WORLD HISTRY BY OJHA SIR

American Civil War and Abolition of Slavery

The US began to expand towards the west and south during the next seven
decades (1789-1860).During the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, the
Napoleon. With this, the area of the territory of the US almost doubled, and new
states were formed particularly after dislodging the tribal Indians. The native
Indians were removed from these territories and sent to the west of the

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Mississippi river. New settlements were started in the west. It was in 1819 that
the territory constituting the present state of Florida was taken from Spain. The
defeat of Mexico in the Mexican War (1846-48) extended the boundaries of the

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US further towards the west. The territory acquired from Mexico by the US after
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) included the present states of Utah,
Nevada, California, and parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Wyoming.
The Oregon Treaty (1846) peacefully settled the Oregon boundary dispute
between Britain and United States. By the Gadsden Purchase (1853) the US
acquired present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico from the
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Government of Mexico. So by the middle of the nineteenth century, the United
States had grown from the original thirteen states to nearly forty eight states,
thereby stretching from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific sea coast.
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The westward expansion created serious problems. The American Civil War
was undoubtedly one of them. Its study constitutes an important chapter in
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American History of the nineteenth century. In fact it marks as an important

turning point in the political and economic development of the nation. The Civil
War broke out over the issues like slavery, trade and tariff, and doctrine of state
rights. These issues created heartburn between northern and southern states.
Therefore it becomes necessary for us to examine these issues in the context of
territorial expansion of the United States. American historians have argued that
two issues that caused this war relate to economic sectionalism and slavery.

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Economic Sectionalism
By 1860, the northern states had become industrialized. Its population was
growing and its prosperity was spreading. The northern states received a large
number of immigrants (1.7 million) coming from Europe. When we refer to the
north we mean, the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa and Wisconsin. Many industries were

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started in the states of Pennsylvania, New York and Massachusetts. A majority
of the 1200 cotton mills in the US were concentrated in the north by 1840. The
starting of the textile industry brought about a chain reaction, in the sense it

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helped create ancillary industries. Business, Banking and Shipping sectors
prospered. Cheap labour was available. With increasing prosperity, the northern
states began to make progress in the field of education. The Universities of
Harvard and Yale (founded in 1636 and 1701 respectively) began to attract a
large number of students. Newspapers like the Baltimore Sun and New York
Tribune were established in the 1840s. The north produced great writers and
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poets like Mark Twain, Walt Whitman and HW Longfellow. Construction of
canals, railroads, and bridges enabled better connectivity between cities and
villages. The common people in the north were liberal in their outlook and
entertained progressive ideas. There was no slavery in the north, and people
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there abhorred it.
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By the term south, we mean all those states where slavery was legal. Almost all
the people of southern states such as South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi,
Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas began to depend upon
agriculture. In most of these states farmers grew tobacco and sugarcane, but
"cotton was king" (main crop). After the invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney, a
majority of the farmers started growing cotton. By 1840, the south produced 320
million lbs of cotton. On the eve of the Civil War, the south was producing 2
billion lbs of cotton. There were nearly 350,000 plantation owners who employed

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slaves and white workers. Many plantation owners were aristocratic, haughty
and hot-tempered, and the American Congress was greatly influenced by them.
They felt, that without slavery their economy was doomed. They also felt that
abolition of slavery would violate the rights of the states. The plantation owners
were obsessed with the idea that northern businessmen and bankers were
growing rich mainly due to import of cotton from the south. The south had not
developed economically they depended mainly upon agriculture.

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The Issue of Slavery
After the discovery of the West African coast in the fifteenth century, a large

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number of Europeans were engaged in slave trade. The blacks were captured
and taken to far off countries like Britain and some countries in South America
where they were sold. The thirteen colonies also received a number of such
slaves. At the time of the Civil War there were more than 4.5 million slaves, and
most of them were employed in the cotton and tobacco plantations in the south.
The slaves were governed by "slave code", and they were considered as
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property of the slave holders. They were denied personal freedom and treated
harshly. Their condition was pitiable since they were illiterate, and strictly
confined to the estate of the slave holder. They received punishments such as
flogging, thrashing, and sometimes killing. The Fugitive Slave Act (1850) forced
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the northern states to arrest the escaped slaves and hand them back to the
owner.
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Anti-Slavery Arguments
The northerners condemned slavery in the south for the simple reason that it
went against their conscience. Britain had outlawed slavery in 1833. Anti Slavery
societies were founded in few towns and cities with the hope that their strong
views on slavery would influence the south. Unfortunately, their views evoked
angry reaction in the south. The south regarded slavery as pan of their

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economy. The slave owners reminded the north time and again that slavery was
not only legal but also a source of their sustenance. In 1831, William Lloyd
Garrison started a weekly anti-slavery newspaper called The Liberator. He
founded the New-England Anti-Slavery Society in 1832, and this was followed
by the establishment of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. The
southern slave holders started blaming the northern abolitionists for encouraging
the revolts of the slaves (Nat Turner's insurrection of 1831). They appealed to

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Congress to refuse hearing of anti-slavery petitions submitted by the
abolitionists.

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In the early years of the Republic, American statesmen like George Washington,
Thomas Jefferson and George Mason had doubted the economic value of
slavery and feared its divisive influence in national affairs. The northerners were
also afraid that slavery would spread to the newly conquered territories. Way
back in 1820 a compromise was arrived at by the Congress To keep the balance
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between the anti-slavery north and pro-slavery south, the Congress brought
about the Missouri Compromise. It admitted Missouri to the Union as a state
where slavery could be practiced, and Maine as a state where slavery was
prohibited. The Missouri Compromise stood the test of time for nearly thirty
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seven years, i.e. until the Dred Scott Case (1857) came up before the Supreme
Court.
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When Mexico ceded large tracts of territories to the US after the Mexican War,
the Free Soil Party in the north began to vehemently oppose the spread of
slavery in these areas. The south remained adamant with the result that Senator
Henry Clay got a few resolutions passed in the Congress to bring about a
compromise. Despite the compromise, there were tensions between the north
and the south arising out of the fugitive slave laws. Senator Stephen Douglas

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got the Kansas-Nebraska Bill into an act by Congress with the support the
southern democrats. The new act nullified the Missouri Compromise of kept the
political situation simmering. The act created a near civil war like situation with
free-soilers and pro-slavery men having their own governments. In Kansas,
clashes took place between the two in 1856 ("Bleeding Kansas") John Brown, a
free-state leader, with his followers attacked and killed five pro-slavery men
(Pottawatomie Massacre) in May, 1856. The Union troops remained mute

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spectators. James Buchanan, the American President, finally agreed to bring
law and order in the Kansas settlement, and supported a pro slavery biased
constitution. The election of 1856 took place in the midst of the "Bleeding

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Kansas" situation, and it resulted in the rise of the Republican Party in the north.
Many voters in the north were totally confused about views of the existing two
political parties, the Whigs and the Democrats, on the issue of slavery. It was in
these circumstances that a majority of members of both the political parties,
along with members of anti-slavery societies, welcomed the rise of the
Republican Party. The Republican Party was born to end slavery in the US.
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The new Republican Party condemned the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the
policies of the Democrats. It blamed the Democrats for causing unemployment
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through its no-tariff policy which was adopted by the Congress. It must be noted
that the Congress was dominated by members from the south. The Republican
Party desired introduction of high tariffs on imported goods to protect business
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interests of the northern manufacturers. The Congress was seized of the matter
concerning tariff, paper currency, federal and state assistance at this time. The
Whigs and the Democrats in the Congress had their own opinions, and began to
debate these issues involving constitutional interpretations. What the Whigs
wanted, the Democrats rejected them.

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It was in the midst of this wrangling in the Congress that the Dred Scott vs.
Sandford case came up before the Supreme Court in 1857. Dred Scott, a slave,
went to the north with his master and lived there for some time. After his return
to the south, he petitioned the Supreme Court to make him a free citizen on the
ground that he had lived in free states. The Supreme Court denied free
citizenship to him for being a slave, despite having lived in free states. In other
words, slaves who were of African descent were denied the right to sue in

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federal court. Chief Justice Roger Taney of the Supreme Court declared the
Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional. Furthermore, it was declared null and
void from the day the Congress enacted it. Justice Taney ruled that Congress

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had no power to decide on the issue of slavery or the extension of slavery in
western territories. Unfortunately, this judgment came at a time when the
Republican Party had decided to abolish slavery if it came to power.

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)

Abraham Lincoln was born to a poor family living in a one-room log cabin in
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Hodgenville, Kentucky. He did not have a formal education. He went to Illinois in
1830 and started working as a store-keeper, postmaster, surveyor, and so on. In
1832 he participated in the Black Hawk War, and was promoted as captain. He
taught himself to read and write. In course of time he passed bar examination.
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He started practicing as a lawyer in 1836. He impressed people with his

"shrewdness, common sense, and honesty (earning the nickname Honest
Abe)". He became a member of the House of Representatives, and impressed
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his colleagues with his wisdom and oratory. He joined the Republican Party in
1856. The party nominated him as its candidate in the 1858 senate election. He
became a national figure after the seven debates he had with his opponent,
Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln argued that slavery was morally wrong, and
opposed its extension into the territories. He claimed that he was not an
abolitionist, and did not favour political equality for the blacks. He lost the
election, but the common people noticed his leadership qualities.

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The Republican Party nominated him as a candidate for presidential elections of

1860, and his opponent was Stephen Douglas again. Before Lincoln's election to
the presidency, he had argued that he would do everything possible to preserve
the integrity of the union of states even though it would mean the continuation of
slavery. But the people of the south believed that Lincoln was an abolitionist. He

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would endanger the economy of the south which depended upon slave labour.
Before his inauguration as the sixteenth President of the United States, seven
southern states (South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
Louisiana, and Texas) seceded from the Union. At the time of the oath-taking

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ceremony, Lincoln pledged: "It I could save the Union without freeing any slave,
I would do it, if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could
save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that." He made
a fervent appeal to the seceded states to return to the Union. Furthermore, he
said states have no right to secede from the unbreakable union. By saying this
he opposed John Calhoun's theory that states have the right to secede from the
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union. Lincoln declared that the Union was older than the Constitution In fact the
Constitution was adopted "to form a more perfect union" and that "no state upon
its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the union". The ordinances of the
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southern states relating to the secession were legally null and void. He said that
the Union still remained intact, and indissoluble. He declared his purpose of
executing laws of the Union in all the states, and that the Union would defend
and maintain itself. From his statements, it became clear that if the seceding
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states did not return to the Union, there would be war. Fortunately, the
Democratic Party candidate, Stephen Douglas, pledged his support to President
Lincoln.

Thus the southern states expectation that the north would be divided at the time
of the war did not materialize. The attack on Fort Sumter near Charleston

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Harbour (12 April, 1861) by the Confederate troops started the Civil war. The fall
of Fort Sumter into the hands of the south had serious consequences. Four
more southern states, namely, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and
Tennessee seceded from the Union, and joined the Confederate States. All the
eleven southern states which seceded from the Union formed the Confederacy,
and appointed Jefferson Davis as its President. President Davis hoped that
Britain and France would support him at the time of the war because of their

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economic relations with the Confederacy. In fact, the Confederacy had ordered
two representatives, Mason and Slidell, to go to London and Paris to plead for
help. They boarded a British ship, Trent, Havana Harbour which was proceeding

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towards South Hampton. Trent was stopped by the Union forces, and the two
men were taken away. It was then allowed to proceed. The British Government
was provoked by this incident The south expected that a war would break out
between Britain and the Union. However, Lincoln's Secretary of State, Seward,
resolved the matter with Britain amicably by his astute diplomacy.

The Course of Civil War

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On hearing about the attack on Fort Sumter, Lincoln declared war on the
Confederate States. He assumed enormous powers so as to carry on the war
against the south. He declared a state of emergency, and suspended all civil
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liberties enjoyed by citizens. He imposed press censorship. These acts became

unpopular. He raised a force of 30,000 thousand troops in July, 1861, and
ordered them to march towards the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia.
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The Union troops were halted by the Confederate forces in the battle of Bull
Run. The Union troops were forced to retreat to Washington DC. This defeat
shocked President Lincoln who called for 500,000 more recruits. A major
campaign was launched by Commander Ulysses S. Grant who successfully
captured Confederate forts. This was followed by Union victories at the Battles
of Shiloh and New Orleans. In the meantime, Robert E. Lee of the Confederate
army won several victories in the east (Seven Days' Battles). Encouraged by his

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victories, Lee invaded the north and fought the Union forces under George
Meade in the famous Battle of Gettysburg (1863). In the meantime President
Lincoln, by his emancipation proclamation, abolished slavery.

The Battle of Gettysburg proved to be a turning point which changed the course
the Civil War. Grant's victories brought the entire Mississippi Valley under Union

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control. General William T. Sherman of the Union forces captured Atlanta in
September, 1864. On 3rd April, 1865 Lee's Confederate troops were surrounded
by Union forces led by Ulysses Grant. Grant accepted Lee's surrender on 9th

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April, 1865 at Appomattox Court House. General Sherman of the Union army
received the surrender of General Joseph Johnston of the Confederate army on
26th April, 1865, thereby ending the Civil War. The south was devastated.
President Lincoln preserved the Union. It must be remembered that a large
number of liberated slaves helped the Union forces as volunteers during the
course of the civil war. The civil war also saw some naval actions along the sea
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coast of the southern states, since the ships belonging to the Union tried to
blockade the ports.

Causes of the South’s defeat

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While examining the causes of south's defeat, one should note the advantages
the north had over the south. The north had all its resources at its command like
railroads, better communication system, and weapon systems. It had a wealthy
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population which stood at 22.7 million as against the south's population of 8.7
million (including 3.5 million slaves). The industrial development in the northern
states gave an edge over the south during the time of the war. The southern
states, as explained earlier, remained economically and socially backward. They
expected Britain to to their Britain depended upon cotton imports from the south.
However, Britain ue, since remained neutral during the time of the war. The
emancipation proclamation of Abraham Lincoln received warm welcome by

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Britain. All strained relations between the two countries eased to a great extent
after several diplomatic overtures coming from the American President.
Moreover, Britain imported sufficient quantity of cotton from India. Britain also
depended upon wheat imports from the northern states. Militarily, the northern
generals led by President Lincoln adopted better strategy during the course of
the war. The main objective of the northem forces was to capture Richmond, the
capital of the Confederates, establish control over the Mississippi region, and

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prevent southern forces from receiving arms and ammunition from abroad by
imposing naval blockades The northern generals played an important role in the
defeat of the souther forces General Lee of the south proved no match to the

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tactics adopted by the northern generals, especially Ulysses Grant.

Results of the Civil War

While the north remained almost unaffected, except for casualties, the south
was devastated. Both the sides suffered heavy casualties, 620,000 deaths out of
a total of 2.4 million soldiers. President Lincoln abolished slavery, and preserved
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and protected the Union. In the south, the people were demoralized because
their farms were destroyed, and cotton planters became beggars The war
paralysed the activities of people. Railway stations, bridges, and public buildings
were destroyed. Many banks and insurance companies got liquidated. The
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economy of the southern states collapsed. The slaves became free after the
passage of the Thirteenth Constitutional Amendment in 1865 As they could not
get jobs, they asked their former masters to hire them as workers. The people of
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the south suffered great humiliation, and there was much bitterness and hatred
towards the northerners.

After Lincoln got re-elected as president in 1864, he started planning for the
reconstruction of the south. His plan was known as the 10% plan, meaning that
if ten per cent of the citizens of the seceded states took an oath of loyalty to the

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Union, those states could be re-admitted to the Union. He wanted to wipe out
the bitterness of the southern states for the Union with this moderate plan.
Unfortunately, he was assassinated on 14 April, 1865 (Good Friday) by John
Wilkes Booth, a stage actor. Lincoln has gone down in American history as its
greatest president. He had all the attributes of a great statesman. His
correspondence with others exhibits his compassion and wisdom. His
Gettysburg Address ending with "....... and that government of the people, by the

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people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth" remains as one of the
most memorable speeches delivered by an American President.

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The Republican Party which had made progress on the basis of its anti slavery
campaign remained popular, and swept the polls until 1912. It must be
remembered that no Democratic president was elected until that year. The Black
Code which perpetuated slavery in the south had to be repealed. During the
period of reconstruction, the radical republicans brought about the Fourteenth
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and Fifteenth Constitutional Amendments (1868,1870) which extended basic
civil liberties and suffrage to former male slaves.
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The Civil War acted as a catalyst for the rapid industrialization of the US. By the
end of the nineteenth century, the US became an industrial giant It emerged as
a world power by the end of the First World War. The Civil War brought about
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changes in social values. The white-dominated society had to accept the blacks
as their equals in due course of time. In the far south, the hatred of the whites
towards the blacks became manifest. Unlawful and anti-social organisations like
the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camellia (white supremacist
groups) put fear into the minds of black families by kidnaps and murders. It took
a long time for the people of the southern states to give up their prejudice

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against the blacks. Women enjoyed greater amount of freedom in the society
than before.

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