz, 678
Arroyo Nuevo (Neuquen D, > M2 1\rgenti 37, 3g 70,5g IId- 8a Black shales, Los Molles F, Lower Jurassi~ 604ff
Neuquen District Ml Argenti 37,5g 70g IId- Ba-Sr Carbt.-evap, facies (+OCR), Jurassic-Lower Cret 83, 98, 100, 599ff
Rahueco Ml 1\rgenti 37, 7g 70.3g IIe u Sandst, & congl., Tordillo F., Kirnneridgian 678
Loncorue D. <Neuquen D, > Ml 1\rgenti 3 7, 9g 70,3g IId- 8a carb,-evap, facies, T~os F,, L,-M, Jurass, 604ff
Los Chihuidos District Ml 1\rgenti 33.1g 69g45' IIe U Arkosic & lithic ss, Rayoso F., Albian 679
santa Barbara (Neuquen D.> Ml Argenti 38.2g 70,0g IId- Sr-Ba Carbonat,-evap, facies, Huitrln F,, L Cretac. 604ff
Pocuno 0 "Chile 38g02' 73gl9' P1 Fe BIF Metachert & rnicasch,, West. Series, Ord.-Silur, 213
Mahuilque-Reloo M3 Chile 38gl2' 73g15' P1 Fe BIF Metachert & rnicasch., West. Series, Ord,-Silur. 81, 209ff
Reloo (Mahuilque-Rel~ D.> M3 Chile 38gl2.9' 73g14,0' P1 Fe BIF Metachert & rnicasch,, West, Series, Ord,-Silur, 64, 209ff
Tirua (Mina Vieja) 0 Chile 38g25' 73g32' P1 Cu-Zn MS Green schists, Western Series, Ord.-Silurian? 201, 209, 211, 216,
221
Mallin Que!rado (Neuquen D.> Ml Argenti 38.5g 70.0g IId- lla Carbonat.~evap, facies, Auquilco F,, u. Jurass. 604ff
La Cabalia MJ Chile 38g32 1 73g18' P1 Fe-BIF Metachert & rnicasch,, West. Series, Ord,-Silur. 209, 213
Piren Alto 0 Chile 39g22' 73g34' P1 Cu-Zn MS Green schists, Western Series, Ord,-Silurian? 81, 201, 209, 216,
229ff
Bellavista 0 Chile 39g57,4 73g12' P1 Mn Quartzite, rnicaschist, Paleozoic 82
Cerro Condor Ml 1\rgenti 42,9g 70.1g SII U Fluvial reworked pyrocl., Chubut G., L. Cretac.
Los Adobes Ml 1\rgenti 43, 3g 69.5g SII U Fluvial reworked pyrocl., Chubut G., L. Cretac,
El Toqui, Aysen M2 Chile 45g02' 71g56' SIIc Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS Volcanosed, seq., U, Coyhaique F., Jura-cretac. 68, 83, 102,
473ff, 759ff
La Poza (General Carrera D.) Ml Chile 46,36' 72g22' SIIc Pb-Zn-(Ag) Volcanosed, seq., Ib1ffez f., Jurassic 486ff
r
Cutter Cove Pr Chile 53g21' 72g25 1 P1 Cu-Pb-Zn MS Metf. volcanosed., Pre-Jurassic 82, 753 61
Yendegaia 0 Chile 54g54' 68g43' SIIc Zn-cu-Pb Schists, Cretaceous? &
Beatriz 0 Argenti 54, 9g , ca67g SIIc Zn-cu-Pb-Ag MS Rhyodac.-dac, pyrocl., Yahg~ F,, L. Cretac, 103
~
AlJ=habetic List of Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and Deposits
Name Magn Country Lat. S Long. W Stag Elem Host rock Page
g.~
9 de octubre mine (Zapla belt) M3 Argenti 24gl4' 65gl0' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, Lipebn F., Silurian 64, 178
Aguiliri District Pr Argenti 23gl5' 66g55 1 IIIc U Rhyo-dacitic ignmbr. & tuffs, Pliocene 83, 671 l
Agustina (Punta del Cobre D.) M2 Chile 27g29.7 1 70gl5,4 1 IIc Bas.-interm, vole., P. Cobre F,,Tithon? L.Cret, 95, 42lff 0
~
Aida Unica (Santa Metal. ) Ml Peru 09g52' 72g21' IIe Zn-Pb-Ag Carbonat,-silicicl, & tuff, Santa F., L. Cret, 41, 48, 99, 562ff
Altamira District M2 Chile 25g49,7 1 69g53 1 IIa Cu Vole, Jurassic, see Frankenstein 92
Alto Chapare M3 Bolivia 17.lg 65.6g Pl M:J see Crista1 Mayu, Lirnbo-Locotal or Minillo 81
i
0
l\rrolanas M2 Chile 28g02' 70g03' IIIa Cu-Ag Ignirnbr. & acid vole,, Hornitos F, Upper Cret.? 70, 101, 637 ~-
Ana Mada Ml Peru 14g40' 69g27 1 Pl Au Ananea Volcanics, Ordovician 43
"'
Arrayan Ml Chile 30gll,l' 70g56.3 1 IIb Mn Volcanic!. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret,
Arroyo Nuevo (Neuquen D. l M2 Argenti 37.3g 70.5g IId- Ba Black shales, Los Molles F, Lower Jurassic 604ff
Ailrora Augusta (Casma Metal.) Ml Peru llg55' 76g52 1 IIc Ba Vole. & sed., Casma F., middle Albian 48, 94
82
Bailadores
Balducho (Casma Metallotect)
M2
Pr
Venezue N08gll 1
Peru 12gl9'
71g50 1
76g36'
Pl
IIc
Zn-Pb-Qu MS
Ba-Zn
Pyrocl. & ];ilyllite, MucichachE. F., u. Carb.
Vole, & sed., Casma F., middle Albian 94
I
~
-g.
Bandurrias M3 Chile 27g51' 70g35 1 IId Fe Limestone c: tuff, Nantoco F., L. Cret, 68, 83, 97, 355, ~
356ft, 495, 505ft ~.
Bayovar 0 Peru 06g05' 80g50' III P Continental sed., Zapayal F,, Miocene 41, 49
Beatr~z 0 Argenti 54,9g ca67g SIIc Zn-Qu-Pb-Ag MS Rhyodac.-dac, pyrocl., Yahgan F., L, Cretac. 103 ~
Bella Union (Hualgayoc D. l Ml Pe.ru 06g4b' 78g37 1 lie? Pb-Zn-Ag Carbonate rocks, Chulec F., Albian 48, 577ff
Bellavista 0 Chile 39g57.4 73gl2' Pl Mn Quartzite, micaschist, Paleozoic 82
lloquEorbn chaiiar M3 Chile 28g04' 70g42' IIb Fe Metavolcanics, Bandurrias F., Lower Cret. 67, 35~, 356ft,
510
Buena Esperanza M2 Chile 22gll' 70gl4 1 IIa Cu Basalt to andesite, La Negra F,, Jurassic 88, 319, 313ff, 771
Caleta Coloso Ml Chile 23g45,9' 70g26.4' IIb Cu Sandstone, El Way F,, Lower Cret. 83, 92, 339ff,
.759ff
Candelaria (Poopo District) Ml Bolivia 18g19' 66g58' Pl Sn Shale & quartzite, Llallagua Fm., Silurian
Canota Ml Argent.i 32g35 1 68<J50' Pl Ba Black shales in flysch seq., Empozada F., Ordo, l93ff
Cantera (Casma Metallotect) 0 Peru 12g36' 76g36' rrc Ba, py Vole. &. sed., Casma F., middle Albian 94
Car.iliuacra (J:lc.m) de Yaul i D.) M2 b.;LU llg4J 1 76g04 1 Ia Zn-Ag-Pb MS Carbt., tuff, vole., Ar~•~chay-cond. F,, Lias. 47, 52, 83, 84,
261, 279ff, 302,
737ff, 759ff
M3 Chile 26g20.5' 70g08,4' IIb Fe Volcanics, Bandurrias F,, Lower Cret, 355, 356ff, 510
Carmen
Carolina (Hualgayoc D.) Ma Peru 06g46' 78g38 1 IIe? Pb-Zn-Ag Subvolc. & carbonat. rocks, Chulec F., Albian 48, 575ff
Carolina de Michilla District M2 Chile 22g44 1 70gl4,4 1 IIa Cu Basalt to andesite, La Negra F., Jurassic 88, 319ft, 771
Casma Meta1lotect Peru IIc sea Leoni1a Gracie1a, Palma, Juanita, etc. 48, 407ff ....
00
u.
Alphabetic List of Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and Deposits (Continued) _,
00
Name Magn Country Lat. s Long. W Stag Elem Host rock Page
"'
Cercap.JqUio M2 Peru 12g26' 75g25' IIe Pb-Zn-Cd Carbonate rocks, Chaucha F., Middle Jurassic? 83, 41, 98, 537ff
735ff, 759ff
CerrQ Condor Ml Argenti 42.9g 70,lg SII U Fluvial reworked pyrocl., "(."'hubut G., L. Cretac.
Cex:ro de Pasco M3 Peru 10g42' 76g16' Pl? Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS Phyllites & shales, Excelsior F., Devonian 41, 82
Cerro Negro M2 Chile 32g34.5' 70g57.4' lie Cu-(Ag) Volcanic!, ss, & lim., Las Chilcas F., L, Cret. 69, 96, 449ff,
463ff
Cerro Plaro (R. Juramenta D,) M1 Argenti 25,2g 65.lg Sub Pb-Zn-Cu Dolanite-limestane, Yacoraite F., Maestr. 103
Chaglla (near Haraol 0 Peru 09g50' 75g48' Ic Pb-F Dolanite (+OCR), Tambo Maria F., Norian-Hett. 256ff
Chaiiar Quemado M2 Chile 2Bg22' 70g51' lib Fe Metavolcanics, Bandurrias F., Lower Cret. 83, 92, 355, 510
Chilicoya, Cordillera Real Ml Bolivia 16g33' 67g53' Pl Au Meta ss & shales, Amutara F., U, Ordovician 81, 143
Chilpes (San Vicente belt) M1 Peru llglS' 75g21' Ic Zn-Pb Dolanite (+OCR), Tambo Maria F., Norian-Hett, 256ff
Cifuncho 0 Chile 25g43' 70g35' I Pb Fe Cherty limestone, Hettangian 771
Cobriza M3 Peru 12g25' 74g30' P2? Cu-Ag Limest, & skarn, Caliza Cobriza, Tarma G, Carb. 41, 43, 53, 62,
129ff
Colquijirca M2 Peru 10g46 1 76g13' IIIa Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu Pyroc,-Sed., Calera Memb., Pocobamba F., Cenoz. 41, 49, SO, 56, 8·3,
101, 615ff, 735ff
Condestable (Copara Metal,) M2 Peru 12g24 1 76g,36' IIc Cu MS Volcano-sed, seq., Copara F.; lower Albian 41, 48, 53, 55,
404ff, 759ff
Copara Metallotect Peru Ilc Cu MS see Raul, Condestable, Los leas 48, 83, 395ft
Coquimbana Ml Chile 2Bg22.3' 70g51.8' lib Mn Lim. -vole., Bandurrias F. , I.oNer Cref'. 83, 92, 365ff
Corocoro Ml Bolivia 17g10' 6Bg29 1 IIIb Cu RB Red beds, Olig.-Miocene 102, 659ff
Corral Quemado Ml Chile 30gl5 1 70g56,3 1 lib Mn Volcanic!. ss., Quebraua Marquesa F., L. Cret, 92
Custodio Ml Argenti 25,lg 65,7g Sub Cu-(U, V) RB Red beds, Piigua Subgr., Cretac. 70, 103
Cutter Cove Pr Chile 53g21' 72g25' Pl Cu-Pb-Zn MS Metf, volcanosed., Pre-Jurassic 82, 753
Dcrneyko Cord., Chaco Quebrada 0 Chile 25g08' 69g21' IId- Ba Carbonate & clastic rocks, Lower Cret, 83
Don otto (Tonco Amblayo D.) M2 Argenti 25,7g 65,Bg Sub U Detr. sed., Yacoraite F., u. Cretac. 70, 103, 67lff
Dr. Baulies (S, Pintadas D.) M2 Argenti 34.lg 69.3g P2 U Tuff & sandstone, Cochico Group, Permian 82, 675
El Aguilar (Sierra Aguilar D.) M3 Argenti 23g15' 65g42' Pl Pb-Zn-(Ag) Hornfels & quartzite, Aguilar Quartzite, Ordov. 64, 81, 16lff, 753
El Azufral Pr Colanbi N06.6g 75.3g NIIo Cu- ( Zn) MS Ophiolite complex in the Central Cordillera 382, 386
El Dovio Pr Colanbi N04 !5g 76.lg NIIo Cu-(Zn) MS Volcanosed. seq, equiv. Cafiasgordas G.?, Cret. 102, 382ft
El Extrailo (Santa Metal.) M2 Peru 09g14' 77g57 1 lie Zn-Pb Carbonate rpcks, Santa F., Lower Cret. 41, 48, 99, 557.
r-'
737ff, 759ff
El Jardin M2 Chile 27g45.5 1 70gll.5 1 Ilia Cu-Ag-Zn Ignimbr.-lacustr. sed., Hornitos F,, u.cret 83, 101, 647. 6l
653ff, 771 &
0
El Laco M3 Chile 23g48' 67g30 1 III Fe Andes, rhyod, ignimbr. Pleistocene 510, 68lff ~
El Plano 0 Chile 27g49.6 1 70g23.5' IId Pb-Zn Limestone, Lower Cretaceous en
M2 Colanbi N05g56' 76gll 1 NIIo Cu-(Au) MS Thol. basalt & chert, Cdfiasgordas G,, Cretac, 102, 379ff
El Roble
El Ranero ( Mn ) Ml Chile. 29g55,9' 70g54 1 !Ib Mn Volcanic!. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L, Cret.
68, 83, 95ff,
El Soldado M3 Chile 32g38,8' 71g06.9' IIc Cu Intenn, volcanics, Lo Prado F., Lower Cret,
ig
::s
435ff, 465 p..
El Toqui. Aysem M2 Chile 45g02' 7lg5G' SIIc Zn-Pb-cu-Ag MS Volcanosed, seq., u. Coyhaique F., Jura-Cretac, 68, 83, 102, 0
473ft, 759ff ii1
!12 Chile 27g42.5 170gll' IIIa Ag-Hg Ignimbr., Hornitos F., Up~r Cret.? 70, 101, 637' 647ff
Elisa de Bordos
Ml Argenti 2lg54' 66gl3' III Cu-(Au) RB Red sandstone, cabreria F., Oligocene 73 ~
Eureka 0
Exbtica M3 Chile 22gl9' 68g54' III Cu Tertiary gravels 101 "'::-.·
Ml Chile 30g20 1 7l;j00.2' IIb Mn Volcanicl. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L, Cret. 92 "'
Fragua
M2 Chile 25g49. 7.69g53' IIa Cu Vole., Jurassic 92
Frankenstein (Altamira D.)
Ml Argenti 2;Jy05 1 69.lg P2 U RB ROO bt..ods, Panacan Fm., carOOnii"eruus 82, 671
Guandacol-Jachal j
Ml Chile 32g31' 7lg05' Ire Cu Sed, channel filling amyg~l. lava, L, Cret. 96, 449ff
Guayac~
Huachipato (Arica) Ml Chile 1Bg01.5' 69g40' III Mn Rhyolitic tuff, Huaylas F., Pleistocene 101 "'p..
M3 Peru D6.6g 78.5g lie? Pb-Zn-Ag-Au-cu see Las Coloradas, Pozos Ricos, carolina 41, 48, 56, 83, 98,
Hualgayoc District ~
100, 569ff,
735ff, 759ft ~
09g51l' 76<j5'1' IIu Zn-Ag-Pireu Skarn, Santa F., I.o.ver Cret. 41, 99, 555ff, 759 g.
Huanzala (Santa Metallotect) M2 Peru
Peru llg42' 76g05' Ia Zn-Ag-Pb MS carbt., tuff, vole., Aramachay-Cond. F., Lias. 47, 83, 84, 261,
Huaripampa (Da!O de Yauli D.) M2 ~
279 ff, 302, 759ff '<
Argenti 35g45 • 69g40' II!b U-cu RB Red beds, Diamanta F., Upper Cret.-cenoz. 678
Huemul-Agua Bot...:la (Malargue) Ml
Argenti ~byl7' 67g17' Pl Cu-Au Ordovician 64
Incahuasi District Pr
10\j38 • 76g35' IIe Zn-Pb-Ag-Cu MS caroon.ate rockti, Santa F. I I..o\.ver Cret. 41, 48, 99, 583ff
Ishcay Cruz (Santa Metal.) M2 Peru
Bol ivid 22g 72g32.8' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metaf. wackes and ss, cancaniri F., Ordovician 178
Jarcas-Negra Muerta 0
Chile 2Bgl2.3' 70g37,8' IId Zn-Ag-(Ba) Limestone-volcani c!., Nantoco F., L. Cretac. 83, 97, 495, 513ff,
Jaula-Bellavista Ml
759ff
M2 Peru llg56' 76g34' IIc Zn-(Pb) MS Vol c. & sed. , casrna F. , middle Albian 48, 94
Juanita (casma Metal.)
Ml .•.rgenti 25. 2g 65.lg Sub Pb-Zn-Cu Dolomite-limestone , Yacoraite F., Maestr. 83, 103
Juramenta, R!o
Katy, Manto Ml Peru llg35' 76g07' Ia Cu-Pb-Zn MS Tuff, massive pyrite contact Mitu-Pucara, Lias. 83, 261, 279
M3 Bolivia l6g04' 6Bg04' Pl Sn-(W-Bi) Shale & quartzite, CaWvi I'm., U, Silurian 82, 147ff
Kellhuani District
La Cabdi'!a Ml Chile 3Bg32' 7:lgi8. Pl Fe-BIF Metachert & micasch., West, Series, Ord.-Silur. 209, 213
Argen~i 29. 5g 68.9g Pl Pb-Zn-Ba Limestone, s. Juan F., Ordovician 81, 187ft
La Helvecia Ml
La Liga Ml Chile 30g07' 70g57' IIb Mn Volcanic!, ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret,
Ml Chile 2Bg20' 70g50' IIb Mn Lim.-volc., Ban:iurrias F., Lower Cret. 365ft
La Negra
Chile see Buena Esperanza, Susana, Santo Domingo 313ff, 319ff
La Ne9ra F., Cu ores in
Chile 2Bg 71g IIb Mn see La Negra, Porvenir, Coquirnbana, and Venus 92, 365ff
La Negra-Coquimbana District
Ml Ecuador 00g25' 7Bg55 1 NIIo Cu-Zn-Au MS Volcanosed. seq., Macuchi F., U. Cretac.-Eoc. 102, 389ff
La Plata
486ff -..1
La Poza (General Carrera D.) Ml Chile 46.36' 72g22' SIIc Pb-Zn-(Ag) Volcanosed. seq., Ibanez f., Jurassic 00
-..1
AlfXlabetic List of Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and Deposits (Continued) -.l
00
Name Magn Country Lat. S Long. W Stag Elern Host rock Page 00
Las Cai'las Ml Chile 28g51.2' 70g41.6 1 IId Pb-Zn-Ag-(Ba) Limestone-volcanic1., Lower Cret. 83, 97. 760ff
Las Coloradas (flualgayoc D.) 112 Peru 06g45' 78g39' lie? Pb-Zn-Ag-Au Subva1c. and limest., Pulluicana F., Albian 49, 579
Las Galenas, canbdrbala Chile 3lg09' 70g34 1 III? Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag Cretaceous tuffs and lavas 753
~ila-Graciela (Casma M.) M2 Peru llg56' 76g01 1 Ilc Zn-Ba MS Vole. & sed., casma F., middle Albian 41, 48, 56, 83, 94,
759ff
Limbo (Alto Chapare D.) Pr Bolivia l7g08' 65g36 1 P1 Mg .Metf. dol., gyps. bor, Cristalmayu F., Cambr.
Lo Aguirre M2 Chile 33g26.8' 70g56 1 lie Cu bdsic-interm. vole., Veta Negra F., L, Cret. 96
Loncapue D. !Neuquen D.> Ml Argenti 37.9g 70.3g IId- Ba Carb,-evap. facies, Tdbanos F., L.-M. Jurass. 604ff
Los Adobes Ml Argenti 43.3g 69.5g SII U Fluvial r.....orked pyrocl., Chubut G., L. Cretac.
Los Berthas (Tonco Arnblayo) Ml Argenti 25, 7g 65. 7g Sub U Detr. sed,,. Yacoraite F., u. Cretac. 103
Los Chihuidos District Ml Argenti 38.lg 69g45 1 IIe U Arkosic & litl1ic ss, Rayoso F., Albian 679
Los Colorados 0 Argenti 24g44 1 66gl3' III Cu RB Red sandstone, Geste F, Oligocene-Miocene 73
Los !cas (Copara .Metal.) Pr Peru 14g20' 75g28' lie Zn-<:u-Ba MS Valcanased. seq., Copara F., Lower CrQ\:4c, 41, 48, 94, 407,
759ff
Machcim Ml Peru l0g33' 76gl7' Ia Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag MS Massive py & vole, & carb., Chambara F., 42, 256ft, 279,
302ft, 759££
Macuchi Pr Ecuador 00g58' 79g04' NI!o Cu Pb Zn MS Valcanosed. seq., Macuchi F., u. Cretac.-Eoc. 102
Macusani Pr Peru 14g02' 70g27' nrc u Rhya.-rhyodact. ignmbr., Quenamari F., 4.2 m.a. 41, 51, 83, 102,
671
Mahuilque-Rel~ M3 Chile 3tlgl2 1 73g15' P1 Fe BIF Metachert & micasch., We.;t. Series, Ord.-Silur. 81, 209ft
Malargue District M2 Argenti 35g45 1 69g40' lie u Neuquen Group, see Huemul-Agua Botada 671
Mallin~~ (Ne~n D.) Ml Argenti 38.5g 70.0g lid- Ba Carbonat.-evap. facies, Auquilco F., u. Jurass. 604ff
l.falpaso area 0 Peru llg25 1 76g01 1 Ia Mn, Ba (Ag) Carbt.tuff gyps. sill, F.,Norian-Lias 260, 279
Chambara
ManLiffa M2 Chile 28gOJ' 70g28 1 I!d Ba Limestone (+IX:R), N.mtoc:o F., L. Cret, 68, 83, 97. 495,
523ff
Manolete District !.U Chile 27g33.5' 70g20' IId Fe Cherty limestone, Nantoco F., r.c:..er Crt>t, a~. 97, 355, 357ft,
510
Mantas Bl.mcos M3 Chile 23g25.8' 70g03, 7' IIa Cu Vole,, La Negra, Jurassic 88, 313, 319, 771
Mantas de Catemu District M2 Chile 32,40 1 70,55 1 I!c Cu-(Pb-Zn) Volcanic!, ss, + lim,, Las Chilcas F., L. Cret. 69, 83, 96, 449ff,
464, 771
Maria Cristina 0 Chile 28g04,3' 70g29,5 1 IId? Pb Limest. & subvolc. intr., Nantoco F,, L.Cretac 759ft
Maria Teresa ( Casma .Metal. ) Pr Peru llg30 1 77gl6 1 I!c Ba-Pb-Ag Sed. & vole., Casma F., middle Albian 48, 94 r
Matarani Pr Peru l6g58 1 72g08' PC Fe BIF Metamorphic rocks,. Arequipa Massif, Precambrian 39, 81 6l
Mendoza District Ml Argenti 35g30' 69g50' lid- Ba-Sr Carbonate-evaporite, Upper Jurassic 606ff
Micogrande Pr Colombi N06. 7g 76,5g NIIo Cu-(Zn) MS Volcanosed, seq., eq. Barroso F,?, L, Cretac.? 102, 379ff
;.g
Mina Ragra Ml Peru 10g51' 76g33 • IIe V l\s];ilaltite, limestone, Pariatambo F .. Albian 42, 49, 83, 100, "''
59Sff
Bolivia 15g25.2' 68g34.0' Pl w Marine shales, Capinota F., Ordovician 81
Mina Rosario
MJ Bolivia 17gOIJ' 65g33' Pl Mg Metf. dol., gyps. bor, Cristalmayu F., Cambr. 81
Minillo (Alto Chapare D.) ~
0 Peru 12g03' 75g42' IIe Zn-Pb-Ba carbonate rocks, base Chaucha F., M. Jurass.? 99
Miraflores ~
BoliviR 17g04' 67g16' Pl Sn Shales and quartzites, Silurian 147
Monte Blanco
0 Peru llglB' 75g53' P2 CURB Red beds, Mitu Group, Permian 42, 44, 82, 123ff
Negra Huanusha
83, 98, 100, 599ff
Neuquen District Ml Argenti 37.5g 70g lid- Ba-Sr Carbt.-evap. facies (+OCR), Jurassic-Lower Cret
l
0 Peru 14g21' 75g40' III P Continental sed., Pisco F., Miocene 49
Ocucaje ~
Ml Peru lOg 77g IIe see Alda Unica 99, 555ff, 744
Pachapaqui D. (Santa Metal.)
Ill Peru 10gl2' 76g58' lie carbonate rocks, Santa F., Lower Cretaceous 99
Pacll~ Llamac (Santa Metal. ) i
0
Ml Peru 12g05' 76g35' lie Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba MS Sed. & vole., casma F., middle Albian 42, 48, 83, 94,
Palma (casma Metallotect) ~·
4l3ff
"'
Peru IIe V see Mina Ragra 595ff
PariatantJo Fm., V ores in the
Ml Peru llg07 I 75g2J I Ib Zn-Pb dolc:rnite, Pucar~ G., u. Trias-Liassic 256ff
Pichita caluga
o Chile 39g22' 73g34 • Pl cu-zn MS Green schists, Western Series, Ord.-Silurian? 81, 201, 209, 216,
Piren Alto
Pl Fe BIF
229ff
Metachert & micasch., West. Series, Ord.-Silur. 213
I
PocurtO 0 Chile 3Bg02' 73g19'
44
~~
Ponqo de Andaychagua 0 Peru llg40' 76gl0 1 P2 CU-Pb-Zn Volcaniclastic layers, Mitu G., Permian
Poopo District M1 Bolivia 18.2g 66.9g P1 Sn Llallagua lim., Silur:Wih, see Candelaria
Portah;s District M1 Chile 32.5g 69.8g lie CU-(Pb-Zn) Volcanic!. ss. + lim., Las Chilcas F., L. Cret. 464
M1 Chile 28g21 70g51 lib Mn Lim. -vole., Bandurrias F., Lower Cret. 365ff
Porvenir
Pozos Rices (Hualgayoc D.) M2 Peru 06g46' 78g38' Ile?·Pb-Zn-Ag Subv. & carbonate rocks, Pariatambo F., Albian 49, 52
!
M3 Argenti 24g27' 64g57' P1 Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, LipeOn F., Silurian 178
Puesto Viejo (Zapla belt)
M3 Chile 27g29. 7 1 70g15.4' Ilc CU see Mina Agustina and Soca~ Rampla 68, 83, 93, 95 1
Punta del Cobre District
421ff, 495, 771
M1 Argenti 37. 7g 70.3g IIe U Sandst. & congl. • Tordillo F., Kimneridgian 678
Rahueco
M3 Peru 12g42' 76g35.5' IIc CU MS Volcano-sed. seq., Copara F., lower Albian 42, 48, 53, 54,
Raul ceopara Metallotect>
94ff, 404ff, 759ff
Rell..n (Mahuilque-Rel~ D.) M3 Chile 38g12.9' 73g14.0' P1 Fe BIF Metachert & micasch., West. Series, Ord.-Silur. 64, 209ff
M) Chile 20g12' 69g21' III CU Tertiary conglomerate 101
Sagasca
M2 Chile 22g43.5' 6Bg14' IIIb CURB Red beds, Paciencia G., Olig. 621ff, 759ff
san Bartolo
San Francisco (A. Chapare D.) Pr Bolivia 17g03' 65g37' P1 Mg Metf. dol. , gyps. bor, Cr istalmayu F. , Cambr. 81
Bolivia 15g20' 6Bg58' P1 Sn Shale & quartzite, Silurian 82, 147
san Jose/Amarete
M2 Peru 14g20' 75g28 1 Ilc CU Volcanosed. seq., Copara F., Lower Cretac. 41, 48, 408ff
san Martin, Manto (Copara M.)
san Pedro CM. de catemu D.> M1 Chile 32g35' 7lg05.1' lie Volcanic!. ss. + lim., Las Chilcas F., L. Cret.
0 Peru 10g32' 75g26' Ic Zn-Pb Dolanite, Oxapampa Formation, Sinemurian 256ff
san Roque Cnear Oxapampa)
M3 Peru llgl2' 75g21' Ic Zn-Pb Dolanite (+OCR), Tarnbo Marla F., Norian-Hett; 42, 47, 55, 83,
san Vicente
84,256ff, 279,
-.1
305ff, 737ff, 759ff 00
"'
Alphabetic List of Representative Andean Stratabound Ore Occurrences and Deposits (Continued) -.1
Name Magn Country Lat. s Long. w Stag Elem Host rock Page ~
Santa Barbara (Neuquen D. l Ml Argent.i 38.2g 70.();1 IId- Sr-Ba car~at.-evap. facies, Huitrln F., L Cretac. 604ff
Santa Barbara (Zapla belt) M2 Argenti 24gl5' 64g30' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, Lipeon F., Silurian 178
Santa Cruz (Poopo District) m Bolivia 18gl5' 66g58' P1 Sn Shale & quartzite, Llall.>gua Fm., Silurian
Santa Metallotect Peru IIe see El Extr~o. Huanzala, Pachapaqui 48, 83, 98ff,
737ff
Santo Daningo M2 Chile 25g06.4' 7Dg29.3 1 IIa CU Vole., La. Negra F., Jurassic 88ff, 313, 319, 771
Sevaruyo Pr Bolivia 19g25' 66g55 1 IIIc U Dacit. tuffs & ignimbr., Los Frailes F., Cenoz. 83, 102, 671
Shalipayco M2 Peru 1Dg50' 75g58' Ib Zn-Pb-Ag Do1anite, Chambara F., u. Trias-Hett. 42, 47, 83, 84,
256ff, 737ff, 759ff
Sierra de la Victoria Pr Bolivia 22g 72g32.8' Pl Fe (ironstone) Metaf. wackes and ss, Kirusillas F., Silurian 178
Sierra Pintada M2 Argenti 34.19 6">.3g P2 u Permian, Triassic, see Dr. Baulles deposits 82, 671
Sincos 0 Peru llg48' 75g24' v (Se) Bitum. shale and tuffs, Aramachay F., Liassic 42, 47, 256ff,
5%ff
Soca~ Rampla (P. Cobre D.) M2 Chile 27g29. 7 1 7Dgl5.4' IIc CU Bas.-interm. vole., P. Cobre F.,TithOn? L.Cret. 95, 421
Susana <carolina de Michilla) M2 Chile 22g44' 7Dgl4.4' IIa CU Basalt to andesite, La Negra F., Jurassic 313, 319ff
Talcuna (CU) M2 Chile 29g53.4' 7Dg55' IIb Cu Vokanicl. ss., Quebrada t1drquesa F., L. Cret. 69, 83, 92, 449ff,
752, 759ff
Talcuna (!on) M2 Chile 29g53.4' 7();155' lib Mn Volcanicl. ss., Quebrada Marquesa F., L. Cret. 83, 449ff
Tambo Maria 0 Peru 1Dg44 1 7Sgl9 I Ic Zn llolanite (+OCR), Tambo Marla F., Norian-nett. 263
Tambogrande M3 Peru 04g54' 8Dg04' IIc Cu-Zn-Ag MS Volcanosed. seq., Las Lcrnas Group, Apt.-Alb. 42, 48, 83, 93, 95
Tarpuy o Peru 17.0g 72.lg PC Fe BIF Metamorphic rocks, Arequipa Hassif, Precambrian 39, 42, 81
Tingocancha (Domo de Yauli D.) Sec Peru llg40' 75g59' Ia Carbt., tuff, vole., Ararnachay-<:onn. F., Lias. 260, 279ff
Tinogasta m Argenti 28.1g 67.9g P2 U RB Red beds, de la Cuesta Fm., Permian 82, 674
Tirua IMina Vieja) 0 Chile 38g25' 73g32' Pl CU-Zn MS Green schists, Western Series, Ord.-Silurian? 201, 209, 211, 216,
221
Tonco-Amblayo District M2 Argenti 25. 7g 65.8g Sub U see Don otto and Los Berthas
Triunfo-C,,.ola (Mamilla belt.) m Chile 28g04 1 7Dg29' IId Ba-(Pb) limestone and vole., Nantoco F., L. Cretac. 83, 97, 523, 759ff
UlCUMyo m Peru 1();156' 7Sg51' Ib Zn-Pb Dolanite, Chambara F., Upper Triassic 256, 262
Ultimatum 0 Peru llgSO' 76g00' Pl cu-zn-Pb-Ag Basic subvolc. & vole., Excelsior G., Paleoz. 115ff, 268
Unchime !Z.1pla beltl M3 Argenti 24g25' 64q55' P1 Fe (ironstone) Metf. wackes and ss, LipaOn F., Silurian 64, 82, 179
Venturosa (Santa Metal.?) M1 Peru llg37' 76g25' IIe? Pb-Zn Skarn, limestones, Santa Formation, L. Cret. 48
Venus m Chile 28g24 1 7();152 1 IIb Mn Lim.-volc., Bandurrias F., Lower Cret. 365ff
Yauli District, Domo de MJ Peru llg~2' 76g05' Ia Zn-Pb-CU-BaAgMS see Carahuacra and Huaripampa 256ff, 267ff, 279ff
r
Yendegaia 0 Chile 54g54' 68g43 1 Sllc Zn-<:u-Pb Schist~, Cretaceous? 61
0
Zapla District, Sierra de M2 Argenti 24q 65.lg P1 Fe (uonstane) see 9 de Octubre mine, Unchin.e, Puesto Viejo 82, 178ff, 681
&
Q.
""
Index of Ore Deposits 791
B) Index of Districts, Mines, Ore Occurrences, and Prospects
This index refers to about 520 districts, mines, ore occurrences, and prospects
mentioned in the book, including also about 230 non-stratabound ore deposits.
Each entry contains the following information in the order:
Name Country Magn Elem Stage Page Note
Name of the ore district, mine, ore occurrence, or prospect.
Country
Magn Magnitude. The intention is to give some idea of the relative importance
of the various deposits.
M3: probably over 10 million t ore
M2: probably 1 - 10 million t ore
M1: probably 0.1-1 million t ore
0: ore occurrence, probably less then 0.1 million t ore
Pr: ore prospect. No data on magnitude.
Elem Main elements of economic interest. In addition, BIF: banded iron for-
mation, ironstone: mainly oolitic iron ore, MS: massive sulfide, RB: red
bed-type.
Stage Metallogenetic stage as defined in Fontbote (this Vol., see especially
pp. 80 and 83). In addition, PC: Precambrian, Sub: Sub-Andean basins
(Lower Cretaceous-Eocene), ** non-stratabound.
Page Page(s) on which the ore deposit is mentioned in the book. References
can be found in the respective contribution(s). DB: additional informa-
tion is contained in the printed lists of the data base of Part A of this
Appendix (pp. 777- 790).
Note see indicates synonymous and/or main entry. see also indicates similar
ore deposits hosted by the same host rock which are described in more
detail.
Index of District, Mines, Ore Occurrences, and Prospects
9 de octubre mine (zapla belt) Argentina M3 Fe (ironstone) Pl 64, 178 DB

Abra de Chumpe Peru 0 CU-Pb-Zn P2 44, 273
Abundancia (P. Cobre D.) Chile M1 CU IIc 421 see also Agustina
Acari Peru M2 CU-Fe ** 41, 49
Adrianitas Chile M3 Fe ** 355 see also El Raneral
Agua Amarga Chile M2 llq ** 68
Agua Botada (Malargue D.) Argentina see Huarnul
Aguas Amargas Argentina 0 CU RB III 73 see Los Colorados (CU)
Aguila, El Peru M3 CU-Mo ** 41, 51
Aguilar, El Argentina see El Aguilar
llquiliri District Argentina Pr u nrc 83, 671 DB
Aquirre, Lo Chile see Lo Aguirre
Agustina (Punta del Cobre D.) Chile M2 IIc 95, 42lff DB
Aida Unica (Santa Metal.) Peru Ml Zn-Pb-llq lie 41, 48, 99, 562ff DB
Algamarca Peru M1 CU-Aq-Au ** 41
AlmacEm Peru M3 CU-(Au, Mo) ** 41, 49
Al tamira District Chile M2 CU II a 92 DB
792 L. Fontbote
Altar de Cobre Olile Ml Cu IIIa 637 see also El Jardin and Alrolanas
Alto Chapare Bolivia M3 Mg Pl 81 DB
Amazonas (Mantos de Catemu) Chile Sec Cu IIc see Mantos de Caterru
Alrolanas Chile M2 Cu-Ag IIIa 70, 101, 637 DB
Ana Mada Peru Ml Au P1 43 DB
Andacollo Chile M2 Cu-Au ** 69
Andaychagua Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag ** 43, 270
Antachajra Peru Ml.-2 Cu-(Ag) ** 51
Antamina Peru M3 Cu-Zn-Ag-Mo ** 41, 51
Arcata Peru M2 Ag-Au-Pb-Zn ** 41, 51, 56
Arica Chile see Huachipato
Arqueros Chile Ag ** 68, 752
Arrayan Chile Ml Mn IIb DB
Arroyo Chita Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Arroyo Nuevo (Neuquen D.> Argentina M2 Ba IId-e 604ff DB
Arreyo Pedreqoso (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 Cu-W-Mo ** 488
Artesones Peru M3 Cu ** 50
Artolla Peru Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu-(W) Ia, ** 41, 43, 56, 274, 113, 279ff see also Huaripampa and
carahuacra
Atacama-<:oquimbo Ferriferous belt Chile Fe ** 353ff see El Raneral, Cannen, Bandurrias
Atacocha Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Cu-(Ag) ** 41, 51, 260, 293 see also Milpo-Atacocha District
Atalaya Peru M2 Cu-(r'e) ** 50
Aurora Augusta ( Casma Metal. ) Peru Ml Ba IIc 48, 94 DB
Aysen Chile see El Toqui
Azulcocha Peru M2 Zn-Pb-As-(Au) ** 99, 737ff
Bailadores Venezuela M2 Zn-Pb-Cu MS P1 82 DB
Bajada del Agrio (Ne~ District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba IId-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Bajo de La Alumbrera Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Bajo de San Lucas Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Bajo del Durazno Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Balducho (Casma Metallotect) Peru Pr Ba-Zn IIc 94 DB
Balsa Huitr1n (Neuqu9n District) Argentina M1 Sr-Ba IId-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Bandurrias Chile M3 Fe IId 68, 83, 97, 355, 356ff, 495, 505ff DB
Barite arwl/or Celestite Depcsits (Stratabound)

Arroyo Nuevo (Neuqu9n D.) Argentina M2 Ba !Id-e 604ff DB
Aurora Augusta (Casma Metal.) Peru Ml Ba IIc 48, 94 DB
Bajada del Agrio (NeuquEm District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Balducho (Casma Metallotect) Peru Pr Ba-Zn Ilc 94 DB
Balsa Huitrin (Neuquen District) Argentina Ml Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Canota Argentina M1 Ba Pl 193ff DB
Cantera (Casma Metallotect) Peru 0 Ba, py IIc 94 DB
Cerro Partido (Ne~ District) Argentina o Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Cerro Salado (Neuquen District) Argentina o Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Continental (Ne~ District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba IId-e 604ff st:~ also Santa Barbara
CuchilloCura D. (Ne~ Basin) Argen~na Ml sr-Ba IId-e 604ff
Dafne (Ne~ District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Domeyko Cord., Chaco Quebrada Chile 0 Ba Ild-e 83 DB
Don Manuel (Canota D.) Argentina 0 Ba Pl 193 see also Canota
Dos Guanaoos (Ne~ o. l Argentina Ml Ba IId-e 605 see Lancopue D.
El Canpadrito (Mendoza District) Argentina M1 Ba IId-e 604ff see also Mallin
Quemado
Galena (Mamiiia belt) Chile Ml Ba IId 83, 97, 523, 752, 759ff
Gladys (Mamiila belt) Chile Ml Ba lid 523

Juan 1 (Mamifia belt) Chile Ml Ba lid 523
La Isidora (Mendoza District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
La Rosita (Neuquen District) Argentina Ml Ba IId-e 605 see Loncopue D.
La Salida (Mendoza District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr !Id-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
La Victoria (Canota D.) Argentina Ml Ba Pl 193
Llao Llao (Neuquen District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemario
Loncopue D. (Neuquen D.) Argentina Ml Ba IId-e 604ff DB
Luthema (Neuquen District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
Mallin Quemado (Neuquen D.) Argentina Ml Ba !Id-e 604ff DB
Mamina Chile M2 Ba IId 68, 83, 97, 495, 523ff DB
Mada Teresa (Casma Metal.) Peru Pr Ba-Pb-Ag lie 48, 94 DB
Mendoza District Argentina Ml Ba-Sr IId-e 606ff DB
Naunaco (Neuquen District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Neuquen District Argentina Ml Ba-Sr IId-e 83, 98, 100, 599ff DB
Pirucha (Canota D.) Argentina Ml Ba Pl 193
Ram::>ncito (Canota D.) Argentina 0 Ba Pl 193 see also Canota
Resbalosa (Neuqu€,n D.) Argentina Ml Ba !Id-e 605 see Loncop.W D.
Santa Ana (Neuquen District) Argentina o Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara (Neuquen D.) Argentina Ml Sr-Ba IId-e 604ff DB
Sierra de Chorriaca (Neuquen District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr !Id-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Triunfo-carola (Mamifia belt) Chile Ml Ba-(Pb) IId 83, 97, 523, 759ff DB
Bateas (P. Cobre D.) Chile Ml Cu lie 421 see also Agustina
Baybvar Peru 0 P III 41, 49 DB
Beatriz Argentina 0 Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag MS SIIc 103 DB
Bella Ester Chile M2? Fe ** 355 see also La Suerte
Bella Unioo (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn-Ag He? 48, 577ft DB
Bellavista Chile Zn-Ag 68 see Jaula
Bellavista Chile 0 Mn Pl 82 DB
Benditani Peru Au ** 41, 43
Bermudas, Cerro Negro Chile Sec Cu-(Ag) IIc 468 see Cerro Negro
Blancaflor (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina 0 Pb-Zn Pl 162
Bolaco Chile M2? Fe ** 355 see also La Suerte
Boliviana Chile Ml Ag-(Hg) IIIa 637 see also El Jardin and Anolanas
Boqueron Chanar Chile M3 Fe IIb 67, 355, 356ft, 510 DB
Borate deposits B 703ff, 72lff
Buena Esperanza Chile M2 Cu Ha 88, 319, 313ff, 771 DB
Buldibuyo Peru Ml Au ** 43
Cabeza de Vaca Chile Ml Cu-(Au) ** 72
Cabildo (Cerro Negro D.) Chile He see Cerro Negro
Caillana Peru Ag-Au-Cu-Pb ** 41, 51, 54
Caleta Coloso Chile Ml Cu IIb 83, 92, 339ff, 759ff DB
California Peru Pr Mo-(W) ** 41, 51
Campana Mahuida Chile Ml Cu ** 69
Canal Gajardo Chile Pl? 753
Cafiariaco Peru M3 Cu-MJ ** 41, 50
Candelaria (Poopo District) Bolivia M1 Sn Pl DB
Canon (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M1 Pb-Zn ** 52, 579
Canota Argentina M1 Ba Pl 193ff DB
Cantera (Casma Mt!tallotect) Peru 0 Ba, py Uc 94 DB
Caprichosa Peru Cu-(Ag) ** 51
Carabarenna Peru Au Pl 43
Ca1.-aeoles Chile M2 Ag ** 66, 752
Carahuacra (Damo de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb MS Ia 47, 52, 83, 84, 261, 279ff, 302,
737ff, 759ff DB
794 L. Fontbote
carhuarazo Peru Ml Au-Ag-cu ** 41, 51

carlota Chile Pb-Zn-cu ** 72
carmen Chile M3 Fe lib 355, 356ff, 510 DB
carola Chile see Triunfo-Car ola
carolina (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag lie? 48, 575ff DB
carolina de Michilla District Chile M2 Cu IIa 88, 319ff, 771 DB
carrizal Alto Chile M2? Cu ** 66
Casa de Piedra Chile o eu-zn MS P1 201, 209, 211, 216, 223 see also Piren Alto
Casapalca Peru M2 Ag-Zn-Pb-cu ** 41, 51
Casma Metallotect Peru IIc 48, 407ff DB
Catemu, Mantos de Chile see Catemu
Caudalosa Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag ** 41, 51
Cecilia Peru Ml Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag ** 41, 50
Cenepa River (placer) Peru PLA Au Recent 52
Cercapuquio Peru M2 Pb-Zn-cd lie 83, 41, 98, 99, 735ff, 759ff DB
Cerro Colorado (Gen. carrera D.) Chile Ml Cu MS ** 65, 487
Cerro Condor Argentina M1 U SII DB
Cerro de Pasco Peru M3 Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS P1? **? 41, 82 DB
Cerro IllSn Chile M3 Fe ** 355 see also El Raneral
Cerro Mercedario Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Cerro Negro Chile M2 Cu-(Ag) IIc 69, 96, 449ff, 463ff DB
Cerro Negro Norte Chile M3 Fe ** 355, 510 see also El Rameral
Cerro Partido (Neuqu~n District) Argentina a Ba-Sr !Id-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Cerro Plooo (R. Juramento D.) Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-cu Sub 103 DB
Barbara
Cerro Salado (Neuqu~n District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr !Id-e 604ff see also Santa
Cerro San Lorenzo Chile Pb-Zn-Ag-cu ** 474
Cerro Toro Mocho, Morococha Peru M2 Cu-Mo ** 274 see also Morococha
Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa Peru M3 Cu-(Mo) ** 41, 50, 53
Chaglla (near Harao) Peru 0 Pb-F Ic 256ff DB
Chalcobarnba Peru M2 Cu-(Fe) ** 41
Chafiar Quemado Chile M2 Fe lib 83, 92, 355, 510 DB
Chafiarcillo Chile M2 Ag ** 68, 95, 752
Chapare Bolivia Mg see Alto Chapare
Charcas Peru M2 Cu-(Fe) ** 50
Chilicoya, Cordillera Real Bolivia Ml Au Pl 81, 143 DB
Chilpes (San Vicente belt) Peru M1 Zn-Pb Ic 256ff DB
Chinchao Peru 0 Ni-Cu ** 41 see also San Luis (Chinchao)
Chinchipe River (placer) Peru PLA Au Recent 52
Chupa Peru Pr Cu-Zn-Pb ** 593
Chuqui Sur Chile Cu see ExOtica
Chuquicamat a Chile M3 Cu ** 73
Cifuncho Chile 0 Pb Fe I 771 DB
Cinco Cruz Peru Cu ** 49
Clavelinas Peru M3 Au ** 49
Cobres Argentina Ml 'Ill ** 70
Cobriza Peru M3 Cu-Ag P2? 41, 43, 53, 82, 129ff DB
Cocas region Peru 0 cU RB III 123
Coloeito Chile '!Ill Cu ** 343
Colqui Peru M3 Ag-Pb-Zn-Au -cu ** 41, 51
Colquijirca Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu Ilia 41, 49, 50, 56, 83, 101, 615ff, 735ff DB
Canpacha Peru M3 lb-(W) ** 41, 51
Concordia (El Toqui D.) Chile Sec Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS SIIc 476ff see also El Toqui
Condestable (Copara Metal.) Peru M2 Cu MS lie 41, 48, 53, 55, 404ff, 759ff DB
Continental (Neuquen District) Argentina o sr-Ba IId-e 604ff """' also Santa Barbara
Contonga Peru M2 Cu-Zn-Ag ** 51
Copara Metallotect Peru Cu MS He 48, 83, 395ff DB
Cqp!r Deposits (stratabound, without P.rospects and Occurrences)

Abundancia (P. Cobre D.) Chile M1 Cu IIc 421 see also Agustina
Altamira District Chile M2 Cu Ila 92 DB
Altar de Cobre Chile M1 Cu Ilia 637 see also El Jardin and Amolanas
Amolanas Chile M2 Cu-Ag Ilia 70, 101, 637 DB
Bateas (P. Cobre D.) Chile M1 CU lie 421 see also Agustina
Buena Esperanza Chile M2 Cu IIa 88, 319, 313ff, 771 DB
caleta Coloso Chile M1 Cu lib 83, 92, 339ff, 759ff DB
Carolina de Michilla District Chile M2 Cu Ila 88, 319ff, 771 DB
Cerro Negro Chile M2 Cu-(Ag) lie 69, 96, 449ff, 463ff DB
Cobriza Peru M3 Cu-Ag P2? 41, 43, 53, 82, 129ff DB
Condestable (Copara Metal.) Peru M2 Cu MS lie 41, 48, 53, 55, 404ff, 759ff DB
Corocoro Bolivia Ml Cu RB Illb 102, 659ff DB
Custodio Argentina Ml Cu-(U, V) RB Sub 70, 103 DB .
El Jardin Chile M2 Cu-Ag-Zn lila 83, 101, 647, 653ff, 771 DB
El Roble Colanbia M2 Cu-(Au) MS NIIo 102, 379ff DB
El Soldado Chile M3 Cu Ilc 68, 83, 95ff, 435ff, 465 DB
Eureka Argentina M1 Cu-(Au) RB III 73 DB
ExOtica Chile M3 Cu III 101 DB
Frankenstein (Altamira D.) Chile M2 Cu IIa 92 DB
Guayacan Chile M1 eu IIc 96, 449ff DB
Katy, Manto Peru Ml Cu-Pb-Zn MS Ia 83, 261, 279 DB
La Plata Ecuador Ml Cu-Zn-Au MS Nllo 102, 389ff DB
La Torre Chile Ml Cu IIc 449ff see also Cerro Negro
Lo Aguirre Chile M2 Cu IIc 96 DB
Mansita (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Cu-Ag IIe? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
Mantos Blancos Chile M3 Cu IIa 88, 313, 319, 771 DB
Mantos de Cetemu District Chile M2 Cu-(Pb-Zn) lie 69, 83, 96, 449ff, 464, 771 DB
PeUllD Rusa Chile Ml Cu lie 449ff see also Cerro Negro
Portales District Chile Ml Cu-(Pb-Zn) lie 464 DB
Punta del Cobre District Chile M3 Cu lie 68, 83, 93, 95, 421ff, 495, 771 DB
Ra~1 (Copara Metallotect) Peru M3 Cu MS lie 42, 48, 53, 54, 94ff, 404ff, 759ff DB
Sagasca Chile M3 Cu III 101 DB
San Bartolo Chile M2 Cu RB IIIb 621ff, 759ff DB
San Mart{n, Manto (Cop:ira M.) Peru M2 Cu lie 41, 48, 408ff DB
Santo Domingo Chile M2 Cu Ila 88ff, 313, 319, 771 DB
Socavoo Rampla (P. Cobre D. l Chile M2 Cu nc 95, 421 DB
Susana (Carolina de Michilla) Chile M2 Cu IIa 313, 319ff DB
Ta1cuna (Cu) Chile M2 Cu lib 69, 83, 92, 449ff, 752, 759ff DB
Tambogrande Peru M3 Cu-Zn-Ag MS IIc 42, 48, 83, 93, 95 DB
Uchumi Chile Ml Cu lib 449ff see also Talcuna (Cu)
Coquirnbaua Chile Ml Mn lib 83, 92, 365ff DB

Cordillera Dcmeyko Chile see Dcmeyko
Cordillera Real Bolivia Au 137ff see also Chilicciya
Coroccohuayco Peru M2 Cu-(Fe) ** 41, 50
Corocoro Bolivia Ml Cu RB IIIb 102, 659ff DB
Corral Quemado Chile M1 Mn IIb 92 Pl3
Cristales Chile M3 Fe ** 355 see also El Romeral
Cuajone Peru M3 Cu-(Mo, Ag) ** 41, 50, 53, 56
Cuchillo Cura D. (Neuquen Basin) Argentina Ml sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff
Custodio Argentina M1 Cu-(U, V) RB Sub 70, 1.03 DB
Cutter Cove Chile Pr Cu-Pb-Zn MS P1 82, 753 DB
Dafne (Neuquen District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr !Id-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Dalronet Chile M1 Cu ** 343
Desv{o Norte Chile Ml? Fe ROC (alluvium) 354ff
Diablo Norte, Cerro Negro Chile Sec Cu-(Ag~ I!c 468 see Cerro Negro
796 L. Fontbote
Diablo Sur, Cerro Negro Chile Sec Cu-(Ag) IIc 468 see Cerro Negro
Dichosa Chile M2? Fe ** 359 see also La Suerte
Disp1tada Chile M3 Cu ** 753
Daneyko Cord., Chaco Quebrada Chile 0 Ba !Id-e 83 DB
Dano de Yauli District Peru see Yauli, Dano de
Dan Manuel (Canota D.) Argentina 0 Ba P1 193 see also Canota
Don Otto (Tonco Amblayo D. l Argentina M2 u Sub 70, 103, 67lff DB
Doi'ia Basilia Peru 0 Cu RB III 123 see also Negra Huanusha
Dos Guanacos (Ne~ D.) Argentina Ml Ba IId-e 605 see Lonco~ D.
Dr. Baul{es (S. Pintadas D.) Argentina M2 u P2 82, 675 DB
Edgard D. (Santa Metal.) Peru o Zn-Pb-Ag IIe 563 see also A!da Unica
El Abra Chile M3 Cu ** 73
El Aguilar (Sierra Aguilar D.) Argentina M3 Pb-Zn-(Ag) P1 64, 81, 16lff, 753 DB
El Algarrobo-Penoso Chile M3 Fe ** 67, 355, 510
El Azufral Colanbia Pr Cu-(Zn) MS NIIo 382, 386 DB
El Canpadrito (Mendoza District) Argentina Ml Ba IId-e 604ff see also Mallln Quemado
El Dovio Colanbia Pr Cu-(Zn) MS NIIo 102, 382ff DB
El Extraiio (Santa Metall.) Peru M2 Zn-Pb Ire 41, 48, 99, 557, 737ff, 759ff DB
El Guanaco Chile M2 Au ** 72
El Hoyo (La Helvecia belt) Argentina o Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 187 see also La Helvecia
El Indio Chile M2 Au ** 74
El Ingenio (La Helvecia belt) Argentina o Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 187 see also La Helvecia
El Jardln Chile M2 Cu-Ag-Zn Ilia 83, 101, 647, 653ff, 771 DB
El Laco Chile M3 Fe III 510, 68lff DB
El Llanito (La Helvecia belt) Argentina 0 Pb-2'.n-Ba Pl 187 see also La Helvecia
El Molino Peru M3 Cu ** 50
El Pachoo Argentina M3 eu •• 74
El Pelado (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 Zn-Pb-Cu ** 487 see also R:l:o Mueller
El Plamo Chile 0 Pb-Zn IId DB
El Roble Colanbia M2 Cu-(Au) MS NIIo 102, 379ff DB
El Raneral Chile M3 Fe ** 67, 510, 687
El Ranero (Cu) (M. Catemu D.) Chile Sec Cu IIc see Mantos de Catemu District
El Ranero (Mn) Chile Ml Mn IIb DB
El Salado Chile Sec Cu IIc 470 see also Cerro Negro
El Salvador Chile M3 Cu ** 73, 752
El Sauce Chile M2 Cu-Fe-Zn-Pb-Ag-Au ** 69
El Soldado Chile M3 Cu IIc 68, 83, 95ff, 435ff, 465 DB
El Teniente Chile M3 Cu ** 75
El Teniente Chile M3 Cu ** 75
El Toqui, Aysen Chile M2 Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS SIIc 68, 83, 102, 473ff, 759ff DB
El Venado Chile Ml Ag-(Cu) IIIa 70, 101, 637 see also El Jardln and Am::>lanas
Elisa de Bordes Chile M2 Ag-Hg IIIa 70, 101, 637, 647ff DB
Escondida (General Carrera D.) Chile Ml ** 65, 487, 752
Esperanza (Santa Metal.) Peru 0 Zn-Pb-Ag IIe 563 see also Mda Unica
Esperanza (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina Pr Pb-Zn Pl 162
Estatuas (El Toqui D.) Chile Sec Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS SIIc 476ff see also El Toqui
Eureka Argentina Ml Cu-(Au) RB III 73 DB
Europa Chile Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu ** 474
Extraiio, El Peru see El Extrai'lo
ExOtica Chile M3 Cu III• 101 DB
Faralloo Negro Argentina Pr Au ** 74
Ferrobamba Peru M3 Cu-(Fe) ** 41, 50
Fitzhugh (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina Pr Pb-Zn Pl 162
Fraqua Chile Ml Mn IIb 92 DB
Frankenstein (Altamira D.) Chile M2 Cu Ira 92 DB
Galena (Mamilla belt) Chile Ml Ba IId 83, 97, 523, 752, 759ff
Ga.vilan de Oro Peru Au Pl 43, 81
Gladys (Mamiffa belt) Chile Ml Ba IId 523
Gold and Gold-bearing Deposits (stratabound)

Ana Maria Peru Ml Au Pl 43 DB
Carabarenna Peru Au Pl 43
Chilicoya, Cordillera Real Bolivia Ml Au P1 81, 143 DB
Cordillera Real Bolivia Au 137ff see also Chilicoya
El Roble Colombia M2 Cu-(Au) MS NIIo 1Q2, 379ff DB
Eureka Argentina Ml Cu-(Au) RB III 73 DB
Gavilan de Oro Peru Au Pl 43, 81
Hualgayoc District Peru M3 Pb-Zn-Ag-Au-Cu lie? 41, 48, 56, 83, 98, 100, 569ff,
735ff, 759ff DB
Incahuasi District Argentina Pr Cu-Au Pl 64 DB
La Plata Ecuador Ml Cu-Zn-Au MS NIIo 102, 389ff DB
La Rinconada, Marcapata area Peru Au Pl 42, 43, 81
Las Coloradas (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag-Au lie? 49, 579 DB
Untuca Peru Au Pl 43
Goyllarisquizga Peru 0 Cu RB P2 123 see also Negra Huanusha

Gran Bretafia Peru see Azulcocha
Guandacol-Jachal Argentina Ml U RB P2 82, 671 DB
Guayaciu1 Chile Ml Cu lie 96, 449ff DB
Helvecia, La Argentina see La Helvecia
Hercules Peru Ag-Pb-Zn-Au-cu ** 51
Huachipato (Arica) Chile Ml Mn III 101 DB
Huachocolpa Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu ** 41, 50
Hualgayoc District Peru M3 Pb-Zn-Ag-Au-Cu lie? 41, 48, 56, 83, 98, 100, 569ff, 735ff,
759ff DB
Huallatani Mine Bolivia Ml Sn-(W) ** 150
Huantajaya Chile M2 Ag ** 66
Huant~ Chile M3 Fe Ilb 355 see also Boqueron Chafiar
Huanzala (Santa Metallotect) Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu lie 41, 99, 555ff, 759 DB
Huarip..i~<pa (Dare de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb MS Ia 47, 83, 84, 261, 279 ff, 302, 759ff
DB
Huaroo Peru M3 Ag-Zn-Pb-cu-As ** 41, 50
Huayanay (Monobarnba) 0 Zn-Pb Ic 263 see also San Vicente
Hueco (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina 0 Pb-Zn Pl 162
Huemul-Agua Botada (Malargue) Argentina Ml U-cu RB !lib 678 DB
Huenalihuen Chile o eu-zn MS Pl 201, 209, 211, 216, 223 see also Piren Alto
leas, Los (Copara Metal.) Peru see Los leas
Inambari River (placer) Peru PLA Au Recent 52
Inca Viejo Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Incahuasi District Argentina Pr Cu-Au Pl 64 DB
Iron Deposits (stratabound)

9 de octubre mine (Zapla belt) Argentina M3 Fe (ironstone) Pl 64, 178 DB
Bandurrias Chile M3 Fe Ild 68, 83, 97, 355, 356ff, 495, 505ff DB
Boquer~n Chafiar Chile M3 Fe lib 67, 355, 356ff, 510 DB
Carmen Chile M3 Fe lib 355, 356ff, 510 DB
Chafiar Quemado Chile M2 Fe lib 83, 92, 355, 510 DB
Desvio Norte Chile Ml? Fe REX:: (alluvium) 354ff
El Laco Chile M3 Fe III 510, 68lff DB
Huanteme Chile M3 Fe lib 355 see also Boqueron Chai'iar
Jarcas-Negra Muerta Bolivia 0 Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
La Cabai'ia Chile Ml Fe-BIF Pl 209, 213 DB
Los Colorados Chile M3 Fe lib 68, 355 see also Boqueron Chaiiar
Mahuilque-Rel~ Chile M3 Fe BIF P1 81, 209ff DB
Manolete District Chile Ml Fe lid 83, 97, 355, 357ff, 510 DB
Matarani Peru Pr Fe BIF PC 39, 81 DB
798 L. Fontbote
Pocuno Chile 0 Fe BIF Pl 213 DB

Puesto Viejo (2apla belt) Argentina M3 Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
Rel~m (Mahui 1que-Re1tm D.) Chile M3 Fe BIF Pl 64, 209ff DB
Santd Barbara ( Zapla belt) Argilllti.:a M2 Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
Sierra de la Victoria Bolivia Pr Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
Sositas Chile M2 Fe lib 355 see also Boqueron Chafiar
Tarpuy Peru 0 Fe BIF PC 39, 42, 81 DB
Unchi.mE. ( zapla belt) Argentina M3 Fe (ironstone) Pl 64, 82, 179 DB
Zapla District, Sierrct de Argentina M2 Fe (ironstone) Pl 82, 178ff, 681 DB
Iscaycruz Peru see Ishcaycruz

Ishanca (Santa Metal.) Peru 0 Zn-Pb-Ag ITe 563 see also Aida Unica
Ishcay Cruz (Santa Metal.) Peru M2 Zn-Pb-Ag-Cu MS Ile 41, 48, 99, 583ff DB
Jacabamba Peru Pr Mo-(W) ** 41, 51
Jarcas-Negra Muerta Bolivia 0 Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
Jardin, El Chile see El Jardin
Jauja Chile Pb-Zn-Cu ** 72
Jaula-Bellavista Chile Ml Zn-Ag-(Ba) IIJ 83, 97, 495, 513ff, 759ff DB
Juan 1 (Mamifia belt) Chile Ml Ba lid 523
Juanita ( Casma Metal. ) Peru M2 Zn- ( Pb) MS Ilc 48, 94 DB
Julcani Peru M2 A.g-cu-Pb-Zn ** 41, 50
,Juramento, Rio Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-Cu Sub 83, 103 DB
Katanga Peru M2 Cu-(Fe) ** 50, 53
Katterfeld Chile Cu ** 68 see Nireguao-Katterfeld
Katy, Manto Peru Ml Cu-Pb-Zn MS Ia 83, 261, 279 DB
Kellhuani District Bolivia M3 Sn-(W-Bi) Pl 82, 147ff DB
La Africana Chile M2 Cu ** 69
La Cabana Chile Ml Fe-BIF Pl 209, 213 DB
La Cabana Chile 0 Cr-Ni ** 213
La Concordia Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-Ag-(Cu,Bi) ** 74
La Esperanza Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-Ag-(Cu,Bi) ** 74
La Estrella Peru Ml Au ** 41
La Granja Peru M3 Cu-Ag ** 41, 50
La Helvecia Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 81, 187ff DB
La Higuera Chile M? Cu ** 68
La Huaca Peru M3 Cu ** 41, 50
La Isidora (Mendoza District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
La Liga Chile Ml Mn Ilb DB
La Lima (Pataz District) Peru Ml Au ** 41
La Negra Chile Ml Mn lib 365ff DB
La Negra F., Cu ores in Chile 313ff, 319ff DB see Carolina de Michilla
La Negra-coquimbana District Chile Mn IIb 92, 365ff DB
La Plata Ecuador M1 Cu-Zn-Au MS NIIo 102, 389ff DB
La Poza (General Carrera D.) Chile M1 Pb-Zn-(Ag) Sire 486ff DB
La Rinconada, Marcapata area Peru Au Pl 42, 43, 81
La Rosita (Neuqu~n District) Argentina M1 Ba IId-e 605 see Loncopu~ D.
La Salida (Mendoza District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
La Suerte Chile M2 Fe ** 355, 359ff, 510
La Torre Chile M1 Cu Ire 449ff see also Cerro Negro
La Vega Peru Pr Cu ** 50
La Victoria (Canota D.) Argentina Ml Ba Pl 193
Laco, El Chile see El Laco
Lago Fontana Chile Pb-Zn-Ag ** 474
Las Cafias Chile Ml Pb-Zn-Ag-(Ba) IId 83, 97, 760ff DB
Las Chivas (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile Ml Cu ** 65, 486ff
Las Coloradas (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag-Au Ile? 49, 579 DB
Las Galenas, Canbarbala Chile Pb-Zn-cu-Ag III? 753 DB
Leild-"Zinc and Polymetallic Deplsi.ts (stratabound, without PEospects and Occurn!nces)

A{da Unica (Santa Metal.) Peru Ml Zn-Pb-Ag lie 41, 48, 99, 562ff DB
Bailadores Venezuela M2 Zn-Pb-Cu MS Pl 82 DB
Bella Unioo (Hualgayoc D. l Peru Ml Pb-Zn-Ag IIe? 48, 577ff DB
carahuacra (Dcm:> de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb MS Ia 47, 52, 83, 84, 261, 279ff,
302, 737ff, 759ff DB
Carolina (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag lie? 48, 575ff DB
Cercapuquio Peru M2 Pb-Zn-cd lie 83, 41, 98, 99, 735ff, 759ff DB
Cerro de Pasco Peru M3 Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS P1? **? 41, 82 DB
Cerro Plan:> (R. Juramento D.)· Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-cu SUb 10;1. DB
Chilpes (San Vicente belt) Peru Ml Zn-Pb Ic 256ff DB
Colquijirca Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb-cu Ilia 41, 49, 50, 56, 83, 101, 615ff, 735ff DB
El Aguilar (Sierra Aguilar D.) Argentina M3 Pb-Zn-(Ag) Pl 64, 81, 161ff, 753 DB
El Extraiio (Santa Metall.) Peru M2 Zn-Pb IIe 41, 48, 99, 557, 737ff, 759ff DB
El TcxJui, Aysen Chile M2 Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS SIIc 68, 83, 102, 473ff, 759ff DB
Hualgayoc District Peru M3 Pb-Zn-llg-Au-cu lie? 41, 48, 56, 83, 98, 100, 569ff,
735ff, 759ff DB
Huanzala (Santa Metallotect) Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu lie 41, 99, 555ff, 759 DB
Huaripampa (DclrD de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Pb MS Ia 47, 83, 84, 261, 279 ff, 302,
759ff DB
Ishcay Cruz (Santa Metal.) Peru M2 Zn-Pb-Ag-cu MS lie 41, 48, 99, 583ff DB
Jaula-Bellavista Chile Ml Zn-Ag-(Ba) lid 83, 97, 495, 513ff, 759ff DB
Juanita (Casma Metal.) Peru M2 Zn-(Pb) MS lie 48, 94 DB
Juramento, R:lo Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-cu Sub 83, 103 DB
La Helvecia Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 81, 187ff DB
La Poza (General carrara D.) Chile Ml Pb-Zn-(Ag) Slic 486ff DB
Las Cafias Chile Ml Pb-Zn-Ag-(Ba) lid 83, 97, 760ff DB
Las Coloradas (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag-Au lie? 49, 579 DB
Leonila-Graciela (Casma M.) Peru M2 Zn-Ba MS lie 41, 48, 56, 83, 94, 759ff DB
Los Negros (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
Machcan Peru Ml Pb-Zn-cu-Ag MS Ia 42, 256ff, 279, 302ff, 759ff DB
Manto Lola (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn-Ag lie? 577ff see also Hualyayoc District
Manto Lourdes (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn-cu-Ag lie? 49, 577ff see also Hualgayoc
District
Moises (Dcm:> de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-llg-Pb-Ba MS Ia 28lff see also Huaripampa
Palma (Casma Metallotect) Peru Ml Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba MS lie 42, 48, 83, 94, 413ff DB
Paulina (General Carrera D.) Chile Ml Pb-Zn-(Ag) Slic 488 see La Poza
Pichita Caluga Peru Ml Zn-Pb Ib 256ff DB
Pilancoles (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
Porcia (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pl.r-Zn lie? 48, 52 see also Hualgayoc District
Pozos Ricos (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag lie? 49, 52 DB
Pumahuasi District Argentina Ml? Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 64
Quijote (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
San Vicente Peru M3 Zn-Pb Ic 42, 47, 55, 83, 84,256ff, 279, 305ff, 737ff, 759ff DB
Santa Cecilia (Casma Metal.) Peru Ml Zn-(Pb) MS lie 94
Santa Marta (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn-llg lie? 49, 575 see also Hualgayoc District
Shalipayco Peru M2 Zn-Pb-Ag Ib 42, 47, 83, 84, 256ff, 737ff, 759ff DB
UlCI.UI1dyo Peru Ml Zn-Pb Ib 256, 262 DB
Venturosa (Santa Metal.?) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 48 DB
Yauli District, Demo de Peru M3 Zn-Pb-Cu-BaAgMS Ia 256ff, 267ff, 279ff DB
Leonila-Graciela (Casma M.) Peru M2 Zn-Ba MS lie 41, 48, 56, 83, 94, 759ff DB
Liga, La Chile see La Liga
Limbo (Alto Chapare D.) Bolivia Pr M;)' Pl DB
Limpe Peru see Ishcaycruz
Livitaca Peru M2 Cu-(Fe) ** 50
Llacsacocha Peru 0 V IIe 49, 596ff see also Mina Ragra
800 L. Fontbote
Llamuoo Chile Ml Cu-(Au) ** 72

Llao Llao (Ne~ District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
Lleu-Lleu Chile Fe see Rel~
Lo Aquirre Chile M2 Cu lie 96 DB
Lonoo~ D. (Ne~ D.) Argentina Ml Ba !Id-e 604ff DB
Los Adobes Argentina Ml U SII DB
Los Berthos (Tonoo Amblayo) Argentina Ml U Sub 103 DB see Don Otto
Los Chihuidos District Argentina Ml U lie 679 DB
Los Colorados Chile M3 Fe IIb 68, 355 see also Boqueron Chaiiar
Los Colorados Argentina 0 Cu RB III 73 DB
Los Icas (Copara Metal.) Peru Pr Zn-cu-Ba MS He 41, 48, 94, 407, 759ff DB
Los Negros (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
Los Pelarnbres Chile M3 Cu ** 74
Los Pinos Peru M3 Cu-(Au, M;J) ** 49
Los Sapitos (La Helvecia belt) Art"Jentina 0 Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 187 se<'! also Ld Helvt.:cia
Lunche Peru eu-w-Mo ** 49
Luthema (Neuqufm District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba !Id-e 604ff see also Mallin Quemado
Machcan Peru Ml Pb-Zn-cu-Aq MS Ia 42, 256ff, 279, 302ff, 759ff DB
Macuchi Ecuador Pr Cu Pb Zn MS NIIo 102 DB
Macusani Peru Pr U IIIc 41, 51, 83, 102, 671 DB
Madre de Dios River (placer) Peru PI,.A Au Recent 52
Magistral Peru M3 Aq-Pb-Zn ** 42, 51
Magnesite Deposits (strataboun:l)

Alto Chapare Bolivia M3 M:J P1 81 DB
Limbo (Alto Chapare D.) Bolivia Pr M:J Pl DB
Minillo (Alto Chapare D.) Bolivia M3 M:} Pl 81 DB
San Francisoo (A. Chapare D.) Bolivia Pr M:} Pl 81 DB
Mar•uilque-Rel~ Chile M3 Fe BIF Pl 81, 209ff DD

Malaqui ta (Santa Metal. ) Peru 0 Pb-Zn He 48 see also Santa Metallotect
Malargue District Argentina M2 U He 671 DB
Mallin Quemado (Ne~ D.) Argentina Ml Ba IId-e 604ff DB
Malpaso area Peru 0 Mn, Ba (Aq) Ia 260, 279 DB
Mamiiia Chile M2 Ba IId 68, 83, 97, 495, 523ff DB
Manoo Capac Peru Au ** 41, 43
Milllganelle Deposits (Stratabound)

Arrayan Chile Ml Mn IIb DB
Bellavista Chile 0 Mn P1 82 DB
Coquimbana Chile Ml Mn IIb 83, 92, 365ff DB
Corral Quemado Chile Ml Mn IIb 92 DB
El Ranero (Mn) Chile Ml Mn IIb DB
Fragua Chile Ml Mn IIb 92 DB
Huachipato (Arica) Chile Ml Mn III 101 DB
La Liga Chile Ml Mn IIb DB
La Negra Chile Ml Mn IIb 365ff DB
La Negra-Coquimbana District Chile Mn IIb 92, 365ff DB
Malpaso area Peru 0 Mn, Ba (Aq) Ia 260, 279 DB
Parvenir Chile Ml Mn IIb 365ff DB
Talcuna (Mn) ali.le M2 Mn IIb 83, 449ff DB
Venus Chile Ml Mn IIb 365ff DB
Mang<m:~rca PeruMl Cu ** 49
Manolete District Chile Ml Fe IId 83, 97, 355, 357ff, 510 DB
Mansita (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Cu-Aq IIe? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
Manto Katy Peru see Katy, Manto
Manto Lola (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml. Pb-Zn-Aq lie? 577ff see also Hualgayoc District
Manto Lourdes (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml. Pb-Zn-cu-Aq IIe? 49, 517ff see also Hualgayoc
District
Manto Mojador Peru Fe-cu ** 49
Mantos Blanoos Chile M3 CU IIa 88, 313, 319, 771 DB
Mantos de Catemu District Chile M2 CU-(Pb-Zn) Ilc 69, 83, 96, 449ff, 464, 771 DB
Marai'i&n River (placer) Peru PIA Au Recent 52
Marcapomacocha Peru 0 V IIe 42, 49, 595ff see also Mina Ragra
Marc:ona Peru M3 Fe-(CU) ** 42, 48
Mar!a Cristina Chile 0 Pb IId? 759ff DB
Mar!a Luisa Peru Ml. cu-(Aq) ** 42, 51
Mar!a Teresa (Casma Metal.) Peru Pr Ba-Pb-Aq IIc 48, 94 DB
Mario (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml. Pb-Zn ** 52
Matarani Peru Pr Fe BIF PC 39, 81 DB
Melchora Peru cu ** 51
Mendoza District Argentina Ml. Ba-Sr IId-e 606ff DB
Mi Vida Argentina Pr cu ** 74
Michilla, Carolina de Chile see Carolina de M.
Michiquillay Peru M3 CU-Mo ** 42, 50
Micogrande Colanbia Pr CU-(Zn) MS NIIo 102, 379ff DB
Milluni Bolivia M2 Sn-(Zn-cu-w-Bi) ** 138, 151, 154
Milpo (sandstone hosted) Peru Ml. Zn-Pb ** 99
Milpo (skarn) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Aq ** 42, 51
Milpo-Atacocha District Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Aq ** 49, 51, 99
Mina Ragra Peru Ml. V IIe 42, 49, 83, 100, 595ff DB
Mina Rosario Bolivia W P1 81 DB
Minas del Prado Chile Ml. Au ** 72
Minillo (Alto Chapare D.) Bolivia M3 ~ P1 81 DB
Minita Despreciada Chile M2 CU ** 66
Miraflores Peru 0 Zn-Pb-Ba IIe 99 DB
Mocha Chile M2 cu ** 72
Moises (DatD de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Aq-Pb-Ba MS Ia 28lff see also Huaripampa
Monte Blanco Bolivia Sn P1 147 DB
Monterrosas Peru CU-Au-Aq-<:o ** 42, 49
Morocha (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml. Aq-py lie? 49, 576 see also Hualgayoc District
Morococha District Peru M3 Aq-Zn-CU-Pb-W **, Ia 42, 50, 52, 113, 260, 274, 279
Muerequeque Peru CU ** 49
Mundo Nuevo Peru W ** 42, 51
Naunaco (Ne~ District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba lid-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Nazareth Peru Sn-cu-Zn-Pb-Aq ** 50
Negra Huanusha Peru 0 CU RB P2 42, 44, 82, 123ff DB
Negra, La (Mn) Chile see La Negra
Ne~ District Argentina Ml Ba-Sr IId-e 83, 98, 100, 599tf DB
Nireguao-Katterfeld Chile Ml. CU ** 68
Ocofia Peru Au ** 42, 49
Ocucaje Peru 0 P III 49 DB
Olachea Peru Au ** 42, 43
Olga (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 Zn-Pb-CU ** 487 see also R!o Mueller
Olguita Sur (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 Zn-Pb-CU ** 487 see also R!o Mueller
Oligario (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile Ml. CU ** 487
Qnbla (Morococha District) Peru Sec Pb-Zu ** 52
Orcopampa Peru M2 Aq-Au-cu ** 42, 51, 53, 54
Ori,..•tal (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina 0 Pb--Zn Pl 162
Otito (Santa Metal.) Peru o Zn-Pb-Aq IIe 563 see also A!da Unica
Pabelloo Argentina Ml. Au •• 74
Pachapaqui D. (Santa Metall.) Peru Ml IIe 99, 555ff, 744 DB
Paclloo Llamac (Santa Metal.) Peru M1 IIe 99 DB
802 L. Fontbote
Palca 11 Peru M2 W-Zn-cu ** 42. !)1

Palicaye Peru Zn-Ag-Pb-cu-(W) la, *~ 41, 43, 56, 274, 113, 279ff see also Huaripampa and
Carahuacra
Palma (Casma Met&llotect) Peru Ml Zn-Pb-Ag-Ba MS lie 42, 48, 83, 94, 413ff DB
Pampean Ranges, Nb-Ta-Bi -Li -Be ores in the, Argentina Ml Nb-Ta-Bi -Li -Be ** 63
Pampean Ranges, Sn ores in the, Argentina Ml Sn ** 63
Pan de AzUcar Argentina Ml Pb-Zn-Ag-(CU,Bi) ** 74
Paramillos Norte Argentina Pr CU ** 74
Parcoy Peru Ml Au ** 42, 43
Pariatambo Fm., V ores in the, Peru V lie 595ff DB
Pasto Bueno Peru M2 w-cu-Pb ** 42, 51
Pataz Peru M2 Au ** 43
Patria (Santa Metal.) Peru 0 Zn-Pb-Ag lie 563 see also Aida Unica
Paulina (General Carrera D.) Chile Ml Pb-Zn-(Ag) Slic 488 see La Poza
Peumo Rusa Chile Ml CU IIc 449ff see also Cerro Negro
Pichita Caluga Peru Ml Zn-Pb Ib 256ff DB
Pilancoles (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 49 see also llualgayoc District
Pirita (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina 0 Pb-Zn Pl 162
Pirquitas Argentina Ml Sn-Ag ** 74
Pirquitas, Cerro Negro Chile Sec CU-(Ag) lie 468 see Cerro Negro
Pirucha (Canota D.) Argentina Ml Ba Pl 193
Pirula Chile M2 Fe ** 355 see also La Suerte
Piren Alto Chile 0 Cu-Zn MS PI 81, 201, 209, 216, 229ff DB
Pleito Chile M3 Fe ** 355 see also El Raneral
Plomo, El Chile see El Plomo
Pocuno Chile 0 Fe BIF P1 213 DB
Pocuno Chile 0 Cr-Ni ** 213
Ponciano (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn ** 52
Pongo de Andaychagua Peru 0 CU-Pb-Zn P2 44, DB
Poop:> District Bolivia Ml Sn Pl DB
Porcia (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 48, 52 see also Hualgayoc District
Portales District Chile Ml CU-(Pb-Zn) IIc 464 DB
Porvenir Chile Ml Mn IIb 365ff DB
Posco Peru Au ** 42
Potrerillos Chile M3 cu ** 73
Poza, La Chile see La Poza
Pozos Ricos (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M2 Pb-Zn-Ag lie? 49, 52 DB
Puerto Tranquilo (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 CU-Pb-(Mo) ** 487
Puesto Viejo (Zapla belt) Argentina M3 Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
Pumahuasi District Argentina Ml? Pb-Zn-Ba P1 64
Punitaqui Chile M1 CU ** 69
Punta del Oobre District Chile M3 CU lie 68, 83, 93, 95, 421ff, 495, 771 DB
Pud.sima Concepcion Peru Ml Au ** 50
PuSdjirca Peru Zn-cu-Ag-W ** 51
Quebrada Vilte (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina 0 Pb-Zn Pl 162
Quechua Peru M2 CU-(Fe) ** 42, 50
Quellaveco Peru M3 CU-(Mo) ** 42, 50
Quenamari Peru sn-cu-zn-Pb-Ag ** 50
Quijote (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn lie? 49 see also Hualgayoc District
Quimbalete Peru Au ** 49
Quince Mil Peru Au ** 42, 43
Quirusillal Argentina 0 Pb-Zn-cu-Bi -Ag ** 70
Quiruvilca Peru M2 Ag-Zn-cu-Pb-Au-As ** 42, 50
Quispe Peru 0 V Ile 596 see also Mina Ragra
·QuitasOn Peru cu-w-Mo •• 49
Ragra Peru see Minas Ragra
Rahueco Argentina Ml U lie 678 DB
Ramoncito (Canota D.) Argentina o Ba Pl 193 see also canota

Raura Peru M2 Zn-llg-Pb-Cu ** 42, 51
Ra~l (Copara Metallotect) Peru M3 Cu MS lie 42, 48, 53, 54, 94ff, 404ff, 759ff DB
Reloo (Mahuilque-Reloo D.) Chile M3 Fe BIF Pl 64, 209ff DB
Resbalosa (Neuqu~ D.) Argentina Ml Ba !Id-e 605 see Loncopue D.
Resguardo Chile Ml Fe ** 359 see also La Suerte
Restauradora (M. de catemu D.) Chile Sec Cu lie see Mantes de catemu
Rio Aviles Chile Pb-Zn-llg IIc?,**? 474
Rio Blanco-Los Bronces Chile M3 Cu ** 75
Rio Cisne District Chile Cu-Pb-Zn-Au ** 473 see also Santa Teresa
Rio de las Vacas Argentina Pr Cu ** 74
Rio Mueller (General Carrera D.) Chile Ml Pb-Zn-llg ** 474, 487
Rivera (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 Cu-Pb-(Mo) ** 487
Rana (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile 0 Zn-Pb-Cu ** 487 see also R:lo Mueller
Ranero (Cu) (M. de catemu D.) Chile see El Ranero (Cu), El
Ranero, El (Mn) Chile see El Ranero (Mn)
Rornicruz Argentina 0 Pb-Zn-cu-Bi-llg ** 70
Rosillo (General carrera D.) Chile Ml Zn-Pb-Cu-llg ** 485ff
Rio Pallanga Peru Ml Pb-Zn-llg ** 51
Sagasca Chile M3 Cu III 101 DB
Salar deposits in the Andes 703ff, 721ff
Salpo Peru M2 Au-llg-Cu ** 42, 51
Salta, south of Argentina Cu-(U, V) see Custodio
San Antonio (El Toqui D.) Chile Sec Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag MS SIIc 476ff see El Toqui
San Antonio de Poto (placer) Peru M3 Au Rec 41, 52
San Bartolo Chile M2 CuRB IIIb 62lff, 759ff DB
San CristObal Chile Ml Au ** 72
San CristObal District Peru M3 Zn-Ag-Pb-Cu-(W) ** 41, 43, 56, 274, 279ff
San Francisco (A. Chapare D.) Bolivia Pr Mg Pl 81 DB
San Genaro Peru M2 llg-Au-Zn-Pb ** 41, 51
San Jose/Arnarete Bolivia Sn P1 82, 147 DB
San Juan de Chorunga Peru Au ** 49
San Juan de Lucanas Peru Ml llg-Au-cu ** 41, 51
San Luis (Chinchao), NE of Huanuco Peru 0 Ni-cu ** 39
San Martin, Manto (Copara M.) Peru M2 Cu lie 41, 48, 408ff DB
San Pedro (M. de Catemu D.) Chile M1 IIc DB
San Rafael Peru M2 sn-cu-Zn-Pb-llg ** 42, 50
San Roque (near OKapampa) Peru 0 Zn-Pb Ic 256ff DB
San Sebasti~/Guadal (Gen. Carrera D.) Chile Ml Pb-Zn-llg-Cu ** 474, 487
San Vicente Peru M3 Zn-Pb Ic 42, 47, 55, 83, 84,256ff, 279, 305ff, 737ff, 759ff DB
Santa Ana (Neuquen District) Argentina 0 Sr-Ba IId-e 604ff see also Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara (Neuquen D.) Argentina Ml Sr-Ba IId-e 604ff DB
Santa Barbara (zapla belt) Argentina M2 Fe (ironstone) P1 178 DB
Santa Cecilia (Casma Metal.) Peru Ml Zn-(Pb) MS lie 94
Santa Cruz (Poopo District) Bolivia Ml Sn P1 DB
Santa Marta (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Pb-Zn-AQ lie? 49, 575 see also Hualgayoc District
Santa Metallotect Peru IIe 48, 83, 98ff, 737ff DB
Santa Rosa--cerro Verde Peru M3 Cu-(Mo, l\g) ** 50
Santa Teresa (R:lo Cisne D.) Chile Ml Cu-Pb-Zn-Au ** 473
Santander Peru M2 Zn-llg-Cu-Pb ** 42, 50
Santiago River (placer) Peru PLA Au Recent 52
Santo Daningo Peru Au ** 42, 43
Santo Daningo Peru llg-Au-cu ** 51
Santo Daningo Chile M2 Cu IIa 88ff, 313, 319, 771 DB
Santo Toribio Peru Ml Pb-Zn-llg ** 42, 51
Sayapullo Peru M2 llg-cu-Pb-Zn ** 42
Say~ Peru Cu ** 49
804 L. Fontbote
Sevaruyo Bolivia Pr U IIIc 83, 102, 671 DB

Shalipayco Peru M2 Zn-Pb-Aq Ib 42, 47, 83, 84, 256ff, 737ff, 759ff DB
Shila Peru Ml Aq-Au-cu ** 42, 51
Sierra de Aguilar District Argentina Pb-Zn Pl l6lff see El Aguilar
Sierra de Chorriaca (Neuqu6, District) Argentina 0 Ba-Sr IId-e 604ff see also Santa
Barbara
Sierra de la Victoria Bolivia Pr Fe (ironstone) Pl 178 DB
Sierra Overa Chile Ml Au ** 72
Sierra Pintada Argentina M2 U P2 82, 671 DB
Sillapata Peru 0 V IIe 596 see also Mina Ragra
Silva (General Carrera) Chile Ml Pb-Zn-(Aq) ** 64, 474, 486ff
Sil'lllllr Depaaita (stratabound)

Amolanas Chile M2 CU-Aq II!a 70, 101, 637 DB
Artolla Peru Zn-Aq-Pb-CU-(W) Ia, ** 41, 43, 56, 274, 113, 279ff see also Huaripampa
and Carahuacra
Bermudas, Cerro Negro Chile Sec CU-(Aq) IIc 46!:1 see Cexro Negro
Boliviana Chile Ml Aq-(Hg) IIIa 637 see also El Jardln and Amolanas
Carahuacra (Demo de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Aq-Pb MS Ia 47, 52, 83, 84, 261, 279ff,
302 1 737ff, 759ff DB
Cerro Negro Chile M2 Cu-(Ag) IIc 69, 96, 449ff, 463ff DB
Colquijirca Peru M2 Zn-Aq-Pb-CU Ilia 41, 49, 50, 56, 83, 101, 615ff, 735ff DB
El Jardin Chile M2 CU-Ag-Zn Ilia 83, 101, 647, 653ff, 771 DB
El Venado Chile Ml Ag-(CU) Ilia 70, 101, 637 see also El Jardin and Amolanas
Elisa de Bordas Chile M2 Aq-Hg Ilia 70, 101, 637, 647ff DB
Hualgayoc District Peru M3 Pb-Zn-Aq-Au-CU IIe? 41, 48, 56, 83, 98, 100, 569ff,
735ff, 759ff DB
Huaripampa (Demo de Yauli D.) Peru M2 Zn-Aq-Pb MS Ia 47, 83, 84, 261, 279 ff, 302,
759ff DB
Jaula-Bellavista Chile Ml Zn-Ag-(Ba) IId 83, 97, 495, 513ff, 759ff DB
Mansita (llualgayoc D.) Peru Ml CU-Ag IIe? 49 see also llualgayoc District
Moises (Demo de Yauli D.) ·Peru M2 Zn-Aq-Pb-Ba MS Ia 28lff see also Huaripampa
Morocha (Hualgayoc D.) Peru Ml Ag-py IIe? 49, 576 see also Hualgayoc District
Sinchao t'eru Pr CU ** 50
Sinoos Peru 0 V (Se) I 42, 47, 256ff, 596ff DB
Socavan Rampla (P. Cobre D.) Chile M2 CU IIc 95, 421 DB
Sol de Oro Peru Ml Au ** 42, 49
Soldado, El Chile see El Soldado
Sosi tas Chile M2 Fe IIb 355 see also BoquerOn Chaiiar
South of Mendoza Argentina see Mendoza, S of
Sukuytambo Peru M2 Aq-Au-cu ** 42, 51
Sulfobarnba Peru M2 CU-(Fe) ** 50
Sulfur deposits in Chile 691ff
Susana (Carolina de Michilla) Chile M2 CU IIa 313, 319ff DB
Suyubamba Peru Au ** 42
Taca-Taca Argentina M3 CU ** 65
Talcuna (CU) Chile M2 CU Ilb 69, 83, 92, 449ff, 752, 759ff DB
Talcuna (Mn) Chile M2 Mn IIb 83, 449ff DB
Tamaya Chile Ml CU ** 69
Tambillos Peru sn-cu ** 42, 51
Tambo Mar{a Peru 0 Zn Ic 263 DB
Tambogrande Peru M3 CU-Zn-Ag MS IIc 42, 48, 83, 93, 95 DB
Tamboras Peru W ** 42, 51
Tapada (Sierra ee Aguila. o.) Argentina o Pb-Zn Pl 162
Tapo, south of Tanna Peru 0 Cr-Ni-Co ** 2~, 42
Tarpuy Peru 0 Fe BIF PC 39, 42, 81 DB
Teresita Chile M2 Fe ** 355 see also La Suerte
Index of Ore Deposits 80S
'l'in Ore llepcei.ts (Stratabound)

caoo.,laria (Poopo District) Bolivia ~n Sn Pl DB
Kellhuani District Bolivia M3 Sn-(w-Bi) Pl 82, 147ff DB
Monte Blanco Bolivia Sn Pl 147 DB
Poopo District Bolivia Ml Sn Pl DB
San Jose/Amarete Bolivia Sn P1 82, 147 DB
Santa Cruz (Poopo District) Bolivia Ml Sn Pl DB
Tingo de Andaychagua Peru 0 Cu-?..n-Pb ** 273

'l'ingcx...udi<i (Da!o de Yauli D.) Peru Sec Ia 260, 279ff DB
Tinogasta Arg~1tina Ml U RB P2 82, 674 DB
Tintaya Peru M3 Cu-(Fe-Au-Ag) ** 42, 50, 53
Tinyag Peru Pr Cu-Zn-Pb ** 593
Tirua (Mina Vieja) Chile 0 Cu-Zn MS Pl 201, 209, 211, 216, 221 DB
'l'oachi Ecuador Ml Ilo 102, 389ff see La Pl<~ta
'funco-Amblayo District Argentina M2 U Sub DB see Don Otto and Los berthas
Toquepala Peru M3 Cu-(Mo, Ag) ** 42, 50, 53, 54, 56
Toqui, El Chile see El Toqui
Toran:x:ho Peru M3 Cu-Mo ** 50
Trapiche Peru see Ultimatum
Tres Puntas Chile M2 Ag ** 68
Triunfo-carola (Mamiiia belt) Chile Ml Ba-(Pb) lid 83, 97, 523, 759ff DB
Trovolhue Chile o Cu-Zn MS Pl 201, 209, 211, 216 see also Piren Alto
Tuco-Chira (Santa Metal.) Peru 0 Pb-Zn lie 48 see also Santa Metallotect
Tunnalina Peru M2 Cu-Mo-W ** 42, 50
Tusaquillas Argentina Pr w ** 70
Uchucchacua Peru M2 Ag-Pb-Zn ** 42, 50
Uchumi Chile Ml Cu lib 449ff see also Talcuna (Cu)
Ulcumayo Peru Ml Zn-Pb Ib 256, 262 DB
Ultimatum Peru 0 Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag Pl 115ff, 268 DB
UnchimS (Zapla belt) Argentina M3 Fe (ironstone) Pl 64, 82, 179 DB
Untuca Peru Au P1 43
tJraniga Deposits (stratabound)

Aguiliri District Argentina Pr U IIIc 83, 671 DB
Cerro Condor Argentina Ml u Sli DB
Custodio Argentina Ml Cu-(U, V) RB Sub 70, 103 DB
Don Otto (Tonco Amblayo D.) Argentina M2 U Sub 70, 103, 67lff DB
Dr. Baul:!es (S. Pintadas D.) Argentina M2 U P2 82, 675 DB
Guandacol-Jachal Argentina Ml U RB P2 82, 671 DB
Huemul-Agua Botada (Malargue) Argentina Ml u-eu RB liib 678 DB
Los Adobes Argentina Ml U Sli DB
Los Berthas (Tonco Amblayo) Argentina Ml U Sub 103 DB see Don Otto
Los Chihuidos District Argentina Ml U He 679 DB
Macusani Peru Pr U IIIc 41, 51, 83, 102, 671 DB
Malargue District Argentina M2 U IIe 671 DB
Rahueco Argentina Ml U He 678 DB
Sevaruyo Bolivia Pr U IIIc 83, 102, 671 DB
Sierra Pintada Argentina M2 U P2 82, 671 DB
Tinogasta Argentina Ml U RB P2 82, 674 DB
Tonco-Amblayo District Argentina M2 U Sub DB see Don Otto and Los Berthas
Ureal (La Helvecia belt) Argentina 0 Pb-Zn-Ba Pl 187 see also La Helvecia
Utec Peru Ag-Au-Cu ** 51
Uyupim Peru see Ulcumayo
Valparaiso, Cerro Negro Chile Sec Cu-(Ag) He 468 see Cerro Negro
806 L. Fontbote
VanadiUIII Oepoeits (stratabound)

Custodio Argentina M1 Cu-(U, V) RB Sub 70, 103 DB
Llacsacocha Peru 0 V lie 49, 596ff see also Mina Ragra
Marcapanacocha Peru 0 V lie 42, 49, 595ff see also Mina Ragra
Mina Ragra Peru M1 V lie 42, 49, 83, 100, 595ff DB
Pariatarnbo Fm., V ores in the, Peru V lie 59Sff DB
Quispe Peru 0 V IIe 596 see also Mina Ragra
Salta, south of Argentina Cu-(U, V) see Custodio
Sillapata Peru 0 V IIe 596 see also Mina Ragra
Sincos Peru 0 V (Se) I 42, 47, 256ff, 596ff DB
Yauli Peru 0 V IIe 596 see also Mina Ragra
Venturosa (Santa Metal.?) Peru Ml Pb-Zn Ire? 48 DB

Venus Chile M1 Mn IIb 365ff DB
Vinchos area Peru 0 Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag MS Ia 298
Virginia (Domo de Yauli D.) Peru Zn-Ag-Pb 284ff see ~~so Huaripampa
Yanacancha (Hualgayoc D.) Peru M1 Pb-Zn ** 49 see Hualgayoc District
Yanacocha Peru M3 Au-Ag-Cu ** 42, 51
Yauli Peru 0 V IIe 596 see also Mina Ragra
Yauli District, Domo de Peru M3 Zn-Pb-Cu-BaAgMS Ia 256ff, 267ff, 279ff DB
Yauricocha Peru M2 Zn-Ag-Cu-Pb-As ** 42, 50
Yendegaia Chile 0 Zn-cu-Pb SIIc? DB
Yuraccgaga, Ultimatum Peru 0 Ni-Co Pl 43, ll7ff, 268
Zapallar Chile Pb-Zn-CU ** 72
Zapla District, Sierra de Argentina M2 Fe (ironstone) Pl 82, l78ff, 681 DB
Zarzo (Sierra de Aguilar D.) Argentina 0 Pb-Zn Pl 162
Zinc Ore Deposits

See under lead ore deposits
Zuniga-Antolin (El Toqui D.) Chile Sec Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag SIIc 476ff see also El Toqui
Subject Index
For names of ore deposits the reader is referred to the alphabetical list of pp. 791-806.
aborted marginal basin 44, 91 ff. Na-metasomatism 439

Abra Laite 162 potassic 95, 432, 479
Abundancia Formation, Chile 422, propylitic 389, 458, 465 ff., 469, 699
497ff. pyritization 616
acanthite 653 quartz-tourmaline-fluorite 427
accretionary complex 221, 229 regional 234
Acoite Formation, Argentina 165 shiroji 561
Agrio Formation 607 sideritization 592
Aguilar Quartzite 162ff. silicification 261, 441 ff., 449, 469ff., 574,
alabandite 166 592, 616, 684, 698
algodonite 664 specularitic halo 325
allevardite 663 sphene 334
alpha-vredenburgite 3'71 spilitic 236, 238, 423
alteration supergene 236, 377, 430, 458, 645
advanced 116 talc 653
advanced argillic 698 tourmaline 316, 427
albitization 325, 389, 441 ff. alunite 261, 283, 285, 684, 696, 699
alunite 261, 283, 285, 616, 684, 896 ameghinite 722
argillic 481 ff., 566, 638, 642, 698 Amotape Hills, Peru 399
atacamite 346 Amutara Formation, Bilovia 142ff.
biotite alteration 425 amygdaloidal filling 692
boron metasomatism 150 analcime 632
calc-silicate 333 Ananea volcanics, Peru 43
carbonatization 441 ff., 449, 469, 642 anatase 316
chemical weathering 237 Andacollo, Argentina 604
chloritization 327, 357, 382, 441 ff., 449, Andahuaylas.:Yauri Batholith, Peru 46
469, 478 Andean batholith, Chile 648
clinopyroxene 334 anglesite 547, 665
diagram 236, 237 anilite 332, 630, 642
dispersion of uranium 674 ankerite 169
dolomitization 592 Antarctic plate 4
epidote 89, 169, 182, 325, 334, 335 ff., apatite 169, 182, 357, 684, 687
490ff. aragonite 611
epidotization 89, 335 Aramachay 289
fluorite 427 Aramachay Formation, Peru 253 ff., 289, 295,
garnet 334 596
greisenization 149ff. Arequipa Massif, Peru 15, 37, 399ff.
halos 274, 333, 644 argentite 285, 589, 619, 653
halos in plagioclase 514 aristarainite 722
hematitization 442 arsenopyrite 132, 155, 212
hydrothermal aureole 150 Artolla Member 623 ff.
kaolinite 261, 283, 616 Astobamba Formation, Peru 539
magnetite-actinolite 357 Atacama Desert, Chile 365 ff.
marmorization 574 atacamite 331, 343, 346, 627, 642,
melanite 334 665
808 Subject Index
Atocongo Formation, Peru 399, 402 Catavi Formation, Bolivia 149ff., 150
Auquilco Formation Argentina 604 Celendin, Formation, Chile 538
auripigment 300, 708 celestite 599 ff., 632, 665
autunite 619 Celica Formation 12
axinite 169 Cementario Member, Chile 623 ff.
Aysen Province, Chile 473, 485 Centinela Formation, Argentina 175
azurite 642, 667 Central Andes, definition 4, 9, 15
Cercapuquio Formation, Peru 537
back-arc basin 85 ff. Cerrillos, Formation, Chile 637ff., 648
Balbuena Subgroup, Argentina 674 Cerro Chacaltaya, Bolivia 149ff.
banded ore 166, 561 Cerro de Pasco, Peru 293, 615
Bandurrias Formation, Chile 353, 365ff., 422, Cerro Rico de Potosi 139, 661
516, 637, 648 Cerro Urcuschlln, Argentina 187ff.
Barros Arana Member, Chile 622ff. cerussite 191, 490ff., 546
Barroso Formation, Colombia 381 Chacaltaya stock, Bolivia 150
basin margin fault system 343 chalcanthite 343, 576, 665
Bayovar region, Peru 399 chalcocite, hexagonal 330
Belen Massif, Chile 15 chalcopyllite 665
Benioff zone 6, 28 chalcopyrite, oleander-leaf twin lamellae 384
Beowawe geothermal system, Nevada 335 Chambani Formation, Peru 253 ff., 295
birnessite 373 chamosite 180
bismuthinite 155 Chaii.arcillo Group, Chile 353, 365, 422, 495 ff.,
borate-bearing Province Central Andean 728 637, 648
borax 721 Chaucha Formation, Peru 537ff.
boulangerite 166 Checo de Cobre, Chile 648
bournonite 166, 299 Chicama Formation, Peru 46
braunite 370 Chicama valley, Peru 258
bravoite 595 Chilca Formation, Peru 402
Brazilian Shield 306 Chilenia 17
breccia ore 116, 169, 383, 385ff., 428, 545, Chiloe, Chile 244
589, 692 Chimu Formation, Peru 402, 555 ff.
breccia pipe 158, 314, 319ff. Chira valley, Peru 258
breithauptite 166 chlorargyrite 653
brochantite 665 Chocolate Formation, Peru 258
brunckite 545 Choiyoi Group, Argentina 678
bustamite 169 Cholchol Formation, Chile 210
Chonos Archipelago, Chile 227
Cachipunco Formation, Argentina 175 chrysocolla 331, 343
Calera Member, Peru 49, 615 Chulec Formation, Peru 48, 538, 575 ff.
Caledonien type granitoids 230 Chulpan, Peru 267
Calipuy Group, Peru 47 Chumpe intrusive, Peru 43
Caliza del Calabozo Formation, Argentina 606 Chuschampis, Chile 513, 516
Cafiasgordas Group, Colombia 382 cinnabar 643
Cancanari Formation, Bolivia 177 ff. clinozoisite 169
canfieldite 589 Coast Range ophiolite, Southern Chile
Cangalli Formation, Bolivia 137 229ff.
Caquiaviri Formation, Bolivia 660, 662 Coastal Batholith, Peru 46
carbon isotope data 542 Coastal Range, northern Chile 353 ff., 365,
Cardona! Formation, Argentina 165 768
Carhuaz Formation, Peru 402 ff. Coastal Range, South Central Chile 209
Carlos Francisco volcanics, Peru 51 Cocos plate 4
carnotite 619, 674 coffinite 677
carrollite 239, 241 Coihue-Co creek, Argentina 607
Casapalca Formation, Peru 123, 538 Colan Formation, Peru, Ecuador 12, 258
Casma Group, Peru 48, 92, 395, 400, 413, 768 Colipilli district, Argentina 609
cassiterite 149, 153 collapse caldera 689
Castrovirreyna volcanics, Peru 47 colmanite 721
Subject Index 809
Colorado Plateau, USA 633 electron microprobe analysis

Coloso Formation, Chile 339 carbonates 519, 520
colusite 589 oxides 370ff., 685
Condorsinga Formation, Peru 253 ff., 289 silicates 389, 391, 438, 446
Coniri Formation, Bolivia 660ff. sulfates 532
Copa Sombrero Formation, Peru 45 sulfides 119, 204, 332, 349, 419, 430, 490,
Copacabana Group, Peru 130ff. 491, 631
Copara Formation, Peru 48, 94, 395 ff. sulfosalts 653
Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Peru 46, 51 tourmaline 234
Cordillera de Domeyko, Chile 621 electrum 383
Cordillera de las Muiiecas, Bolivia 147 Elizalde Formation, Chile 475
Cordillera Occidental, Peru 569 embolite 653
Cordillera Oriental, Peru 161, 269 emplektite 619
Cordillera Principal, Argentina 678 Empozada Formation, Argentina 193
Cordillera Quimza Cruz, Bolivia 147 enargite 274, 619
Cordillera Real, Bolivia 137ff., 147 Ene Formation, Peru 255
Cord6n de Puntas Negras, Chile 681 Eo-Hercynian Phase 131
coronadite 373 epidote 89, 169, 182, 325, 335ff., 490ff.
covellite, blaubleibender 346, 630 Excelsior Group, Peru 43, 113, 130ff., 267,
Coyhaique Formation, Chile 475, 486 281, 615
crustal contamination 768 ezcurrite 722
crystallization rhythmites, diagenetic (DCRs)
263, 306, 503, 526ff., 605 fabric (see ore fabric)
cubanite 166 facies
Cumbre de Ruanda, Peru 589 algal lamination 255ff., 305ff., 524ff.
Cumbre de Limpe, Peru 589 alluvial fan 343
cuprite 627 Alpinotype 259 barrier 305 ff.
Curymil, Argentina 606 beach environment 514
Cuyano cycle 601 breccia, collapse 503
breccia, stratiform 534
Despensa Formation, Argentina 165 deltaic environment 399
diagenesis, diagenetic desert 675
burial 633 euxinic 192, 295, 416
cement composition 518 evaporitic 281, 305 ff., 503, 518, 548, 654,
chamositization 183 705
diagenetic crystallization rhythmites (DCRs) fluvial-lacustrine 101
263, 306, 503, 526ff., 605 hypersaline 192
diagenetic distillation 741 intertidal 281, 507, 515, 540
early diagenetic 343, 541, 643 lacustrine 101, 449ff., 623 ff., 638, 654, 674
early diagenetic hematite 630ff. marine turbidites 232
hematitization 182ff. paleosols 540
hydrolization 518 pan 703
neomorphism 517, 541 playa 703
oxidative 348 playa mudflat 623 ff.
poikilitic textures 517 rhyzolite 642
selective replacement 518 sabkha 253ff., 524ff., 548, 611, 703
sideritization 183 saltpan 623 ff.
syntaxial overgrowth 517 tidal, peritidal 281, 540, 564, 608
Divisadero Formation, Chile 475, 486 volcano-sedimentary 413, 463ff., 476
djurleite 332, 346, 630, 642, 645 fahlore 299, 547, 561, 576
domeykite 664 Faja Eruptiva de Ia Puna, Argentina 17
Domeyko, Cordillera, Chile 730 fluids, ore forming fluids
Donguil, Chile 223 ff. acidic solutions 351
AgClrcomplex 655ff.
East Peruvian 1l:ough, Peru 44ff. brine, definition 713
Eastern Cordillera, Peru 39 chloride concentration 655 ff.
Eastern Series, Chile 211, 229 extrabasinal hydrothermal solutions 351
810 Subject Index
fluids, ore forming fluids (cont.) Guandacol river, Argentina 191

fluid inclusion data 144, 154 ff., 311, 317, gudmundite 166
336, 443ff., 491, 645
fs 2 154 hausmannite 371
groundwater 654 haycockite 239, 241
highly saline 443, 446 heavy minerals 663
hypersaline 318, 336, 541 helvine 169
magmatic fluid 336, 444, 470 hematite, specular 285, 331, 430
metamorphic fluid 89, 336, 435, 444, 470 hemimorphite 187, 520
meteoric water 517, 697 hexastannite 619
migration of hydrated iron 362 Horizonte Glacial de Zapla, Argentina 175
overcritical volatile-rich phase (H2 , F, Cl, B, Hornitos Formation, Chile 637 ff., 648
P) 433 Horqueta Formation, Chile 435
oxidized cupriferous solution 351 Huallatani, Bolivia 151
reducing conditions 655 ff. Huancabama deflection, Peru 44
reducing sulfur-bearing 351 Huanuni, Bolivia 177
salar brines 714 Huarmey basin, Peru 397ff.
sulfur isotope geothermometry 311 Huayhuash Cordillera, Peru 555
uranium solubility 678 Huayna Potosi granite, Bolivia 141, 150
fluorite 134, 149, 150, 169, 263, 427 Hueftalihuen, Chile 223 ff.
foreland 87ff. Huitrin Formation, Argentina 602, 607
framboidal pyrite 166, 261, 299ff., 384, 419, Huanzahi, Peru 399
442, 546, 561, 575, 644 hydroboracite 721
Franja Ferrifera Principal, Chile 505 hydrozincite 520
franklinite 373
Ibanez Formation, Chile 485 ff.
Galera Formation, Chile 475 idocrase 169
Garz6n-Quetame Massif, Colombia 9 Illampu, Bolivia 141
geochemistry, trace elements in ores 203, 242, Incas, Formation, Peru 575 ff.
275, 360ff., 373, 413, 546, 577, 735 Incaic Phase (Middle to Late Eocene) 45
geochemistry, trace elements in rocks 31, inderite 722
204ff., 232, 233, 316, 322, 440, 441, 500, intrusive rocks
639, 687, 688 batholith 130, 150, 475, 508
halos 157, 440 granitoids 137ff., 147ff., 230, 290, 465
LIL enrichment 234 post-ophiolitic granitoids 231
REE distribution 204, 226, 238 post-tectonic 148
Geochronology 570, 577 ff. subvolcanic 113, 274, 297, 313, 327ff., 433,
K-Ar 141ff., 155, 165, 570, 585ff., 638, 661 467, 488, 539, 604, 698
Rb-Sr 165, 221 ff., 355, 446 syntectonic 148
Sm-Nd 221ff. inyoite 722, 724
U-Pb 355 Iquique, Chile 730
geocronite 547 isostannite 166
geopetal textures 192 Isua Green, Greenland 218
geotectonic setting, ore deposits 80ff., 762
geothermal gradient 634 jalpaite 619
gersdorffite 116 jamesonite 166
ginorite 722 jigsaw texture, breccia 323
glaserite 708 Jumasha Formation, Peru 538
glauberite 708
Goyllarisquizga Group, Peru 123, 273, 281, Kalauyo, Bolivia 151
399, 538, 556 kaolinite 490ff.
granditic garnets 169 Kellhuani 147ff.
graphite, graphite geothermometer 232, 244 Kirisillas Formation, Bolivia 175, 177
greenockite 546 Kollu-kollu Formation, Bolivia 660
greenstone belt 199, 229 kurnakovite 722
greigite 166, 300, 547
growerite 724 La Herradura Formation, Peru 399 ff.
Subject Index 811
La Leche valley, Peru 258 mawsonite 619

La Manga Formation, Argentina 606 mckinstryite 643
La Negra Formation, Chile 88ff. Mecoyita Formation, Argentina 175
La Oroya, Peru 54 melanite 334
La Paz, Bolivia 565 melanterite 576
La Serrania de Baudo, Colombia 379 melnikovite-pyrite 300, 547
Lago General Carrera, Chile 473 Mendocian cycle 601
Lampazar Formation, Argentina 162, 165 Meridional Andes, definition 4
Lancones basin, Peru 44 metal production 52ff.
Las Chilcas Formation, Chile 449, 465 ff. metal sources 759ff.
Las Lajas Formation, Argentina 604 metallogenetic stages, definition 80ff.
Lastarria, Chile 691 metamorphism 492
Late-Hercynian Phase 131 blueschist facies 221
lead isotopes 165, 261, 289, 293, 348, 475, 483, burial 44, 89, 336, 395, 435, 443, 445, 465 ff.
549, 631 ff., 749ff., 759ff., 765 contact 133, 141ff., 149, 162, 166, 173, 358,
leucoxene 115 368 ff., 422, 508
Lim6n Verde-Arc, Chile 17 Durchbewegung 239, 245
linneite 241 geobarometer 245
Linga Superunit, Peru 49 granitic intrusions 173
Lipe6n Formation, Argentina, Bolivia 177, 175 graphite geothermometer 245
Lircay, Peru 267 greenschist facies 445
Llallagua Formation, Bolivia 177 high pressure 201, 221
Lo Prado Formation, Chile 435, 449 imprint in ore 239 ff., 245
loellingite 134 low grade 221, 243, 336, 380, 405, 458
Lomas Formation, Peru 48 paired metamorphic belt 229
Lombriz Formation, Chile 339, 341 prehnite-pumpe11yite facies 443
Loreto, Peru 256 regional metamorphism 135, 141 ff., 148,
Los MoUes Formation, Argentina 604 229, 485
Lotena Formation, Argentina 604 retrograde 243
Lotenian cycle, Argentina 601 skarn 43, 49ff., 76, 135, 169, 353 ff., 479,
Lower Sarayaquillo Formation, Peru 255 539, 561, 574ff.
ludwigite 169 meta-autunite 674
luzonite 619 meyerhofferite 724
luzonite/stibioluzonite 300 millerite 116, 121
mining production, Peru 52ff., 735
macallisterite 722 mirabilite 708
Machay Group, Peru 281 Misahualli Formation, Ecuador 12
mackinawite 166, 212, 239, 242, 246 Mitu Group, Peru 113, 123, 130ff., 253ff.,
Macuchi Formation, Ecuador 14, 389 267, 269, 279, 293, 615
maghemite 685 Mochiea Phase (Late Albian) 45
magmatic arc 85 ff. molybdenite 166, 169, 212, 239, 242, 274, 482
magmatic rocks (see intrusive rocks and Monobamba, Peru 263
volcanism) Morro Blanco, Peru 272
magnetic anomalies 203 Morro Solar Formation, Peru 399 ff.
magnetic susceptibility 689 Morro Solar Group, Peru 397 ff.
malachite 642, 667 Morro Solar Member, Peru 402ff.
manjiroite 373 muscovite 149, 653
mantle component, lead isotope ratios 757 ff.
manto, definition 88, 151 Nahuelbuta Unit, Chile 210, 211, 213
Maraii.on geanticline, Peru 18, 44ff. Nantoco Formation, Chile 495ff., 497, 516
Maraii.on Thrust and Fold Belt (MTFB), Peru native bismuth 134
45 native copper 668 ff.
Marcapunta volcanic complex, Peru 616ff. native gold 391
Marcavilca Formation, Peru 399 ff., 402 ff. native silver 125, 664
marginal basin, ensialic 44, 85 ff., 93 ff. native sulfur 708
marmatite 116, 166, 213, 686 Nazca Plate 4, 770
maturation of hydrocarbons 309 Nazca Ridge 4
812 Subject Index
nelsonite 689 rhythmites 561

neodigenite 430, 457 stringer ore 169, 382, 458, 630
Neuquen-Mendoza basin 100, 601, 678ff. subgraphic textures 330
Nirehuao Formation, Chile 475 syn-diagenetical folds 285
nobleite 724 ore forming processes (see fluids, ore forming)
nontronite 375 abiogenic sulfate reduction 309
Northern Andes, definition 9 bacterial sulfate reduction 301, 309, 442,
551, 645, 656, 667
olivenite 664 basinal brine 311, 634
ophiolite 199, 229, 381 burial metamorphism 89, 336, 435, 444, 490
ore deposit types capillary suction 713
Algoma-type 217 colloidal precipitation 190
asphaltite, V-bearing 595 diagenesis, diagenetic 197, 271, 272, 305,
banded iron formation (BIF) 39, 81, 209, 289 517, 608, 644, 656
Besshi-type 199, 204, 247 early-diagenetic 656
borate deposits 721 burial 263, 305, 635
conglomerate-hosted copper deposits 339 in a marine phreatic environment 522
Creta-type 626 epigenetic 171, 271, 293, 405, 408, 435, 444,
Cyprus-type 247, 379 459ff., 470, 483, 580, 608, 659, 668, 674,
iron ore deposits, typology, Chile 355 678
iron replacement deposits, Peru 48 epithermal system 699
karst filling 52, 281, 288 evaporitic concentration 612, 713, 721
kieslager 229 ff. exhalative 260, 272, 279ff., 375, 384, 485, 492,
Kiruna-type 360 521
Kupferschiefer-type 644 exhalative sedimentary 142, 171, 246, 435, 444,
Kuroko-type 391, 419 508, 550, 555, 566, 580
Lake Superior type 217 exhalative-submarine 144, 470
manto~'type", definition 88, 151 exhalative, volcanic 116, 209, 404, 405, 421
massive sulfide 139, 144, 199, 209ff., 229ff., explosive venting of hydrothermal fluids 158
259, 279ff., 298, 379, 391, 413, 445, fault-channeling of ore solutions 362, 460
475ff., 480ff., 487, 592 fumarolic system 521, 644
Mississippi Valley-type 55, 105, 259, 305 ff., geysers 708, 721, 725
550 granite metasomatism 166
oolitic iron ore 82, 175 hypogene replacement 331, 619
peneconcordant uranium-bearing red-bed iron-oxide magma 684
type 668 magmatic fractionation 157
phosphate deposits 49, 260 magmatic iron segregation 355
placer, gold 52, 137, 156, 210, 234, 235 magnetite segregation 688
porphyry copper 49, 76, 153, 274, 433, 699 magnetite-apatite magma 362
red bed 76, 82, 101, 123, 341, 644, 654, metamorphic mobilization 239
659 ff., 666, 668 metasomatic 135, 166, 169, 362, 579
salar 703 ff. permeability, porosity 95, 158
skarn 43, 49ff., 76, 135, 169, 479, 539, 561, remobilization 155, 166, 191, 239, 362, 566,
577 644
Sullivan-type 247 sedimentary-exhalative 142, 171, 246, 435,
tuff-hosted 647 444, 508, 550, 555, 566, 580
ore fabrics, textures segregation between manganese and iron 368
banded hematite and magnetite 288 skarn 43, 49ff., 76, 82, 135, 169, 353ff., 479,
banded ore 166, 561 539, 561, 574ff.
botryoidal 192 submarine volcanic activity 216, 272, 475
breccia ore 116, 169, 323, 383, 385 ff., 428, subvolcanic-hydrothermal 318, 336, 444, 470
545, 589, 692 supergene enrichment 52, 288, 330, 550, 653,
exsolution textures 330 657
framboidal pyrite 166, 261, 299ff., 384, 419, syn-diagenetic 271, 608, 645
442, 546, 561, 575, 644 syngenetic 135, 301,405,435, 459ff., 483, 492,
oolitic 82, 175 537, 555, 580, 619, 659, 674
ore tectonite 239 synsedimentary 155, 184, 272, 298, 612
Subject Index 813
volcanic exhalative 116, 209, 404,405, 421 Punta del Cobre Formation, Chile 422, 497 ff.
volcano-sedimentary 260ff., 279ff., 289, 449 Purilactis Formation, Chile 622ff.
volcanogenic 361, 492 pyrargyrite 166, 273, 285
ore tectonite 239 pyrite, framboidal 166, 261, 299ff., 384, 419,
ore zonation 105ff., 239, 289, 290, 331, 391, 442, 546, 561, 575, 644
419 pyrolusite-cryptomelane 373
organic matter pyrophyllite 699
reflectivity, vitrinite 305, 311, 643 pyrosmalite 169
Rock Eval analyses 305 pyrrhotite, intermediate product 116, 239,
Oxapampa Formation, Peru 255 240
oxygen isotope data 541 pyrrhotite, monoclinic/hexagonal 416
Pabell6n, Formation, Chile 497 Quebrada Chaiiarcillo, Chile 498

Paciencia Group, Chile 622ff. Quebrada del Pimiento Formation, Chile 677
Padrioc Formation, Argentina 162, 165 Quebrada Galena, Chile 497 ff., 523
Palca, Bolivia 143 Quebrada Las Caiias, Chile 498
Palicaye Member, Chile 623 ff. Quebrada Marquesa, Chile 449
Pampean Ranges Massif, Argentina 6, 11, 17 Quebrada Melendez, Chile 498
Pamplona Formation, Peru 399, 402 Quebrada Palicaye, Chile 626
Panacan Formation, Argentina 188, 675 Quechua Phase (Miocene) 45
Paracas Block, Peru 44 Quellaycocha, Peru 589
paragenetic sequence 329, 349, 376, 383, 428, Queule Mountains, Chile 210
441, 457ff., 520, 635 Quiaquena Metallogenic Province, Argentina
high temperature 431 162
Pariatambo Formation, Peru 49, 538, 575 ff., Quilmana Formation, Peru 402
595 Quitratue, Chile 226
Patagonian massif, Argentina 6
Patagua Member, Chile 445 Rammelsberg Mine 391
Patap Superunit, Peru 49, 400 Ramos Series, Bolivia 660, 662
Pataz Batholith, Peru 43 rhodochrosite 300
Pataz, Peru 256 rhodonite 169
pearceite 619, 643, 653 rhythmites 263, 306, 503, 526ff., 561, 605
Penderisco Formation, Colombia 381 rifting, continental 234, 253
pentlandite 134, 239, 241, 242 Rio Caiiete basin, Peru 397 ff.
Peruvian Phase (Santonian) 45 Rio Grande Formation, Peru 48
phosphoranilite 674 Rio Huallaga, Peru 263
Pichilemu, Chile 201, 244 Rio La Leche Valley, Peru 257
pinnoite 725 Rio Salado Members, Chile 622ff.
Pirgua Subgroup, Argentina 674 ripidolite 441
Piren, Chile 224ff. rivadavite 722
Pisco-Abancay deflection, Peru 44 rock flour, breccia 322
Piso Lima, Peru 400 Rosapata Formation, Bolivia 660
Pocobamba Formation, Peru 49
polyhalite 708 Sacsaquero Formation, Peru 47
polybasite 125, 619 Sacta Formation, Bolivia 177 ff.
Potosi, Bolivia 139, 661 safflorite 457
Pozuelos Formation, Argentina 723 Salta Group, Argentina 674
prehnite 89 Saito del Fraile Formation, Peru 399ff.
probertite 722, 724 San Juan limestone, Argentina 187
proustite 619, 643 San Marcos Formation, Bolivia 662
Pucara Group, Peru 113, 123, 130ff., 253 ff., San Pedro de Atacama, Chile 621
267, 279, 293, 537, 596, 615 San Pedro Formation, Chile 717
Puchenque Formation, Argentina 607 Santa Barbara Subgroup, Argentina 674
Puente Piedra Formation, Peru 397 ff., 399 Santa Formation, Peru 48, 402, 555, 583 ff.,
Pulluicana Group, Peru 49, 575 738
pumpellyite 89 Santa Marta-La Guajira Massif, Colombia-
Puna, Argentina 161 Venezuela 9
814 Subject Index
Santa Rosita Formation, Argentina and Bolivia sulfosalts 300, 547, 561, 576, 653
177 sulfur isotope data 204, 213ff., 261, 263,
Santa Victoria Group, Argentina 162, 171 305ff., 349ff., 351, 442ff., 491, 548, 551,
Santander Massif, Venezuela 9 633 ff., 645
Santiago del Estero, Argentina 175 Sumatra-Java active margin 88
Sarayaquillo Formation, Peru 255 syngenite 708
scapolite 134, 169, 357, 508, 684
scheelite 137 Tabanos Formation, Argentina 603
schroekingerite 675 Tacaza Formation, Peru 47
scorodite 699 Tal-tal, Chile 730
seafloor spreading 26 ff. talnakhite 239, 241
searlesite 722 Tambo Maria Formation, Peru 262
selenite 665 Thpu, Peru 586
semseyite 166 Taquesi-Mururata, Bolivia 141
Septentrional Andes, definition 4 Taraco Formation, Bolivia 660
serpentinite 201 ff., 210, 211, 213, 226, 227, Tarma Group, Peru 130ff.
229, 234 tectonics 26 ff.
Serrania de Baudo, Colombia 14 accretionary complex 221, 229
Shanusi, Peru 256 back-arc basin 85 ff.
siderite 149, 154, 285 basin margin fault system 343
Sierra Azul, Argentina 606 Benioff zone 6, 28
Sierra de Aguilar, Argentina 162 deformation model 244
Sierra de Churriaca, Argentina 604, 609 Eo-Hercynian 131
Sierra de Moreno, Chile 15 flaser texture 244
Sierra de Merida, Venezuela 9 imbricate structures 231
Sierra de Urcuschun, Argentina 187 Incaic Phase (Middle to Late Eocene) 45
Sierra Galena, Chile 513, 515 Laramian Phase (Paleocene) 26
Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico 689 Late Hercynian 131
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia 379 Maraiion geanticline, Peru 18, 44 ff.
Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina 15 Maraiion Thrust Fold Belt (MTFB), Peru 45
Sijes Formation, Argentina 722 marginal basin, ensialic 44, 85 ff., 93 ff.
silver amalgam 653 mylonitization 241, 242, 354
sincosite 597 Oregonian Phase (Cretaceous) 26
Singuel Formation, Argentina 723 Quechua Phase (Miocene) 45
sinter, calcareous 276 rifting 234, 253
Sistema de Famatina, Argentina 674 shear folds 242
skarn 49ff., 76, 135, 169, 353ff., 505, 561, 574 strike-slip movement 243
smithsonite 187 structural analysis 242, 243, 245
Socosani, Formation, Peru 538 Subhercinian (Upper Cretaceous) 26
Sorata, Bolivia 141 subduction zone 4, 6, 28, 85, 770
sphene 169, 313 thinning of the continental crust 767
spreading-subsidence, intracontinental 85 transposition 242, 244
stannite 166, 561, 589 tenardite 708
sternbergite 619 tennantite 391, 490ff., 619, 642, 653
stockwork ore 51, 158, 169, 385ff., 428, 457, tenorite 627
480, 574, 694 tephroite 372
stratabound, definition 79, 159 teruggite 724
stratiform, definition 325 tetrahedrite 134, 166, 191, 274, 481, 490ff.
stringer ore 169, 382, 458, 630 textures, structures (see ore fabric)
stromeyerite 125, 285, 619, 643 Tiabaya Superunit, Peru 49
strontioginorite 722 Tiahuanacu Formation, Bolivia 660
strontium isotope data 166, 355, 436, 610 tincalconite 722, 724
Sub-Andean Thrust and Fold Belt, Peru 45 Tingo Maria, Peru 263
subduction zone 4, 6, 28, 85, 770 Tirua Unit, Chile 210, 211, 221 ff.
subduction and metallogeny 195ff. titanite 169, 313
subsidence, thermally controlled 599 torbernite 619
sulfate pseudomorphs 305 ff., 518 todorokite 375
Subject Index 815
Toledo Formation, Bolivia 662 pahoehoe lava 684

Toquepala Group, Peru 47 pillow lava 226, 229
Tordillo Formation, Argentina 605, 678 pyroclastic 283, 295, 326, 389, 425, 638,
Thtoralillo, Formation, Chile 497 650ff.
tourmaline 149, 150, 169, 182, 246, 490ff. shoshonitic 423, 464
Tubul Formation, Chile 210 stratovolcano 404
tucekite 116, 121 subaerial 326
tyuyamunite 674 tholeiitic 211, 226, 233, 238
Ulcumano Formation, Peru 255 weathering 331

ulexite 708, 721 West Peruvian Platform 44
ullmannite 166 West Peruvian Trough 44 ff.
Unchime Formation, Argentina 175 Western Series, Chile 200, 211, 229
Unduavi Formation 143 White Pine, Michigan 659
uraninite 619, 674 whythneyite 664
uranophane 674 wittichenite 619
Ucubamba Valley, Peru 256 wolframite 153
wollastonite 169
vermiculite 663 wurtzite 166
Veta Negra Formation, Chile 435
Vetas Series, Bolivia 660 Yani granite, Bolivia 142, 143
Villavicencio Formation, Argentina 193 Yarumal ophiolite sequence, Colombia 381 ff.
violarite 116 Yauca Formation, Peru 399
Volcan Formation, Argentina 187 Yacoraite Formation, Argentina 674
volcanic arc 88 ff.
volcanism 539 Zapla Formation, Argentina 175, 605
aa-lava 684 zeolite 89, 580
alkaline 233, 235, 238, 435 zippeite 619
amygdaloidal lava 89, 93, 315, 325, 692 zircon 182
bimodal 230, 231, 235, 238, 476ff. zoisite 169
fumarolic activity 567, 684, 692 zonation, ore 105ff., 239, 289, 290, 331, 391,
hot springs 691 ff. 419
Additional material from Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes,
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(Special Publication No. 8 of The Society For Geology Applied To Mineral Deposits 8) J. Frutos (Auth.), Prof. Dr. Lluís Fontboté, Prof. Dr. G. Christian Amstutz, Prof. Dr. Miguel Cardozo, Prof. Dr. Es

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(Special Publication No. 8 of The Society For Geology Applied To Mineral Deposits 8) J. Frutos (Auth.), Prof. Dr. Lluís Fontboté, Prof. Dr. G. Christian Amstutz, Prof. Dr. Miguel Cardozo, Prof. Dr. Es

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Published with financial help of

With 310 Figures and 1 Map

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

Prof. Dr. MIGUEL CARDOZO

Prof. Dr. ESTEBAN CEDILW

Prof. Dr. Lwfs FONTBOTE

Prof. Dr. JOSE FRUTOS

ISBN 978-3-642-88284-5 ISBN 978-3-642-88282-1 (eBook)

included in printed lists of a data base as well as in a fold-out with

January 1990 G. C. AMSTUTZ, Heidelberg

The Andes Cordillera:

Part II Description of Ore Deposits

El Aguilar Mine: An Ordovician Sediment-Hosted

Sulfur Isotope Studies in the Zinc-Lead Mine San Vicente,

a) Volcanic Sequences at the Magmatic Arc

b) Volcaniclastic Sequences in Intra-Arc Basins

c) Volcano-Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Basins

El Soldado, a Stratabound Copper Deposit Associated with

d) Marine Sedimentary Sequences in Back-Arc Basins

e) Platform Sediments Attached to the Foreland

Vanadiferous Occurrences in the Pariatambo Formation

Part III General Geochemical Topics

Minor and Thace Elements in the Polymetallic Stratabound

Metal Sources in Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes

Main Characteristics of Representative Andean Stratabound

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807

Map of Stratabound Ore Deposits of the Andes

Alfaro, G. 199, 209, 221, 681 Hopf, S. 421

1 Department of Geology, University of Concepcion, Chile

Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes

1.1 General Geophysical Characteristics of the Andean Continental Margin

At present the complete Andean margin corresponds to an oceanic plate-con-

ANDEAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN TYPES EVOLUTION SCHEME

Septentrional Andes Central Andes Meridional Andes

10- -.::::::::::;:r II-

Another remarkable characteristic of the Benioff zone below the Andes of

2.1 The Pre-Mesozoic Basement

A Pre-Mesozoic basement (not yet completely elucidated), composed of a

•'9 ·~ 0~ ok ~ •'~ •'5: D

Fig. 8. Principal physiographic and structural

Fig. 7. Paleogeographic-tectonic evolution scheme of the Andes Cordillera. 1 Upper Proterozoic

2.2 The Mesozoic-Cenozoic Orogenic Chain

This "autochthonous" arc-back-arc basin system changed drastically with the

The "Allochthonous" Terranes. The accreted terranes are located in Colombia

According to Megard (1987), the Huancabamba Andes (3° to 8°S) show a

3 The Central Andes

3.1 The Pre-Mesozoic Basement

The Paleozoic "Andean" System. The Paleozoic geological organization is better

The Central Andes Mesozoic-Cenozoic System. The Central and Meridional

Lower Cretaceous PERU

1. A magmatic arc, with episodically dominant volcanic activity (Noble et al.

4 The Meridional Andes

4.1 The Pre-Mesozoic Basement

4. An epicontinental volcanic-magmatic arc developed over Precambrian sialic

4.2 The Meridional Andes Mesozoic-Cenozoic System

The development of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Meridional Andes is characterized in

However, in comparison with the Central Andes, important differences

5 General Remarks on the Tectonic and Petrologic Evolution

Beginning of the 0·---=~-...._,.__.,....-.,~ diminishing of Peru, Chile,