INTRODUCTION

FOSSIL FUELS
A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition

of buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules originating in ancient

photosynthesis that release energy in combustion. Such organisms and their resulting

fossil fuels typically have an age of millions of years, and sometimes more than 650

million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum,

coal, and natural gas. Commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene

and propane. Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-to-hydrogen

ratios (like methane), to liquids (like petroleum), to nonvolatile materials composed

of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon

fields alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. (Schmidt-Rohr,

K. ,2015).

As of 2018, the world's main primary energy sources consisted of petroleum (34%),

coal (27%), and natural gas (24%), amounting to an 85% share for fossil fuels in

primary energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources included nuclear

(4.4%), hydroelectric (6.8%), and other renewables (4.0%, including geothermal,

solar, tidal, wind, wood, and waste). The share of renewables (including traditional

biomass) in the world's total final energy consumption was 18% in 2018. (Hsu,

Chang Samuel; Robinson, Paul R. ,2017).

Most air pollution deaths are due to fossil fuel combustion products: it is estimated

that this pollution costs over 3% of global GDP, and that fossil fuel phase-out would

save 3.6 million lives each year. (Zhang, Sharon, 2020).

The use of fossil fuels causes serious environmental damage. The burning of fossil

fuels produces around 35 billion tonnes (35 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per

year. Natural processes can only absorb a small part of that amount, so there is a net

increase of many billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. CO2 is a

greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming

and ocean acidification. A global movement towards the generation of low-carbon

sustainable energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. But

in 2019 fossil fuels were subsidized $320 billion.

As Nigeria battles for the historic realization of her highly popularized Vision

2020:20, to ascend the world’s stage for all-round global competitiveness; aside

endemic corruption, national policy inconsistency, internal sabotage and the lack of

synergistic political will; one of the greatest threats to the realization of this laudable

dream is the seeming incapacity of its successive governments to provide adequate

and uninterrupted electricity for country’s current estimated 167 Million citizens, in

fifty five (55) years of her existence as a sovereign national entity.

With the unbundling of the ‘Power Holding Company of Nigeria’ (PHCN) [being

the nation’s apex electricity body, and formerly known as ‘National Electric Power

Authority’ (NEPA)] by the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) on 30th

September 2013, paving the way for the establishment of eighteen(18) companies

[comprising of ten (10) Generation Companies (GENCOs), five (5) Distribution

Companies (DISCOs) and three (3) Transmission Companies (TRANSCOs)],

saddled with the responsibilities of respectively generating, distributing and

transmitting electric power to the nation’s teeming population; there still seems to

be no end in sight to the Nigeria’s erratic & epileptic power supply. To underscore

the continuously dwindling efficiency and effectiveness of ‘PHCN’ since its

inception on 1st April 1972, it is noteworthy to cite that, “with an installed generating

capacity of only 6,000MW [as against the 30,000MW estimated national peak

demand], the PHCN could only provide a maximum of 3,000MW on the average,

yet with transmission losses ranging from 30 – 50%” (Hall, 2006). Without doubts,

such a crisis situation of acute shortage in electricity supply has forced individuals,

private businesses, corporate organizations, government agencies and academic

institutions etc., to resort to Fossil-fuel electricity generators, as a means of privately

providing electric power to meet their local consumption needs. This is in view of

the comparatively low-cost implications involved and the fact that fossil fuels [such

as ‘gasoline’ and ‘diesel’] are oftentimes readily available for purchase in all parts
of the country. The above ugly trend has led to a present situation in which an

estimated sixty (60) Million plus Nigerians own and regularly run (use/operate) their

own electricity generating sets. (ECN, 2009). A move that has earned Nigeria the

infamous title of being “The World’s largest importer of generators”, and has largely

contributed to her being “One of the largest importers of refined Petroleum products

[such as ‘PMS’ and ‘AGO’], in addition to the deplorable state of the nation’s four

(4) refineries. Little wonder, (The Vanguard Newspaper, 2009) published a

statement credited to ‘MAN’ (Manufacturers Association of Nigeria) as follows: “In

the previous year alone, the average residential expenditure for fueling electric-

power generators in Nigeria climbed to an all-time high of $13.35 Billion (N1.56

Trillion) per annum”. Not to mention the whopping sum of $ 10.41 Billion (N 2.74

Trillion) spent by Nigeria’s federal government on the Power sector, since the

present democratic dispensation from 1999 to 2015. {Vanguard Newspaper; 9th

September, 2015}. Such an alarming Energy crisis, we strongly believe greatly

undermines the individual and collective leadership efforts aimed at achieving

national Energy Security/Self-sufficiency and boosting Industrialization and

ensuring rapid sustainable economic growth.

Now, for the purpose of proceeding in this study, we will define the following:

A hazard is any biological, chemical, mechanical, electrical, environmental or

physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause harm or damage to humans, other
organisms or the environment in the absence of its control”.

(www.en.wikipedia.org).

A Health Hazard is any chemical, organism, condition or circumstance for which

there is statistically significant evidence based on at least one study conducted in

accordance with established scientific principles that acute or chronic health effects

may occur when (people) human beings are exposed to it.” (www.osha.gov.us,

www.safety.nmsu.edu).

An Environmental Hazard is the state of events which has the potential to threaten

the surrounding natural environment and adversely affect people’s health, and

includes pollution and natural disasters. (www.en.wikipedia.org).

Psychosocial Hazards are linked with the interrelationships between individual’s

thoughts and behaviors and their social environments”. (Leka and Cox, 2008).

Fossil-fuel Generators also called Electricity Generators are devices that convert

Mechanical energy to Electrical energy for use in an external circuit. The source of

mechanical energy may vary widely from a hand crank to an internal Combustion

Engine (ICE). (www.en.wikipedia.org). Oftentimes, these ICEs are basically fueled

by Petroleum-hydrocarbons such as ‘Premium Motor Spirit (PMS)’ commonly

called ‘Gasoline’ and ‘Automobile Gas oil (AGO)’ commonly called ‘Diesel’- both

which are products of fossilization; thus, the name ‘Fossil-fuel Generators’.

ORIGIN OF FOSSIL FUEL

The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by

exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years was first

introduced by Andreas Libavius "in his 1597 Alchemia [Alchymia]" and later by

Mikhail Lomonosov "as early as 1757 and certainly by 1763". The first use of the

term "fossil fuel" occurs in the work of the German chemist Caspar Neumann, in

English translation in 1759. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that in the phrase

"fossil fuel" the adjective "fossil" means "obtained by digging; found buried in the

earth", which dates to at least 1652, before the English noun "fossil" came to refer

primarily to long-dead organisms in the early 18th century. (Oxford University

Press)

Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities

under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural

gas as a result of anaerobic decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter,

mixed with mud, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment.

The resulting high temperature and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically

alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in oil shales, and

then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as

catagenesis. Despite these heat-driven transformations (which increase the energy

density compared to typical organic matter by removal of oxygen atoms), the energy

released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin.

Terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal and methane. Many of the

coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also

form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Although fossil fuels are continually

formed by natural processes, they are classified as non-renewable resources because

they take millions of years to form and known viable reserves are being depleted

much faster than new ones are generated.

There is a wide range of organic compounds in any given fuel. The specific mixture

of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as density, viscosity,

boiling point, melting point, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain

only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain

much higher boiling components.

FOSSIL FUEL POWER STATION

A fossil fuel power station is a thermal power station which burns a fossil fuel, such

as coal or natural gas, to produce electricity. Fossil fuel power stations have

machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which

then operates an electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas
turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating gas engine. All plants use the energy

extracted from expanding gas, either steam or combustion gases. Although different

energy conversion methods exist, all thermal power station conversion methods have

efficiency limited by the Carnot efficiency and therefore produce waste heat.

Fossil fuel power stations provide most of the electrical energy used in the world.

Some fossil-fired power stations are designed for continuous operation as baseload

power plants, while others are used as peaker plants. However, starting from the

2010s, in many countries’ plants designed for baseload supply are being operated as

dispatchable generation to balance increasing generation by variable renewable

energy. (Heidari, N.; Pearce, J. M. 2016).

By-products of fossil fuel power plant operation must be considered in their design

and operation. Flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels contains carbon dioxide

and water vapor, as well as pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides

(SOx), and, for coal-fired plants, mercury, traces of other metals, and fly ash. Usually

all of the carbon dioxide and some of the other pollution is discharged to the air.

Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed.

Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide (CO2), a

greenhouse gas which is a major contributor to global warming. The results of a

recent study show that the net income available to shareholders of large companies
could see a significant reduction from the greenhouse gas emissions liability related

to only natural disasters in the United States from a single coal-fired power plant.

However, as of 2015, no such cases have awarded damages in the United States. Per

unit of electric energy, brown coal emits nearly twice as much CO2 as natural gas,

and black coal emits somewhat less than brown. As of 2019 carbon capture and

storage of emissions is not economically viable for fossil fuel power stations. As of

2019 keeping global warming below 1.5°C is still possible but only if no more fossil

fuel power plants are built and some existing fossil fuel power plants are shut down

early, together with other measures such as reforestation. (Sonal Patel, 4 January

2017).

CONVERSION OF HEAT INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY

In a fossil fuel power plant, the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels such as coal,

fuel oil, natural gas or oil shale and oxygen of the air is converted successively into

thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. Each fossil fuel

power plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Multiple generating units may

be built at a single site for more efficient use of land, natural resources and labor.

Most thermal power stations in the world use fossil fuel, outnumbering nuclear,

geothermal, biomass, or concentrated solar power plants.

The second law of thermodynamics states that any closed-loop cycle can only

convert a fraction of the heat produced during combustion into mechanical work.

The rest of the heat, called waste heat, must be released into a cooler environment

during the return portion of the cycle. The fraction of heat released into a cooler

medium must be equal or larger than the ratio of absolute temperatures of the cooling

system (environment) and the heat source (combustion furnace). Raising the furnace

temperature improves the efficiency but complicates the design, primarily by the

selection of alloys used for construction, making the furnace more expensive. The

waste heat cannot be converted into mechanical energy without an even cooler

cooling system. However, it may be used in cogeneration plants to heat buildings,

produce hot water, or to heat materials on an industrial scale, such as in some oil

refineries, plants, and chemical synthesis plants.

Typical thermal efficiency for utility-scale electrical generators is around 37% for

coal and oil-fired plants,[6] and 56 – 60% (LEV) for combined-cycle gas-fired

plants. Plants designed to achieve peak efficiency while operating at capacity will

be less efficient when operating off-design (i.e. temperatures too low.) (Nel, A. 2005,

May 6)

Practical fossil fuels stations operating as heat engines cannot exceed the Carnot

cycle limit for conversion of heat energy into useful work. Fuel cells do not have the

same thermodynamic limits as they are not heat engines.

The efficiency of a fossil fuel plant may be expressed as its heat rate, expressed in

BTU/kilowatthour or megajoules/kilowatthour.

TYPES OF PLANTS

1. STEAM

In a steam turbine power plant, fuel is burned in a furnace and the hot gasses flow

through a boiler. Water is converted to steam in the boiler; additional heating stages

may be included to superheat the steam. The hot steam is sent through controlling

valves to a turbine. As the steam expands and cools, its energy is transferred to the

turbine blades which turn a generator. The spent steam has very low pressure and

energy content; this water vapor is fed through a condenser, which removes heat

from the steam. The condensed water is then pumped into the boiler to repeat the

cycle.

Emissions from the boiler include carbon dioxide, oxides of sulfur, and in the case

of coal fly ash from non-combustible substances in the fuel. Waste heat from the

condenser is transferred either to the air, or sometimes to a cooling pond, lake or

river.
2. GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED GAS/STEAM

One type of fossil fuel power plant uses a gas turbine in conjunction with a heat

recovery steam generator (HRSG). It is referred to as a combined cycle power plant

because it combines the Brayton cycle of the gas turbine with the Rankine cycle of

the HRSG. The turbines are fueled either with natural gas or fuel oil.

3. RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Diesel engine generator sets are often used for prime power in communities not

connected to a widespread power grid. Emergency (standby) power systems may use

reciprocating internal combustion engines operated by fuel oil or natural gas.

Standby generators may serve as emergency power for a factory or data center, or

may also be operated in parallel with the local utility system to reduce peak power

demand charge from the utility. Diesel engines can produce strong torque at

relatively low rotational speeds, which is generally desirable when driving an

alternator, but diesel fuel in long-term storage can be subject to problems resulting

from water accumulation and chemical decomposition. Rarely used generator sets

may correspondingly be installed as natural gas or LPG to minimize the fuel system

maintenance requirements.
Spark-ignition internal combustion engines operating on gasoline (petrol), propane,

or LPG are commonly used as portable temporary power sources for construction

work, emergency power, or recreational uses.

Reciprocating external combustion engines such as the Stirling engine can be run on

a variety of fossil fuels, as well as renewable fuels or industrial waste heat.

Installations of Stirling engines for power production are relatively uncommon.

Historically, the first central stations used reciprocating steam engines to drive

generators. As the size of the electrical load to be served grew, reciprocating units

became too large and cumbersome to install economically. The steam turbine rapidly

displaced all reciprocating engines in central station service.

TYPES OF FUEL

COAL

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on the planet, and widely used as the source of

energy in thermal power stations and is a relatively cheap fuel. Coal is an impure

fuel and produces more greenhouse gas and pollution than an equivalent amount of

petroleum or natural gas. For instance, the operation of a 1000-MWe coal-fired

power plant results in a nuclear radiation dose of 490 person-rem/year, compared to

136 person-rem/year, for an equivalent nuclear power plant including uranium

mining, reactor operation and waste disposal.

Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge, collier ship or coal slurry pipeline.

Generating stations adjacent to a mine may receive coal by conveyor belt or massive

diesel-electric-drive trucks. Coal is usually prepared for use by crushing the rough

coal to pieces less than 2 inches (5 cm) in size.

NATURAL GAS

Gas is a very common fuel and has mostly replaced coal in countries where gas was

found in the late 20th century or early 21st century, such as the US and UK.

Sometimes coal-fired steam plants are refitted to use natural gas to reduce net carbon

dioxide emissions. Oil-fueled plants may be converted to natural gas to lower

operating cost.

OIL

Heavy fuel oil was once a significant source of energy for electric power generation.

After oil price increases of the 1970s, oil was displaced by coal and later natural gas.

Distillate oil is still important as the fuel source for diesel engine power plants used

especially in isolated communities not interconnected to a grid. Liquid fuels may

also be used by gas turbine power plants, especially for peaking or emergency

service. Of the three fossil fuel sources, oil has the advantages of easier

transportation and handling than solid coal, and easier on-site storage than natural

gas.
HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF [FOSSIL-FUEL] ELECTRICITY

GENERATORS

Aside the noise pollution, undesirable vibration impacts and heat generation that are

usually associated with the normal operations of a running Electric power [Fossil-

fuel] generator; countless research findings have clearly established and proven

beyond all reasonable doubts that the combustion of fossil fuel in electricity

generators have grave consequences on the natural environment, human health and

several aspects of our psychological & socio-economic lives etc.

A) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

For environmental hazards consideration, beginning with the secondary (indirect)

effects which basically are ‘Climate Change (Global warming)’ [with its numerous

attendant negative impacts] and Secondary pollutants emissions [so-called because,

they are deleterious products of the primary pollutants] and include acid rain, smog,

Green House Gases (GHGs) and high ozone levels in the air we inhale. (US

Sustainable Energy Strategy-Executive summary, 1995; www.en.wikipedia.org;

IPPC, 2005). For instance, in a country like the USA, accounting for less than five

percent (< 5%) of the world’s population, over ninety percent (> 90%) of all the

world’s GHG emissions, which come from the combustion of fossil fuels.

(www.wikipedia.en.org).
Green House Gases (GHGs) like CO2 (g) and Dinitrogen (I) Oxide [N2O (g)] are

emitted into the atmosphere from several sources/means including Fossil fuel

combustion, which in conjunction with other GHGs like Water vapor [H2O (g)],

Methane [CH4 (g)], Ozone [O3 (g)], Hydrofluorocarbons [HFCs (g)],

Perfluorocarbons [PFCs (g)] and Sulphur Hexafluoride [SF6 (g)] are gradually

resulting in disastrous climate change consequences such as: adverse weather

conditions, rising sea levels, drought, famine & shortages, unnatural death &

extinction of some plants & animal species and unprecedented scales/magnitudes of

flooding risks particularly in nations with large populations in the coastal regions

(Steven Gilbert, 2011).

Also, the primary (direct) environmental effects are the principal air pollutions

resulting from Fossil fuel combustion which are Carbon (II) Oxide [CO (g)], Sulphur

Oxides [SOX] such as Sulphur (IV) Oxide [SO2 (g)] & Sulphur (VI) Oxide [SO3

(g)], Nitrogen Oxides [NOx], Unburnt Hydrocarbons and Particulate matters such

Fine soot, Ash particles, Volatile Organic Compounds [VOCs] and Heavy metals.

(US National Energy Strategy Executive summary, 1991/1992; IPCC, 2005;

www.en.wikipedia.org).

Now, for the purpose of this study, a pollutant is defined as a harmful substance

which is not a natural constituent of the environment, or if occurring naturally, is

present in abnormal high concentrations. Having shown that one of the secondary
(indirect) consequences of fossil-fuel combustion is ‘Climate change’ also known as

‘Global warming’, which amongst other things, consequently results in an increase

in air temperature, which in turn has impacts on the distribution of ‘Fauna’ and

‘Flora’, thus affecting the space distribution of some vector-borne diseases. In

addition, heat accumulation in urban centers, associated with the use of fossil-fuels,

has adverse effects especially for old people (UNESCO-EOLSS, 2015).

Thermal power plants are one of the main artificial sources of producing toxic gases

and particulate matter. Fossil fuel power plants cause the emission of pollutants such

as NOx, SOx, CO2, CO, PM, organic gases and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons.[12] World organizations and international agencies, like the IEA, are

concerned about the environmental impact of burning fossil fuels, and coal in

particular. The combustion of coal contributes the most to acid rain and air pollution,

and has been connected with global warming. Due to the chemical composition of

coal, there are difficulties in removing impurities from the solid fuel prior to its

combustion. Modern day coal power plants pollute less than older designs due to

new "scrubber" technologies that filter the exhaust air in smoke stacks. However,

emission levels of various pollutants are still on average several times greater than

natural gas power plants and the scrubbers transfer the captured pollutants to

wastewater, which still requires treatment in order to avoid pollution of receiving

water bodies. In these modern designs, pollution from coal-fired power plants comes
from the emission of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur

dioxide into the air, as well a significant volume of wastewater which may contain

lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, as well as arsenic, selenium and nitrogen

compounds (nitrates and nitrites).

Acid rain is caused by the emission of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. These

gases may be only mildly acidic themselves, yet when they react with the

atmosphere, they create acidic compounds such as sulfurous acid, nitric acid and

sulfuric acid which fall as rain, hence the term acid rain. In Europe and the US,

stricter emission laws and decline in heavy industries have reduced the

environmental hazards associated with this problem, leading to lower emissions after

their peak in 1960s.

In 2008, the European Environment Agency (EEA) documented fuel-dependent

emission factors based on actual emissions from power plants in the European

Union.

Carbon dioxide

Electricity generation using carbon-based fuels is responsible for a large fraction of

carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions worldwide and for 34% of U.S. man-made carbon

dioxide emissions in 2010. In the U.S. 70% of electricity is generated by combustion

of fossil fuels.
Coal contains more carbon than oil or natural gas fossil fuels, resulting in greater

volumes of carbon dioxide emissions per unit of electricity generated. In 2010, coal

contributed about 81% of CO2 emissions from generation and contributed about

45% of the electricity generated in the United States. In 2000, the carbon intensity

(CO2 emissions) of U.S. coal thermal combustion was 2249 lbs/MWh (1,029

kg/MWh) while the carbon intensity of U.S. oil thermal generation was 1672

lb/MWh (758 kg/MWh or 211 kg/GJ) and the carbon intensity of U.S. natural gas

thermal production was 1135 lb/MWh (515 kg/MWh or 143 kg/GJ).

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that increased

quantities of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide within the atmosphere will "very

likely" lead to higher average temperatures on a global scale (global warming).

Concerns regarding the potential for such warming to change the global climate

prompted IPCC recommendations calling for large cuts to CO2 emissions

worldwide.

Emissions can be reduced with higher combustion temperatures, yielding more

efficient production of electricity within the cycle. As of 2019 the price of emitting

CO2 to the atmosphere is much lower than the cost of adding carbon capture and

storage (CCS) to fossil fuel power stations, so owners have not done so.
Particulate matter

Another problem related to coal combustion is the emission of particulates that have

a serious impact on public health. Power plants remove particulate from the flue gas

with the use of a bag house or electrostatic precipitator. Several newer plants that

burn coal use a different process, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle in which

synthesis gas is made out of a reaction between coal and water. The synthesis gas is

processed to remove most pollutants and then used initially to power gas turbines.

Then the hot exhaust gases from the gas turbines are used to generate steam to power

a steam turbine. The pollution levels of such plants are drastically lower than those

of "classic" coal power plants.

Particulate matter from coal-fired plants can be harmful and have negative health

impacts. Studies have shown that exposure to particulate matter is related to an

increase of respiratory and cardiac mortality. Particulate matter can irritate small

airways in the lungs, which can lead to increased problems with asthma, chronic

bronchitis, airway obstruction, and gas exchange.

There are different types of particulate matter, depending on the chemical

composition and size. The dominant form of particulate matter from coal-fired plants

is coal fly ash, but secondary sulfate and nitrate also comprise a major portion of the

particulate matter from coal-fired plants. Coal fly ash is what remains after the coal
has been combusted, so it consists of the incombustible materials that are found in

the coal.

The size and chemical composition of these particles affects the impacts on human

health. Currently coarse (diameter greater than 2.5 μm) and fine (diameter between

0.1 μm and 2.5 μm) particles are regulated, but ultrafine particles (diameter less than

0.1 μm) are currently unregulated, yet they pose many dangers. Unfortunately, much

is still unknown as to which kinds of particulate matter pose the most harm, which

makes it difficult to come up with adequate legislation for regulating particulate

matter.

There are several methods of helping to reduce the particulate matter emissions from

coal-fired plants. Roughly 80% of the ash falls into an ash hopper, but the rest of the

ash then gets carried into the atmosphere to become coal-fly ash. Methods of

reducing these emissions of particulate matter include

• a baghouse

• an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)

• cyclone collector

The baghouse has a fine filter that collects the ash particles, electrostatic

precipitators use an electric field to trap ash particles on high-voltage plates, and

cyclone collectors use centrifugal force to trap particles to the walls. A recent study
indicates that sulfur emissions from fossil fueled power stations in China may have

caused a 10-year lull in global warming (1998-2008).

Wastewater

Fossil-fuel power stations, particularly coal-fired plants, are a major source of

industrial wastewater. Wastewater streams include flue-gas desulfurization, fly ash,

bottom ash and flue gas mercury control. Plants with air pollution controls such as

wet scrubbers typically transfer the captured pollutants to the wastewater stream.

Ash ponds, a type of surface impoundment, are a widely used treatment technology

at coal-fired plants. These ponds use gravity to settle out large particulates (measured

as total suspended solids) from power plant wastewater. This technology does not

treat dissolved pollutants. Power stations use additional technologies to control

pollutants, depending on the particular waste stream in the plant. These include dry

ash handling, closed-loop ash recycling, chemical precipitation, biological treatment

(such as an activated sludge process), membrane systems, and evaporation-

crystallization systems. In 2015 EPA published a regulation pursuant to the Clean

Water Act that requires US power plants to use one or more of these technologies.

Technological advancements in ion exchange membranes and electrodialysis

systems has enabled high efficiency treatment of flue-gas desulfurization wastewater

to meet the updated EPA discharge limits.

Radioactive trace elements

Coal is a sedimentary rock formed primarily from accumulated plant matter, and it

includes many inorganic minerals and elements which were deposited along with

organic material during its formation. As the rest of the Earth's crust, coal also

contains low levels of uranium, thorium, and other naturally occurring radioactive

isotopes whose release into the environment leads to radioactive contamination.

While these substances are present as very small trace impurities, enough coal is

burned that significant amount of these substances are released. A 1,000 MW coal-

burning power plant could have an uncontrolled release of as much as 5.2 metric

tons per year of uranium (containing 74 pounds (34 kg) of uranium-235) and 12.8

metric tons per year of thorium. In comparison, a 1,000 MW nuclear plant will

generate about 30 metric tons of high-level radioactive solid packed waste per year.

It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much

uncontrolled radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident. The

collective radioactivity resulting from all coal burning worldwide between 1937 and

2040 is estimated to be 2,700,000 curies or 0.101 EBq. During normal operation, the

effective dose equivalent from coal plants is 100 times that from nuclear plants.

Normal operation however, is a deceiving baseline for comparison: just the

Chernobyl nuclear disaster released, in iodine-131 alone, an estimated 1.76 EBq. of

radioactivity, a value one order of magnitude above this value for total emissions
from all coal burned within a century, while the iodine-131, the major radioactive

substance which comes out in accident situations, has a half-life of just 8 days.

Water and air contamination by coal ash

A study released in August 2010 that examined state pollution data in the United

States by the organizations Environmental Integrity Project, the Sierra Club and

Earthjustice found that coal ash produced by coal-fired power plants dumped at sites

across 21 U.S. states has contaminated ground water with toxic elements. The

contaminants including the poisons arsenic and lead. The study concluded that the

problem of coal ash-caused water contamination is even more extensive in the

United States than has been estimated. The study brought to 137 the number of

ground water sites across the United States that are contaminated by power plant-

produced coal ash.

Arsenic has been shown to cause skin cancer, bladder cancer and lung cancer, and

lead damages the nervous system. Coal ash contaminants are also linked to

respiratory diseases and other health and developmental problems, and have

disrupted local aquatic life. Coal ash also releases a variety of toxic contaminants

into nearby air, posing a health threat to those who breathe in fugitive coal dust.
 B) HEALTH IMPLICATIONS

Most of the health implications are the direct consequences of the environmental

hazards, this is because, the highly toxic environmental pollutants from fossil-fuel

combustion consequently led us to the health hazards from these same fossil-fuel

generators, this is in view of the fact that, these pollutants they emit have claimed

the lives of countless millions around the world and places enormous burdens on the

health sectors of every nation. To validate this claim, the Scientific American in

2015 published what it tagged the ‘Human Cost of Energy’ in its publication entitled

“The Healthcare Burden of Fossil Fuel” on Americans alone in the previous year, as

an excerpt from its September, 2011.

Diesel exhaust [like other fossil-fuels’ exhausts such as that of ‘Gasoline’]

contributes to ambient sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), and trace metals are causative agents to mutagenicity,

carcinogenic effects, as well as chronic respiratory morbidity and mortality ln living

organisms. They are capable of changing the genetic message and can lead to cancer.

In vitro studies on Sulphur (IV) oxide and its compounds explains its capability of

altering DNA by deamination of cytosine (a pyrimidine base). Chromosomal

abnormalities have also been identified in pollen grains exposed to Sulphur (IV)

oxide. The in vivo biochemical studies are still being unfolded; this is due to its

optimal pH lower than physiological range (National Academy of Science, 1980).

The major compound of nitrogen formed in fossil-fuel combustions are nitric oxide

and nitrogen (IV) oxide. Although their mutagenicity still remains conjectural.

However, atmospheric reaction with these oxides will produce certain mutagenic

agent. Example is nitrous acid which is capable of causing deamination of guanine,

adenine, cytosine, and cross-linking of the DNA. Another product from the

atmosphere is nitrosamines, known for is carcinogenicity in laboratory animals

(National Research Council, 1980).

With regard to Trace Metals, according to the book written by National Academic

of Science 1980, Continuous combustion of fossil -fuel will increase the emission of

anthropogenic arsenic, chromium and cadmium. There is no clear evidence on their

mutagenic abilities (James and Jacqueline, 2013). The major toxicity of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Oxygenated Polycyclic Aromatic

Hydrocarbons (OPAHs) is the cause of cancer through mutagenesis. Many

chemicals in diesel engine exhaust can damage DNA (the material that controls the

growth and development of living cells). This damage could lead to the unregulated

growth of cells and possibly result in cancer. The initial step in cancer development

is thought to be the transformation of some chemicals, such as those found in diesel-

engine exhaust, into substances that react with DNA. These combinations of

chemicals and DNA, known as DNA adducts, may change the genetic message and

lead to cancer. (James and Jacqueline, 2013; Choy, 2001). Below is a table showing
the USEPA 2011 recommended human exposure limits to some PAHs [usually

emitted into the atmosphere during fossil-fuel combustion].

In addition, health conditions and symptoms such as Headache, Nausea and

Unconsciousness have been linked to less than ten (< 10) hours human exposure to

100 – 300ppm of [CO(g)], which is a typical primary (direct) air pollutant emitted

during fossil fuel combustion. While, 1-4 hours human exposure can result in

Unconsciousness and outright death. (US National Energy Strategy-Executive

summary, 1991/1992). Also, apart from the fact that NOx depletes the Ozone layer,

Bronchiolitis, a dangerous disease has been traced to a human exposure of 150 –

200ppm of it [NOx], within 3 – 5 weeks of this exposure. (Dimari et al, 2007).

The main diverse effects on human health of atmospheric pollution resulting from

fossil fuel combustion [whether or not from electricity generators] are: Ophthalmic

problems, Skin injuries, Gastro-intestinal, Cardio-vascular and respiratory diseases

and some types of Cancer. Also, certain effects on the nervous system have been

associated with high levels of ‘CO(g)’ in the air. (UNESCO-EOLSS, 2014).

Furthermore, using an IMR-1400 Combustion gas Analyzer and a digital Sound

level meter, (Stanley, 2011) observed that the indoor and outdoor sound levels

emitted by fossil-fuel generators running (operated) in Kaduna - a big city in North-

western Nigeria, oftentimes exceeded the WHO acceptable limits of 70dB(A) for
normal discussions and 30dB(A) for sleeping and resting. These excess decibels [in

the form of localized noise pollution] have been shown to account for extreme

emotional outbursts & behavioral attitudes, high blood pressure and abnormal

development of the feotus. (Stanley, 2011).

C) OTHER HAZARDS/ISSUES:

Besides the environmental and health hazards associated with the combustion of

fossil fuels in electricity generators, scholarly research literatures have progressively

revealed that there are other issues of concern that call for urgent attention. These

include Psychosocial hazard/issues [like frosty (strained) and severed relationships

between generator users and their neighbor’s]; financial

pressures/implications/expenses [like the considerable sums of monies expended to

purchase, install, continuously run, regularly service and periodically repair the

generators]; in addition to the several financial implications, safety hazards, security

concerns and psychological effects/considerations that are traceable to its operations

and routine maintenance, which will be briefly highlighted now and extensively

treated later in this work.

A psychosocial hazard is any hazard that affects the mental well-being or mental

health of a person and may have physical effects by overwhelming the individual

coping mechanisms and impacting the person’s ability to live in a healthy and safe
manner. Although these issues have been around for many years, Psycho-social

hazards are only now being recognized as potential workplace hazards. The hazards

generally are not from physical things that you can see (like a saw blade) or smell

(like paint). Rather, many of these hazards come about as a result of interactions

with others. In some cases, the hazard is brought into the home from the

environment. There are often no obvious outward signs of the effects of exposure

and the methods to control these hazards are somewhat different than methods used

to control other traditionally known hazards. (www.work.alberta.ca).

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is:

To study the implications of the use of fossil fuel generators in suburb of Port

Harcourt.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

RESIDENTIAL SOLID FUEL BURNING, AND CONSEQUENTLY THE

IMPLICATIONS OF MEETING THE EUROPEAN 2050 LOW-CARBON

TARGETS.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

In 2010 and 2012, the European Environment Agency (EEA) attributed more than

400,000 premature deaths, throughout Europe to the inhalation of air pollutants

(European Environment Agency, 2014). The combustion of residential solid fuels

releases air pollutants such as PM10, PM2.5, benzo[a]pyrene and Sulphur dioxide,

concurring with the EEA, research studies suggest that these pollutants have adverse

effects on human health. It has been established that the impacts from residential

solid fuel combustion are comparable to that of pollution emitted from traffic on a

busy street. However, conclusive evidence from research studies of the impacts on

human health from the combustion of residential solid fuel is limited. Due to the

extensive variety of contributing sources to air pollution, the definitive source of

exposure can be difficult to evidence. (Peltier et al, 2013). The aim of the systematic

literature review is to identify current studies which assess the health impacts from
pollutants that are released from residential solid fuel combustion from open fire

places and/or wood burning stoves, namely PM10, PM2.5, benzo[a]pyrene and

sulphur dioxide within developed countries. In addition, this research intends to

source whether residential solid fuel trends can be classified as seasonal specific.

Furthermore, this paper critically reviews these studies, establishing whether the

development of low-carbon energy supplies is achievable without having a

detrimental effect on human health. Currently, the majority of developed countries

are highly dependent on fossil fuels to placate the countries’ high energy needs.

Governmental climate change policy encouraging renewable, sustainable, energy

sources and the reduction in greenhouse gas emission aims to eliminate this

dependency (Alves et al, 2012). Targets have been established by the European

Union to increase renewable energy. One key target is 27% of the total energy

consumption to be from renewable sources by the year 2030 (Kortelainen et al,

2015). Meeting the targets of the Climate Change Act 2008, the utilization of

biomass energy production is encouraged, as biomass sources are deemed to be

carbon neutral (Schmidl et al, 2011). Air pollution should not be regarded as a local

problem. Governmental action must be taken both nationally and even globally to

reduce the impact that pollutants from residential solid fuel burning are having on

public health (Blling et al, 2009). Various studies have found that the occurrence of
European residential solid fuel burning is seasonal specific, occurring mainly on

evenings and weekends during the winter months.

2.1 METHODS

The collation of literature for analysis was sourced from; Science Direct, Scopus and

from Pro Quest Health and Medical databases. When conducting the systematic

literature review search, the selected articles were limited to peer-reviewed articles

which had been published within the last five years in the English language. Figure

1 summarizes the search strategy that was explored during the literature search. The

search strategy key words comprised of exposure to pollutants from residential solid

fuel burning, the health outcomes consequential from those pollutants, the source of

the pollutants and the location of these studies. Articles which focused on residential

solid fuel burning for cooking appliances were excluded. Studies within an area of

high traffic levels or industry were also eliminated. The remaining articles which

met the literature review criteria, and which could access the articles full text were

reviewed by the author.

2.2 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The preliminary search strategy key words retrieved 3606 potential articles for the

author to review from the selected databases. Only 313 articles met the criteria of

focusing on developed countries. Upon further review of these articles, 285 articles
were excluded due to the absence of impacts on human health directly occurring

from residential solid fuel burning from open fires and/or wood burning stoves. The

remaining 28 articles were critically analysed by the author. Each of the articles

focused on various pollutants, which the study examined 8 PM10 studies, 7 PM2.5

studies, 10 benzo[a]pyrene studies and 3 sulphur dioxide studies. The systematic

review of literature found that studies sampling particulate matter and

benzo[a]pyrene have been more prevalent in recent years in comparison to sulphur

dioxide. Benzo[a]pyrene has recently been found to be carcinogenic, accordingly

current research studies have focused on this pollutant with the intention to increase

the body of knowledge. Similarly, PM2.5 has only recently been focused upon with

the European Council Directive.

Figure 1. Search strategy used to identify, included studies for systematic literature

review. (2008/50/EC) introducing new provisions, due to improved scientific

understanding to the adverse health effects, PM2.5 has on human health (Kourtchev

et al, 2011). In comparison to PM10, which when inhaled can enter into the upper

human respiratory tract, PM2.5 particles are smaller, thus allowing them to infiltrate

deeper into the lungs.

2.3 HEALTH IMPACTS

Of the 28 articles reviewed by the author, only eight of those were directly

associating the study to the adverse effects on human health, as a result of the

contribution from residential solid fuel burning. The reviewed literature suggests

that exposure to pollutants released from small-scale biomass and fossil fuel

combustion devices, have been considered worldwide, to be negatively impacting

upon human health (Blling et al, 2009). Recently there has been increasing evidence,

including human exposure studies (Clancy et al, 2002). The studies have supported

theories that exposure from residential solid fuel combustion has adverse effects on

the health of the human population (Nordin et al, 2015). Wood is a renewable source

of residential heating. Although there are benefits to be gained from using wood as

a means to heat the home, unregulated wood stoves can cause detrimental effects on

human health (Haluza et al, 2012). The impact on human health from the shift from

light fuel oil to solid fuel combustion, primarily wood, will be gradual. The chronic

impacts on human health shall not automatically become apparent. However, over

years of exposure, the inhalant will accumulate the pollutants, impacting on

morbidity and mortality later on in life (Haluza et al, 2012). However, acute

respiratory exposure can be associated with domestic solid fuel burning. The

inhalation of pollutants from residential solid fuel combustion can cause both acute
and chronic symptoms, affecting the inhalant in both the short and long term of their

health condition (Riddervold et al, 2012).

2.3.1 Impacts on the Respiratory System and Risk of Developing Cancer

Research evaluating the ban on the sale of coal correlated black smoke

concentrations with respiratory and cardiovascular deaths, as the average black

smoke declined, the standardized respiratory and cardiovascular death rates

coincided (Clancy et al, 2002). The assessment of pulmonary inflammation and

tissue damage in the mouse lung from exposure to samples of particulate matter from

either an old or modern domestic heating appliance indicated that mice exposed to

the different heating appliances displayed differing effects. The modern heating

appliances produced less particulate matter, conversely, the modern heating

appliances induced the highest inflammatory, cytotoxic and genotoxic activities in

the mice lungs (Happo et al, 2013). These studies, evidenced the relationship

between, pollutants resultant from residential solid fuel burning and adverse effects

on the human respiratory system. Benzo[a]pyrene is the only polycyclic

hydrocarbon that has been categorized as a carcinogen by the International Agency

for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2010). Resultant from increasing expenses of energy,

an increasing trend of residential solid fuel combustion is occurring during the winter

months. A study conducted evidenced, within both cities sampled the concentrations

of benzo[a]pyrene during winter months regularly exceeded the European limits.

However, indicating within the larger urban area, the residents were at higher risk of

developing cancer due to the combustion of residential solid fuel burning (Alves et

al, 2014). Air pollution episodes occurring during the winter months have been

established to be attributable to an increased risk on human health, in the

development of cancer during the lifetime (Callen et al, 2013). Improved knowledge

on sources of benzo[a]pyrene to improve air quality policies, can reduce emissions

that are impacting upon health.

2.3.2 Health Impacts on Children and Prenatal Exposure

Research estimated through the use of human respiratory tract disposition modelling,

that there is a greater risk of infants and children developing lung cancer in

comparison to adults. This increase may possibly be the developing physiology of a

child. Children are more susceptible to the effects from air pollutants. A child’s lung

has not fully developed, and their bodyweight is much lesser than that of an adult.

In addition, children’s height results in the child being closer to the ground level,

consequently, inhaling the heavier pollutants (WHO, 2008). The research, conducted

assessed the risk of cancer which is attributable to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

exposure, consequent to the recent increase of residential solid fuel combustion.

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzo[a]pyrene, that have

been released from residential solid fuel burning during the prenatal and early

postnatal stages are of particular concern (Perera et al, 2012). Research of when
effects from pollutants start and if they continue to persist throughout childhood

years, concluded that a foetus’ exposure, resulted in significant association with

height growth during childhood. The foetal brain and central nervous system are

developing, thus sensitive to pollutants. Prenatal exposure to benzo[a]pyrene

increases risk of developing anxiety, depression and attenuation problems later on

in the child’s life (Perera et al, 2012)

2.4 GOVERNMENTAL POLICY

Globally levels of air pollution have led to Governments introducing legislation and

policies to reduce harmful pollutants within their country. The European Union has

set targets for a low-carbon economy by 2050, aiming for the Member States to be

more climate-friendly and less energy consuming. Governmental efforts to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions have resulted in many countries utilizing wood and

biomass sources as a form of domestic heat. In addition to wood being renewable, it

is deliberated to be an energy source that is carbon neutral. In countries where wood

is in abundance, producing the energy requirements for their citizens is an

established industry (Sowlati et al, 2011). In concurrent research indicated that, as a

result of climate change and due to the security of future energy supplies, namely

fossil fuels, there has been a resurge in the use of wood for residential heating.
Governments have seen biomass to be an important resource in achieving a low-

carbon economy. Throughout Europe, alternatives to fossil fuels have gained

political and economic attention. The production of wood used for domestic

residential heating has been increasing, due to fossil fuels contributing to,

detrimental effect on the environment and human health (Haluza et al, 2012).

Research on residential wood combustion, found that wood sources for residential

heating are locally available in rural areas throughout mid-Europe. Wood is

competitively priced in comparison to oil and gas. With divergence to those studies

promoting the benefits of the utilization of wood as a clean energy source, the annual

European air quality report details that, the exposure to benzo[a]pyrene has increased

21% from 2003 to 2012. This increase has been associated with emissions released

from the residential combustion of solid fuels, including wood. Air pollution levels

are a priority for international, national and local governments. Principally within

the new European Member States, such as Poland, solid fuel combustion for

domestic heating is widely used, resulting in countries producing high levels of

pollutants and incurring breaching fines. This problem is not solely associated with

Europe. A study conducted in New Zealand, evidenced high levels of particulate

matter that was primarily attributable to residential solid fuel combustion. Within

one of the cities, stringent intervention measures were implemented to manage the

air quality issue. A residential heater replacement programme was instigated and a
ban on new build dwellings installing solid fuel burners was introduced (Scott et al,

2011). A similar approached intervention and financial incentive could be

implemented within European countries.

2.5 SEASONALITY OF RESIDENTIAL SOLID FUEL BURNING

From the 28 articles the author reviewed, 14 were related to the seasonal variation

of pollutants resultant from residential solid fuel burning. A study within two urban

sites (Scott et al, 2011), sampled the concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene, concluding

that the winter average was higher than the annual European limit value. A similar

study was conducted at a rural background site, which sampled PM2.5 levels.

Corresponding with the urban sites, during the winter period there was an increase

in air pollutants resultant from residential solid fuel burning. Sampled pollutants

were deemed to be three times higher than the summer period (Vignati et al, 2011).

Governments believe that residential wood combustion as a source of domestic

heating, signifies a renewable energy source of the future. However, wood

combustion has been associated with increased concentrations of air pollutants in

both urban and rural areas (Collina et al, 2013). With the increasing costs associated

with fossil fuels and other energy sources, there is a conception of a wood burning

stove being an inexpensive and locally available energy source, residential areas may

find an increase in installations (Mastral et al, 2013). Within Germany, there has

been an increase in pollutants, resultant from residential solid fuel combustion.

However, this is due to the increasing number of wood stoves being installed for

domestic heating, as the number of open fire places has been decreasing (Brandt et

al, 2011). The reviewed articles suggest that the majority of residential solid fuel

combustion is occurring during the evenings and weekends throughout the winter

months. In addition, it became apparent from the review of literature that the

majority of dwellings, which had been seasonally burning solid fuel, were doing so

as an additional secondary source of heating.

2.6 CONCLUSION

The reviewed studies illustrated the use of wood stoves as a form of domestic heating

has become increasingly popular. In comparison, the use of open fire places as a

form of heating has decreased. The sourced literature, evidences the increase of

wood and biomass as domestic heating fuels, is resultant from governmental

incentives. These incentives are to create a low-carbon, sustainable society. The

literature sourced that the financial saving was a motivator in residents switching

from oil and gas as a source of domestic heating, to wood burning stoves. Wood is

renewable and is therefore deemed to be in abundance and inexpensive in

comparison to fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. The systematic literature review
also supported that the burning of residential solid fuel was seasonal specific,

occurring mainly during evenings and weekends throughout the winter months. Fuel

poverty may be apparent, as homeowners may be spending more than 10% of the

household income heating their homes. Older heating systems tend to be less energy

efficient. Winter months are the coldest periods of the year, in accordance heating

costs will be higher during these months. Subsequently, the use of residential solid

fuel burning could be a domestic heating method correlated with that suffering fuel

poverty, as an inexpensive way to heat the home. The review of literature indicated

that there was an increase of air pollutants in both urban and rural sites, within

developed countries. These are resultant from the domestic burning of solid fuels to

heat the home. The literature sourced from the systematic review, supported that

there was a gap within the body of knowledge. The gap was evidenced by the lack

of scientific proof on the effects on the health of humans impacting from the different

pollutants and their concentration levels. Of the 28 articles sourced, only eight

articles made a direct association between residential solid fuel burning and thus the

contributing adverse effects on human health. Due to the extensive variety both

internal and external, contributing sources to air pollution within a dwelling, a

definitive source of exposure is hard to evidence.

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