Miss Thushini Mendis

Email: thushinimendis@gmail.com
Phone: +94768409259

Lecture 01: An Introduction to Building Services II

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY II
PART 02: BUILDING SERVICES
Building Technology II – Building Services

 This course unit, Building Technology II, is conducted

in 2 parts, where Building Services is the final one.
 In the following series of lectures, you will be taught
thermal systems and distribution, natural and
mechanical ventilation, and air conditioning
principles. You will also learn the basics of how to
design a HVAC system for a building and
understand the meaning of thermal comfort and
how it can be achieved via design. You will also
learn how to utilise engineering principles in order
to design required services systems.
Building Technology II – Building Services

 Building Technology II is allocated 2 credits, of

which 50% is allocated to Building Services.
Lectures will be conducted within 18 hours of
sessions.
 Continuous Assessments for Building Services will
account for 10% of the entire Building Technology II
module, i.e. 20% of Building Services.
Building Technology II – Building Services

 You will be given two assignments during the

course of this module.
 One of the assignments will be based on designing
a basic ventilation system for a building, and the
other will be based on broadening the project, and
sizing the entire ventilation system.
 Classroom assignments and tutorials will also be
conducted to further enhance your knowledge and
provide you with any additional help you may
require.
WEEK MAIN TOPIC / TIME DURATION
NO. SUBTOPIC

An Introduction to Building Services II

HVAC
a. What is HVAC?
1 b. What is the purpose of HVAC? 3 hours
Heat Gains
a. External heat gains
b. Internal heat gains
Psychrometry
a. Psychrometric chart
2 b. Heating and cooling process 3 hours
c. Humidification
d. Room and process lines
Thermal Comfort
a. Factors
3 3 hours
b. The Comfort Equation
c. Thermal comfort conditions
Natural Ventilation
a. Feasibility
4 b. Ventilation strategies 3 hours
c. Mechanisms
d. Design process
Mechanical Ventilation
a. Types of systems
b. Conditioning of supply air
5 3 hours
c. Important features
d. Design process
e. Adventitious leakage
6 Tutorial and Exam Revision 3 hours
Understanding Building Services

“ Building services can be defined as the

systems that are designed for and installed
in a building that make them comfortable,
efficient, functional and safe. ”
Understanding Building Services
 Building Services covers many things required in a building, including:
• Water supply
• Sanitation
• Drainage
• Refuse disposal
• Ventilation
• Thermal comfort
• Acoustics
• Lighting
• Electrical and control systems
• Fire protection systems
• Lift design,
• Energy supply and distribution, and sometimes even
• Renewable energy technologies.
Understanding Building Services
 You can tell how comfortable you are in a room, but:
• Is it too hot, too cold, is there too much draught?
• Do you require more ventilation?
• How do you design for these parameters?
• What factors should be taken into consideration?
• What are the different methods of ventilation?
 Miss Thushini Mendis
Email: thushinimendis@gmail.com
Phone: +94768409259

Lecture 02: HVAC

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY II
PART 02: BUILDING SERVICES
Introduction
 During this lecture, we will cover:
• HVAC systems
• What is HVAC?
• What is the purpose of a HVAC system?
What is HVAC?
 HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning.
 An HVAC system performs heating and/or cooling
for residential, commercial or industrial buildings.
 The system may also be responsible for providing
fresh outdoor air to dilute interior airborne
contaminants, such as odours from occupants,
volatile organic compounds, chemicals used for
cleaning, etc.
What is the purpose of HVAC?
 The main purpose of an HVAC system is to maintain
a comfortable indoor environment year round.
 HVAC systems should provide conditioned and
acceptable air quality in buildings.
HVAC
 HVACs are typically responsible for roughly 40% of
energy consumption in a building.
 Therefore, when thinking about energy efficiency,
one of the most important decisions to be made
regarding a new building is the type of heating
and cooling system to install.
 Improper design and installation of an HVAC system
can have negative impacts on personal comfort,
health and safety, and energy bills.
 Miss Thushini Mendis
Email: thushinimendis@gmail.com
Phone: +94768409259

Lecture 03: Heat Gains

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY II
PART 02: BUILDING SERVICES
Introduction
 During this lecture, we will cover:
• Internal heat gains
• External heat gains
 Introduction
 There are many possible avenues beyond direct heating
appliances through which a structure may gain heat. They
include, but are not limited to:
• Electric lighting
• Entertainment equipment (TVs, DVD players, battery
chargers, etc.)
• Domestic appliances (fridge, washing machine, blender, etc.)
• Cookers (hob, oven, microwave, etc.)
• Office equipment (PC, laptop, printer, monitor, etc.)
• Pumps, fans (central heating pump, air conditioning fans, etc)
• Industrial machines and processes
Introduction
 These internal/external heat gains (or
casual/sundry gains) also include:
• Metabolic gains from occupants
• Solar radiation
Introduction
 Traditionally, electric lighting, body heat production
(metabolic gains) and solar radiation were the
primary sources of casual gains.
 However, this should now be considered in light of
high power consuming appliances such as
modern plasma/LCD televisions, and low energy
appliances and light fittings that now pervade the
modern household.
Sources of Thermal Energy Transfer in
Buildings
 Generally, there are four (4) heat transfer sources
within any building. They are:
• Fabric: Heat losses
• Ventilation: Heat losses
• Solar: Heat gains
• Internal: Heat gains
Solar Heat Gains
 Solar heat gain through windows and/or walls of a
building provides a valuable contribution to space
heating.
Internal Heat Gains
 Internal heat gains inside a building can be caused
by:
• Occupants
• Lighting
• Equipment
Building Energy Balance
 Why are these gains important?
 Gains, through the aforementioned mechanisms, have
an important part to play in overall building
performance – especially those buildings that are
tending towards low carbon emissions.
 In the winter, these gains can be used to offset overall
heating demand. However, in the summer, they can
contribute significantly to overheating of the spaces
enclosed (to which you must then consider for example
an appropriate solar protection or ventilation strategy
to mitigate against or remove them.
Why are these gains important?
 Unfortunately, estimating gains can be quite
complex (based on CIBSE guidance).
 However, there are more uncomplicated methods
that allow us to achieve an approximation.
Estimating Gains Part I
Solar Gains
Solar Gains
 Solar Irradiation on a Horizontal Plane

 Solar irradiation or solar

flux is the total amount of
radiation (both direct and
diffuse) that is received on
any given surface.
 The amount of energy
received depends on
several factors, including:
• Amount of cloud cover
• Length of day
• Height above the horizon
(elevation), etc
 Solar Irradiation on a Horizontal Plane

 The daily horizontal

irradiation maps
adjacent (for December
and July) clearly show
the relationship between
irradiation and:
1. Solar declination
2. Latitude
Solar Irradiation on a Horizontal Plane

1. Solar declination (+23º45’ on 21st June to -

23º45’ on 21st December), where the Northern
hemisphere is closest to the sun in June (and the
sun is highest in the sky at any point), and furthest
from the sun in December (lowest in the sky at any
time).
Solar Irradiation on a Horizontal Plane

2. Latitude, where the further South one goes

towards the equator, the greater the irradiation,
since the sun is higher in the sky.

• In the Northern hemisphere, daily irradiation

increases from January to June, and then
decreases from July to December.
 Solar Flux
 The two key components
of solar flux are:
1. Direct (beam) solar
radiation – solar radiation
that comes directly from
the sun
2. Diffuse solar radiation –
solar radiation that is a
result of interference with
atmospheric effects such
as cloud cover and sky
scattering

 Combining the two

components gives us the
total (or global) solar
radiation.
Estimation of Solar Gains Through
Glazing
 Solar energy enters a space as:
• Radiant energy, which has passed through the
glass
• Convective energy, which is the result of absorbed
energy heating up the glass (and maybe a result
of interception of radiant heat by blinds -
intermittent shading)
Estimation of Solar Gains Through
Glazing
 Radiant heat has no effect on the transparent room
air. It first heats room surfaces, which in turn heat
the air.
 There may be a time lag if the surface is of heavy
construction, and thus the thermal capacity of the
building is important.
 All of the aforementioned effects are taken into
account when compiling the Solar Cooling Load
Tables attached.
Solar Cooling Load Tables
 The following tables show the result of computing all
the above factors for fast response (light weight)
buildings with clear single glazing, with no
shading, and with intermittent shading in SE
England (Units – W/m2).

 Ref: CIBSE Guide A.

Example 1
 Find the maximum cooling load through a 2m2
window which faces South on June 21st at 1230
hours. The window is unshaded in a fast response
building with single clear glazing in SE England.
Example 1: Worked Out
1. First, we must identify the parameters we have
been given. Thus:

Find the maximum cooling load through a 2m2

window which faces South on June 21st at 1230
hours. The window is unshaded in a fast response
building with single clear glazing in SE England.
Example 1: Worked Out
2. Next, according to the identified parameters, we
should locate our solar cooling load from the provided
tables.

What do we know?
• The window has a total area of 2m2
• The window faces South
• The window is unshaded
• The window is single clear glazed
• The building is located in South East England
• The building is light weight/fast response
Example 1: Worked Out
3. We take into consideration the table showing the
solar cooling load for a fast response building
with single clear glazing in SE England (i.e. The
first table).
4. We are expected to find the maximum cooling
load. i.e. We must consider the hottest period of
the year. Thus, we must skim through the table to
find the highest value of irradiation incident upon
a South facing window.
Example 1: Worked Out
 According to the above table, the cooling load to
be considered is 376W/m2. Since we know the
area of the window, we can then state that the solar
heat gain is:
 Example 1: Worked Out
 Thus, we can confirm that the solar heat gain to be
considered in order to design an efficient cooling
system for the building is 752W.
In-Class Task 1
a) Find the maximum cooling load through a 2.5m2
window which faces South East on July 4th at
1230 hours. The window has intermittent shading
in a fast response building with single clear
glazing in SE England.
b) Use the correction factors to find the cooling load
through the above window if it is double glazed
with an outer pane of absorbing glass and if the
building is slow response/heavy weight.
Use of Correction Factors
 Correction factors can be used to estimate solar
gains in varied conditions.
Example 2
 Use the correction factors to find the cooling load
through the above window if it is double glazed
with an outer pane of absorbing glass and if the
building is slow response/heavy weight.
Example 2: Worked Out
 First, we must identify the parameters that have
been changed:

• Double glazing with an outer pane of absorbing glass

• Slow response building
Example 2: Worked Out
Example 2: Worked Out
 Now that we know the correction factor, we can
amend the solar gain:
Solar Gains for Multi-Directional
Facades
 When a single space has windows facing in more
than one direction, the gains through each glazing
element must be added for the same time of the
day.
 This may involve some experimenting with peak
values of each element.
 Example: South windows’ solar gains peak around
midday, west windows’ peak in the afternoon.
In-Class Assignment 2
a) Find the maximum cooling load through a 2m2
window which faces South West on December 4th
at 0930 hours. The window is unshaded in a fast
response building with single clear glazing in SE
England.
b) Use the correction factors to find the cooling load
through the above window if it is double glazed
with an outer pane of reflecting glass and if the
building is slow response/heavy weight.
Estimating Gains Part II
Lighting, Appliance, Cooking, and Metabolic
Gains
 Estimating Gains – Lighting, appliance,
cooking and metabolic
 If the heat emission, q (Watts), or power output
(Watts) of a given light or appliance is known, we can
easily work out the heat loss from these and provide a
more accurate estimate of the total internal gains due
to lighting, appliances, etc
 In the following slides, we will run through how to
estimate lighting and metabolic gains. It should be
made note of that, for other appliances, we must know
how much of the power input (for example, for a
plasma screen TV it can be as much as 300W) is
converted to heat.
Heat Gains from Lighting
 Almost all of the electrical energy consumed by a
lighting system contributes to overall internal
heat gains, since light is converted to longwave
(heat) radiation by many reflection and absorption
processes at the surfaces in the room.
 So:
Rate of heat gain Electrical power
from light source = consumed by light source
(W) (W)
Heat Gains from Lighting
 To find out how much power our lighting system
consumes (and therefore how much resultant heat
it produces), it is imperative that we look carefully
at the number of fittings employed and how long
these lights are switched on.
 From this, we can work out what the average
consumption of lighting will be in Watts.
∑ power consumed for Time in use
QL average all light sources x
heat gain from (W) (s)
=
all light sources
(W) Number of seconds in a day
Example 3: Lighting Gains
 The power rating and the number of seconds in
use, during a 24 hour period, of lamps in a
domestic dwelling are listed in columns (1) and (2)
of the table. Estimate the mean heat gain from
lighting (QL, W).
Example 3: Worked Out
 First, we must calculate the total power consumed
for all sources.
Example 3: Worked Out
∑ power consumed for Time in use
QL average all light sources x
heat gain from (W) (s)
=
all light sources
(W) 60 x 60 x 24

1620000
QL =
60 x 60 x 24

QL = 18.75W

 The mean heat gain for lighting is 18.75W

In-Class Task 3
 In a room containing 10 fluorescent lights, calculate
the mean heat gain for lighting, if the lights function
from 6pm to 11pm every day.
 Metabolic Gains
 Metabolic gain is the heat gain emitted from occupants
in a building due to metabolic activity.
 As done previously, a similar calculation can be
performed in order to estimate the daily mean rate of
heat gain (Qp) for occupants.
 We must consider the fact that there are many
individual factors that can affect metabolic gains, such
as health and wellbeing, age, gender, etc.
 However, the activity in which people are undertaken
is the fundamental consideration.
 Metabolic Gains
 In general, an adult seated at rest emits approximately 60W
for every square metre of body area.
 Undertaking the assumption that the average adult occupies
2m2, this amounts to an estimated 115W to 120W.
 Actual values are given in the following table. For women and
children, we multiply these values by 0.85 and 0.75
respectively, to take into consideration body surface area.
Metabolic Gains
 In order to find out how much metabolic gains
contribute to overall internal gains, we need to look
at the number of occupants in a space, the type
of activity they are undertaking, and the length of
time they are occupying the space.

∑ heat emission rate Time occupying

QP average per occupant x space
heat gain from (W) (s)
=
all occupants
(W) Number of seconds in a day
Example 4: Metabolic Gains
 In a house, there are two adults (1 male and 1
female), and two children. One parent, the male,
is at home all day, and the female is out of the
house for 10 hours each day. The two children
are at school for 6.5 hours each day. Assume that
when in the house, all occupants are seated (or at
rest in their beds). What is the heat gain for all
occupants within the house (QP, W)?
Example 4: Worked Out
 What do we know?
• 4 occupants
• 1 male, 1 female, 2 children
• Activity state: seated at rest
• Male at home for 24 hours a day, female 14 hours
(24-10), and children 17.5 (24-6.5).
Example 4: Worked Out

∑ heat emission rate Time occupying

QP average per occupant x space
heat gain from (W) (s)
=
all occupants
(W) Number of seconds in a day
 Example 4: Worked Out

QP average
heat gain from 25730100
=
all occupants 60 x 60 x 24
(W)

QP average
heat gain from
= 297.8W
all occupants
(W)

 Thus, the mean heat gain for occupants, QP = 297.8W

In-Class Task 4
 Assume that there are 3 people living in a house, 1
male, 1 female, and 1 child. The male goes out to
work from 9am to 5pm, the female goes out from
10am to 2pm, and the child goes to school
between 9am and 3pm every day. Also assume
that when inside the house, the occupants are
engaged in light work. Calculate the mean heat gain
within the house.
 Other Gains
 CIBSE Guide A, Chapter 6, provides extensive guidance
and data for other internal gains. These are mostly for
commercial settings.
 Therefore, we need to consider the other gains, such as
cooking, AV equipment, etc.
 The same process is undertaken as shown before.
 Other Gains

 For instance, if we have an oven rated at 2.3kW

(2300W), which is in operation for 2 hours a day, the
mean heat gain would be:
(2300 x 60 x 60 x 2) / (60 x 60 x 24) = 191.7W
 We simply add up all of these heat gains in order to
achieve our total heat gains. From this data, we can
then proceed to our balance point and HVAC
calculations for heating and cooling requirements.
Conclusion
Conclusion
 Accounting for solar and internal gains is a
relatively straightforward process.
 Solar gains can significantly reduce overall
heating in winter (if the openings are oriented and
sized appropriately), but can also cause significant
overheating in summer.
 Therefore, when investigating solar gains, it is
imperative that we balance heat lost through the
openings (i.e. Consider that thermal glazing will be
a weak spot) with heat gains.
Conclusion
 Furthermore, the overheating aspect needs to be
considered, and thus we need to look at solar
protection and its effect on ventilation.
 Internal gains need to be seriously taken into
account, while understanding that the occupation
and operation of the building is essential.
 In the next lecture, we will attempt to put together
some of these ideas.