Highway I

CHAPTER II
Geometric Design of Highways
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The geometric design of roadway necessitates the determination of
specific design elements and fixation of standards with respect to various
components. It is dictated within economics and other limitations to
satisfy the requirements of traffic in designing geometric elements which
include roadway vertical and horizontal alignment, cross sections,
stopping and passing site distances, number of lane, lane width, median
type (if any) and width, lateral and vertical clearances, intersections,
length of acceleration and deceleration lanes, need for truck climbing
lanes for steep grades, curve radii for required for turning vehicle, etc.
When one considers the diversity of vehicles, in terms of performance
and physical dimensions, and the interaction of these characteristics
with the many elements comprising the design of the roadway, it is clear
that proper highway design is a complex procedure that requires
numerous compromises. Moreover, it is important for design guidelines
to evolve over time in response to changes in vehicle performance and
dimensions, and to evidence collected regarding the effectiveness of
existing highway design practices (e.g. the relationship between accident
rates and various roadway design characteristics).
In geometric design of highways, the following points should be
considered:
¾ Volume and composition of traffic in the design year.
¾ Faulty geometric designs are costly to rectify.
¾ The design must be consistent and compatible to one another.
¾ The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics including
signs, markings, lightings, etc.

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¾ The road should be considered as elements of the total

environment so that its location and design enhances rather than
degrading the environment.
¾ The design should minimize initial and operation costs.
¾ Safety should be built in the design.
¾ All road users should be able to use the facility.

2.2 Design controls and criteria

The choice of design standard and criteria is influenced by the following
factors:
• The functional classification of the road
• The nature of the terrain
• The design vehicle
• The traffic volume expected on the road
• The design speed
• The density and characteristics of the adjoining land use
• Vehicle size and performance
• Safety
• Right of way impacts and costs associated with it
• Economic and environmental considerations
All these factors usually vary along a route of some length; the design
does not have to be constant for the whole length of the road. On the
contrary, changes in the design are usually required in order to obtain
proper correlation between the road layout and the above factors, whilst
maintaining construction cost at realistic levels.
The following text describes some of the factors affecting design controls
and criteria.

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2.2.1 Road functional classification

I. Trunk Roads
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at
international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads.
Trunk roads have a present AADT ≥ 1000, although they can have
volumes as low as 100 AADT.
II. Link Roads
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns
and urban centers must be linked between each other by link roads. A
typical link road has over 400 – 1000 first year AADT, although values
can range between 50 – 10,000 AADT.
III. Access Roads
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by
access roads. First year AADTs are between 30 – 1000.
IV. Collector roads
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to more important
roads, or to higher class roads must be linked by collector roads. First
year AADTs are between 25 – 400.
V. Feeder roads
A road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is
served by feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major
functions provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class
roads is to provide access. The roads of intermediate class have, for
practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.
2.2.2 Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the traverse terrain
through which the road passes. Traverse terrain properties are
categorized into four classes as follows:

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Flat terrain: - Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles
to the construction of the road, having a continuously unrestricted
horizontal and vertical alignment (traverse terrain slope up to 5 percent).
Rolling terrain: - Rolling, hilly or foothill country where slopes generally
rise and fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are
encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse
terrain slopes from 5 percent to 25 percent).
Mountainous terrain: - Hilly and mountainous and river gorges. This
class of terrain imposes definite restriction on the standard of alignment
obtainable and often involve long steep grades and limited sight distance
(transverse terrain slopes from 25 percent to 50 percent).
Escarpment: - In addition to terrain classes given above, a fourth class
is added to cater to those situations whereby standards can not be met.
We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback roadway
sections, or side hill traverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable (transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent).
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more
difficult and higher standards will be less justifiable or unachievable in
such situations than for roads in either flat or rolling terrain. Drivers
accept lower standards in such conditions and adjust their driving
accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary
with transverse terrain.
2.2.3 Design vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capability of vehicles are
controls in geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions
affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius
and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road
elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width,
horizontal curve widening, and junction design.

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2.2.4 Density and Character of Adjoining land use

For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is
influenced by other factors. In such areas, speed controls are frequently
included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the presence of other
vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right of
way constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations.
2.2.5 Design Traffic Volume
A further factor influencing the development of road design standards,
and in particular design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic.
The design of the road should be based in part on factual traffic volumes.
Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of
design such as width, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road
or section of a road, including traffic trend, is generally available in terms
of annual average daily traffic (AADT).
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from
feeder to main collector to link the trunk roads. However the actual flow
will vary from region to region and it is important that the designation of
a road by functional type should not give rise to over design for the traffic
levels actually encountered.
2.2.6 Design speed
The design vehicle is used as an index which links road function, traffic
flow and terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and curvature
to ensure that the driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed
environment. In practice, most roads will be constrained to minimum
parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder width, horizontal radius,
super elevation, sight distance, and gradient are directly related to, and
vary, with design speed. Thus all of the geometric design parameters of a
road are directly related to the design speed. The design speed will be
determined in accordance with the following guidelines:

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a) Drivers on long distance journey are apt to travel at higher speed

than the local traffic.
b) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high
speeds are unreasonable.
c) Drivers usually adjust their speed to physical limitations and
prevailing traffic condition. Where a difficult location is obvious to
the driver, he must apt to accept a lower speed of operation.
d) Economic consideration (road user savings vs. construction cost)
may justify a higher design speed for a road carrying large volume
of traffic than less heavily trafficked road in similar topography.
e) Change in design speed, if required due to change in terrain class,
should not be affected abruptly, but over sufficient distances to
enable drivers to change speed gradually.
f) It is often the case that physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.-
from mountainous to flat terrain. Where possible in such
circumstances, a transition section of the road shall be provided
with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type.
Where it is not possible i.e. - a departure from standards, special
attention shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or
rumble strips to alert the driver to the changing conditions.
It is important to note that the design speed of the road in accordance
with a chosen speed should ensure a safe design. The various design
elements have to be combined in a balance way, avoiding the application
of minimum values for one or few of elements at a particular location
when the other elements are considerably above the minimum
requirements.

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2.3 ROAD CROSS SECTION ELEMETS

A cross section will normally consist of carriageway, shoulder or curbs,
drainage features and earthwork profiles
ƒ Carriageway – the part of the road constructed for use by moving
traffic, including traffic lane, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration
and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, passing lanes, and bus
bays.
ƒ Roadway – consists of carriageway and shoulders, parking lanes
and viewing areas.
ƒ Earthwork profiles – includes side slopes and back slopes.
For urban cross sections, cross section elements may include facilities
like pedestrians, cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include
curbs, footpaths, and islands. For dual carriageways, cross sections will
also include medians.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and
characteristics of the terrain. The cross section may vary over a
particular route because these controlling factors vary. The basic
requirements are, however, that changes in cross section standards shall
be uniform within each sub sections of the route and that any change in
cross section shall be effected gradually and locally over transition
length. Abrupt or isolated changes in cross section standards lead to
increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity and complicate
construction and operation.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated
reduction in cross section standards, for example when an existing
narrow structure has to be retained because it is not economically
feasible to replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs
and road markings is required to warn drivers the discontinuity in the
road.

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Lane width
A feature of highway having great influence and comfort is the width of
the carriageway. Usually lane width varies from 2.7m – 3.7m. As the
width of lane decreases, accident rate for large trucks tend to increase
particularly on two way rural roads. Also decrease in lane width result in
decrease in speed of travel and capacity of the road.
Factors which influence the width of carriageway are:
ƒ The design vehicle, i.e. the greater the traffic volume the wider the
carriageway and, normally, the greater number of lanes.
ƒ Vehicle dimensions, i.e. heavy commercial vehicles require wider
carriageways to ensure adequate clearances when passing each
other.
ƒ The design speeds, i.e. vehicle traveling at high speed, especially
commercial vehicles, require wider carriageways to ensure safe
clearance between passing vehicles.
ƒ The road classification, i.e. the higher road classification the
greater level of service and the wider of carriageway width is
expected.
Shoulders
A shoulder is that surfaced clear portion of the roadway cross section
immediately adjacent to the carriageway edge. They vary from no
shoulder on minor rural roads where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m
or greater shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and design
classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for parking lane in
urban/peri-urban areas where paved carriageway exists.
Shoulders serve a number of purposes- for example
ƒ Refuge for vehicles forced to make emergency stops
ƒ A recovery space for vehicles that inadvertently leave the
carriageway or deliberately do so during emergency evasive
maneuvers

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ƒ Temporary extra traffic lanes during road maintenances or

carriageway reconstruction
ƒ Assistance in achieving desired horizontal sight distances
ƒ Structural support to road pavement (usually by extending all or
part of the road base through the shoulder width)
Median
Dual carriageways are normally divided by a central reservation or
median strip. Central reservation has a number of uses, including
ƒ Separating high-speed opposing traffic, thereby lessening the
chances of head-on collision
ƒ Providing opportunities for erring vehicles to recover when they
inadvertently leave carriageway
ƒ Providing a safe waiting place for pedestrians crossing a high speed
dual carriageway
ƒ Providing space for road furniture such as road signs and street
lighting
Normal cross fall
Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide
adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering
difficult. The ability a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness
and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of cross
fall should be related to the need to carry surface water from the
pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which
erosion of material starts to become a problem.
Side Slopes and Back Slopes
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and
to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control
vehicle.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety
considerations, height of cut or fill, and economic considerations.

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Right-of-Way
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate
road width and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the
roads. The width of right-of-way depends on the cross section elements of
the highway, topography and other physical controls together with
economic considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient
right-of-way to accommodate all elements of the cross section and
appropriate border areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a
practical minimum in both rural and developed areas affecting the
economy of the inhabitants.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary
for economic, financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve
valuable land, resources or existing development or when provision of the
desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs because of physical
constraints.

2.4 ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN

2.4.1 SIGHT DISTANCE
A driver’s ability to see ahead is of the utmost importance in the safe and
efficient operation of on a highway. Simply put, sight distance is the
distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For highway safety, the
designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers
can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid
striking an unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways
should also have sufficient sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the
opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without risk of accident.
The three aspects of sight distance to be considered are
1. The sight distances needed for stopping, which are applicable on
all highways

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2. The sight distance needed for passing of overtaken vehicles,

applicable only on two lane highways.
3. The criteria for measuring these sight distances for use in the
design
2.4.1.1 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to
enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a
stationary object in its path. Although greater lengths of visible roadway
are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be
at least that needed for a below-average driver or vehicle to stop.
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:
1) The distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver
sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant brakes are
applied; and
2) The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant break
application begins.
These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance,
respectively.
The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following
formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time and the
distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:
V2
SSD = 0.278Vt +
254( f ± g )
Where
SSD = Stopping sight distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time
V = initial speed (km/h)
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
g=the gradient of the road (+ for up hill and – for down hill)

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2.4.1.2 Passing sight distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single
roadway roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle
to pass another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an
oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four
components, as follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and
reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between the passing and opposing vehicles at the
end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

at1
d1 = 0.278t1 (V − m + )
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

d 2 = 0.278Vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between opposing and passing vehicles at the
end of the maneuver was found in the passing study to vary from 30–70m
depending on the speed of vehicle

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d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately

equal to d2 less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering
the left lane, estimated as:

2d 2
d4 =
3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4

2.4.1.3 Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

Sight distance is the distance along the roadway throughout which an
object of specified height is continuously visible to the driver. This
distance is dependant the height of the driver’s eye above the road
surface, the specified object height above the road surface, and the
height and lateral position of sight obstruction within the driver’s line of
sight.
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made
to meet the minimum requirements. The following values should be used
for the determination of sight lines
ƒ Driver's eye height: 1.07m for passenger cars and 2.4m for trucks
ƒ Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15m
ƒ Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30m

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The following picture shows stopping and passing sight distance required
in a vertical crest curve.

On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove

buildings, trees or other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides
of curves to obtain the required sight distance(see the following figure)

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2.4.2 Horizontal Alignment

For balance in highway design all geometric elements should, as far as
economically practicable, be designed to provide safe, continuous
operation at speed likely to be observed under the normal conditions for
that roadway for a vast majority of motorists. For most part, this can be
achieved through the use of design speeds as an overall design control.
The design of roadway curves should be based on an appropriate
relationship between design speeds and curvature and on their
relationship with super elevation (roadway banking) and side friction.
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or
straight section, the circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the
super elevation section.

Superelevation
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it undergoes a centripetal
acceleration that acts towards the center of the curvature. This
acceleration is sustained by a component of the vehicle’s weight related
to the roadway super elevation, by the side friction developed between
the vehicle’s tires and the pavement surface, or by combination of the
two.
As a vehicle traverses a circular curve, it is subjected to forces associated
with the circular path. According to the principle of inertia, in the
absence of forces, a moving body will travel in straight line. A force must
be applied to change in direction. For a circular change in direction, the
force is called centripetal force and in design, this is provided by side
friction developed between the tires and the pavement, and by
superelevation.
Superelevation is the crossfall that is provided on the pavement on a
horizontal curve in order to assist a vehicle to maintain a circular path.

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Superelevation Development Length

Superelevation is developed by rotating the roadway cross-section about
some axis; most commonly the horizontal centerline.
Superelevation development length is defined as the length required to
rotate the pavement from the point of normal crossfall on the approach
tangent (straight) to the point where the full superelevation for the curve
is attained. In turn, this superelevation development length has two
components:
ƒ Superelevation ruoff length – this is the length from the point
where the pavement has been rotated to zero crossfall to the point
where the full curve superelevation has been attained.
ƒ Tangent runout – this is residual length from the point of normal
crossfall to the point of zero crossfall (this component lies on the
approach tangent)
Superelevation Runoff
In alignment design with spirals the superelevation runoff is affected over
the whole of the transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length
with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the beginning and the spiral to curve
(SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by removing the
adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on
a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent runout). Between the TS
and SC (the superelevation runoff) the traveled way is rotated to reach
the full superelevation at the SC.
This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design the whole
of the circular curve has full superelevation, as shown in the following.

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In design of curves without spirals the superelevation runoff is

considered to be that length beyond the tangent runout. Empirical
methods are employed to locate the superelevation runoff length with
respect to the point of curvature (PC).
Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff
on the tangent approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure
below.

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Horizontal Curves
(Circular and transition curves class lecture)
Compound Circular Curves
Compound curves are two or more horizontal curves of different radii
turning in the same direction with a common tangent point. When radii less
than 1000m are evolved, compound curves may cause operational problems
with drivers not perceiving the change in curvature and drivers not
anticipating a change in side friction demand.
Although not conclusive, it is suggested that a smaller radius curves
immediately following a larger radius curves (both turning in the same
direction) gives drivers inadequate perception of the smaller radius which
leads to vehicle accidents. This is a particular problem where limited
visibility of smaller radius exists.
Where a compound curves can not be avoided, there should be no more
than two diminishing radii, and the radius of the smaller curve should be at
least two third of the radius of the larger curve.
A change in design speed between two circular elements should not exceed
5km/hr unless the second curve on one way road is larger than the radius
of the first curve. One way road a smaller curve preceding a larger curve is
acceptable.
Broken back Curves
Broken back curves are horizontal curves turning in the same direction
joined by a short length of tangents.
Broken back curves should be avoided except where very unusual
topography or right of way conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers usually do
not anticipate successive curves in the same direction. This also creates
problems with drainage and superelevation.
Where the length of straight is less than about 0.6Vmeters (based on about
2 sec travel time with V= operating speed in km/hr) the separation of curves
is usually small enough so that there is no visual complication or problem
with superelevation. Such curvature may be tolerated in urban area if there
is need to maintain existing pavement or curbing. However, it is often

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possible to substitute with a single curve depending on the difference in

curve radii. Where the length of straight is greater than about 0.6V and less
than 2V or 4V, the appearance is compromised by there not being sufficient
separation of curves.
The length 2V meters may be taken as absolute minimum with 4V meters
desirable minimum. Even the distance 4V may be insufficient if both curves
are visible at the same time over long distance.
Broken back Circular Curves
Reverse curves are horizontal curves turning in opposite directions that
adjoin (have a common tangent point) or a short length of tangent between
curves. Reverse curves should not be used unless there is insufficient
distance between curves. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to
remain within his lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves
adequately, and this may result in erratic operation.

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VERTICALALIGNMENT
Introduction
Vertical alignment specifies the elevation the elevation of points along the
roadway. The elevations of these roadway points are usually determined
by the need to provide proper drainage (from rainfall runoff) and an
acceptable level of driver safety.
A primary concern in vertical alignment is establishing smooth transition
of roadway elevations between two grades. This transition is achieved by
means of a vertical curve.
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which
is governed by sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to
vehicle performance and level of service. The following text gives the
formula and features of the vertical curve.
Vertical Curve Fundamentals
In connecting two roadway grades (tangents) with an appropriate vertical
curve, a mathematical relationship defining roadway elevations at all
points (or, equivalently, stations) along the vertical curve is needed. A
parabolic function has been found suitable in this regard because,
among other things, it provides a constant rate of change of slope and
implies equal curve tangents. The general form of the parabolic equation,
as applied to vertical curves, is
y = ax 2 + bx + c
Where y is the roadway elevation x stations (or meters) from the
beginning of the vertical curve (i.e., from PVC). By definition c is the
elevation of the BVC, because x=0 corresponds to the BVC. In defining a
and b, note that the first derivative of the above parabolic equation gives
the slope and is
dy
= 2ax + b
dx

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At the PVC, x=0, hence

dy
b= = g1
dx
Where g1 is the initial slope (in m/m). Also note that the second
derivative of the same parabolic equation is the rate of change of slope
and is
d2y
= 2a
dx 2
However, the rate of change of slope can be written as
d 2 y g 2 − g1
=
dx 2 L
Which give the value of a as
g 2 − g1
a=
2L
As a result, the equation for vertical parabola curve which provides a
constant rate of change of curvature, and hence acceleration and
visibility, along its length has the form:
g 2 − g1 rx 2
r= y= + g1 x + Elevation of PVC
L 2
Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the PVC
PVC = beginning of the vertical curve
PVC = end of the vertical curve

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Crest Vertical Curve

Sag Vertical Curve

Example: Two grade lines intersect at station 2+200 where the point of
vertical intersection (PVI) elevation is 239.5m. The starting grade is -6
percent and the ending grade is +2 percent. Compute the elevation at
station 2+200.
2 − ( −6 )
r= = +2.00%
400
400
BVC = ( 2 + 200) − = 2 + 000
2
X= (2+200)-(2+000)
Elevation of BVC=239.5+0.06(200) =251.5
0.02 × 2 2
y= + ( −6)( 2) + 251.5 = 243.5
2

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Crest and Sag Curves

The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to
provide sufficient stopping sight distance. The design is based on
minimum allowable "K" values, as defined by the formula:
K = L/A
Where
K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change
in grade
L = length of vertical curve (m)
A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been
recommended based on design speeds and stopping sight distance
requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance, and most
importantly, safety.
Example: Design Speed = 100 km/h, Sag Curve from standard K= 51
Algebraic difference in grades 2-(-6) = 8%
Minimum length L = AK = 8(51) = 408 meters
Critical lengths of grade for design
Maximum grade in itself is not a complete design control. It is also
appropriate to consider the length of a particular grade in relation to
desirable vehicle operation. The term critical length of grade refers to
indicate the maximum length of designated upgrade on which a load
truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Factors to be considered for the determination of critical lengths of
grades are:
1. Size and power of representative truck or truck combination to be
used as a design vehicle along with the grade ability data for this
vehicle.
2. Speed at entrance to critical length of grades.
3. Minimum speed on the grade below in which interference to the
following vehicle is considered unreasonable.

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