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2. Introduction
One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to
collect, classify and investigate the physical properties of
SOIL MECHANICS I
soils.

CHAPTER TWO The purpose of this chapter is:-

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL  to introduce the fundamental physical prosperities soils;

 deal with descriptions of soils, tests to determine the

ASTU physical properties of soils, and soil classification

Nov 2021 systems that are used in geotechnical engineering

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practice.

2.1 Definition of Key Terms Definition of Key Terms…

 Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the
weight of solids.
 Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
volume of solids.
 Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the total
volume of soil.
 Degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of volume of water to
the volume of void.
 Bulk unit weight (γ) is the weight of a soil per unit volume
(or weight density).
 Saturated unit weight (γs) is the weight of a saturated soil
per unit volu
 Dry unit weight (γd ) is the weight of a dry soil per unit
volume.
 Effective unit weight (γ′) is the weight of soil solids in a
submerged soil per unit volume.

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Definition of Key Terms… Definition of Key Terms…

 Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil
 Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the
changes from a plastic state to a liquid state.
degree of packing between the loosest and densest state
 Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil
of coarse-grained soils.
changes from a semisolid to a plastic state.
 Effective particle size (D10) is the average particle
 Shrinkage limit (wSL) is the water content at which the
diameter of the soil at 10 percentile; that is, 10% of the
soil changes from a solid to a semisolid state without
particles are smaller than this size (diameter).
further change in volume.
 Average particle diameter (D50) is the average particle
diameter of the soil.
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2.2. Composition of Soil Origin and Formation of Soils…

2.2.1.Origin and Formation of Soils
 Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of
rocks.
 Physical weathering involves reduction of size without any change
in the original composition of the parent rock.
 The main agents responsible for this process are exfoliation,
unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing.
 Chemical weathering causes both reductions in size and chemical
alteration of the original parent rock.
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 The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration,
carbonation, and oxidation. Often, chemical and physical weathering
take place in concert.
 Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils.
 Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are soils that were transported
by rivers and streams.
 The composition of these soils depends on the environment under
which they were transported and is often different from the parent
rock.
 The profile of alluvial soils usually consists of layers of different
soils.

2.2.2.Types of Soils
Origin and Formation of Soils…
Common descriptive terms of soils (types of soils) are
 Gravels
 Glacial soils are soils that were transported and deposited by
 sands
glaciers.  silts and
 Marine soils are soils deposited in a marine environment.  Clays
 used to identify specific textures in soils.
 Texture refers to the appearance or feel of a soil.
 Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-
grained soils.
 Clays and silts are fine-grained soils.
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Types of Soils… Types of Soils…

 Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard.  The response of fine-grained soils to loads, known as
 Fine-grained soils feel smooth. the mechanical behavior, depends on the type of
 The coarseness of soils is determined from knowing predominant minerals present.
the distribution of particle sizes, which is the primary
means of classifying coarse-grained soils.
 To characterize fine-grained soils, we need further
information on the types of minerals present and their
contents.

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2.2.3. Clay Minerals Clay Minerals …

Minerals are crystalline materials and make up the solids
Silicate minerals are formed by the addition of cations
constituent of a soil.
and interactions of tetrahedrons.
The mineral particles of fine-grained soils are platy.
Silica tetrahedrons combine to form sheets, called
Minerals are classified according to chemical composition
silicate sheets or laminae, which are thin layers of silica
and structure.
tetrahedrons in which three oxygen ions are shared
Most minerals of interest to geotechnical engineers are
composed of oxygen and silicon—two of the most abundant
between adjacent tetrahedrons .

elements on earth. Silicate sheets may contain other structural units such as

Silicates are a group of minerals with a structural unit called alumina sheets.
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the silica tetrahedron.

Clay Minerals… Clay Minerals…

Alumina sheets are formed by combination of alumina
minerals, which consists of an aluminum ion surrounded
by six oxygen or hydroxyl atoms in an octahedron.
The main groups of crystalline materials that make up
clays are the minerals:-
 kaolinite
 illite and
 montmorillonite
 Kaolinite has a structure that consists of one silica
sheet and one alumina sheet tightly bonded together by
hydrogen bonds.
 Kaolinite is common in clays in humid tropical
regions.
 Illite consists of repeated layers of one alumina sheet
sandwiched by two silicate sheets. The layers are held
together by potassium ions.

15 16

Clay Minerals…
Clay Minerals…
 Montmorillonite has a structure similar to illite, but the
layers are held together by weak van der Waals forces.
 Montmorillonite belongs to the smectite clay family.
 It is an aluminum smectite with a small amount of Al+3
replaced by Mg2+.
 This causes a charge inequity that is balanced by Figure 2.1: Structure of kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite.

exchangeable cations Na+ or Ca2+ and oriented water.

 Additional water can easily enter the bond and separate
17 the layers in montmorillonite, causing swelling. 18

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2.2.4. Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils…
Engineering Use  Fine-grained soils have poor load bearing capacities compared
 Coarse-grained soils have good load bearing capacities with coarse-grained soils.

and good drainage qualities, and their strength and  Fine grained soils are practically impermeable, and change
volume change characteristics are not significantly strength and volume with variations in moisture conditions.

affected by change in moisture conditions.  The engineering properties of coarse-grained soils are

 They are practically incompressible when dense, but controlled mainly by the grain size of the particles and their

significant volume change can occur when they are structural arrangement.

loose.  The engineering properties of fine-grained soils are controlled

by mineralogical factors rather than grain size.
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Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils… 2.3. Phase relationship

 Thin layers of fine-grained soils, even within thick deposits
of coarse-grained soils, have been responsible for many
geotechnical failures and therefore you need to pay special
attention to fine-grained soils.
 In engineering, we disassemble complex systems into parts and then
study each part and its relationship to the whole. We will do the
same for soils.
 Soils will be dismantled into three constituents such as:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 The relative proportions of each constituent characterize soils.

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Phase relationship… Phase relationship…

Air
Water
Solid Particles

Volume
Voids (air or water)
Solid

23 24

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Phase relationship…
Phase relationship…
Air

Water

Solid

Idealization:
Three Phase Diagram

25 26

Phase relationship…. Phase relationship….

 The total volume of the soil is the sum of the volume of solids  Water content (w) is the ratio, often expressed by percentage, of

(Vs), volume of water (Vw), and volume of air (Va); that is the weight of water to the weight of solids.

Ww
V  Vs  Vw  Va  Vs  Vv w  100%
Ws
 The weight of the soil is the sum of the weight of solids (Ws), and  Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
weight of water (Ww). The weight of air is negligible. Thus, volume of solids.
Vv
W  Ws  Ww e 
Vs
Definitions have been established to describe the proportion of  Specific Volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of
solids.
V
each constituent in soil.
V'  1 e
Vs
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Phase relationship…. Phase relationship….

 Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.
 Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a
Porosity is usually expressed as a percentage.
percentage, of the volume of water to the volume of voids:
Vv
n  Vw
V S   Vw  Ww / w  wVs / w, Vv  eVs
 Porosity and void ratio are related by the expression, Vv
wGs
n 
e S  wWs / weVs  or Se  wGs
1 e e
 Unit weight is the weight of a soil per unit volume. We will use the
 Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to
term bulk unit weight, to denote the unit weight of a soil:
the weight of water of equal volume:

Gs 
Ws W  Gs  Se 
    w
29 Vs  w 30 V  1  e 

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Phase relationship…. Phase relationship….

Special Cases
 Saturated unit weight (S = 1): G  e  Relative Density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of
 sat   s  w
 1 e 
packing between the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-
grained soils as determined by experiments:
 Dry unit weight (S = 0) W  G   emax  e
 d  s   s  w  Dr 
V 1  e  1 w emax  emin
 Effective or buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil,
where emax is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), emin is the
surrounded by water, per unit weight of soil:
minimum void ratio (densest condition), and e is the current void ratio.
 Gs  1 
 '   sat   w    w
 1 e 
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Phase relationship…. Phase relationship….

 ASTM D 4253 and ASTM D 4254 outline procedures for the  Vibration occurs for 8 minutes at a frequency of 3600 Hz and

determination of maximum and minimum void ratios for coarse- amplitude of 0.064 mm. From the weight of the sand (W1) and the

grained soils. volume (V1) occupied by it after vibration, we can calculate the
minimum void ratio using emin = Gsγw (V/W) -1
 The maximum void ratio is obtained by pouring dry sand, into a
mold of volume (V) 2830 cm3 using a funnel. The sand that fills the
 Swell factor (SF) or free swell factor is the ratio of the volume of
mold is weighed.
excavated material to the volume of in situ material (sometimes
 If the weight of the sand is W, then by c γ and γd equation we get emax
called borrow pit material or bank material):
= Gsγw (V/W) -1.
SF = Volume of excavated material/Volume of in situ material * 100%
 The minimum void ratio is determined by vibrating the sand with a
weight imposing a vertical stress of 13.8 kPa on top of the sand.
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2.4 Index Property of Soils Introduction…

2.4.1. Introduction
Index properties are those properties which are not of prime
importance for the geotechnical engineers but are indicative to the
engineering properties of soil such as bearing capacity, shear strength,
permeability, slope stability, compressibility properties and so on.
The soil properties on which their classification and identification are
based are known as index properties. The index properties which are
used are:
 Grain Size Distribution
 Consistency Limits
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 Plasticity Index

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Mechanical Analysis …
Index Property of Soils…
2.4.2. Mechanical Analysis of Soils

The distribution of particle size or average grain diameter of coarse-

grained soils is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil
through a stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh size.

The sieves are arranged, keeping the finest below and the coarser
above it. A definite quantity of soil is dried in an electric oven (for
24hrs at 105°C) and put in the top sieve. The cover is placed over the
top sieve and a pan below the lowest sieve. Then the sieves are placed
in the sieve shaker and are shaken for few minutes.
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Mechanical Analysis … Mechanical Analysis …

Two coefficients have been defined to provide guidance on
distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the particles.
A numerical measure of uniformity, called the uniformity coefficient,
Cu, defined as Cu = D60/D10
Where
D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles
are finer.
D10 is the size of particle at 10 percent finer on the gradation curve.
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
39 40 C < 4 for uniformly graded soil containing particles of the same size

Mechanical Analysis … Mechanical Analysis …

There is another step in the procedure to determine the gradation of
particles. This is based on the term called the coefficient of curvature
which is expressed as: Cc = D230/D10* D60
Where
D30 is the size of particle at 30 percent finer on the gradation curve.
A soil that has a coefficient of curvature (1<Cc<3) is well graded soil.
Contains wider assortment of particle sizes.
The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is diagnosed by
a coefficient of curvature outside the range 1 to 3 and a sudden change
of
41 slope in the particle size distribution curve.
The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil. Regulating
the flow of water through soils
Two samples of soils are said to be similarly graded if their grain size
distribution curves are almost parallel to each other on a semi-
logarithmic plot.
When the curves are almost parallel to each other the ratios of their
diameters at any percentage finer approximately remain constant.
Such curves are useful in the design of filter materials around
drainage pipes.
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Mechanical Analysis … Mechanical Analysis …

Importance
Particle size analyses have many uses in engineering. They are used
to select aggregates for concrete, soils for the construction of dams
and highways, soils as filters, and material for grouting and chemical
injection

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Mechanical Analysis … Mechanical Analysis …

EXAMPLE-4
Solution a
500gm of soil sample was taken and sieve analysis was carried out.
Sieve size Mass Retained %age Cum %age Cum %age
Answer the following question based on the data give in the table mm (gm) Retained Ret pass
below 75 0 0.00 0.00 100.00
37.5 26 5.28 5.28 94.72
a. Analysis % age of finer. 19 45 9.15 14.43 85.57
b. Plot a grain size distribution curve and Classify the soil based on 9.5 87 17.68 32.11 67.89
USCS. Comment on the shape of curve. 4.75 103 20.93 53.05 46.95
2 87 17.68 70.73 29.27
c. Calculate Uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature
0.425 46 9.35 80.08 19.92
d. Interpret based on the result of sieve analysis 0.0075 75 15.24 95.33 4.67
Sieve size (mm) 75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.0075 pan PAN 23 4.67 100.00 0.00
45Mass Retained
26 87 87 75 46 Total 492
(gm) 0 45 103 46 23

Mechanical Analysis … Mechanical Analysis …

100

Check % age of the loss = (500-492)/500 =1.6% OK 90

Based on USCS: 80

D< 0.075mm is fine soil = 4.67% 70

% Finer than

60
0.075mm<D<0.425mm fine sand = 19.92-4.67 = 15.25%
50

0.425mm<D<2mm medium sand = 29.27-19.92 = 9.35%

40

2mm<D<4.75mm course sand = 46.95-29.27 =17.68 % 30

4.75mm<D<20mm fine gravel = 86.55-46.95 =39.6 % 20

20mm<D<75m course gravel = 100-86.55 =13.45 %
10

Gravel = 53.05% 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Sand = 42.28% grain size (mm)

Fine
47 = 4.67% Sandy Gravel Soil 48

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Mechanical Analysis … 2.4. 3.Consistance of Soils

c. Calculate Uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature Consistency of soil is the physical state of soil with respect to moisture
content present at that time. By consistency means the relative ease
D60 = 7mm D30 = 2.2mm
with which soil can be deformed. Consistency is related to the fine
D10 = 0.032mm effective particle diameter
grained soil.
D50 = 5.5mm average particle diameter
2.4. 3. 1. Consistency Limits or Atterberg Limits
Uniformity Coefficient Cu= D60/D10 = 7/0.032 = 318 >6 ok The moisture content at which the soil change from one state to
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc= (D30)2/ (D10) (D60) another State is called consistency limits or Atterberg limits.
= (2.2)2/ (0.032) (7) = 21 out of 1&3
d. Interpretation: The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-
49
graded. 50

Consistence of Soils… Consistence of Soils…

There are four different states of soil:
Solid State
Semi Solid State
Plastic State

Liquid State: states in order of increasing water content.

When water is added to the dry soil mass its change from solid state to
liquid state passing through semi solid and plastic state. Atterberg
identify some other limits which are most useful for engineering
purpose.

51 52

Consistence of Soils…
Liquid behavior: the state of soil that flow as viscous fluid.
plastic behavior : the range of water content at which the soil can be
molded into any desired shape without rupture.
The water content at which the soil changes from a liquid to a plastic
state is known as the liquid limit, denoted by LL.
if drying is continued beyond the range of water content for plastic
behavior, the soil becomes a semisolid. The soil cannot be molded
now without visible cracks appearing.
The water content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a
semisolid is known as the plastic limit, denoted by PL.
53
Consistence of Soils…
The range of water contents over which the soil deforms plastically is
known as the plasticity index, PI:
PI = LL - PL
As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid
state. At this state, no further volume change occurs since nearly all
the water in the soil has been removed.
The water content at which the soil changes from a semisolid to a solid
is called the shrinkage limit, denoted by SL.
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Consistence of Soils… Consistence of Soils…

The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination of the swelling and A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is known as the

shrinking capacity of soils. liquidity index (IL) and is expressed as:

The liquid and plastic limits are called the Atterberg limits after their w  wPL
IL 
IP
originator, Swedish soil scientist A. Atterberg (1911).
Description of soil strength based on liquidity index
We have changed the states of fine-grained soils by changing the
Values of IL Description of soil strength
water content
Semisolid state – high strength, brittle
IL < 0
(sudden) fracture is expected.
Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil
0 < IL < 1
deformation like a plastic material.
IL > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms
55 56
like a viscous fluid.

Consistence of Soils… Consistence of Soils…

Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular
mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the
amount of the clay fraction.
He coined a term called activity (A) to describe the
importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. The
equation for A is

57 58

Consistence of Soils…
Consistence of Soils… Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL of a soil
Activity is one of the factors used in identifying expansive or
A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears to offer a more
swelling soils.
accurate (less prone to operator’s errors) method of determining both
the liquid and plastic limits. In the fall cone test (Figure below), a
cone with apex angle of 300 and total mass of 80 grams is suspended
above, but in contact with the soil sample. The cone is permitted to
fall freely for a period of 5 seconds. The water content corresponding
to a cone penetration of 20mm defines the liquid limit. The sample
preparation is similar to the cup method except that the sample
container in the fall cone test has a different shape and size.
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Consistence of Soils… Consistence of Soils…

Four or more tests at different water contents are also required
because of the difficulty of achieving the liquid limit from a single
test. The results are plotted as water content (ordinate, arithmetic
scale) versus penetration (abscissa, logarithmic scale) and the best-fit
straight line (liquid state line) linking the data points is drawn. The
liquid limit is read from the plot as the water content on the liquid
state line corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm.
The plastic limit is obtained by repeating the test with a cone of
similar geometry, but with a mass of 240 grams. The penetration
Fall cone apparatus
depth in the soil for the bigger cone mass at given water content will
61 62
be larger than the smaller cone mass of 80 grams.

Consistence of Soils… Consistence of Soils…

Thus the liquid state line for the 240 gram cone will be below the
liquid state line for the 80 gram cone and parallel to it. The plastic
80 gram cone
limit is given as:

△w 2w
Wll=54
240 gram cone
wPL  wLL   wLL  4.2w
% log10 (M 2 M 1 )

Typical fall cone test results

63 64

Consistence of Soils… Consistence of Soils…

Where Δw is the separation in terms of water content between the Determination of Shrinkage Limit
liquid state lines of the two cones, M1 is the mass of 80 grams cone,  m  m2 V1  V2  w 
wSL   1    100
and M2 is the mass of the 240 gram cone.
 m2 m2 g 
where m1 is the mass of the wet soil, m2 is the mass of the oven-dried
soil, V1 is the volume of the wet soil, V2 is the volume of the oven-
dried soil, and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

2.3. SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Why do we need to classify soils???????????
American Society for Testing and Materials System (ASTM)
To describe various soil types encountered in the nature in systematic
Federal Aviation Agency System (FAA)
way and gathering soils that have distinct physical properties in
 Others
groups and units.
Of the number of classification systems proposed over the past few
Various Soil Classification Systems:
decades, the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the
Geologic Soil Classification System
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
 Agronomic Soil Classification System
Officials (AASHTO) system are the most widely used by current
Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
practitioners, particularly in Developed Nations.
American Association of State Highway Transportation
67 Officials System (AASHTO) 68

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS… SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

Unified Soil Classification (USC) System: For Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay), the soil can be Low Plastic or
The main Groups: High Plastic
G = Gravel Low Plastic = L
S = Sand High Plastic = H
M = Silt
C = Clay
O = Organic
For course grained soil
Poorly Graded = P
Well Graded = W
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS… SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

Unified soil classification flowchart for coarse-grained soil
Unified soil classification flowchart for fine-grained soil.

71 72

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS… 60

50

40

Plasticity index, %
30

20

LL = 50
10

7
CL OR ML
4

0 16
0 10 20 25.5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Liqid limit, %
73 74 TP2 TP3 TP4 TP5 TP6 TP7 TP8 TP9 TP10 TP1

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS… SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials
System (AASHTO): Rated soils according to their suitability for
support roadway pavement
Assign a group classification and a group index to the soil
A-1 ……………A-8 0……………..20
best soil …… worst soil good soil …….. poor soil

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION GUIDE LINE

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS… SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

The A-7 group is subdivided into A-7-5 or A-7-6 depending on
the plasticity index, IP.

79 80

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