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College - Kel
College - Kel
HISTORY OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE
PHILIPPINES —
~ HISTORY OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE
PHILIPPINES
Revised Edition
Gregorio F. Zaide |
Sonia M. Zaide
Revised Edition
PCPM Certificate of
Registration No. SP 594
Cover Design by
Ed Abad
Printed by
Cacho Hermanos, Inc.
Corner Pines & Union Sts.
Mandaluyong, Metro Manila ISBN 971-08-3995-0 —
“In order to read the destiny of a people, it is necessary
to open the book of its past.”
vii
on Philippine history. Both the authors of this book have spent
many years of academic woyk in the teaching and study of
Philippine history.
In writing this book, the authors owe a debt of gratitude
to the directors and staffs of various archives both here and
abroad — in particular, that of the Archivo General de Indias
(Seville), Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid), Nacional de Torre do
Tombo (Lisbon), the Public Record Office (London and Kew,
Surrey), the British Museum (London), the India Office (Lon-
don), the Biblioteque Nationale (Paris), the Vatican Library and
Archives (Italy), the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.),
the New York Public Record Office, the Boston Public Library,
and the Archivo General de la Nacion (Mexico City).
The senior author owed special thanks to his friend and
colleague, Professor Esteban de Ocampo, for letting him read
valuable Filipiniana materials in his private library.
We hope that the readers of this book may come to
appreciate the country and its historical heritage, which is
uniquely Asian, European, Latin, and American.
Gregorio F. Zaide —
Sonia M. Zaide
ix
As the Philippines enters a new era in its history, I know that my
late father would have wished us all, in this country that he loved so-
much, God speed. To the new generation of Filipino teachers and
students who will see the rise of the Philippines as the “Light of Asia”
in every way — spiritual, political and economic — this book is
dedicated. — :
_ Sonia M. Zaide
4 February 1987
Pagsanjan, Laguna
1
Geographical Foundations
of Philippine History
TO UNDERSTAND THE history of any country, it is
necessary to first know its geography. As the eminent American
social scientist, Dr. Harry E. Barnes, said: “It is geography
which gives individuality to nations and produces the variety of
customs and occupations, which are a product of man’s reaction
to different environments.” No wonder, Friedrich Hegel, famous
German philosopher, regarded, “‘geography as the basis of his-
tory”’.! . :
Philippine Names in Song and Story. The present name
“Philippines”, by which the country is known to the world, was
given by the Spanish explorer, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, in the
year 1543 in honor of Crown Prince Philip, who later became
King Philip II of Spain (1566-1598). This name first appeared
in a rare map published in 1554 by Giovanni Ramusio (Italian
cartographer) in the second edition of his book Della Navigationi
et Viaggi (published in Venice, 1554).?
An early Recollect friar-historian, Rodrigo de Aganduru
Moriz (1584-1626), asserted that the Philippines was an ancient
country called Ophir, a country mentioned in the Old Testament
which supplied King Solomon with gold (1 Kings 9:28).° Some
early Spanish friar-historians, including Father Francisco Colin
(Jesuit) and Fray Juan Francisco de San Antonio (Franciscan),
claimed that the Philippines was the Maniolas,* a group of islands
mentioned by Claudinus Ptolemy (A.D. 90-168) in his geographi-
cal work titled Geographia.
Ages before the coming of Magellan to the country, the
early Chinese traders called the Philippines Ma-yi (Ma-i). This
name first appeared in an old Chinese historical book entitled
Wen Shiann Tun Kao (General Investigation on the Chinese
1
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
One day he became tired and let his heavy burden slide
down his shoulders. As it fell through space, it crashed to
pieces. Out of the shattered fragments arose the lands, includ-
ing the Philippines.
3
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
(50,844 sq. miles), and very much larger than the United King-
dom (94,209 sq. miles).
The largest island in the Philippines is Luzon (40,814 sq.
miles), which is bigger than Hungary (35,918 sq. miles) or Por-
tugal (35,510 sq. miles). Mindanao, the second largest island,
(36,906 sq. miles) is bigger than Austria (32,374 sq. miles).
10
- Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
11
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
12
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
13
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
15
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
longer than the famous Great Wall of China — more than half
of the earth’s circumference. In beauty and symmetry of design
and in durability and massiveness of construction, these rice
terraces can favorably match any epemecyes masterpiece in the
world.
Foreign travelers who have seen the Rice Terraces of Banaue ~
marvel how the ancient ancestors of the Ifugaos, untrained in
engineering science and using only their crude iron tools and
bare hands, could have carved such wondrous irrigated paddies,
on the steep and rocky mountain slopes. No wonder, the Banaue
Rice Terraces have been acclaimed by many writers as the
“Eighth. Wonder of the World”.
The crowning glory of the natural wonders of the Philippines
is Mount Mayon in Albay Province, Southern Luzon. Its majestic
beauty thrills all beholders. It surpasses the famous volcanoes
of the world in beauty, for it possesses “‘the most beautiful
symmetrical volcanic cone”’.7? ©
Another Philippine volcano which fascinates global tourists
is the tiny Taal Volcano at the center of Lake Taal in Batangas.
It is reputed to be the smallest volcano on earth.
Other wondrous sights in the Philippines are the world-fam-
ous Pagsanjan Falls; the legendary Mount Banahaw; the Hidden
Valley in Laguna; the inland Sampaloc Lake in San Pablo City;
the amazing Umbrella Geyser of Barrio Bigas, San Juan, Batan-
gas; the fabulous “submarine gardens”’ off the Latya coast bet-
ween the Lobo and San Juan towns in Batangas Province; the
attractive Matabungkay Beach in Lian, Batangas; the lovely
Sunset Beach of Cavite; the awe-inspiring Montalban Caves in
Rizal; the picturesque Hundred Islands of Lingayen gulf, Pangasi-
nan; the enchanting Crystal Caves near Baguio City; the sparkling
Salinas Salt Springs in Nueva Vizcaya; the enthralling Callao
_Caves in Cagayan; the volcanic Tiwi Hot Springs in Albay; the
_ fascinating White Beach of Legazpi City; the romantic Bulusan
Lake in Sorsogon; the roaring Darosdos Falls in Samar; the
scenic Talisay Beach in Cebu; the storied Guimaras Island and
Roca Encantada Island in Iloilo; the fabulous Chocolate Hills,
more than 1,000 of them in Bohol; the idyllic Lake. Lanao and
the magnificent Maria Cristina Falls in Mindanao; the enigmatic
Underground River in Palawan: and the alluring Kawa-Kawa
Beach in Zamboanga City.
16
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
17
Ae <n a Te
2
The Philippines as a Unique —
Nation in the World
18
The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
19
: HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
zi
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES —
22
The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
23
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
24
bg The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
25
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES~
few peoples on earth, with the exception of the ieee the Chines
and the Russians have suffered as much as the Filipinos. Unlik
the Polynesians of the Pacific and the Indians of the America:
‘they have not vanished in contact with the Europeans. The
readily assimilate -any civilization and thrive in any climate
Against the winds of calamities which regularly visit their lanc
they merely bend, but never break, because they possess ‘th
formidable durability of the narra tree and the resiliency of th
bamboo. a
xk
OK OK *
s
The Dawn of
Philippine History
be - *
27
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
28
4 The Dawn of Philippine History
wave about 1000 B.C. The Indonesians who came ‘in the first
migratory wave were tall in stature, slender in physique, and
light in complexion. Those in the second migratory wave were
shorter in height, bulkier in body, and darker in color.
The Indonesian culture was more advanced than that of the
Negritos. it belonged to the New Stone Age (Neolithic). The
Indonesians lived in grass-covered homes with wooden frames,
built above the ground or on top of trees. They. practised dry
agriculture and raised upland rice, taro (gabi), and other food
crops. Their clothing was made from beaten bark and decorated
with fine designs. They cooked their food in bamboo tubes, for
they knew nothing of pottery. Their other occupations were
hunting and fishing. Their implements consisted of polished stone
axes, adzes, and chisels. For weapons, they had bows and arrows,
spears, shields, and blowguns (sumpit). ae had one domesti-
cated animal — the dog.
Exodus of the Malays to the Pacific World. The seafaring
Malays also navigated the vast stretches of the uncharted Pacific,
discovering and colonizing new islands, as far north as Korea
and southern Japan, as far east as Polynesia, and as far south
as Africa and Madagascar. Their unchronicled and unsung
maritime exploits impressed the British Orientalist A.R. Cowen,
who wrote: ““The Malays indeed were the Phoenicians of the
East, and apparently made even longer hauls than the Semitic
mariners, their oceanic elbowroom giving them more scope than
the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.”?
The prehistoric Malays were the first discoverers and coloniz-
ers of the Pacific world. Long before the time of Columbus and
Magellan, they were already expert navigators. Although they
had no compass and other nautical devices, they made long
- voyages, steering their sailboats by the position of the stars at
night and by the direction of the sea winds by day.
Malayan Immigration to the Philippines. In the course of
their exodus to the Pacific world, the ancient Malays reached
the Philippines. They came in three main migratory waves. The
first wave came from 200 B.C. to 100 A.D. The Malays who
came in this wave were the headhunting Malays, the ancestors
of the Bontoks, Ilongots, Kalingas, and other headhunting tribes
in northern Luzon. The second wave arrived from 100 A.D. to
the 13th century. Those who came in this migratory wave were
29
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
30
The Dawn of Philippine History
32
The Dawn of Philippine History
33
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
34 ‘
t ; The Dawn of Philippine History
4
Emilio Aguinaldo (President of the First Philippine Republic),
_and Sergio Osmefia (first Speaker of the Philippine House of
_ Representatives and second President of the Commonwealth of
the Philippines). —
Many Chinese words are found in the Filipino language.
Among them are sangko (eldest brother), pansit (noodles),
pingga (porter’s pole), tinghoy (oil lamp), and susi (key). Also
Chinese are the surnames of many Filipino families, such as
- Cojuangco, Lim, Tan, Limjuco, Palanca, Tongko, and Yan.
35
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
36
The Dawn of Philippine History
SF
4 |
Asian Heritage
of the Filipinos
AGES BEFORE THE coming of the white men to the ©
Asian world, our Filipino ancestors had their own culture and
life-style, which included their customs, society, government and
laws, writing and language, literature, music, religion, superstiti-
ous beliefs, economy and arts and sciences. All these things, in
the course of time, became the Asian heritage of the Filipino
people.
The Barangays. When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16th
century, they were surprised to see the early Filipinos having a
civilization of their own and living in well-organized independent
villages called barangays. The name barangay originated from
- *balangay, a Malay word meaning “‘sailboat’.’ Evidently, our
seafaring ancestors named their villages after their sailboats.
The barangay was a self-sustaining community, ruled by a
datu. Generally, it consisted of from 30 to 100 families. Some
barangays were quite large, each having a population of more
than 2,000. Among them were Sugbu (Cebu), Maynilad (Manila),
Bigan (Vigan) and Maktan (Mactan).
Houses and Dwellings. The ancient Filipinos lived in houses
in the barangay. These houses were made of wood and bamboo,
roofed by nipa palm leaves and were called bahay kubo (nipa
hut). Each house had a bamboo ladder that could be drawn up
at night or when the family was out. It had also a gallery, called
batalan, where big water jars were kept for bathing and washing
purposes. Under the house were kept the rice, firewood and
animals (dogs, cats and chickens). :
Some of these ancestors lived in tree-houses which were
built on the top of trees for better protection against the enemy,
The Bagobos and Kalingas still live in such houses.
The Badjaos (Sea-Gypsies) of the Sulu Sea still live in
boat-houses, as their forefathers did in ancient times.
38
The Dawn of Philippine History
. Food and Drinks. The staple food of the early Filipinos was
_ fice. Aside from rice, their food consisted of carabao meat,
_ pork, chickens, sea turtles, fish, bananas and other fruits and
vegetables. They cooked their food in earthen pots or in bamboo
_ tubes. They ate with their fingers, using the banana plants as
plates and the coconut shells as drinking cups. They made fire
to cook their food by rubbing two pieces of dry wood which,
when heated, produced a tiny flame. They stored their drinking
water in big earthen jars or in huge clean bamboo tubes.
Their most popular wine was the tuba-which was taken from
coconut sprouts. According to Dr. Antonio de Morga, one of
the early Spanish historians of the country, it was “a wine of
’ the clarity of water, but strong and dry’’.* The other wines they
_ manufactured were the basi, an Ilocano wine brewed from sugar-
cane; pangasi, a Visayan wine made from rice; lambanog, a
- Tagalog wine taken from the coconut palm; and the tapuy, an
- Igorot wine made from rice.
Mode of Dressing. Long before the coming of the Spaniards
the early Filipinos were already wearing clothes. They were not
_ naked savages like the Old Stone Age people in Europe or
_America. The men wore a collarless, short-sleeved jacket called
P kangan and strip of cloth, called bahag, wrapped around the
- waist and in between the legs. The jacket (kangan) reached
- slightly below the waist. It was dyed (tinina) either in blue or
black, except that of the chief which was red. Instead of a hat,
‘the men used the putong, a piece of cloth wound around the
_ head. They had no shoes. They had jewels, such as gold necklaces,
gold armlets called kalombigas, and gold anklets filled with
* agates, carnelians and other colored glass.
The woman wore a wide-sleeved jacket called baro. Their
skirt was called patadyong, a piece of cotton cloth which they
_ wrapped about their waists and let fall to their feet. Their jewels
consisted of gold necklaces, gold bracelets, large gold earrings
and gold rings. These jewels were filled with agates, carnelians,
pearls and other precious gems. They tied their long, black hair
in a graceful knot at the back of their heads. Like the men,
they went about barefoot. Both men and women inserted “‘gold
between their teeth as an ornament”
Tattooes. The early Filipinos tattooed their bodies with var-
ious designs representing animals, birds, flowers and geometric
39
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
49
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos”
_ The parents took good care of the children. The father was
the head of the family. His word was law to the children. The
mother, on the other hand, was the housekeeper. She enjoyed
the sole privilege of naming the children. The names she chose
for them were usually based on certain circumstances. If she
gave birth to a baby girl who showed traces of beauty, she named
her Maganda (Beautiful); if the baby happened to be a boy who
showed signs of physical strength, she named him Malakas
(Strong). © -
41
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
46
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos
47
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
48
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos
49
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
the land was cleared by setting fire to the shrubs and bushes,
after which holes were bored in the ground with pointed sticks
and seeds were then planted there. The second method was the
regular means of tillage using wooden plows and harrows drawn
by carabaos. In some regions, irrigation was used to increase
production as evidenced by the famous onde terraces of north-
ern Luzon. }
They also recognized both systems of public and private
ownership of land. The mountain slopes and less arable lands.
were considered public property of the barangay. The cultivated,
lands were owned privately by the different families. These
private lands were acquired by occupation, jebteae: or inheri-
tance.
Other industries were fishing, mining, lumbering, weaving,
metal work, making of tools and weapons, manufacture of wines,
raising of poultry and stock, tanning and shipbuilding.
The existence of agriculture and industries in the Philippines.
during pre-Spanish times showed that our Filipino forefathers”
possessed a relatively high culture. In the words of Dr. Rizal:'*
All the histories of those first years,in short, abound
in long accounts about the industry and agriculture of the
natives; mines, gold-washings, looms, farms, barter, naval
construction, raising of poultry and stock, weaving of silk
and cotton, distilleries, manufacture of arms, pear! fisheries,
the civet industry, the horn and hide industry, etc., are things
encountered at every step, and, considering the time and the
conditions in the islands, prove that there was life, there was
activity, there was movement.
Su),
Me ae 3
51
5
The Rediscovery of
the Philippines
LONG BEFORE MAGELLAN was born, the Philippines
had been populated by our Filipino ancestors. The coming of
Magellan to Philippine shores in 1521 was a “discovery” to
Occidental peoples, but to Filipinos, it was more of a rediscovery.
The west came to know the islands because of Magellan’s voyage.
This is why Occidental writers acclaim him as the “discoverer
of the Philippines”’.
European Trade with Asia. Since time immemorial, Asian
products, notably silk and spices, found their way into European
marts through several caravan and maritime routes. The Orient
then was a region of mystery to the Europeans, who were stirred
by wondrous tales of Asia’s fabulous riches told by the crusaders —
and by the medieval travelers — Marco Polo, Fr. John of Plano
Carpini, Fr. William of Rubruck, Fr. Odoric of Perdenoni and
Fr. Giovanni Marignolli.
Towards the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks rose to power,
crushed the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land, and even
surged toward Europe. On May 29, 1453, they captured Constan-
tinople. The Christian defenders resisted heroically, but in vain.
The gallant Emperor Constantine XI, last Christian sovereign
of Constantinople, perished in battle.
Geographical Discoveries and Explorations. The fall of Con-
stantinople (1453) and the emergence of the Ottoman Turks
closed the trade routes to the East; hence the bold navigators
of Europe began to blaze new routes across the seas.
Portugal and Spain outstripped other European nations in
geographical discoveries. Under the inspired leadership of Prince
Henry the Navigator, Portuguese sea captains discovered new
52
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
55
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
58
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
60
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
* * * *K *
61
6
_- The Conquest
by Cross and Sword
THE SUCCESS OF Magellan’s voyage paved the way for
Spain’s expansion to the Orient. Expeditions, successively headed
by Loaisa, Cabot, Saavedra, Villalobos and Legazpi, were sent
to the East to explore, conquer and colonize the Philippines and
the Moluccas. The Filipinos resisted the Spanish invasion but to
no avail. In the end they accepted Spanish rule and Christianity.
Loaisa’s Expedition (1525). Shortly after the return of the
Victoria to Spain, another expedition was prepared.’ Commanded
by Garcia Jofre de Loaisa (relative of the archbishop of Seville),
it consisted of seven ships and 450 men. Among the crew were
Sebastian de Elcano and Andres de Urdaneta, then a youthful :
adventurer. .
The expedition left Coruna, Spain on July 24, 1525. Misfor-
tune rode with the fleet. Three ships were lost before reaching
the Pacific. Loaisa died in mid-ocean. Elcano succeeded to the
command, but he died four days later. He was succeeded by
Toribio Alonzo de Salazar, who also died, and then Martin de
Iniguez became commander. The expedition tried to go to Cebu,
but adverse winds drove it to Tidore where Ifiguez died. He
was succeeded by Captain Hernando de la Torre. The survivors,
including Urdaneta, fought the Portuguese in the Moluccas, and
waited for help from Spain.
Cabot’s Expedition (1526). Nearly a year after the departure
of the Loaisa expedition, King Charles I sent another expedition
to the East under the command of Sebastian Cabot, son of the
famous Venetian navigator, John Cabot. He had married a rich
Spanish lady and was in Spain’s service as chief pilot.
With a fleet of four ships and 250 men, Cabot left San
Lucar, Spain, on April 3, 1526.7 He reached the Brazilian coast -
62
The Conquest by Cross and Sword
64
The Conquest by Cross and Swor:
65
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES a
66
&
crown prince, was likewise baptized and was named Carlos, with
Captain Felipe de Salcedo as godfather. Following the example
of their king and prince, the Cebuanos accepted Christianity.
The Conquest. of Panay. Owing to the shortage of food in
Cebu, Legazpi moved to Panay in 1569. On the bank of the
_ Panay River, he founded the second Spanish settlement in the
Philippines. This settlement is now the town of Panay in Capiz
Province.
At the beginning, the Panay Filipinos were hostile. But,
- Owing to the apostolic labors of Fr. Juan de Alba and other
Augustinian missionaries, they were pacified and became friendly
to Legazpi.
Two chiefs of Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong, were
converted to Christianity by the Augustinian missionaries and
became good friends of Legazpi.
Conquest of Other Islands. With Cebu and Panay as bases,
the conquistadores and missionaries, working side by side, suc-
cessfully extended Spanish rule and Christianity to other islands.
In 1569 Captain Luis Enriquez de Guzman, accompanied by Fr.
Alonzo Jimenez, explored and pacified Masbate, Ticao and
Burias. He went as far as Ybalon (Albay) in Southern Luzon.
He was the first white man to see Mount Mayon.
In January 1570, Legazpi sent his fighting grandson, Juan
de Salcedo (who arrived in Cebu from Mexico in 1567), to
Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates who preyed upon Panay’s
villages. With a force of 30 Spaniards and several hundred
Visayan allies, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and
Lubang (islets near Mindoro) and captured Mamburao. The
conquest of Mindoro almost brought the Spaniards to the en-
trance of Manila Bay.
First Conquest of Manila (1570). On May 8, 1570, a Spanish
expedition to Manila left Panay under the command of pene
Martin de Goiti (Captain Salcedo was-second in command).? It
had a fighting force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Bisayans. On the
way, Salcedo explored the Pansipit River in Batangas, where
he had a skirmish with the people and was wounded in the leg
by a poisoned arrow.
At that time Manila was a Muslim kingdom under Raha
Sulayman. It was a civilized outpost of Islam. Sulayman, refusing
67
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
68
The Conquest by Cross and Sword
70
7
The Spanish Colonial System
SPAIN WAS THE first European country to rise as a great
colonizing power in modern times. At the zenith of her glory
and grandeur during the 16th century, her siglo de oro (golden
century), she had far-flung colonies in Africa, the New World
(Latin America and Asia — the first global colonial empire in
history — so that King Philip II was the first monarch to justly
boast that the sun never set on his realm. To rule such extensive
possessions, Spain compiled the first code of colonial laws, called
Leyes de Indias, which modern authorities on colonialism acclaim
as “one of the most humane and one of the most comprehensive
codes published for any colonial empire”’.' However, because
of the distance of the Philippines from Spain and the corruption
and decadence of Spanish officials and friars, especially in the
19th century, these coloniaLlaws were unevenly applied or failed
to benefit the colonies. |
Aims of Spanish Colonization. Spain’s aims in colonizing
overseas lands (including the Philippines) may be keynoted by
three G’s —- God, Gold and Glory. The first and chief aim of
her colonization was the propagation of Catholic Christianity,
which is attested by the Testament” of Queen Isabel the Catholic
(1479-1504) and the Christian spirit of the Leyes de Indias. This
is the reason why every expedition of discovery, exploration and
conquest was accompanied by Christian missionaries. As Dr.
Wilhelm Roscher, noted German authority on Spanish coloniza-
tion, affirmed: “The principal aim of Spanish colonization was
the conversion of the heathen peoples to Christianity.””°
The second aim of Spanish colonization was the desire for
gold or economic wealth. This aim sprang from the struggle
among European powers to monopolize the spice trade of the
Orient and to acquire riches. At that time (as it is today),
material wealth was a measure of greatness among nations.
71
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Polo. Aside from paying the tribute, all male Filipinos
from 16 to 60 years of age were obliged to render forced labor,
called polo. This labor lasted 40 days; later in 1884 it was reduced
to 15 -days. It took various forms, such as the building and
- repairing of roads and bridges, construction of public buildings
and churches; cutting timber in the forest; working in shipyards;
and serving as sailors and soldiers in military expeditions.
_ A person who rendered the forced labor was called polista.
He could be exempted by paying the falla, which was a sum of
money. .
The Filipinos hated the polo, like the tribute. They were -
compelled to render forced labor, while the white Spaniards,
mestizos and Chinese were exempted. What really aroused their
opposition were the abuses connected with it.
The polistas. (Filipinos who rendered forced labor) were,
according to law, to be given a daily wage and rice ration during
their working days. They never received these. And worse, they
were compelled to cut logs in the forests and drag them to the
_ shipyards where they were made into ships for the Spaniards.
Because.of this hard labor, many polistas died. Often they were
forcibly taken away to work in the shipyards and served as
rowers in Spanish expeditions during planting and harvesting
seasons.
Some of the early Filipino revolts against Spain were caused
by ,the polo. One of these revolts was the Sumoroy Rebellion
in Samar in 1649- 1650.
Abolition of Slavery. One of the good things which Spain
had done for the people was the abolition of slavery. The early
_ Spanish missionaries urged the king to abolish slavery in the
Philippines.
* On October 17, 1581, Bishop Domingo Salazar anid the
heads of different religious orders met at the Augustinian convent
in Tondo, Manila. After due deliberation, they signed a document
denouncing to King Philip II the Spaniards in the Philippines
who kept slaves contrary to the law of God and in pees of
the Laws of the Indies.
- King Philip I, heeding the complaint of Bishop Salazar and
the religious fathers, issued the Royal Decree of August 9, 1589
emancipating all native slaves.
78
The Spanish Colonial System
' The church had its own court, called the Archbishop’s Court,
which tried cases involving Canon Law and cases concerning the
clergy.
80
The Spanish Colonial System
* K * * *
81
)
Spain’s Dream :
in Asia of Empire.
NO SOONER HAD Spain obtained a foothold in the Philip-
pines than the conquistadores cast imperialist eyes on other
Asian countries and dreamed of a vast Spanish empire spanning
the globe. Indeed, the conquest of the Philippines made Spain
the greatest colonial empire in the 16th century, just as the
American colonization of the Philippines turned the United States
_ into a global power in the 20th century.
Threats to Spanish Colonization of the Philippines. However,
the Spanish colonial empire in the Philippines suffered from
various threats, coming from outside the colony and within the
colony itself, which eventually brought about the downfall of
_ their reign in the islands. The centrifugal or outside forces
threatening the integrity of the Spanish colony in the Philippines
were as follows: (1) the Portuguese Wars (1568-1580); (2) the
Dutch Wars (1556-1648); (3) the British Invasion (1762-1764);
and (4) the Spanish-American War (1898).
The centripetal or internal forces which undermined Spanish
rule in the Philippines were as follows: (1) the Moro Wars; (2)
the abuses of Spanish officials and friars; (3) Filipino revolts
against Spain; and finally (4) the Philippine Revolution (1896-
1898).
Hispano-Portuguese Wars. Portugal and Spain,both Iberian
in geography, Christian in religion and Latin in culture, were
bitter rivals in world colonization. To prevent war between them,
Pope Alexander VI had to draw a demarcation line in 1493.
dividing the world into Portuguese and Spanish spheres of col-
onization. This line was shifted by the Treaty of Tordesillas
(1499) and reshifted by the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529). In the
latter treaty Spain sold the Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold
82
Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
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Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
85
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
_ Walls of Manila. While the expedition was still off the Batangas
coast, the Chinese rowers mutinied and killed the governor.
Because of the death of Governor Perez Dasmarifias, the expe-
_ dition did not proceed to Moluccas.
Meanwhile the Dutch, enemy of Spain, appeared in the
Moluccas. They traded and negotiated alliances of friendship
with the native rulers, particularly Sultan Zaide, Muslim Malay
ruler of Ternate. To conquer Ternate, Governor Acuna person-
ally led a mighty expedition of 36 ships, 1,614 Filipino warriors,
1,428 Spaniards and 59 Portuguese allies to the Moluccas.* This
expedition reached Ternate on March 26, 1606. On April 1,
Governor Acuna, with the help of the Tidore warriors (allies
of Spain), began the attack on Sultan Zaide’s fortress in Ternate.
The Ternate forces fought courageously and repulsed the invad-
ers. The battle raged furiously for several days. Due to his heavy
casualties, the valiant sultan evacuated the battered fortress and
retreated, with his surviving warriors to the mountains, where
he carried on the struggle.
Unable to crush Sultan Zaide by force of arms, Governor
Acufia resorted to a dirty trick. He invited the sultan to a peace
parley at his camp, with a soiemn promise that no harm would
come to him. As a matter of fact, Acufa gave the sultan a
written safe conduct, signed by him and dated April 6, 1606.
_ Trusting the Spanish word of honor, Sultan Zaide, accom-
panied by his son and several chieftains, went to Acuna’s camp
on April 10. Immediately, in violation of the written and signed
safe conduct, the sultan and his companions were seized and
taken prisoners. Thus Governor Acuna was able to conquer
Ternate.
The perfidious Governor Acuna returned to Manila in
triumph on May 31, 1606, bringing spoils of war and many
Ternate prisoners, including Sultan Zaide. He was given a hero’s
welcome. Nearly a month after his joyous return, on June 24,
1606, Acufia was poisoned mysteriously. His murderer was
neither apprehended nor identified.
Spain Loses the Moluccas. The Spanish occupation of the
Moluccas did not last long. After Acufia’s time, the Dutch
threatened Spain’s sovereignty. In 1607-1609 Tidore and Ternate
fell to the Dutch. In the ensuing years, Spanish authorities tried
87
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The battle between Morga and Van Noort was the first
recorded Spanish-Dutch armed clash in our country. It took
place off the coast of Nasugbu, Batangas, on December 14,
1600. After six hours of fierce engagement, Morga’s flagship, the —
San Diego, sank. Morga and his surviving men saved themselves
by swimming to nearby Fortuna island. The other Spanish galleon
captured the Dutch ship, the Concord, which was under the
command of Lambert Vleisman, an English mariner in the Dutch —
service. Van Noort escaped on board his flagship, the Maurice, .
and returned to Holland. He became the first Dutch to circum- —
navigate the world.
_ Wittert’s Last Battle. The second Dutch attack occurred in
1609. In October of that year, a Dutch squadron led by Admiral
Francois de Wittert bombarded Iloilo. Wittert tried to take the
town, but he was repulsed. by the gallant Filipinos under the
command of Don Fernando de Ayala.
Following his defeat in Hoilo, Wittert proceeded to Manila ~
- and blockaded it. For five months he was master of the bay.
Meanwhile, the Spanish authorities prepared a fleet. Day and -
night, Filipino laborers worked to put some old galleons in —
fighting shape. The church bells were hauled to the foundry and
cast into cannons. Even the iron grills from private homes were |
taken and melted into cannonballs and bullets. A fleet of six
ships was finally made ready for action. |
On St. Mark’s Day, April 24, 1610, the Saanich fleet under
the command of Governor Juan de Silva, made contact with |
Wittert’s flotilla of five ships off Playa Honda and a furious —
naval battle ensued. Filipino-Spanish arms won agreat victory |
that day. The fight proved to be Wittert’s last battle. He died |
in action and his flotilla was destroyed. Only one Dutch ship|
escaped. It brought home the sad news of the dutch disaster at
Playa Honda. Governor Silva and his victorious fleet proudly ;
returned to Manila with 250 Dutch prisoners and a rich boone
of war.
Speilbergen’s Attack (1616). On February 28, 1616, Admiral ||
Joris Van Speilbergen, leading a Dutch fleet, appeared at the .
entrance of Manila Bay. For over a week, he plundered all boats
bringing provisions to Manila. Upon learning the news that a
large Spanish expedition under the command of Governor Juan
de Silva was in the East Indies, he immediately lifted the blockad@
and sailed away.
90
Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
fight, the other galleon came and the tide of battle turned against
the invaders. This was the fifth victory against. the Protestant
Dutch in the same year. The victorious Filipinos and Spaniards
returned to Manila where they were joyously received by. the
people. All of them, officers as well as the crew, marched
barefoot. to the Church of Santo Domingo and offered their
Thanksgiving prayer to their fleet patroness — Our Lady of the
Holy Rosary. In recognition of the Blessed Virgin’s aid in consum-
mating the five successive victories, the festivity of “La Naval
de Manila” was declared by the government on June9, 1652.
From that time on, this festival has become a Catholic tradition
in Manila. It is celebrated in the month of October.
The Massacre of Abucay. On June 10, 1647, 12 Dutch ships
from Batavia under the command of Admiral Martin Gertzen
entered Manila Bay and bombarded Cavite. Failing to take
Cavite, Gertzen withdrew to Corregidor. Three days later, he
returned and again shelled Cavite. During the fierce artillery
duel, he was killed by a cannonball and his flagship was sunk.
After their defeat in Cavite, the Dutch plundered the coastal
towns of Bataan. They captured Abucay and massacred 400
Filipino soldiers who defended it.
The tragic news of the Abucay massacre reached Manila
and aroused the wrath of both Filipinos and Spaniards. A large
force of Filipino troops under Captain Juan de Chaves was
rushed to Bataan. The Filipino soldiers, fighting hard to avenge
their compatriots, routed the Dutch invaders and forced them
to sail away.
Last Dutch Atttack. After their defeat at Abucay, the Dutch
continued to menace the Philippines. In Europe, peace came
between Spain and Holland by virtue of the Treaty of Westphalia
(1646), whereby all Spanish-Dutch hostilities ceased and Spain
recognized the independence of Holland. But in the Far East,
both Spaniards and Dutch disregarded the peace treaty and
continued their colonial wars.
The last Dutch attack on the Philippines occurred in April
1848 when two Dutch warships anchored off Jolo and demanded
the return of some Dutchmen who were captured by the Taosugs.
The Moro sultan rejected their demand, and the Dutch bom-
barded Jolo. The sultan and his warriors fought with fierce
92
. Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
94
Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
* # * * X
95
9
Relations with the
Chinese and Japanese
PHILIPPINE RELATIONS WITH the Chinese and
Japanese, which began during pre-Magellanic times, continued
throughout the Spanish period. At the beginning of their rule,
the Spanish authorities cultivated the goodwill and friendship of
both Chinese and Japanese in order to retain their valuable
economic services and to preserve Manila’s lucrative trade with
China and Japan. However, distrust and suspicion marred the
Spanish policy. At various times the Philippines was rocked by
Chinese and Japanese uprisings which were suppressed at the
heavy cost of many human lives and much property damage. _
First Sino-Spanish Contact. As early asin 1521, Magellan
found Chinese wares brought by Chinese traders who came to
the Philippines long before his arrival on Philippine shores. He
actually saw Chinese porcelain wares and gongs in Masao
and Cebu, but he never met any Chinese trader.
The first recorded contact between Chinese and Spaniards
was on May 8, 1570 off the coast of Mindoro.’ On that day the
Spanish expedition, led.by Marshal Martin de Goiti, happened
to stop in Mindoro on its way to Maynilad.. At that time two
Chinese trading junks were at anchor off Mindoro. The Chinese
traders, thinking that the approaching Spanish vessels were going
to attack them, resisted by firing their rockets and culverins. A
sea fight ensued, in which Goiti captured both Chinese junks.
Upon finding out that the Chinese were peaceful traders,
not hostile enemies, Goiti set them free and returned their
cargoes of trade goods. After the incident, he proceeded to
Maynilad and captured it, after a furious battle against Raha
Sulayman and his warriors. In this captured city-kingdom, Goiti
found 40 Chinese settlers who were married to native women.
96
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eeeet™ ey
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
100
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
_ The revolt raged for more than three months. With the
help of the loyal Filipino archers, Governor General Corcuera
drove the rebels to the mountains of Laguna. By the end of
February, 1640, the Chinese rebels, hungry and tired, surren-
dered to the governor general at the town of Pagsanjan. About
20,000 Chinese lost their lives in the revolt. Property losses
amounted to P7,000,000 in the 22 towns plundered or burned
by the rebels. ©
101
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES —
Morga said: “They are treated very cordially, as they are a race
that demand good treatment, and it is advisable to do so for
the friendly relations between the Islands and Japan. a
Hideyoshi’s Projected Invasion. The first Japanese threat
against the Philippines was a plan of invasion by Hideyoshi.
Fearing the rising tide of Spanish imperialism in the Orient, he
sent an envoy named Harada Magosichiro to Manila in May,
1592, with a letter demanding tribute and homage from the
Spanish authorities, otherwise he would invade the Philippines.
_ To forestall Hideyoshi’s threat, Governor General Perez Das.
marifias sent a Spanish ambassador to Japan, bearing valuable
gifts to him and a letter courteously evading the demand fo1
tribute and homage.
Dissatisfied with the Spanish reply, Hideyoshi sent anothei —
enjoy named Harada Kiemon (Magosichiro’s uncle) with a
stronger letter, reiterating his demand. Another Spanish ambas- —
sador went to Japan with more gifts and a diplomatic reply. For
a time domestic affairs in Japan and the war in Korea distracted.
Hideyoshi’s attention. But in 1596 the garrulous pilot of the
Spanish galleon San Felipe, which was stranded on Tesa’s coast,
boasted of the far-flung conquests made by Spain with the aid
of Christian missionaries. This aroused Hideyoshi’s fear of the
Spanish missionaries in Japan and prompted him to prepare his
forces for an invasion in the Philippines. Fortunately for the
Spaniards, he died on September 16, 1598. With him perished —
Japan’s first attempt to invade the Philippines.
Subsequent Japanese Plans of Invasion. Several ambitious
daimyos in later times revived Hideyoshi’s scheme to invade the ©
Philippines. In 1618 Date Masamune conceived of such a venture,
but nothing came out of it. In 1630 Matsukura Sigemasa sent —
two Japanese spies to the Philippines to survey Spanish defenses. |
He died before the spies returned to Japan. In 1637 the Dutch
in Japan offered to furnish ships for the conquest of the Philip-
pines, but the Tokugawa Shogunate, desiring to cultivate Spain’s
friendship was no longer interested in-overseas expansion.
First Japanese Revolt (1606). The first Japanese revolt occur-
red in 1606 while Governor General Acuna was away fighting .
in the Moluccas. The Japanese residents were enraged by an
order of the Royal Audiencia to deport them from the country.
During these tense situation in Manila, a Spaniard happened to
104
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
105
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
in Japan. This town did not last long. After them no more
Christian Japanese immigrants came to Manila because
Tokugawa Shogun Iyemitsu closed Japan to the world. Some of
the young adventurous Japanese residents, including a grandson
of Takayama Ukon, secretly returned to Japan. The rest of the
residents died one after another. Shortly after 1656, the last few
Japanese residents of San Miguel died out. By this time San ©
Miguel was no longer-a Japanese town, but a town of native
Filipinos and some Filipino-Japanese mestizos. Thus the second
Japanese town of San Miguel vanished on the wings of time.
Exodus of Japanese Christians. Most of the Japanese immig-
rants who settled in the Philippines were Christians. They were
expelled from thei: own country because of their Christian faith.
Apart from the group led by Takayama Ukon in 1614,
more shiploads of persecuted Japanese Christians reached Manila
in subsequent times. In 1632 the Japanese authorities sent a
shipload of Japanese lepers to Manila. These lepers were placed
under the Franciscan friars who took good care of them at the
Hospital of San Lazaro.
Growth and Decline of Japanese Immigration. As mentioned
before, in 1570, Marshal Goiti found 20 Japanese in Manila. In —
1592, at the time of Hideyoshi’s threat of invasion, there were
300 Japanese residents in the Philippines. With the persecution
and expulsion of Christian Japanese in Japan, more and more —
Japanese settled in Manila. In 1619 the Japanese population had
reached 2,000, and in 1621 this number increased to 3,000 the —
highest record ever attained during Spanish times.
The closing of Japan to the world by Shogun Iyemitsu in
1639 stopped Japanese immigration to the Philippines. Thus the
Japanese population in the Philippines dwindled. ,
Renewal of Philippine-Japanese Relations. In 1853 Commo-
dore Matthew C. Perry, leading a squadron of American war-
ships, reopened Japan to the world. Consequently, Philippine-
Japanese relations were revived. In 1875 a Japanese economic
mission visited Manila to promote Philippine-Japanése trade.
The Japanese consulate was established in Manila in 1889.
Filipino patriots who were persecuted by the Spanish
authorities fled to Japan, where they were welcomed. Japan’s —
victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1894-95) was greeted by all
106
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
* eK ek K OX
107
WO
Philippine-Mexican Relations
FOR NEARLY THREE centuries (1527-1821) there were
close relations between the Philippines and Mexico. The Saavedra
(1527), Villalobos (1543), and Legazpi (1564) expeditions were.
fitted out in Mexico, financed by Mexican funds, and manned
by Mexicans. What linked these two countries more intimately
was the galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco. No wonder,
Filipinos and Mexicans now cherish nostalgic memories of their
past history.
The Philippines under Mexico. From the days of Legazpi to |
the year 1821, the Philippines was a part of the Viceroyalty of
- Mexico. The Mexican viceroy governed the country for the king
of Spain. Every year, he sent official dispatches, officials, mis- —
sionaries, and military reinforcements to Manila. The Spanish
authorities in Manila submitted reports to him on Philippine ~
conditions and needs. f
In religious matters, too, the Philippines was under the
jurisdiction of Mexico. The Inquisition of Mexico was represented —
by a commissary in Manila. All white persons (Spaniards, French,
Irish, English, etc.) who were suspected of heresy were arrested
in Manila and shipped to Mexico City for trial. The Bishopric
of Manila, prior to its elevation to an archbishopric in 1595, was,
a diocese of the Archbishopric of Mexico.
. Furthermore, the Philippines was financially dependent upon
Mexico. The government could not balance its colonial budget
every year. Upon the king’s orders, the Mexican viceroy sent a
royal subsidy (real situado) to Manila annually. This subsidy,
averaging P250,000 a year, was taken from Mexico’s treasury. ©
It helped to cover up the deficits ‘of the colonial government.
Books Printed in Mexico. During the Spanish times, many
valuable books on Philippine history, linguistics, economics, and —
religion were printed in Mexico. The famous book of Dr. Antonio
108
Philippine-Mexican Relations
111
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
In 1811 the Manila galleon San Carlos could not land its
cargo in Acapulco because the port was then being besieged by
Mexican patriots under General Jose Maria Morelos. It sailed
' away and disposed its cargo at a big loss in the port of San
Blas. On August 20, 1813, General Morelos captured Acapulco.’
He burned the port, including Fort San Diego on a hill overlook-
ing the harbor. Months later, he evacuated. Acapulco because
of the coming of a strong Spanish army.
On September 25, 1813, King Ferdinand VII abolished the
government monopoly of the galleon trade. Two years later
(1815), the galleon Magallanes, which had left Manila in 1811,
returned to Manila. This was the last government-owned galleon
to participate in the Manila-Acapulco trade.
113
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
114
Philippine-Mexican Relations
115
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
for their salaries had not been paid for many months. To raise
the needed funds, he confiscated the chests of 5,000,000 Mexican
silver pesos which were being carried by burro train from Mexico
City to San Blas to be loaded on a Manila-bound galleon. Part
of this silver cargo belonged to Dona Ana, Marquesa de Las
Salinas (wife of Dr. Paul de la Gironiere, French physician in
Manila)."!
Two years later (1821), General Iturbide again confiscated
the chests of several millions of silver pesos which were being
transported by burro train from Mexico City to Acapulco for
shipment to Manila. This silver cargo belonged to several Manila
merchants, including Don Antonio de Escura. Many years after-
wards, in 1859, Pedro de Escura, son of the deceased Antonio
de Escura, went to Mexico to seek reparations for his father’s
losses. Upon arrival in Mexico City, he wrote a formal letter,
dated December 30, 1859 to President Benito Juarez of the
- Mexican Republic requesting payment for his late father’s silver
cargo seized by General Iturbide in 1821.'* After failing in his
mission, he resided permanently in Mexico and married a rich
Mexican heiress.
* * K KF *
117
lL.
The Moro Wars
118
The Moro Wars
119
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
struck and left horrible trails of blood and death. In 1769 the
Moros landed at Malate within sight of the Spanish cannons,
. plundered the place, and sailed away with 20 prisoners and rich
spoils of war.
According to Spanish records, the Moros captured an aver-
age of 500 Christians annually and sold them as slaves in Betavia,
Sandakan, and in other slave markets in the East Indies. Between
1778 and 1793, the Spanish government spent more than one
million pesos for sje abe operations against the marauding
Moros.
Missionaries as Moro Fighters. In the course of the Moro
Wars many missionaries won fame as gallant warriors. They
fought side by side.with the soldiers in the defense of the Cross
against the plunging hordes of the Crescent. Foremost among
them was Fr. Agustin de San Pedro, Recollect missionary and
military genius, who fought the Moros in Mindanao and defended
Romblon in 1644 against a Moro raid. Because of his military
exploits, he came to be called the Padre Capitan (Priest Captain).
Other missionary-heroes of the Moro Wars were Fr. Antonio
de Santa Ana (Recollect), who died on the parapet of Fort
Taytay in 1736 while fighting the Moros; Fr. Marcelino del
Espiritu Santo (Recollect), who successfully repulsed the Moro
attack on Cuyo in 1752; Fr. Jose Ducos (Jesuit), who frustrated
the Moro raid against Iligan in 1752; and Fr. Pascual Ibanez
(Recollect), who perished in action during Urbiztondo’s assault
on Jolo in 1851.
Decline of the Moro Raids. Toward the closing decades of
the 19th century the Moro power declined and the raids lost
their sting. In 1848 the first steamships purchased by Spain in
England — the Magallanes, the Elcano, and the Reina de Castilla
— arrived in Manila Bay. Their arrival sounded the death-knell
of Moro supremacy in the seas, for the steamships could outsail
the fastest Moro vinta.
On February 16, 1848, Governor General Narciso Claveria,
using the new steamships, attacked the Samals at Balanguigui.
He destroyed their kutas and brought 350 Samal prisoners to
Manila. In recognition of his brilliant victory, the Spanish Crown
conferred on him the. title of “Count of Manila” and decorated
him with the Grand Cross of San Fernando. The city of Manila
gave him a sword of exquisite workmanship.
127
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
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HISTORY
OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
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130
12
British Invasion of the
Philippines
131
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
of the British Fleet in the Far East ordering him to take possession
of Mindanao and to give all assistance to the Pa East India
Company in establishing its settlement there.” This top secret
royal communique, which is now preserved in the British arc-
hives, is not known to many Filipino historians.
Outbreak of War Between Spain and England. Spain and
England, two traditional rivals in global colonization in the
eighteenth century, came to be-.involved in the raging Seven
Years War in Europe. In the course of this titanic conflict which
also involved other powers (Austria, France, Prussia, Holland,
Hungary, and Czarist Russia), Charles III, Bourbon king of
Spain signed a dynastic alliance at Versailles on August 25, 1761
known as the ‘“‘Family Compact’’, in which he agreed to help
his kinsman, Louis XV, Bourbon king of France in the war
against England. In retaliation, King George III, an enemy of
France, declared war on Spain on January 2, 1762, and prepared
the Brifish expeditionary forces to attack the Spanish colonies
in the Americas and the Orient.
Thus war erupted between Spain and England. This war
was a part of the Seven Years War in Europe, which also spread
to North America, where it was known as the ‘French and ~
Indian War” and to India, where the British under Robert Clive
clashed with the French led by Marquis Joseph Dupleix.
Arrival of the British Invaders in Manila Bay. Upon King
George III’s orders, a British Expeditionary Force was prepared
by the East India Company at Madras, India. It consisted of 13
ships, namely, Norfolk (flagship), Elizabeth, Grafton, Lenox,
Falmouth, Weymouth, America, Panther, Argos, Seahorse,
Osterly, Seaford, and South Sea Castle. The troops numbered
6,830 consisting of 1,500 European soldiers (including 250 French
mercenaries), 3,000 European seamen and marines, two.artillery.
companies, 600 Sepoys, and 1,400 Indian laborers. The comman-
der of the fleet was Admiral Cornish, while General William
Draper was in command of the troops.
On the evening of September 22, 1762 (Manila time), the
British fleet entered Manila Bay. The Spanish authorities and
city residents saw through the early night darkness the strange
ships entering Manila Bay and mistook them for Chinese trade
junks. They were woefully unaware that war had come between
Spain and England, for they had not received any war news
132
British Invasion of the Philippines
134
British Invasion of the Philippines
136
British Invasion of the Philippines
138
~%
British Invasion of the Philippines
Four months later, May 31, 1764, Anda and his troops made
their triumphal entry into Manila amidst the vivas of the
populace, the salutes of guns, and the strains of music. In the
patio (yard) of Santa Cruz Church, the impressive ceremony of
the restoration of Spanish sovereignty was held.’ Shortly after-
ward the British sailed away, ending an occupation of one year
and a half. .
Results of the British Invasion. The British invasion brought
the Philippines within the orbit of world attention. When the
-news of the capture of Manila by British arms was flashed to
Europe, the British people and European diplomats scrambled
for maps and learned for the first time in their lives where the
Philippines was located. |
The capture of Manila diminished Spain’s prestige in the
Philippines. Hitherto the Filipinos believed in the invincibility of
Spanish arms. When Manila fell into the hands of the British,
the Filipinos came to realize that the Spaniards could be beaten
after all, so that later they rose in various revolts, especially in
the Ilocos, under Silang, and in Pangasinan, under Palaris.
During the brief British occupation of Manila, the city was
opened to foreign trade. The British merchants in India learned
_of the commercial potentialities of the Philippines. The Indian
-money, known as rupees, was introduced in Manila.
Lastly, many Sepoy soldiers, deserted from the British army,
settled at Cainta, and married Filipino women. Many of the
present-day people of this town have dark round eyes, high
aquiline noses, wavy dark hair, and dark complexion — attesting ©
to their Indian (Sepoy) ancestry.
* Ke OK F OK
139
3
Filipino Revolts
Against Spanish Rule
Although the Filipinos became Spanish subjects and Chris-
tians, they never lost their love for freedom and fighting spirit ©
which were part of their imperishable heritage from their valiant
Malay ancestors. History reveals that throughout the three cen-
turies of their colonial bondage to Spain, they had risen in more
than 100 revolts to regain their lost freedom or in defense of:
their God-given human rights. Out of these struggles, which
unfortunately were suppressed by Spanish arms, arose the first
heroes of the Philippine libertarian epic, such as Raha Sulayman,
Lakan Dula, Agustin de Legazpi, Magat Salamat, Magalat, —
‘Tamb:ot, Bankaw, Sumoroy, Maniago, Malong, Pedro Almazan,
Tumalang, Dagohoy, Diego Silang, Mrs. Diego Silang, Palaris,
Apolinario de la Cruz (Hermano Pule), Sergeant Samaniego,
and others.
Causes of Revolts against Spain. Many of the early revolts
against Spanish rule were caused chiefly by the people’s desire
to regain their lost freedom and happiness. Illustrative of these —
were the Revolt of Lakan Dula and Raha Sulayman (1574), the
Tondo Conspiracy (1587-1588), the Malong Rebellion (1660-
1661), the Dagohoy Rebellion (1744-1829), the Silang Rebellion
(1762-1763), and the Palaris Rebellion (1762-1764).
Other revolts were caused by Spanish oppression, the hated
' tribute, the forced labor, and the religious persecution. Among
the revolts sparked by these causes were the First Pampanga
Revolt (1585), the Magalat Revolt (1596), the Revolt of the
Irrayas (1621), the Cagayan Revolt of 1639, the Sumoroy Rebeil-
ion (1649-1650), and the Maniago Revolt (1660).
Some revolts were economic in nature, being caused by
agrarian disputes with the friars who grabbed the lands of the
140
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
These were the first native revolts against the hated tribute
and the corrupt tribute collectors. Although they were easily
suppressed by government troops, more revolts of a similar
nature were to come one after another in subsequent years.
145
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
forebears. With the help of his sons and a native priest (named
Pagali), he incited the people of Carigara, Leyte, to rise in arms
in defense of their old gods and religion. From that town, the
revolt spread like wildfire to other towns until the whole island
was plunged into a chaos of armed resistance. The Jesuit Fr.
Melchor de Vera hurried to Cebu and warned the Spanish
authorities of the uprising.
Alcalde-Mayor Alcarazo equipped a flotilla of 40 vessels,
manned by hundreds of Cebuanos and some _ Spanish
arquebusiers, and sailed to Leyte. The rebels were offered peace,
but they spurned the peace offer, and fled to their fortification
in the hills. The Spanish-Filipino forces pursued them and
defeated them in a decisive battle. The aged Bankaw perished
in the fight, together with his first son and Pagali; his second
son was beheaded as a traitor; and his daughter was taken
captive. Bankaw’s head was severed from his body and placed
on a stake and exhibited in public as a punishment for his
infidelity and apostasy.!*
148
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
151
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
for Don Manuel de Arza and his loyal Filipino troops came and
quelled it. The leaders were executed.
The Basi Revolt (1807).2” The establishment of the govern-
ment monopoly of wine in 1786 aroused deep indignation among
the people of Ilocandia, whose free manufacture of the popular
basi (wine fermented from sugarcane) was curtailed. Owing to
the wine monopoly, the Ilocanos were prohibited to drink
homemade basi and were compelled to buy their wine from
government stores.
On September 16, 1807, the Ilocanos of Pidding, Ilocos
Norte, rose in arms in defense of their favorite basi. This unique
revolt, the only one of its kind in the annals of the Philippines,
resembled in principle the Whisky Rebellion of 1794 in American
history. It spread to the neighboring towns, notably Badoc and
Santo Domingo. The Spanish alcalde-mayor, who was residing
in Vigan, sent a force of 36 soldiers and two columns of civilian
guards with a cannon to attack Badoc, where the rebels were
entrenched. A sanguinary fight took place, and the rebels crushed
the government force and captured the cannon.
After winning the battle of Badoc, the basi-drinking patriots
planned to attack Vigan and later Manila. On September 28,
1807, the alcalde-mayor, leading a strong force of regular troops,
attacked them at San Ildefonso. The fighting Ilocanos were
defeated and their revolt was quelled.
Revolt in Defense of a Constitution (1815).7° This unique
revolt in Philippine history was the bloody Sarrat uprising which
erupted on March 3, 1815 in defense of the Spanish Constitution
of 1812. This constitution, it should be remembered, was prom-
ulgated by the Spanish Cortes (Parliament), approved and signed
on March 19, 1812 by 184 delegates of Spain and her overseas
colonies (including the Philippines). One of its signers was Ven-
tura de los Reyes, Philippine delegate.
This Spanish Constitution was very much influenced by the
political legacies of the French Revolution — Liberty, Equality,
and Fraternity. It granted human rights to both Spaniards in
Spain and the inhabitants of Spanish overseas colonies. Signifi-
cantly, it was the first written constitution ever to be applied to
the Philippines. The Filipino people, who had been oppressed for
many years by both Spanish colonial officials and bad friars,
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Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
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164
: Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
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14
Kconomic Deyelopment
under Spain
SPAIN STRESSED the religious aspects of colonization
and neglected to promote the economic development of the —
Philippines. Despite many good laws and policies on the ©
economic welfare of the colony, the country languished miserably
due to the corruption, ignorance and indolence of Spanish offi-
cials and friars. In the end, Spain could only give what she herself
possessed: when the Spanish empire declined, so did the colonies
of Spain suffer. Ironically, the period of rapid economic growth
in the 19th century also brought about the political enlightenment
of the Filipinos who became eager to ensure their share of
material progress and to assert their equality with the Spaniards.
Spain’s Economic Policy. The pace of economic development
of the Philippines under Spain was generally slow because the
latter lacked the enterpreneurial merchants and materialistic-drive
of England, Holland and the United States. Ironically, this was _
a blessing in disguise to the Filipinos. Had Spain fully exploited
the country’s rich natural resources, these resources would have ©
more rapidly been depleted, only to benefit the Spaniards and
not the Filipinos. Hence, while harsh critics of Spain have pil-
loried her for “negligence” in developing the economy, that —
colonial deficiency ensured the preservation of the nation’s pat-
rimony for future generations.
The colonial government, owing to the undeveloped
economy of the Philippines, could not maintain its expenses and
suffered a deficit every year: To relieve the financial worries of
Manila authorities, King Philip III established the annual sues
(real situado) in 1606.
As we have seen in Chapter 10, the annual subsidy came
from the Mexican treasury and the galleon trade, averaging
about P250,000 per year.
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time when Manila was called the “Pearl of the Orient”.! Much
of her prosperity came from the Manila-Acapulco trade.
In due time the Spanish merchants of Cadiz and Seville
protested because their trade with Mexico was waning due to
the flow of cheaper and better Oriental goods (particularly
Chinese silks and ceramics) to the Mexican market. To protect
their interests, they appealed to the Spanish Crown to restrict
the Manila-Acapulco trade. On account of the prevailing doctrine
of.mercantilism which influenced the colonial policies of Euro-
pean imperialist powers, Spain transformed the —
trade into a government monopoly in 1593.
End of the Galleon Trade. The Manila-Acapulco trade was
also called the “‘galleon trade’’ because the ships used to ferry
the cargoes across the Pacific Ocean were the galleons, bulky
slow sailing vessels. Many galleons were tragically lost, resulting
in economic distress in both the Philippines and Mexico.
At the beginning, the galleon trade was very profitable, and
Spanish officials and residents concentrated their efforts in it
and amassed big fortunes. By the 19th century, it had lost its
prosperity, and it was finally abolished in 1815.
; Effects of the Galleon Trade. The galleon trade took up all
the attention of the Spanish officials, to the utter neglect of other
important economic activities. It enriched only a few Spaniards,
for it was “more gambling than commerce”’.’ It caused Spaniards
to flock to Manila, leaving the provinces without benefit of their
colonial services. And it hampered the economic development
of the Philippines, because agriculture and other industries were
neglected in favor of overseas commerce with Acapulco.
Basco and Economic Progress. The real beginnings of
economic progress in the Philippines came during the administ-
ration of Jose Basco (1778-87), the most economically-minded
Spanish governor general. His policy was to develop the natural
resources of the Philippines so as to make her financially inde-
pendent of Mexico. Accordingly, he adopted a general economic
plan which aimed to foster Philippine agriculture, commerce,
and industries. He offered prizes to all persons who could excel
in the cultivation of cotton, mulberry trees, and spices; to those
who could manufacture silk, porcelain, hemp, flax, and cotton;
to those who could develop the mines of gold, iron, copper,
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Economic Development Under Spain
and tin; to those who could make useful inventions; and to those
who could distinguish themselves in arts and sciences.
Governor General Basco issued circulars on better methods
of producing cotton, silk, sugar, and other commodities. He
ordered the planting of 4,000,000 mulberry trees in Camarines
in order to foster the silk industry. Furthermore, on March 20,
1784, he issued a decree providing that the lands, carabaos, and
farm implements of the farmers could not be seized by creditors,
and that they could not be arrested or jailed during the time of
planting or harvesting of crops.°
_ Three outstanding events during Basco’s administration con-
tributed to Philippine economic development, namely: (1) the
founding of the Economic Society of Friends of the Country in
1781, (2) the establishment of the tobacco monopoly in 1782, .
_and (3) the creation of the Royal Company of the Philippines
in 1785.
Economic Society of Friends of the Country. To implement
his general plan, Governor General Basco founded the Economic
Society of Friends of the Country. This society was inaugurated
in Manila on April 26, 1781, with Ciriaco Carvajal, member of
the Manila Audiencia, as first president.
‘The Economic Society helped much in the agricultural
advancement of the Philippines. In 1784 it made the first shipment
of indigo to Europe. In 1824 it imported martines (birds) from
China to fight the locusts that were destroying Philippine crops.
In 1825 it granted free scholarships to eight Filipinos to study
the art of dyeing in Manila. In 1829 it imported machines for
hulling rice from Cadiz, Spain: In 1837 it awarded a prize of
P1,000 to Dr. Paul de la Gironiere, French physician and planter,
for raising good coffee in his plantation in Jala-Jala. In 1853 it
gave a prize of P2,000 and a gold medal to Candido Lopez Diaz,
Filipino inventor, for inventing a machine for cleaning hemp
fibers. In 1861 it founded the first agricultural school in Manila.
It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy (from which
opium is extracted), and mulberry trees.
Finally, it imported agricultural implements, cotton, seeds,
and spinning machinery from the United States.
The Economic Society of Friends of the Country declined
after Basco’s time and died out in 1809. It was reestablished in
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171
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175
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* Ke K K
177
15 |
Hispanic Heritage of
the Filipinos
BY RIGHT OF conquest, Spain ruled the Philippines for
three centuries (1565-1898). During this long period, Spain
imposed her religion, language, customs, arts and sciences on
the Filipinos. There was hardly any phase of Filipino life which
did not feel the impact of Spanish influence. It is fair to say
that Spain’s cultural legacy was more beneficial and comprehen-
sive than her political and economic endowments.
Christianity, Spain’s Greatest Legacy. The greatest legacy
of Spain to the Filipino people is Christianity, specifically the
Roman Catholic religion. Strangely, this religion was Asian in
origin, being founded by Jesus Christ in Palestine; it spread to
Western Europe after Christ’s crucifixion and much later, in the
16th and 17th centuries, Spain propagated it across the Atlantic
to the New World (West Indies, North America, Central
America, and South America) and across the Pacific to the
Philippines. : 7 :
The Christianization of the. Filipinos was really the most
outstanding achievement of the Spanish missionaries. These mis*
sionaries came with the Spanish conquistadores. As the latter
subjugated the people to become vassals of Spain, they converted
them to Christianity. As a result of their apostolic labors, the
Filipino people have become uniquely the only Christian nation
in the entire Asian world.
Diet and Dress. Spain improved the diet of the people by
introducing new food plants, such as wheat, corn, patatas (white
potatoes), cacao, coffee, cabbages, papayas, chicos, and guavas.
The wheat grains were milled into snow-white wheat flour which
was baked in the oven to become bread. For the first time, the
Filipinos learned to eat bread. From the seeds of the cacao came
the chocolate which became a popular drink for breakfast or
merienda. The people also learned to drink coffee. Other
178
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
182
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
— 183
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
184.
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
185
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
186
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
held by trained men and women on the ninth night or last night
of the mourning period for the dead. The male participants were
called bellocos, the female participants, bellacas. The karagatan
was also a poetical debate, like the duplo, but its partakers were
amateurs.
The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu in 1598. It
was a comedia written by Vicente Puche and was performed in
honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu’s first bishop. Eleven
years later, in 1609, another play portraying the life of Santa
Barbara was staged in Bohol.
Three kinds of plays became popular among the masses
during the Spanish era. They were the cenaculo, the moro-moro,
and the zarzuela. The cenaculo was a religious play depicting
the life and sufferings of Christ. It was performed during the
Lent season. The moro-moro was a cloak-and-dagger play depict-
ing the wars between the Christians and the Muslims, with the
Christians always on the winning side. The first moro-r,oro was
written by Fr. Jeronimo Perez and was staged in Manila in 1637,
to commemorate Governor General Corcuera’s victory against -
the Moros of Mindanao. It became the favorite play of the
people, especially during town fiestas. The zarzuela was a musical
comedy. Rizal wrote a zarzuela entitled Junto al Pasig (Beside
the Pasig).
It was not until the end of the 17th century that the first
theatre was established in Intramuros, Manila. It was called
Teatro Comico. Other theatres arose in Manila in later times,
such as-the Primitivo Teatro de Tondo, Primitivo Teatro de
Arroceros, Teatro de Binondo, Teatro de Principe Alfonso, Teatro
de Variedades, and Teatro Zorilla.
Music. The music of the Filipinos was enriched by Spanish
and Mexican influences. Their popular folk dances, such as the
polka, the lanceros, the rigodon, the carifiosa, and the surtido,
came from Spain. The Filipino pandango, jarabe, kuratsa, were
of Mexican origin. The Filipino songs were also Hispanized, as
evidenced by the Sampaguita (composed by Dolores Paterno)
and Bella Filipina (composed by T. Masaguer). The Philippine
National Anthem which was composed by Julian Felipe shows
remarkable similarity to the Spanish National Anthem.
From Mexico and Europe came the violin, the flute, the
piano, the harp, the guitar, and other musical instruments. From
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Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
190
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
191
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192
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
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195
| 16 | 3
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
THE 19TH CENTURY marked the twilight of Spanish rule
in the Philippines, as well as in other overseas colonies of Spain.
During her Siglo de Oro (16th century), Spain was the mistress
of the world —* a global power upon whose extensive overseas
territories ‘“‘the sun never set’’. In the ebb and flow of centuries,
her glory vanished. Gone on the wings of time were the valiant
spirit of her conquistadores, the apostolic zeal of her missionaries,
and the splendor of her civilization. Her decadence was reflected
in her political chaos and economic stagnation as well as in the
corruption. of her officialdom in the colonies and in the disen-
chantment of her subjects.
Political Chaos in Spain. The 19th century was a turbulent
century of politics in Spanish history. It saw the periodic rise
and fall of ministries and the frequent change of constitutions.
From 1834 to 1862, a brief span of only 28 years, Spain had
four constitutions, 28 parliaments, and 529 ministers with
portfolios, followed in subsequent years by a continuous rigodon
of more political changes.
The political chaos in Spain affected the political and socio-
economic conditions in the Philippines. Any upheaval in Madrid
politics brought about a new trend in colonial policy, and a new
governor general and more job-seekers arrived in Manila. From
1835 to 1879, the Philippines was governed by fifty governors
general, each serving an average term of one year and three
months. And worse, from December 1853 to November 1854,
an interlude of less than a year, four governors general — two
regularly appointed and two acting temporarily — governed the
colony.
With such frequent change of governors general and the -
brevity of their terms, it is no wonder that the quality of colonial
administration seriously declined. On account of their insecure
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The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
199
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
202
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
of the friars”.° During the last decades of the 19th century, the
Spanish friars were so influential and powerful that they practi-
cally ruled the Philippines. The Spanish civil officials, including
the governors general and members of the Royal Audiencia,
feared them. The friars could make and unmake them. Aside
from dominating the government, the friars controlled the co-
lony’s educational system and owned theyey haciendas in the
country.
In every Christian town in the Philippines, the parish priest
was the real ruler, not the elected gobernadorcillo. He was the
supervisor of local elections, the inspector of the schools, the
arbiter of morals, and the censor of books and stage shows.
There was truth in what a Mexican viceroy once said: “In every
friar in the Philippines the king had a captain-general and a
whole army”’.
The friars could order the arrest of patriotic Filipinos who
dared defy them or refused to kiss their hands and had them
exiled to distant places. They called the anti-friar Filipinos filibus-
teros (traitors).
It became the obsession of many friars to keep the Philip-
pines unenlightened and to preserve Spanish rule in the Philip-
pines. .
_ Grievances of Filipinos against Spanish Rule. By the last
decades of the 19th century the Filipino people were dolorously
agonizing beneath the yoke of Spanish misrule. Dr. Rizal, an
eyewitness of their sufferings, realized that if their grievances
would not be heeded by Spain, they would in despair, rise in
arms and tight for freedom’s sake. Thus, he predicted: “The
sleep lasted for centuries, but one day the thunderbolt struck
and in striking, infused life. Since then new tendencies are
stirring our spirits, today scattered will someday be united,
guided by God who has not failed other peoples, and who will
not fail us, for His cause is the cause of Liberty!’”’
The Filipino grievances against Spanish rule were the follow-
ing: (1) little participation of Filipinos in their government; (2)
human rights were deniedto them; (3) corrupt Spanish official-
dom in the Philippines; (4) abuses and immoralities of the friars;
(5) racial discrimination against Filipinos; (6) Spanish malad- .
ministration of justice; and (7) persecution of Filipino patriots.
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a
17
The Birth of
Philippine Nationalism
THE INFLUX OF liberal ideas from abroad, the Spanish
Revolution of 1868, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and
. the martyrdom of Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were
the factors that gave birth to Philippine Nationalism. They ignited
in the people the nascent sparks of nationality, the consciousness
of being one nation with common blood and race, common.
customs and traditions, common history and destiny, and com-
mon grievances and aspirations.
The Influx of Liberal Ideas. When the Philippines was opened
by Spain to world trade, the liberal ideas of Europe and America
streamed into the country, borne by ships and men from foreign
ports. These liberal ideas, contained in books and newspapers,
were the ideologies of the American and French Revolutions
and the thoughts of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke,
Jefferson, and other political philosophers.
Influenced by these ideas, the Filipinos began to wonder at
their deplorable situation. They began to discuss politics, justice
and liberty, and, in the course of time, they became bold enough
to ask for government reforms — reforms which were urgently
needed to correct conditions causing hardships among them.
The Spanish Revolution of 1868. In the year 1868, Spain was
swept by a revolution led by Generals Juan Prim and Francisco
Serrano against the autocratic rule of Isabela II (1833-68), the
beautiful but tactless queen. The revolution was successful and
the queen was driven from the throne. Flushed with victory, the
Spanish patriots established on February 12, 1873 the First
Spanish Republic over the ruins of the Bourbon monarchy.
The triumph of liberalism in Spain resounded across the
seas to the shores of her overseas colonies. The Filipinos came
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
to enjoy for the first time the sweet elixir of a liberal regime,
including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of
assembly, and other human rights. Many colonial officials, not-
ably General Carlos Ma. de la Torre, with democratic ideas and
sentiments, were sent to Manila.
The Suez Canal and the Filipinos. The opening of the Suez
Canal to world shipping on November 17, 1869 stimulated Philip-
pine progress. This canal is 103 miles long, and connects the
Mediterranean with the Gulf of Suez and hence with the Red
Sea. and the Indian Ocean.
By shortening the sea route between Manila and Spain, the
Philippines: was brought closer to Europe. In previous years, a
steamer from Barcelona had to sail around the Cape of Good
- Hope, and reached Manila after a hazardous voyage of more
than three months. With the shorter route via the Suez Canal,
the trip was reduced to only 32 days.
With the facilitation of sea travel and conrmunication, more
and more Spaniards (officials, adventurers, and job-seekers)
came to the Philippines and swelled the Spanish population. In >
1810 there were only 4,000 Spanish residents in the Philippines;
this number increased to 15,000 in 1870. Not only Spaniards,
but also other European travelers and liberal ideas reached the
Philippines via the Suez Canal.
De la Torre, Liberal Spanish Governor (1869-71). The fall
of Queen Isabela II and the rise of liberalism in Spain brought
a new Spanish governor general to Manila. He was General
Carlos Maria-de la Torre, an able soldier and a true democrat.
The Filipino people and the Spanish liberals welcomed him.
They rejoiced as he took office on June 23, 1869.
Governor De la Torre, true to expectations, was a good
chief executive. He showed his democratic philosophy in both
his personal conduct and official acts. He lived simply without
the glittering pomp and extravagance of his predecessors. He
dismissed the palace halberdiers who, with their colorful uniforms
and medieval arms, had surrounded the Spanish governors gen-
eral since 1591. He went about in the city streets, dressed in
civilian clothes and unescorted by guards. He mingled freely
with the brown-skinned Filipinos and treated them equally with
the pale-complexioned Spaniards and Spanish mestizos (half-
breeds).
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The Birth of Philippine Nationalism
210
The Birth of Philippine Nationalism
* * * * *
214
18
Propaganda Movement and
the Katipunan
215
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217
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
218
Propaganda Movement and the Katipunan
222
Propaganda Movement and the Katipunan
of 223
+
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
226
Propaganda Movement and the Katipunan
* * KF KX *
228
19
The Philippine Revolution
THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION (1896-1898) was a
national struggle of the Filipino people for freedom. This was
the culmination of more than 100 uprisings against Spain, all of
which were tribal uprisings which simply fizzled in failure. The
Philippine Revolution began in the hills of Balintawak on August
26, 1896 as a Katipunan revolt of Tagalog masses under Supremo
Andres Bonifacio, which failed largely because of Bonifacio’s
successive defeats due to his military incompetency. With his
replacement by General Aguinaldo as supreme military leader,.
the establishment of the Revolutionary Government, and the
dismantling of the failed Katipunan at the Tejeros Assembly,
the revolutionary movement gained new momentum. Under
- Aguinaldo’s able leadership it became a national revolution of
the Filipino people (intellectuals, middle class, and masses) for
freedom, and which proclaimed Philippine Independence at
Kawit and established the First Philippine Republic of Malolos.
The Cry of Balintawak. After the tragic discovery of the
Katipunan on August 19, 1896, Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and
many katipuneros from Manila, had to elude the dragnet of
Spanish law and flee to Caloocan and its neighboring barrios.
On August 26, Bonifacio rallied the katipuneros to an emergency
meeting at Balintawak (a barrio of Caloocan). These katipuneros
were poorly-armed with bolos, bamboo spears, anting-antings
amulets, paltiks (crude homemade guns), and a few old Reming-
ton rifles.
The meeting started in good order. Supremo Bonifacio wel-
comed the attendance of the patriots and informed them of the
urgency of beginning the revolution in view of the discovery of
their secret society. Some katipuneros (including his brother-in-
law, Teodoro Plata) objected because of lack of arms and their
unpreparedness for war. Their opposition produced a heated
debate between those who favored the uprising and the
229
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232.
The Philippine Revolution
233
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234
The Philippine Revolution
235
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236
The Philippine Revolution
fe
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
238
The Philippine Revolution
240
The Philippine Revolution
241
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242
The Philippine Revolution
243
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244
The Philippine Revolution
246
The Philippine Revolution
247
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248
The Philippine Revolution
249
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* * KK *
251
The Coming of the
United States and the End of |
Spanish Rule
- WHILE THE PHILIPPINE Revolution was raging with
fury, the Cubans half-way round the world were also fighting
for their freedom against Spain. America’s sympathy with the
Cubans and her vast investments in Cuba’s sugar industry dragged
her into war with Spain. The Spanish-American War ended in
the Treaty of Paris (1898), whereby Spain ceded the. Philippines
to the United States. The Filipinos, who had expected the Ameri-
cans to champion their freedom, instead were betrayed and
reluctantly fell into the hands of the American imperialists.
The Spanish-American War (1898). The immediate cause of
this war was the blowing up of the U.S. battleship Maine at the
harbor of Havana, Cuba, on the night of February 18, 1898.
Although the Maine had been blown up by American spies in
order to provoke the war, the public was not informed of the
truth. Instead American newspapers stirred the war spirit of the
Americans and blamed Spain. The cry, “Remember the Maine!”
swept the United States.
On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several resolutions
demanding that Spain evacuate Cuban soil. Spain did not want
a war because at the time she was harassed by domestic trouble
and two revolutions in her previous colonies — Cuba and the
Philippines. To save her honor however, she declared war against
the United States on April 24, This was what the American
government was waiting for. On the following day (April 25),
the Congress declared war on Spain. Thus began the Spanish-
American War.
The Battle of Manila Bay. Commodore George Dewey, who
had been waiting in Hong Kong with the American Asiatic
252
The Coming of the United States and the End of Spanish Rule
254
The Coming of the United States and the End of Spanish Rule
256
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
United States; (2) the U.S. paid the sum of $20 million to Spain;
(3) Spain withdrew from Cuba; and (4) the civil and political
status of the inhabitants in the ceded territories would be deter-
mined by the U.S. Congress.
Felipe Agoncillo, Filipino-patriot-lawyer, had been sent by
General Aguinaldo to the peace negotiation as his emissary. But
Agoncillo pleaded the cause of the Filipino people in vain. The
revolutionary government which he represented was not given
recognition by the other countries. Hence, he was not even
permitted to attend the conference. From Paris he went to
Washington, where he worked against the ratification of the
treaty by the U.S. Senate. When this move failed, too, Aguinaldo
prepared the ground for the Philippine Republic.
* * * * *
21
_Rise and Eall of the First
Philippine Republic
THE FILIPINOS UNDER the leadership of General
Aguinaldo rejected American annexation of the Philippines. They
‘were determined to defend their freedom which they had won
\from Spain by feat of arms, even to the extent of fighting the
jpowerful American invaders. In defiance of America, the First
|Philippine Republic was established in 1899. This — the first
|Republic in Asia — lasted only for two years, one month and
{ten days because of the capture of Aguinaldo.
The Malolos Congress. On the sunny morning of September
15, 1898, the Malolos Congress was inaugurated at the Barasoain
(Church, Malolos, Bulacan, amidst colorful festivities. In his
|presidential message, Aguinaldo paid tribute to the patriotism
(of the people and called on history to witness the work of the
(delegates in writing a new constitution.
The members of the Malolos Congress represented the cream
(of Filipino society. Among them were lawyers, physicians, phar-
imacists, teachers, engineers, businessmen, farmers, army officers
‘and writers. Many were college graduates and also educated in
‘European universities. According to U.S. Corres Pou cens Francis
'D. Millet, the delegates to the Congress “were exceptionally
‘alert, keen and intelligent.’”!
The next day, the officers of the Congress were elected by
majority vote. They were Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, president; Benito
|Legarda, vice-president; and Gregorio Araneta and Pablo
(Ocampo, secretaries.
| Among the achievements of the Malolos Congress were (1)
‘the ratification of Philippine independence on September 29,
1898; (2) the floating of a domestic loan of P20,000,000, redeem-
able in 40 years after the date of issue; and (3) the promulgation
of the Malolos Constitution.
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
262
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
The budget of the Republic for the year 1899 was drafted
{by the Assembly and approved by President Aguinaldo. It appro-
ipriated P6,324,729,380 for national expenditures and P704,602
[for local expenditures. The estimated revenues were P6,342,707
((national) and P826,900 (local)
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
264
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
265
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
rector was Dr. Joaquin Gonzales. The second and last rector|
was Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero.
Diplomacy of the Republic. One of the executive departments
of the First Philippine Republic was the Department of Foreign|
Affairs. Aguinaldo’s chief adviser, Mabini, was concurrently-
Secretary of Foreign Affairs and President of the Cabinet. The’
Department of Foreign Affairs was in charge of the relations of |
the Republic with other countries. Its most immediate os was |
-.to secure recognition of Philippine independence abroad.
269
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
270
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
271
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
272
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
he went to Pozorrubio, closely pursued by General Samuel B.M.
Young’s cavalry. He spent the night in Pozorrubio, leaving the
town the next morning. He was almost captured there, for the
pursuing Americans entered the town as he was leaving it.
273
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
)
one Spanish interpreter (Lazaro Segovia), four Tagalogs (includ-
ing Hilario Tal Placido, former officer of Aguinaldo), and 80
Macabebe scouts. On the night of March 6, Funston’s party
quietly slipped out of Manila Bay on board the gunboat Vicksburg
and landed at dawn of March 14 at Casiguran Bay. From here,
they marched overland through the forests and reached Palanan
in the afternoon of March 23, 1901.
Disguised as Filipino soldiers and pretending to be the .
much-awaited “reinforcement” with five American prisoners,
the Macabebes were able to enter Aguinaldo’s camp. Tal Placido
and Segovia ascended the house where Aguinaldo, unaware of
treachery, welcomed them. At a given signal, the Macabebes
suddenly opened fire on the guards who, caught by surprise,
were easily overpowered. On hearing the gunshots, Aguinaldo
rushed to the window, shouting: “Stop firing!” Before he could
turn around, he was grabbed from behind by Tal Placido, a fat
powerful man, rendering him helpless until General Funston and
the four American officers entered the room and arrested him
in the name of the United States.'”
Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to
Manila. He was graciously received by General MacArthur at
- Malacanang Palace. On April 19, 1901, he took the oath of
allegiance to the United States.
End of the War. The capture of Aguinaldo marked the end
of the First Philippine Republic, but not of the war. The fiery
and fearless General Miguel Malvar continued the hopeless fight.
In a stirring manifesto to the Filipino people, dated July 31,
274
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
275
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
276
22
America’s Rule and
Democratization of the
Filipino People
277
s
280
America’s Rule and Democratization of the Filipino People
281
4
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES 4
284
~ America’s Rule and Democratization of the Filipino People
289
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES -
xk ek OK K *
290
23
Economic Progress under
the United States
291
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
296
Economic Progress under the United States
297
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
300
Economic Progress under the United States
* * eK K OF
301
24
American Heritage of
| the Filipinos
JUST AS SPAIN Hispanized the Filipinos during her rule
of more than three centuries (1565-1893), so did the United
States Americanized them during their occupation of nearly five
decades (1898-1946). Almost every phase of Filipino life felt the
imprint of American influence. By acquiring first the Hispanic
and Latin heritage and later the American heritage, the Filipinos
became quite a unique Asian people. Of all Southeast Asian
nations, we are now the most cosmopolitan in culture. Although
Westernized in dress, manners, religion, education, politics, arts,
science, and customs, we have however retained our Asian
identity.
Democracy, America’s Greatest Legacy. The greatest legacy
-of America to the Filipino people is democracy, just as Christ-
ianity is Spain’s greatest legacy to us. It is true that prior to
the coming of the Americans, the Filipinos already had some
idea of democratic political government. The government which
Aguinaldo established was “popular, representative, alternative
and responsible”, based on the separation of powers — executive,
legislative, and judicial. It also safeguarded the rights and liberties
of the people. Unfortunately, the First Philippine Republic did
not last long, having been overthrown by American arms, so
that the first experiment in democracy was nipped in the bud.
The Americans came to train, and the Filipinos proved avid
learners, in democratic ways and institutions. Under American
tutelage, the Filipinos were given greater participation in govern-
ment affairs and enjoyed more human rights. The bad friars and
officials who had oppressed the people under the union of Church —
and State during the Spanish era were gone. After 1907, no
Filipino was ever jailed or exiled for criticizing the American
302 . j
American Heritage of the Filipinos
304
American Heritage of the Filipinos
The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the
zarzuela in the Philippines. During this period was staged
Severino Reyes’ Walang Sugat (Not Wounded), one of the most
_ famous Tagalog zarzuelas. Several zarzuela companies were
organized such as Compania de Zarzuela Tagala by Severino
Reyes. Many zarzuela heroines became the favorite stars, such
as Praxedes Julia Fernandez (famously known as Yeyeng), Maria
Carpena, and Atang de la Rama.
The introduction of the Hollywood “‘talkies” (talking pic-
tures) in 1930 marked the eclipse of the Filipino theater. Like
the moro-moro, the zarzuela vanished as a popular theatrical
art because the people patronized the American movies.
Journalism. The first American newspaper to appear in the
Philippines was the Bounding Billow, which was published at
irregular intervalson board Dewey’s flagship Olympia. Its issue
of June 1898 (Vol. I, No. 5) was a victory issue commemorating
Dewey’s victory at Manila Bay. The first American daily news-
paper to be published in Manila was The. American Soldier, ©
whose first issue was dated September 10, 1898. Other papers
were The Manila Daily Bulletin (1900), which is still existing;
The Gablenews (1902); The Philippine Teacher (1904); and The
Philippines Free Press (1904).
The first Filipino weekly in English was The Philippine
Herald, founded by Senate President Quezon in 1902. Five years
later, The Tribune appeared as a sister publication of the La
Vanguardia (Spanish) and the Taliba (Tagalog). More English
dailies, weeklies, and monthlies sprang up in subsequent times.
Fine Arts. During the American period Manila and other |
centers of population had modern buildings, colleges, theaters,
hotels, stores, and private homes which were built along Ameri-
can architectural lines. Modern buildings in Manila contained
elevators, airconditioning systems, and electrical gadgets.
Alongside these streamlined edifices were other buildings con-
structed of Western architectural designs — Doric, Ionic, Corint-
hian, Graeco-Roman, Gothic, and Byzantine. Among the prom-
inent Filipino architects were Juan F. Nakpil, Andres Luna de
San Pedro, Juan M. Arellano, and Pablo S. Antonio.
Painting flourished and developed. It glorified the native
landscapes, national heroes, and historical episodes. Worthy
309
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
312
American Heritage of the Filipinos
313
25
The Commonwealth of the
Philippines
314
The Commonwealth of the Philippines
elections
The issue was presented to the people in the general
Pros went down in defeat. Quezon and
of June 5, 1934. The
Roxas
his men surged to power by popular vote. Osmenia and
respec tive
were reelected to the Legislature, but they lost their
er
positions as President Pro-tempore of the Senate and Speak
of the House. Quintin Paredes became Speaker of the House
and Jose Clarin became Senate President Pro-tempore.
Calling of the Constitutional Convention. The Tydings-
McDuffie Law authorized the Philippine Legislature to call a
constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of the Philip-
pines. Accordingly, on May 5, 1934, the Philippine Legislature
passed an act setting the election of 202 delegates to the conven-
tion.
318
The Commonwealth of the Philippines
319
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
322
The Commonwealth of the. Philippines
325
26
The Philippines and World
War Il
THE SECOND WORLD war was by far the greatest armed _
conflict in the history of mankind. Basically, it was a life-and-
death struggle between democracy and totalitarianism. The —
Philippines joined it on December 8, 1941, immediately after _
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, because of the Filipinos’
love of freedom and loyalty to America. The heroic role played
by the fighting Filipinos during the war won the esteem of the
world and proved their right to be ranked among the free
nations of modern times.
326
The Philippines and World War II
30
ia
331
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
336
The Philippines and World War Il
339
| 21
Japanese Occupation and the
Second Philippine Republic
THE PERIOD OF the Japanese occupation lasting three
years (1942-45) was one of the darkest interludes in the history
of the Philippines.’ Under the guise of emancipating the Philip-
pines from bondage to Western imperialism, Japan brought her
within the orbit of its so-called benevolent “‘Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere’’, but instead the rich Philippine natural
resources were plundered, innumerable atrocities were inflicted
on the Filipinos, and their education and culture were extremely
regimented, Japan installed a puppet republic (Second Philippine
Republic), which the hostile Filipino people repudiated.
Japanese Military Administration. On January 3, 1942, the
day after the bloodless occupation of Manila, Lieut. Gen. Masa-
haru Homma, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Imperial
Forces in the Philippines, proclaimed the establishment of the
Japanese Military Administration for the purpose of supervising
the political, economic, and cultural affairs of the conquered
land.* The administration was headed by a Director General.
Acting upon directives from Tokyo, the Japanese Military
Administration issued severe restrictions which the helpless
people were forced to obey. Curfew and blackouts were main-
tained in Manila. Martial law was declared. All firearms, ammun-
itions, and other war materials were confiscated. Any hostile
act against the Japanese army was punishable with death. A
military proclamation stated that for one Japanese killed, ten
prominent Filipinos were to pay with their lives. The use of
radio transmitters were banned, and later all radio receiving sets
were “reconditioned”. All Allied nationals were interned at the
University of Santo Tomas (Manila), and in Baguio, Los Bajos,
and other places, where concentration camps for them were
established.
340
Japanese Occupation and the Second Philippine Republic
343
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
350
, Japanese Occupation and the Second Philippine Republic
351
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
.
destroyed valuable books, documents, furniture, and art objects
They massacred hundreds upon hundreds of helpless civilians,
men, women, and children. They spared nobody. They killed
even the harmless priests and nuns, including the Jesuit Fathers
of the Ateneo de Manila, the Christian Brothers of De La Salle
College, and Sisters of St. Escolastica, Santa Teresa, Assumption,
Santa Isabel, and Santa Catalina Colleges.’
359
OO. oa :
Independence and the Third
Philippine Republic |
®
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
It was not until March 16, 1967 that the agitation for a new
constitution assumed concrete form. On this date Congress
adopted Joint Resolution No. 2 providing for the calling of a
Philippine Constitutional Convention to make the necessary
changes in the Constitution.
On June 17, three months later, Congress enacted R.A.
No. 1913 submitting to the people for approval or disapproval
two amendments to the Constitution, as follows: (1) increasing
‘the number of congressmen from 120 to 180 and (2) allowing
senators and congressmen to serve as delegates to the 1971
Convention without forfeiting their seats in Congress. These two
amendments were submitted to the people in the local elections
of November 14, 1967 and both were rejected by an overwhelming
vote. The first was disapproved by a vote of 3,299,485 against
only 737,887 in favor and the second, by a vote of 3,286,879
against only 652,127 in favor.
Finally, on August 24, 1970, President Marcos signed R.A.
6132 which Congress had promulgated. Popularly known as the
“1970 Constitutional Convention Act”, it provided for the elec-
tion on November 10, 1970 of the delegates to the Constitutional
Convention which would convene in Manila on June 1, 1971.
Election of the Con-Con Delegates. Pursuant to R.A. 6132,
the 320 delegates to the Constitutional Convention were elected
on November 10, 1970. A total of 2,481 candidates (including
73 women) entered the electoral race. Most of them were non-
politicians, being educators, scholars, clergyman, nuns,
businessmen, scientists, social workers, farmers, labor leaders,
and writers.
Of the delegates who were proclaimed winners, more than
one-half were politicians, relatives of politicians, and political
proteges. The independent candidates who were lucky to win
by sheer merit constituted a small minority.
The Making of a New Constitution. The Constitutional Con-
vention met in inaugural session on June 1, 1971 at the Fiesta
Pavilion of the Manila Hotel, Manila. It was formally opened
by Senate President Gil J. Puyat and House Speaker Cornelio
Villareal.
The highlightof the opening ceremonies was the address
of President Marcos in which he appealed to the delegates to_
373
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
374
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
375
HISTORY OF THE REPWBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
election of eight national senators and about 15, 000 local ethene
(provincial governors, vice-governors, and board members, city
mayors, vice-mayors, and city councilors, and municipal mayors, ~
vice-mayors, and municipal councilors) continued with the cus-
tomary political rallies and fiery platform speeches. These local
elections were held on November 8, 1971.
The Liberal Party was woefully handicapped in the electoral
fight because its senatorial candidates and top leaders were
injured in the “Plaza Miranda Massacre” and thus could not
campaign. Anyhow, the nation’s conscience was awakened by
the shocking tragedy so He the LP won six out of eight senatorial
seats.
The Nacionalista Party, however, retained its surpremacy —
in the local front. It captured about 70% of the elective positions
for provincial governors, vice-governors, and provincial board
members; city mayors, vice-mayors, and city councilors; and
municipal mayors, vice-mayors, and municipal councilors.
Restoration of Habeas Corpus. In response to public opinion,
President Marcos partially lifted his suspension order on Sep-
tember 18, 1971, in 27 provinces, 3 sub-provinces and 3 cities.
Later, on October 4, 1971, he restored the writ of habeas corpus
in seven more provinces and four cities. Finally, on January 11,
1972, President Marcos restored habeas corpus throughout the
entire country.
The Drift to Tyranny. Not long after this move, however,
the Marcos administration claimed the resurgence of threats to
the stability of the Republic. Obviously, the government was
facing a number of crises, some of which threatened the stability
of the country, but others were masterminded by President
Marcos himself in an attempt to prepare the way for his decla-
ration of martial law.
Among these crises which precipitated the imposition of
martial law were’ as follows:
1. The Plaza Miranda massacre of August 21, 1971,
which has been blamed, at various times and by various
parties, on Maoist New People’s Army (NPA) rebels, on
President Marcos’ secret agents, or even on Senator Benigno
Aquino Jr.
2. Militant students, workers, intellectuals and religious
caused a wave of demonstrations and rallies, ending in many
376
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
violent and ugly clashes with the police. The bloodiest and
most shocking of these violent student-radicals demonstra-
tions happened on the night of January 30, 1970 which
caused the death of at least five students. On that “night
of terror,” the angry demonstrators fought the police and
soldiers at Malacanang, Mendiola Street and down. Recto
Avenue, causing damage to the palace gate and to private
property. The slogan of these demonstrations was “Marcos,
alis d’yan” (Marcos, out). Thus, President Marcos became
the first president to be the target of violent student and
radical demonstrations, and the first president to be stoned
and have his effigy burned in public.
3. Terrorist bombings of public and private property
and residences were blamed either.on the Communists or
secret agents of President Marcos. These bombings affected
such places as the U.S. Embassy along Roxas Boulevard,
Manila’s water system in San Juan and Quezon City, the
Manila City Hall, the Constitutional Convention, and bus-
_ iness districts of Metro Manila. A bomb blast in a department
store on busy Carriedo Street in downtown Manila, killed
an innocent customer in August 1972. Two weeks later, a
conscience-stricken PC sergeant confessed to having planted
the bomb upon orders of his superiors.
4. The government claimed dramatic proof that the
dissidents were receiving military aid from foreign sources
with the capture by the armed forces of the M/V Karagatan
off Digoyo Point in Palanan, Isabela on July 2, 1972. The
vessel purportedly contained a huge shipment of arms,
ammunition and radio sets intended for the NPA from a
foreign source. It was also alleged that literature captured
in a PC raid on a hideout of the NPA in Barrio Tarimsing,
Cordon, Isabela, showed a Communist plot to attack on
July-August 1972.:
_ 5. Assassination attempts on President Marcos and
other national leaders were alleged. The residences of Con-
gressman Eduardo Cojuangco and Senator Jose Roy were
bombed. The last straw appeared to have been the ambush
on the official car of Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile
in the evening of September 22, 1972, resulting in the death ©
of his driver.
These terrible events prepared the country for the drastic
measures taken by President Marcos in declaring martial law.
* K K K
377
| 29
Martial Law and the
New Society
FOR THE FIRST TIME since regaining our freedom in
1946, the. Filipinos experienced the impact of martial law (1972-
81). President Marcos used martial law in order to prolong his
stay in power. He claimed other reasons in public — to save
the Republic and reform the society — but these objectives were
secondary to his primary aim of becoming a dictatorial president
and establishing a political dynasty. “Power corrupts,” as Lord
Acton of England said, “and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” _
Thus, the strong powers assumed by Marcos eventually did far —
more harm than good, because under the New Society which ©
he established, the Philippines suffered the worst political,
economic and moral decline in its postwar history. .
Proclamation of Martial Law. At 7:30 p.m. of September —
23, 1972, President Marcos appeared on nationwide radio and
television to formally announce that,he had placed the entire —
Philippines under martial law as of 9 p.m. of the previous day,—
September 22, 1972, by way of implementing Proclamation No. —
1081, which he had signed even earlier, on September 21, 1972.! -
It seemed typical of the deceitful way in which the country —
was to be ruled for the next fourteen years under President —
Marcos that he prepared and signed the martial law edict in
secret, and he told the public about it only after his military |
agents had arrested the opposition and silenced the media. ‘
The Legality of Martial Law. Martial law is an extraordinary
measure taken by the head of state to defend or to protect the —
people from extreme danger due to lawless violence, anarchy,
rebellion, or invasion. As President of the Republic, Marcos.
had the authority to impose martial law under Article VII (Sec-
tion 10, Paragraph 2) of the 1935 Constitution. His critics pointed _
378
Martial Law and the New Society
out, however, that when martial law was proclaimed, the country
was not being invaded or threatened with invasion, anarchy,
insurrection or rebellion. It is true that there were demonstrations
and subversive forces, but these did not’ justify the extreme
measure taken by President Marcos. Furthermore, the opposition
averred that normal legal systems were functioning iin the country
— the Congress was in session, the Supreme Court and lower
courts were open, the Constitutional Convention was meeting,
and none of the provinces was under Communist or rebel control.
In reply to the hundreds of cases filed by political prisoners
who had been detained, the Supreme Court took two years, in
September 1974, to uphold the legality of martial law. By that
time, it was already an accomplished fact.*
Explanations of Martial Law. Several Sees for the
imposition of martial law ie been given. Briefly, there are
five interpretations, as follows:°
1. The Official View. According to Prsclaination No.
1081, the martial law edict, the country was “in urgent
dangerof violent overthrow, insurrection, and rebellion.”
Communist subversives, right-wing oligarchs, Muslim rebels,
urban terrorists, student demonsttators, economic setbacks,
criminals — and even natural disasters — were blamed by
the Marcos administration for the problems of the country
and the need for the extreme measures being taken to solve
them. There would be no change of government. President
Marcos stressed that his martial law did not mean a military
takeover of the government. Civilian authorities word con-
tinue to rule.
In short, President Marcos was asking the Filipinos to
accept the limitation on their human rights in exchange for
countermeasures to “save the Republic” and “reform the
society”.
2. Marcos-Cronies-U.S. Plot. Another interpretation for
the imposition of martial law implicates President and Mrs.
Marcos, their cronies, and American interests, or a combi-
nation of these, in a conspiracy to seize power. In its simplest
form, this view claims that martial law was the one-man
coup of a power-hungry dictator. Marcos had plotted and
prepared this “conjugal dictatorship” since he became pres-
ident in 1965. He wanted to seize total power, smash all .
his opponents, and extend his president tenure beyond the
constitutional limit of eight years.
379
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
380
Martial Law and the New Society
383
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
‘continue beyond 1973 and finish the reforms he had began under
martial law. According to the official results, 90% of the voters
voted yes. The results also showed overwhelming disapproval
of the holding of elections for the convening of the National
Assembly.
In a third referendum on February 27-28, 1975, it was
reported that 92% of the voters wanted the President to continue
exercising his strong powers, under martial law.
The 1976 Amendments. Before the 1973 charter could be
fully implemented, it was amended. On September 22, 1976,
President Marcos submitted to the people for ratification nine
amendments in a referendum-plebiscite on October 16-17, 1976.
It was reported that the people had ratified the nine amendments
. by a 90% yes majority. On October 27, President Marcos proc-
laimed the ratification of the amended constitution. Among the
amendments were the following:
1. Instead of the National Assembly or interim assembly,
an Interim Batasang Pambansa would be established. It
would be composed of not more than 120 members, including
the incumbent President, with regional representatives
elected from the different regions, sectoral representatives
and cabinet members appointed by the President.
_2. President Marcos would also become the Prime Minis-
ter, and he would exercise the powers of both offices.
3. The sixth amendment authorized President Marcos
to make laws outside the parliament when he deemed it
necessary.. According to this amendment, “Whenever in the
judgment of the President (Prime Minister), there exists a
grave emergency or a threat or imminence thereof, or
whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular
National Assembly fails or is unable to act adequately on
any matter for any reason that in his judgment requires
immediate action, he may in order to meet the exigency,
issue the necessary decrees, orders or letters of instructions,
which shall form part of the law of the land.
Until this plebiscite-referendum, the Filipinos consoled
themselves with the thought that the constitutional
authoritarianism of President Marcos would be temporary. How-
ever, after the government-dominated campaign, it became clear
that President Marcos wanted to stay in power as a one-man
ruler indefinitely.
385
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Aside from the mailed fist policy against the rebels, President 4
Marcos adopted a policy of attraction for the Muslim Filipinos
by granting them economic, political and socio-cultural reforms.
386
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Martial Law and the New Society
388
Martial Law and the New Society
389
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
396
Martial Law and the New Society
397
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
399
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
30
_ Birth of the New Philippine
- Republic
AFTER THE END of eight years of martial law, the gov-
ernment of the Philippine Republic changed drastically from the
intended parliamentary democracy to a mixed presidential-par-
liamentary dictatorship under President Marcos. This was done
through a thorough revision of the 1973 Constitution. Later
changes in 1981 gave birth to what President Marcos called the
“New Republic,” or historically speaking, the Fourth Philippine
Republic. However grand was the dream of President Marcos
for the new government, he plunged the country into the worst
political and economic crisis in its postwar history after the
_. -assassination of his political “rival, ex-Senator Benigno S.
(“Ninoy”) Aquino, Jr.
The Visit of Pope John Paul II. On February 17, 1981, a
month after the lifting of martial law, Pope John Paul II arrived
at the Manila International Airport by Alitalia jet plane from
Rome. He was the second Pope of the Roman Catholic Church
to visit the Philippines, the first one being Pope Paul VI who
visited the country on November 19-29, 1970. Millions of people
welcomed the 60-year old Pope John Paul II, whose charisma
and integrity won the hearts of the people. He paid a courtesy
call to Malacafang, where he was warmly received by President
Ferdinand E. Marcos and the First Lady, Imelda Romualdez
Marcos. In Malacafiang he gave his first message to the
people, urging them to unite for the common good. “It is the
joint effort of all the citizens”, he said, “that builds a truly
sovereign nation, where not only the legitimate material interests
of the citizens are promoted and protected, but also their spiritual
aspirations and their culture.”
The highlight of the papal visit was the Beatification Cere-
monies at Rizal Park for Lorenzo Ruiz and 15 other Nagasaki
401
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
“martyrs. This was the first time that the beatification rites were
performed outside the Vatican. Lorenzo Ruiz is the first Filipino
candidate for sainthood.’ He died a martyr in Nagasaki, Japan
on September 29, 1637.
Pope John Paul II also visited Cebu (iekcanie 19); Davao,
Bacolod, and Iloilo (February 20); and Legazpi and Morong in
Bataan (February 21). He greeted the Vietnamese refugees
(“boat people”) who were staying in Morong.
The Pope left Manila on February 22, after a successful and
memorable six-day visit in the country. He continued his pastoral
visit to Guam, Japan, and Anchorage (Alaska), after which he
returned to Rome.
The 1981 Amendments to the Constitution. Shortly after the
lifting of martial law, the Interim Batasang Pambansa, acting as
a constituent body, proposed amendments to the Constitution.
These amendments were intended to further consolidate the
powers of President Marcos, and without a free press or oppos-
ition, they were approved by the people in a national plebiscite
held on April 7, 1981.
As ratified and amended, the 1973 Constitution became
significantly different from the original charter. The amended
Constitution established a strong presidency in a mixed presiden-
tial-parliamentary form of government, instead of the parliamen- —
tary democracy provided in the original constitution.”
Among these amendments were as follows:
1. The President became the head of state and chief execu-
tive.
2. He may run for as many six-year terms as he wished.
3. In case of the President’s death or incapacity, a group
called the Executive Committee would exercise the executive
power until a successor is elected. This strange manner of suc-
cession was said to be a smokescreen for a military takeover —
led by General Fabian C. Ver and the installation of Mrs. Marcos
or son Ferdinand Marcos, Jr. as the next President.
4. The creation of a regular parliament called the Batasang
Pambansa which could only check the prime minister and not
the President. . .
First Presidential Election under the Amended Constitution. 4
On June 16, 1981, two months after the ratification of the
402
aeyne
sac
ngs
jage
Birth of the New Philippine Republic
403
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
404
Birth of the New Philippine Republic
405
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
x eK * K *
31
Downfall of Marcos :
Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under
President Aquino
THE LONGER PRESIDENT Marcos remained in power,
the more his government oppressed and impoverished the people.
Blinded with power and ill-gotten wealth, he merrily deceived
our people and deprived them of their God-given rights, without
any thought for the day of judgment. Gifted by God with the
power of faith, our people humbled themselves and prayed for
divine intervention, while awaiting for the wicked to stumble in ~
their own snares.
Snap Presidential Election of 1986. By 1985, the political
and economic instability in the country caused fears that the
violent overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship was forthcoming.
President Marcos was forced to call for a special presidential
election in order to prove that he was still in control of the
situation. A superstitious man despite his intelligence, President
Marcos selected February 7, 1986 as the date for the snap
election, because “7” was his lucky number.
408
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
410
Downfa!! of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
_ Mrs. Aquino had won the elections and that President Marcos
had been deceiving the people for some time. He called on
_ Marcos to resign and for the people to support the military
defectors.
Immediately, priests and nuns led by Cardinal Sin, and
_ ordinary citizens inspired by Corazon Aquino, Agapito “Butz”
Aquino, Salvador Laurel and others, joined the anti-Marcos
_ soldiers. With the merging of these three powers — military,
church, and people power — the initial defection by a handful
of brave military leaders turned into a people’s revolution. After
_ the appeals for public support were aired over Radio Veritas,
the Catholic radio station, thousands of people streamed to
~Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame, where the military defectors
and reformist troops waited for the attack of Marcos’ soldiers.
On the morning of the following day, Sunday, February 23,
more thousands of people came and reinforced the human bar-
ricade around the two camps. By nightfall, the situation became
critical, as Marcos loyalist troops under the command of General
Fabian Ver prepared to attack.
At about 8 p.m., the attacking forces, riding in armored
tanks and carriers under the command of Brig. Gen Artemio
Tadiar, arrived at Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) in
front of Camp Crame. But they could not assault the camp
because thousands of unarmed civilians had formed a vast human
barricade to block the way. Priests and nuns knelt or sat in front
_ of the tanks, and behind them were many more citizens ready
and willing to sacrifice their lives. People rushed to the soldiers
i and offered them food and drinks in a gesture of love, while
children were hoisted up to the tanks giving fresh flowers and
friendly embraces to the Marcos troops. Evidently moved by
the astonishing scene, General Tadiar ordered a retreat.
During the next two days, February 24 and 25, the confidence
of the people soared because the tide turned in their favor.
Some 85% of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, including
the Air Force, defected to the side of Minister Enrile and General
Ramos. Millions of citizens from all walks of life took turns in
maintaining the people’s barricades, and thousands more came
from the nearby provinces. As the media became liberated, the
entire country now knew what was happening. Foreign media
people also flashed the news about the Philippines to other
411
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
412
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
but she did not finish her law studies because she married Ninoy
Aquino on October 11, 1954. She survived her greatest tragedy
— Ninoy’s assassination on August 21, 1983 — with dignity and
grace. Due to her love for God, compassion and nobility of
character, President Aquino has provided a refreshing change
from her predecessor.
Restoration of Democracy in the Philippines. The first thing
which President Aquino did upon assuming office was the resto-
ration of democracy in our country. She formed a small Cabinet
of 14 ministers, ordered the release of all political prisoners and
restored the write of habeas corpus in Regions IX and XII in
Mindanao. She threw open the doors of Malacafang Palace to
the public, while she herself preferred to work in the small Guest
House. Thousands of people who visited the Palace were shocked
at how Marcos and his family had lived there in luxury and
debauchery for 20 years while our people lived in increasing
misery. They saw evidence of Marcos’ medical treatment —
special equipment and medical supplies which originally belonged
to other hospitals but which could not be used by other patients.
They also saw examples of the former First Lady, Imelda Marcos’;
extravagant lifestyle — her 3,000 pairs of custom-made shoes,
more than 1,000 gowns, hundred of bottles of perfume and bars
of soap, and her oversized bed, more luxurious than that of
Queen Marie Antoinette at the Versailles in France.
According to U.S. Congress investigators, ex-President and
Mrs. Marcos had stolen money from the Philippines amounting
to billions of dollars, which they had mostly hidden away in
foreign companies, real estate, banks and personal property.
This rapacious theft of the people’s money, according to the
official Aquino government investigator, former peuaior Jovito
Salonga, “was unprecedented in history.”
Transitory Government and Provisional Constitution. In view
of the sudden collapse of the Marcos regime after more than
twenty years of dictatorship, the Aquino government was only
transitory. Some called it a “revolutionary” government because
it was born during the people’s revolution. In substance,
it was a democratic government, for it was based on the people’s
sovereign will and guaranteed human rights of the people.
Pending the drafting of a new Constitution and its ratification
_by the people, President Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 on
413
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
414
eee
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
416
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
417
NOTES.
CHAPTER 1 — GEOGRAPHICAL FOUNDATION OF
PHILIPPINE HISTORY |
1. The New History and the Social Sciences (New York, 1925),p
See Hereford B. George, The Relation of Geography and History 5th Le
(Oxford, 1924). ¢
2. George B. Parkes, The Contents and Sources of Ramusio’s Navigationi
(New York, 1955), p. 9. Publication of the New York Public Library. See
also Carlos Sanz, Primitivas relaciones de Esparia con Asia y Oceania (Madrid,
1958), p. 230.
3. Fray Rodrigo Agandura Moriz, Historia general de las Islas Occiden-
tales a la Asia; Ilamadas Filipinas (Madrid, 1882), p. 5.
4. Crénicas de la Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio de religiosos descal-
zos de N.P.S. Francisco en las Islas Filipinas, China, Japon, etc. 2 Sut jis
(Sampaloc, Manila, 1738-1744), pp. 8-10.
5. See Wu Ching-hong, A Study of References to the Philippines in
Chinese Sources from Earliest Times to the Ming Dynasty (Quezon on
University of the Philippines, 1959), p. 75.
; 6. Chau Ju-kua, Chu-fan-chi (St. Petersburg, 1911), p. 159. English
translation by Friedrich Hirth and W.W. Rockhill. ;
7. Antonio Pigafetta. “First Voyage Around the World,” G.F. Zaide,
_ Documentary Sources of Philippine History (Manila, National Book Store), Vol.
1. 8. See Manuel Scheidnagel, El Archipielago de Legazpi (Madrid, 1890).
Only copy in the Philippines in Zaide Filipiniana Collection.
9. As early as 1751, Father Juan J. Delgado used this romantic name,
“Pearl of the Orient’’. (Historia sacro-profana, politica y natural de las Islas
del Poniente, Ilamadas Filipinas. Manila, 1892, p. 51). Dr. Jose Rizal, in his
article, “Unfortunate Philippines”, published in The Hong Kong Telegraph, —
called the Philippines “Pearl of the Orient”. See Austin Craig, Rizal’s Political
and Historical Writings (Manila, 1932), pp. 4-6.
10. Miguel de Loarca, “Relacién de las Islas Filipinas. Arevalo, Junio
1582,” Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
11. Francisco X. Moya, Las Islas Filipinas en 1882 (Manite 1883), p. 8
and John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London, 1859), pp. 71-72.
12. Geologic Observations in the Philippine Archipelago (Manila, 1937),
pele
13. The Philippines: Past and Present (New York, 1921), Vol. II, p. 792.
14. G.F. Zaide, The Pageant of Philippine History (Manila, 1979), Vol.
I, pp. 18-19.
15. Frank C. Carpenter, Through the Philippines aa Hawaii (Garden
City, New York, 1928), p.3.
16. Jose Viado, “The Narra as the National Tree,” Philippine Prose and
418
Poetry (Manila, 1938), Vol. III, pp. 304-305. Originally published in the
Philippine Magazine, Manila, February 1931.
17. Zenaida S. Ong, “How They Found the Smallest Fish in the World,”
Asia Magazine, December 6, 1970.
18. C.V. Harrington, “Fabulous Philippine Pearl of Allah”, Asia
Magazine, June 28, 1964.
19. Speaking highly of the famous Ifugao Rice Terraces in Banaue, Moun-
tain Province, Dr. Frank C. Carpenter, American traveler and author, said:
“In the valleys of the Nile, I have studied the marvelous achievements of the
ancient farmers. I have travelled in the footsteps of the Incas of Peru, whose
subjects carried up earth on their back and made irrigated farms high on the
slopes of the Andes, but my wildest imagination has never conceived the
possibility of the rice terraces built by these naked headhunting Ifugaos.
Op. cit., p. 149.
20. Enchanted by the peerless beauty of Mount Mayon, Henry Savage
Landor, British writer, wrote with ecstacy: ‘It is the most beautiful mountain
I have ever seen, the world-renowned Fujiyama of Japan is placed into perfect
insignificance by comparison. . . for yraceful lines 1 do not know of any
mountain which could equal Mayon, and rising as it does close to the sea, it
looks most imposing.”’ The Gems of the East (London, 1904), Vol. II, p. 421.
419
10. Viaje del Mundo (Madrid, 1614), p. 232.
11. See “Letter of Fray Gaspar de San Agustin on the Filipinos, Manila,
June 8, 1720,” Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
12. The Philippine Islands (New York, 3rd ed.), p. 173.
13. Speaking highly of Filipino hospitality, former Governor-General
Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. said:i‘I travelled continually over the islands and used
to stay with various Filipinos. I got as perfect courtesy and hospitality from
the little barefoot farmer as I did from the wealthy merchant or landowner.
What is more, it was really courtesy and had no touch of servility.” (Colonial
Policies of the United States. New York, 1937, p. 134). It should be noted that
the famous French explorer of the Pacific, Comte Jean de la Perouse was
impressed by the hospitality of the Filipinos during his visit to the Philippines
in 1787. He wrote: “This people (Filipinos — Z.) are in no way inferior to
those in Europe... I have gone through their villages and I have found
them kind, hospitable and affable,” (A Voyage Round the World in the Years
1785, 1786, 1787. (London, 1788), Vol. II, p. 347).
14. See “A Friendly Estimate of the Filipinos,’ Asia (New York,
November 1921).
420
8. Wang Ta-yuan, Tao-i-chih-lio (1349). English translation by W.W.
Rockhill, in Austin Craig, The Pre-Spanish Philippines (Manila, 1914), pp.
17-19.
9. For sources on China’s cultural influences in the Philippines, see
Eufronio M. Alip, Ten Centuries of Philippine-Chinese Relations (Manila,
1959); Schubert. S.C. Liao (editor), Chinese Participation in Philippine Culture
and Economy (Manila, 1964); Edgar Wickberg, The. Chinese in Philippine Life
(New Haven and London, 1965); E. Arsenio Manuel, Chinese Elements in the
Tagalog Language (Manila, 1948); and G.F. Zaide, “‘Chinese Contributions
to the Philippines,” The Fookien Times Yearbook, Manila, 1938-1939.
10. Nihongi (London, 1896, reprinted 1956), Book XXV, p. 246. Trans-
lated from the original Japanese by W.G. Aston.
11. Commercial Progress in the Philippines (London, 1905), p.9.
12. Las Islas Filipinas (Madrid, 1869), p. 8. This book is extremely rare
and only one copy now exists in Spain. The author’s name, “‘Raimundo Geler”
is a pseudonym. He was really Manuel Regidor y Jurado. Filipino lawyer,
journalist and patriot — and a brother of the famous Dr. Antonio Ma. Regidor
y Jurado.
13. For the coming of Makdum, Baginda and Abu Bakr to Sulu, see
Najeeb M. Saleeby, The History of Sulu (Manila, 1908), pp. 158-162.
14. _Saleeby, Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion (Manila, 1905),
pd;
15. For sources on Arabic influences tn the Philippines, see Saleeby,
Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion; Datu Gumbay Piang, ‘“‘Notes on
the Moro Literature of the Maranaos,’”’ This Week (Magazine of the Manila
Chronicle), February 22, 1959; and G.F. Zaide, “‘Arabia in the Philippines,”
Far Eastern University Faculty Journal (Manila, September 1967, Vol. XIII,
No. 1).
16. Coleccién de documentos inéditos. . de ultramar (Madrid, 1887), Vol.
»", Segunda Series, pp. 284-285.
421
(2) the tumaranpuk who worked one day for their master and three days for
themselves; and (3) the ayueys who worked three days for their master and
one day for themselves.
422
thereby losing one day. Hence, the Philippine calendar from March 16, 1521
to December 29, 1844 was one day behind standard time. Accordingly, Gov-
i ernor General Narciso de Claveria (1844-1849) corrected the mistake by proc-
_ laiming December 31, 1844 as January 1, 1845. Thus, December 31, 1844 did
not officially exist in the Philippines — on that date no births and no deaths
_ were ever recorded.
423
“Carta escrita por Fray Geronimo Santisteban a Don Antonio Mendoza Virey
de Nueva Espana, relaciénando la perdida de la Armada que salio en 1543
para las Islas Poniente al cargo de Roy Lopez de Villalobos, Cochin, India
de Portugal, 22 de Enero, 1547,” in Coleccién de documentos inéditos del
Archivo de Indias, Vol. XIV, pp. 151-165; Garcia Descalante Alvarado, “Re-
lacion del viaje que hizo desde la Nueva Espana a las Islas del Poniente por
Roy Lopez de Villalobos por orden del Virey D. Antonio de Mendoza, 1 de
agosto 1543,” in Coleccién de documentos inéditos del Archivo de Indias, Vol.
V, pp. 117-209; and Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
6. On the Legazpi Expedition, see Coleccion de documentos inéditos. .
de ultramar, Vol. U1, pp. 217-351 and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, “Relation of
the Voyage to the Philippine Islands, 1565,” in Zaide, op. cit., Vols. I and II.
7. Coleccion de documentos inéditos. . . de ultramar, Vol. 11, pp. 101-106.
See English translation in Blair and Robertson, Vol. II, pp. 134-136.
8. Fr. Andres de Urdaneta was born in 1508 in Villafranca de Oria in
the Basque province of Huipuzco, Spain, the son of distinguished parents,
Gracia de Cerain and Juan Ochoa de Urdaneta, town mayor. He studied
astronomy, mathematics and humanities. In early youth he joined the Loaisa
expedition as page of Captain Elcano. He stayed eight years (1528-1534) in
the Moluccas, where he fought the Portuguese, rising to the rank of captain
and became an expert navigator. In the Moluccas, he married a Malay princess
and had a daughter by her. After his wife’s death, he returned to Europe
with his little daughter. He gave his daughter to his family and went to Mexico,
where he served as Corregidor of the Acapulco district, troop captain and
. navigator. In 1543 he and Captain Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, his friend and
province mate, helped the Mexican government suppress the Indian uprising
at Jalisco. Later in 1553, tired of the military life, he joined the Augustinian —
Order in Mexico City. On account of his expertise as navigator, he was
appointed by the Spanish king as chief pilot and spiritual adviser of the Legazpi
expedition (1564-1565). Upon his return to Mexico in October 1565, after
discovering the return route, he spent his last years in the Augustinian convent,
where he died on June 3, 1568 at the age of 60.
9. See “Relation of the Voyage to Luzon, 1570,” Blair and Robertson, |
Vol. III. pp. 73-104. Written by a member of thé Goiti expedition to Manila
(name unknown).
10. On the second conquest of Manila by Legazpi (1571), see the Spanish
document, Relacién de la Conquista de la isla de Luzon (written in Manila on
April 20, 1572), by an unknown member of the Legazpi expedition. First
published by W.E. Retana in his book, Archivo bibliofilo filipine (Madrid),
Vol. IV, pp. 4-37; for English translation, see Blair and Robertson, Vol. III;
pp. 141-172.
11. In previous years historians recount that the leader of the Filipino
forces in the naval battle of Bankusay against Goiti and his Spanish-Filipino
forces was Sulayman. This is wrong, however, because Sulayman, keeping his
pledge to Legazpi to be loyal to the Spanish monarch, did not join the anti-Spanish
cause. The leader was the valiant Macabebe warlord, Bambolito, as shown
bya hitherto unknown Spanish document, see Fr. Lorenzo Perez, Un
424
Documento desconocido relativo a las Islas Filipinas, published in Madrid, 1933.
12. For sources on the naval Battle of Bankusay, see Relacién de la
Conquista de la isla de Luzon in Retana, Archivo, op. cit., Vol. IV; see also
Fr. San Agustin, Conquistas, op. cit., pp. 227-228.
13. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, first Spanish Governor General of the
Philippines and only adelantado among all Spanish governors general. The title
“adelantado” was conferred by the Spanish monarch only toa conquistador
who had successfully conquered and colonized a new territory for Spain, at
his own partial expense. Born about 1505 in Zumarraga, Gaipuzcoa province,
Spain, Legazpi was a younger son of noble parents, Juan Martinez de Legazpi
(military captain and town mayor) and Elvira de Gorrichatequi. He received
a fine education in law and military science. Being a younger son with no
chance to inherit the family title and wealth, he went to Mexico in his early
manhood to seek his fortune. In Mexico he became rich by marrying a wealthy
Mexican lady, Isabel Garces, by whom he had nine children (four sons and
five daughters). He occupied various positions in Mexico City — director of
the Casa de Moneda, law professor at the University of Mexico, secretary of
the Inquisition and troop captain. With his province mate and close friend,
Andres de Urdaneta, he fought and suppressed the bloody uprising of Indians
in Jalisco in 1543. He topped his carrer by his successful colonization of the
Philippines. He died a poor man in Manila on August 20, 1572 of a heart
attack at age 67.
14. Tomas de Comyn, Estado de las Islas de Filipinas en 1810 Madrid,
1820), p. 148.
425
7. See “Account of the Encomiendas in the Philippine Islands” Zaide,
Documentary Sources, op. Cit.
8. See full text of King Philip’s Decree of February 1, 1636, extending
the tenure of the encomiendas in the Philippines to three generations, in
Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. Cit.
426
> &
zg
0
_ historical essay of Rizal was first published in La Solidaridad (Madrid) from
4a
i
:
427
and
valor, Nobunaga granted the fief of Takatsuki district between Osaka
Kyoto (then called Miako) to his father, who in turn gave it to Ukon.
After the death of his patron Nobunaga in 1582, Ukon served under his
successor, Hideyoshi, who united Japan. For his battle exploits, he was granted
a bigger and richer fief — the district of Akasai, located west of Osaka. But
Hideyoshi later adopted an anti-Christian policy. He asked Ukon to abandon
Christianity. When Ukon refused, Hideyoshi exploded in anger, dismissed him
from the army, confiscated his feudal lands and wealth, and exiled him from
Japan. With more than 300 Christian exiles, Ukon and his family left Nagasaki,
and they arrived in Manila on December 11, 1614, where he was royally
welcomed by the Spanish authorities. he died of illness on midnight of February
4-5, 1615, aged 63, and was given a state funeral due to his rank as daimyo-gen-
eral and his devotion to Christianity. He was buried amidst solemn ceremonies
at the Jesuit church in Santa Ana (suburb of Manila). See Gregorio F. Zaide
Takayama Ukon, Japanese Christian Daimyo, Japanese Towns in Manila During
Spanish Times, and Japanese Population During Spanish Times (Manila,
November 30, 1979, unpublished manuscript written for the Japanese Embassy
in Manila.) The first published biographical sketch on Takayama Ukon was
written by Fr. Johannes Laures, S.J., titled, ‘Studies on Takayama Ukon”™
(Macao, 1955). However, it is inadequate, especially on Ukon’s life in Manila.
_2. Fr. Felipe de Jesus (1572-1597) was born in Puebla, Mexico, on May
1, 1572, one of ten children of Alonso de las Casa and Antonia Martinez. He-
was baptized under the name of Felipe de las Casa, which he changed to
Felipe de Jesus when he became a Franciscan friar. In early manhood he came
to Manila in May 1590, and three years later he became a priest. Upon
finishing his religious studies, he boarded the galleon San Felipe for Mexico
to say his first Mass in Mexico City. Unfortunately, the galleon was stranded
off Urado, Tosa, on October 19, 1596, and he, as a friar, was taken prisoner
by the Japanese authorities, in accordance with Hideyoshi’s anti-Christian
policy. On February 5, 1597, he was crucified at Nagasaki, together with 25
other Christian martyrs. As one of the 26 Nagasaki Martyrs, he was beatified
by Pope Urban VIII on September 14, 1627. Later, on June 8, 1862, he was
canonized as a saint by Pope Pius IX. He was the first Mexican Christian
saint, but he spent his formative yearsin the Philippines. G.N. de Leopoldo,
El Protomartir Mexicano Felipe de Jesus (Mexico, 1965) and Eduardo Enrique
Rios, Felipe de Jesus: El Santo Criollo (Mexico, 1954).
428
3. Captain Sebastian de Pineda, “Philippine Ships and Shipbuilding,
Mexico, 1619,” Blair and Robertson, Vol. XVIII, pp. 183-184.
4. See Ramo de la Inquisicion, Tomo 2, Archivo General de la Nacion,
Mexico City.
' 5. Ramo de la Inquisicion, Documento Num. 63.
6. Ramo de Filipinas, Tomo 40, Expediente,3, Folios 30-43 (Archivo
General de la Nacion, Mexico City).
7. Vito A. Robles, Acapulco en la Historia y en la Leyenda (Mexico,
1948), p. 149.
8. The Philippines and Mexico (Manila 1951), p. 29.
9. Rafael Bernal, Mexico en Filipinas (Mexico, 1965), pp. 117-120.
10. See “El Parian de Mexico,” in Boletin de la Secretaria de Hacienda
y Credito Publico. Mexico, No. 37, Junio 15 y Julio 15, 1955.
11. See Paul de la Gironiere, Twenty Years in the Philippines (New York,
1854), p. 46.
12. The original draft of this letter is with Don Jose Gonzalez, a bibliophile
in Mexico City, who kindly furnished the senior author with a photostatic copy.
429
8. Sultan Kudarat, older brother of Datu Tagal, was said to be the
greatest sultan of Maguindanao (Cotabato). Born in 1581, a son of sultan
Buisan, he grew up as a formidable warrior. After succeeding his father on
the Maguindanao throne, he expanded his sultanate by feat of arms. With the
aid of the Spaniards, he conquered Buayan and Sarangani, making himself
master of Cotabato Valley. Once he became a powerful ruler, he dispensed
with Spanish friendship and engineered his brother Tagal’s terrible raid in
1636 and other raids against the Christian pueblos of Mindariao and the
Visayas. He consolidated his power by dynastic marriages. He himself married
a daughter of the Jolo sultan. One of his sons married another daughter of
the sultan of Jolo. He also arranged the marriage of his nephew (Balamatay)
with the sister of the Jolo sultan. Twice he was decisively beaten in battle by
Governor Corcuera, but he was never conquered. He made several treaties
with the Spaniards and never honored them. A blot on his record was the
brutal killing of two Jesuit missionary-diplomats, Fathers Alejandro Lopez and
Juan de Montiel, in 1655 by his nephew Balamatay, which he allowed. The
next year (1656) he proclaimed a jihad or holy war against Spain, which was
unsuccessful because the sultans of Jolo, Basilan, Ternate and Makassar refused
to support it. In his old age, when he could no longer fight, he again befriended
the Spaniards. He died in 1671, aged 90, after a long reign of 54 years.
President Marcos proclaimed Sultan Kudarat as a national hero of the Philip-
pines on January 13, 1973. A monument of this Maguindanao hero now stands
at Makati, Metro Manila.
430
indemnity and also for the atrocities perpetrated by his soldiers after the fall
of Manila, General Draper was bitterly criticized in the British Parliament.
To vindicate himself, Draper wrote his defense, entitled Draper's Answer to
the Spanish Arguments, which was published in limited edition in London 1764.
5. Brian Gardner, The East India Company: A History (New York,
1971), p. 17-23.
6. Anda to King George HII, July 23, 1764, in Blair and Robertson,
Vol. XLIX, p. 278.
7. Marques de Yerbe, Sitio y conquista de Manila por los Ingleses en
1762 (Zaragoza, 1897), p. 129.
1. On the Revolt of Lakan Dula and Raha Sulayman (1574), see Fr.
Juan de Grijalva, Cronica de la Orden de N. P. San Agustin en las Provincias
de. Nueva Espana (Mexico, 1624), pp. 480-482 and Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin,
Conquistas de las Islas Philipines (Madrid, 1698), pp. 290-291.
2. On the First Pampanga Revolt (1585), see Fr. Joaquin Martinez de
Zuniga, Historia de las Islas Philipinas (Sampaloc, 1803), p. 158.
-3. On the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-88. see “Conspiracy against the
Spaniards, Manila, May 20-July 13, 1589”, in Blair and Robertson. The Philip.
- pine Islands, Vol. VII, pp. 95-111.
4. Zuniga, Hisiuria, p. 165.
5. On Magalat’s Revolt (1596), see Rizal’s Annotated Edition of Morga’s
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Paris, 1890), pp. 62-63.
6. Ibid., p. 63.
7. On the [gorots’ Religious Revolt (1601), see Jose Montero y Vidal,
Historia general de Filipinas (Madrid, 1887), Vol. I, p. 136.
8. On the Revolt of the Irrayas (1621), see Fr. Diego de Aduarte,
Historia de la Provincia del Santo Rosario de Filipinas, Japon y China de la
Sagrada Orden de Predicadores (Zaragoza, 1693), pp. 205-213.
9. Ibid., p. 207.
10. On Tamblot’s Religious Revolt (1621-22), see Fr. Pedro Murillo Vel-
arde, Historia general de la Provincia de Filipinas de la Compania de Jesus
(Manila, 1749, fol. 17: Fr. Juan de la Concepcion, Historia general de Filipinas
(Sampaloc, 1788), Vol. V, pp. 20-23, and Fr. Casimiro Diaz, Conquistas de
las Islas Filipinas (Valladolid, 1890), pp. 132-133.
11. On Bankaw’s Religious Revolt (1621), see Murillo Velarde, Historia,
fol. 18; Diaz. Conquistas, pp. 134-136; and Fr. Juan de Medina, Historia de
los Sucesos de la Orden de N. Gran P. S. Agustin de estas Islas Filipinas
(written in 1630 and published in Manila, 1893), pp. 227-228; and Concepcion,
Historia, Vol. V, pp. 23-25.
12. Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 18.
13. On Ladia’s Revolt in 1643, see Diaz, Conquistas, p. 484.
14. On Sumoroy’s Rebellion (1649-50), see Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol.
431
171b-175; Concepcion Historia, Vol. VI, pp. 247-280; and Diaz, Conquistas,
pp. 517-523.
15. On Maniago’s Revolt (1660), see Fr. Baltasar de Santa Cruz, Historia
de la Provincia.del Santo Rosario de Filipinas, Japon y China del Sagrado
Orden de Predicadores (Zaragoza, 1693), pp. 331-338; Murillo Velarde, His-
toria, fol. 253b-254; Concepcion, Historia, Vol. VII, pp. 9-13; and’Fr. Juan
Ferrando and Fr. Joaquin Fonseca, Historia de los PP. Dominicos en las Islas
Filipinas y en sus Misiones del Japon, China, Tung-kin y Formosa (Madrid,
1871), Vol. Ill, pp. 67-7.
16. On Malong’s Rebellion in Pangasinan (1660-61), see Santa Cruz,
Historia, pp. 338-341; Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 254-256; Ferrando and
Fonseca, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 70-74; and Rosario Mendoza Cortes, Pangasi-
nan, 1572-1800 (Quezon City, University of the Pelipaice Press, 1974), pp.
145-168.
17. On the Ilocos Revolt (1661), see Santa Cruz, Historia, pp. 337-340;
Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 256-257; and Diaz, Conquistas, pp. 604-606.
18. On Tapar’s Religious Uprising (1663), see Diaz, Conquistas, pp.
640-644.
19. On the Zambal Revolt (1681-83), see Fr. Vicente Salazar, Historia
de la Provincia de el Santisimo Rosario de Philipinas, China y Tunking del
Sagrado Orden de Predicadores (Manila, 1742), 303-311. For the life and
martyrdom of Fray Domingo Perez, who was killed by the Zambal rebels,
see Fr. Honorio Mufioz, Un: Heroe Dominico Montanos en Filipinas (Madrid,
Libreria Cientifico Medinaceli, 1951).
20. On Dagohoy’s Rebellion in Bohol (1744-1829), see Governor General
Mariano Ricafort, Reduccion de Bohol. Manila, December 30, 1829. Printed
in Sampaloc, Manila, 1830; Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas
(Madrid, 1894), Vol. II, pp. 509-511; and Fr. Lucinio Ruiz, Sinopsis Historica
de la Provincia de San Nicolas de Tolentino de las Islas Filipinas de la Orden
de Agustinos Descalzos (Manila, 1925), Vol. I, pp. 649-701. Vide also G. F.
Zaide, Dagohoy: Champion of Filipino Freedom (Manila, 1941).
21. Concepcion, Historia, Vol. X1, pp. 280-281; Montero y Vidal, Historia,
Vol. I, pp. 478-479; Royal Decree of King Philip V issued at San Lorenzo,
November 7, 1751, in Blair and Robertson, Vol. XLVIII, pp. 27-34; and C.
H. Cunningham, “Origin of the Friars Land Question in the Philippines,”
Political Science Review, Vol. X, pp. 463-480.
22. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies (Berkly, 1919), p. 103.
23. On Diego Silang’s Rebellion, see Fr. Pedro del Vivar, Relacion de
los alzanientos de la ciudad de Vigan, cabecera de la Provincia de Ilocos en
los anos de 1762 y 1763 (written in 1764 and published in Manila, 1893);
Isabelo de los Reyes, Historia de Ilocos (Manila, 1890), Vol. Il, pp. 171-186;
and Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. Il, pp. 85-105.
24. De los Reyes, op cit., Vol. Il, pp. 189-190. Vide also Mente y
Vidal, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 106-108.
25. On Palaris Revolt (1762-65), see Zuniga, Historia, pp. 662-663; Mon-
tero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 77-82; and Mendoza Cortes, Pangasinan,
432 ~
1572-1800, pp. 183-212.
26. On the Cagayan Uprising (1763), see Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol.
II, p. 111.
27. On the Basi Revolt (1807). See Fernando Ferrer, Apuntes sobre
alzamientos y sublevaciones en Ilokos (Manila, 1969) and Manuel Artigas y
Cuerva, Historia de Filipinas (Manila, 1916), pp. 286-290.
28. Estracio de la Memoria escrita por el padre Fr. Jose Nieto, cura regular
de Sarrat en Ilocos Norte, sobre la insurreccion acaecida en el mismo, el ano
de 1815. This valuable document is reproduced by Wenceslao E. Retana in
his book titled Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino (Madrid, 1898), Vol. IV, pp.
173-180. On this unique revolt in defense of a constitution, see also Don Jaime
C. de Veyra, “La Sublevacion de Sarrat 3 Marzo 1815,” in Efemerides Filipinas
(Manila, 1914), Vol. I, pp. 229-234.
29. On the Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822), see Artigas y Cuerva,
Historia, pp. 333-335 and Clarita T. Nolasco, The Creoles in Spanish Philippines
(Manila, 1969, MS.), pp. 232-234.
30. On the Novales’ Mutiny (1823), see Paul P. Gironiere, Twenty Years
in the Philippines (New York, 1845), pp. 48-51. See also Sinibaldo de Mas,
Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid, 1843), Vol. I,
pp. 64-69 and Felipe M. de Govantes, Compendio de la Historia de Filipinas
(Madrid, 1857), pp. 353-357.
31. Gironiere, op. cit., p. 51.
32. On Hermano Pule’s Religious Revolt; see Fray Manuel Sancho, Rela-
cion expresivas los principales aconticimientos de la titulada Confradia del
Senor San Jose, MS. dated April 16, 1843. Published by W.E. Retana in La
- Politica de Espana en Filipinas (Madrid, 1891), No. 2 et seg. See also Sinibaldo
de Mas, Informe, Vol. III, pp. 114-115. (This Vol. III of De Mas was translated
into English by Dr. Carlos Botor and published by the Historical Conservation
Society Manila, 1963). Other good sources on Hermano Pule’s Religious
Revolt, see Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. III, pp. 37-56; David R. Sturtevant,
Popular Uprising in the Philippines 1840-1940 (Ithaca, 1976), pp. 83-95; and
Setsuho Ikehata, The Process of the Formation of the Cofradia de San Jose,
MS. (Read at Ninth International Conference of the Association of Asia
Historians, Manila. November 21-25, 1983.)
33. On the Mutiny of the Tayabas Regiment (1843), see the Report of
Manuel de la Matta, Intendant of the Army and Treasury, to Governor General
Marcelino Oraa, dated Manila, February 25, 1843, in Blair and Robertson,
Vol. LII, pp. 91-111. Vide also Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. III, pp. 58-59.
34. French Consul Fabre to the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Manila,
January 23, 1843 in Archives du Ministere des Affaires Estrangeres. Paris, II,
Ae &
433
2. Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zufiga, Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas
(Madrid, 1893 Annotated by W. E. Retana), Vol. I, p. 272.
3. For full text of Governor Blanco’s Decree of March- 20, 1784, see
Blair and Robertson, Vol. LH, pp. 291-301.
4. Le Gentil de la Galaisiere, A Voyage to the Indian Seas ns,
Filipiniana Book Guild, 1964), p. 174.
5. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas (Madrid, 1894),
Vol. II, p. 310.
6. Ibid, Vol. Il, pp. 323-326.
7. See Document in the Museo Naval, Madrid, No. 312, entitled “Viaje
de Don Antonio Pineda a la Laguna de Bay y a los Montes de Pampanga
alta y demas provincias, 1792.”
8. See Vol. III of Sinibaldo de Mas’s book.
9. Though little-known to historians, the story of Francisco Rodriguez,
a patriotic Manila creole who became the first Filipino Quaker and banker,
is interesting and documented in the British Public Record Office, along with
his Last Will and Testament. Born in 1790 at Manila of rich creole parents,
Rodriguez was educated in Manila and then at an English college in Calcutta,
India. He was a linguist, speaking Spanish, Latin, English and Tagalog. He
_ married a Manilena mestiza, Dolores Virgil, who died a few years after their
wedding, leaving no children. A patriot, he was implicated in the military
‘mutiny of Captain Andres Novales, a Manila creole and friend, so that he
was exiled to Cadiz, Spain. He escaped and fled to London. He starved
because none of his rich relatives in Manila gave him aid. Fortunately, he was
cared for by British Quakers who also advanced him some capital for business,
and he was converted and became a British citizen. He returned to Manila,
established the first Filipino bank and became rich and a close friend of J.W.
Farren, the first British consul in Manila. On March 30, 1857, a few days
before his death, he dictated his Testament (prepared by Consul Farren),
bequeathing his wealth to Queen Victoria, the British monarch, to be used
to support the widows and orphans of British soldiers who died in the Crimean
War of 1854-1856.
1. Ulysses or Scenes and Studies in Many Lands (London and New York,
1887), p. 278.
2. Philippine Life in Town and Country (New York, 1905), p. 49.
3. For full text of Governor Claveria’s Decree of November 21, 1849, é
see Coleccion de autos acordados de la Real Audiencia y Chancelleria de
Filipinas (Manila, 1861-1866), Vol. II, p. 126; see also Catalogo alfabetico de
apellidos (Manila, 1973, National Archives Publications).
4. See “Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, 1604,” in Blair and Robertson.
Vol. XII, p. 152.
5. For full text of the Educational Decree of 1863, see Daniel Grifol y
Aliaga, La Instruccion primaria en Filipinas (Manila, 1894), pp. 1-7; for English
434
translation, see Census ,Of the Philippine Islands, 1903 (Washington, D.C.,
1905), Vol. III, pp. 578-582.
6. Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid, 1843),
Vol. II, Instruccion Publica.
7. The People of the Philippines (New York, 1925), p. 82.
435
4. See G.F. Zaide, History of the Katipunan (Manila, ee 2 and
The Philippine Revolution (Manila, 1954), p. 78.
5. GF. Zaide, History of the Katipunan, pp. 19-24 and “The Women
of the Katipunan,” Philippines Free Press, Manila, November 26, 1932.
622G: F. Zaide, “‘The Rise and Fall of the Katipunan Press,”’ The Sunday
Tribune Magazine, Manila, October 23, 1930.
7. See Cornelio de los Reyes, “Clearing Up Doubts about the Cry of
Balintawak,”’ The Herald Mid-Week Magazine, Manila, July 8, 1911; GF.
Zaide, The Philippine Revolution, p. 98; Felipe D. Fernando, “The First Cry
for Freedom,” Philippines Free Press, Manila, April 11, 1964; and Teodoro
M. Kalaw, Aide-de-Camp to Freedom (Manila, 1965, English translation by
Maria Kalaw Katigbak),. pp. 225-228.
8. The senior author has dismissed the theory that the Katipunan plot
was betrayed in the confessional to Padre Mariano Gil by a woman, see G.F.
Zaide, Documentary History of the Katipunan Discovery (Manila, 1931), pp.
1-50.
436
8. G.F. Zaide, “General Yengko: Unsung Hero of the Revolution,”
Philippines Free Press, Manila, December 14, 1940; see also by same author.
Great Filipinos in History (Manila, 1970), pp. 633-637.
9. For eyewitness accounts of the Tejeros Assembly, see Letter of Andres
Bonifacio to Emilio Jacinto, dated Limbon, April 24, 1897, cited by Carlos
Quirino in his “Historical Introduction,” in The Trial of Andres Bonifacio
(Ateneo de Manila, 1963), p. 6; see also Ricarte’s memoirs, pp. 36-43 and
his book, The Hispano-Philippine Revolution (Yokohama, 1926), pp. 47-53.
10.. See The Trial of Andres Bonifacio: Original Documents in Tagalog
{Ateneo de Manila, 1963), with English translation by Virginia Palma-Bonifacic
and Historical Introduction by Carlos Quirino. See also The Court-Martial of
Andres Bonifacio (Manila, 1926), English translation by Paz Policarpio-Mendez,
with Prefatory Notes by Teodoro M. Kalaw.
11. See Makapagal’s story of Bonitfacio’s execution in Philippines Free
Press, Manila, November 29, 1929; and his personal account to the senior
author in Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit., Doc. 419.
12. Saulo, op. cit., p. 150. Others claimed that the Bonifacio brothers
were executed at Mount Tala, or Mount Buntis or Mount Nagpatong.
{3. For full text of the Biaknabato Constitution, see Blair and Robertson,
Vol. LH, pp. 217-227. According to Don Jaime c. de. Veyra, the Biaknabato
Constitution was a copy of the Constitution of Jimaguaya, Cuba, of 1895, see
Journal of the Philippine Historical Society, Manila, Vol. I, No. 1, July 1941,
PP- 3-11.
14. For the text of the Makabulos Constitution, see Zaide, Documentary
Sources, op. cit., Doc. 446.
437
CHAPTER 21 — RISE AND FALL OF THE FIRST
PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
438
ing general of the forces of the government of Batangas.”’ See Ricarte’s
Memoirs, op cit., p. 50. «
14. GF. Zaide, “Teresa Magbanua: Visayan Joan of Arc,” Philippines
Free Press, Manila, November 26, 1938. See also Zaide, Great Filipinos, op.
cit. pp. 291-296 and Demy P. Sonza, Visayan Fighters for Freedom (Santa
Barbara, Iloilo, 1962), pp. 81-85.
15. Simeon A. Villa, The Flight-and Wanderings of General Aguinaldo
from Bayambang to Palanan, 1899-1901: A Diary (Manila, 1969, Philippine
Historical Association.)
16. Teodoro M. Kalaw, Life and Death of a Boy-General (Manila, National
Historical Commission, 1974) p. 52, English translation and Introduction by
Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr.
17. Emilio Aguinaldo, “‘The Story of My Capture,” in Aguinaldo in
Restrospect (Manila, Vol. XIII, Nos. 1-4, January to December, 1969, Philippine
Historical Association) pp. 271-278. See also Gen. Frederick Funston, Memories
of Two Wars (New York, 1911), pp. 384-426.
18. See Fausto Ostria Ola, “The Last General to Surrender,” Philippine
_ Free Press, Manila, September 25, 1965. See also Primitivo C. Milan, “General
Simeon Ola, 1865-1952,” Philippines Free Press, May 28, 1955, and Nazario
T. Samonte, “Simeon Ola: The Last Filipino Revolutionary General,” (Manila
1979 M.A. thesis for the University of Manila.) —
19. Rony Bautista, Zamboanga’s Gen. Vicente Alvarez: His Concept of
National Unity. Zamboanga City, 1979, mimeograph copy by the National
Historical Institute.
439
on
used it in his address to the Malolos Congress on the occasion of the ratificati
-
of the Declaration of Philippine Independence, Barasoain Church, Malolos,
September 29, 1898 (E/ Heraldo de la Revolucion, Malolos, October 2, 1898).
6. For full text of the Philippine Bill of 1902, see Zaide, op cit., pp.
243-274. See also Felixberto G. Bustos and Abelardo J. Fajardo (eds.), New —
Philippines (Manila, 1934), pp. 473-497.
7. See full text of the Jones Law of 1916 in Zaide, op. cit., pp. 293-323
and in Bustos and Fajardo, op. cit., pp. 499-512. :
8 For full text of the Wood-Forbes Mission Report of 1921, see Forbes,
The Philippine Islands, Vol. 1, pp. 520-544.
440
their photos and bio-data, see Benipayo Press, Our Delegates to the Constitu-
tional Assembly (Manila, 1935).
6. On the drafting of the 1935 Constitution, see Jose .M. Aruego, The
Framing of the Philippine Constitution (Manila, 1936), 2 vols., and Miguel
Cuaderno, Framing the Constitution of the Philippines (Manila, 1937).
7. For the text of the 1935 Constitution, see Zaide, Philippine Constitu-
tional History, op. cit., and Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
8. For Quezon’s secret plan, see G.F. Zaide, The Pageant of Philippine
History (Manila, 1979), pp. 468-471 and R. John Pritchard, ‘Quezon and the
British Empire,” Appendix A of Lewis E. Gleeck Jr. (ed.), General History
of the Philippines, Part V, Vol. I (Manila, 1984: Historical Conservation
Society). .
9. Records of the Joint U.S. Army-Navy Board, in JB 325 (serial 642-1),
RB 225, Modern Military Branch, U.S. National Arches, Washington, D.C.
- 10. See the Japan-U.S. 1941 negotiations in R. John Pritchard and Sonia
M. Zaide, The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (New York, 1982).
441
CHAPTER 27 — JAPANESE OCCUPATION AND THE
SECOND PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
442
_ CHAPTER 29 — MARTIAL LAW AND THE NEW SOCIETY
i. For the martial law edict, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
2. On the legality of martial law, see J.P. Enrile, “Legal Background
of Martial Law in the Philippines,” PHA Historical Bulletin, 1973, pp. 27-34
and Col. Claro C. Gloria, Martial Law in the Philippines: A Constitutional
Revolution, (Quezon City, 1974), p. 2. For arguments against its legality, see
U.S. Congressional Record-Senate, April 12, 1972, pp. S7,309ff.
3. For various sources on martial law views, see Ferdinand E. Marcos,
_ Notes on the New Society of the Philippines (Marcos Foundation, 1973);
Primitivo Mijares, The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos
I (San Francisco, 1976); David A. Rosenberg (ed.), Marcos and Martial Law
in the Philippines (Cornell University Press, 1979); Raul S. Manglapus, Philip-
pines: The Silenced Democracy (New York, 1976); and Alex Turpin, New
Society’s Challenge in the Philippines (London: The Institute iF the Study of
Conflict, Conflict Studies No. 122, September 1980).
4. On the plebiscite cases filed on December 7, 1972 by Charito Planas
_and others, see Jose M. Aruego, Philippine Government and the Philippine
Constitution (Manila, 1979), pp. 32-34.
5. On the ratification cases filed between January 20 to February 12,
1973 by Jose Javellana, two private citizens and five senators, see Aruego,
ibid., pp. 35-37; and Rosenberg, op. cit., pp. 94-99.
6. For the text of the 1973 Constitution and amendments in 1976, 1980,
1981 and 1984, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op.cit.
7. See Marcos, Notes on the New Society, op. cit., p. 30.
8. For the text of the 1981 proclamation, see Zaide, Documentary Sources,
op. cit.
1. Blessed Lorenzo Ruiz, first Filipino candidate for sainthood was born
about 1600 at Binondo, Manila, a son of a Chinese father and a Tagala mother.
He was educated by the kind Dominican friars. Because of his knowledge of
Latin and Spanish and fine penmanship, he was employed as a clerk in the
Dominican convent in Intramuros, Manila, receiving a good salary which
enabled him to support his wife and three children (two sons and a daughter).
One summer evening he happened to have a fight with a Spanish drunkard.
The following morning this Spaniard was found dead in an alley. As a prime
suspect, Ruiz was hunted by the police. To evade arrest for the crime which
he did not commit, he joined four Dominican missionaries who secretly sailed
for Japan.
Upon arrival on July 10, 1636 in Okinawa, they were arrested and jailed
because of the anti-Christian faith, Ruiz and his companions (four Dominican
missionaries and a Japanese Christian leper, their interpreter) were tortured
to death in September 1637. Thus they died as martyrs of Christianity.
2. See David Borje, “How Amendments Will Change Setup,” Philippines
4A%
Daily Express, Manila, March 23 and 24, 1981. See also Pacifico A. Castro,
“The Philippine System of Government under the New Republic,” The Fookien
Times Philippine Year Book, 1981-1982, pp. 31, 106-107.
3. For the inaugural address of President Marcos as the President of the —
New Republic, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
* * * * *
3 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
445
BRITISH MUSEUM (BM), London
(1). Gaspar Correa’s Account cf the Philippin e Islands. BM, Add. 19,295.
This manuscri pt was finished about 1563.
(2). Dalrymple’s Plan for the Conquest of the Southern Philippines, 1762.
BM, Add. MSS. 19,298.
(3). Rennell’s Journal of a Voyage to the Sooloo Islands and the North-
West Coast of Borneo, 1762-1763. BM, Add. MSS. 19, 29:
PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE (PRO), London
(1). Brooke Treaty with Sultan Muhammad Pulalon, Jolo, May 29, 1849.
F.O. 71/2, Public Record Office. James Brooke was the first White Rajah of
Sarawak and British consul general in Borneo.
(2). Claveria, Spanish Governor General of the Philippines: Anti-Foreign
Decree of Dec. 22, 1844 restricting the coming of foreign traders to Manila
and prohibiting their visits to the provinces. Spanish and English texts. F.O.
72/684/X/101329, Public Record Office.
(3). Farren, Consul J. W.: Consular Report to the British Foreign Office,
dated Manila, Jan. 8, 1845, recounting how he persuaded Governor Claveria
not to implement the latter’s harsh Anti-Foreign Decree of Dec. 22, 1844.
F.O. 72/684 L01329, Public Record Office. Farren was the British consul-gen-
eral in Manila from 1844 to 1864.
(4). Farren, Consul J.W. Consular Report, dated Manila, Feb. 20, 1845,
recounting French attempts to acquire Basilan Island. F.O. 72/684. Public
Record Office.
(5). George III, British king: Secret Instructions to Rear-Admiral Charles
Stevens, commander of the British fleet in the Far East, to help the English
East India Company acquire possession of Mindanao. Royal Instructions dated
London, June 25, 1762. : ie
(6). Loney, Vice-Consul Nicholas: Consular Report dated Iloilo, April
12, 1857 to the British Foreign Office concerning the economic conditions of
the Visayas. F.O. 72/927. This Loney Report was quoted by Sir John Bowring
in his book titled A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London, 1859, pp. 367-421.)
(7). Rodriguez, Francisco: Last Will and Testament, dated Manila, March
30, 1857. F.O. 72/927. Rodriguez was the first Filipino Quaker and banker,
who sought refuge in London after the Novales Mutiny in 1823, in which he
was involved.
INDIA OFFICE LIBRARY, (IOL) London
(1). First free election for municipal officials of Paranaque (town near
Manila), under the supervision of. the British authorities, held in December
1762. All male citizens of at least 21 years old cast their secret ballots for
their local officials. Manilha Consultations, 1762, Vol. L, pp. 50, 57, India
‘Office Library. :
(2). Compbell, Captain of HMS Dauntless, Letter to his friend, Mr. W.
A. Chibley of Penang, dated Dec. 3, 1820, recounting the “Cholera Massacre”
of 1820 in Manila. Home Miscellaneous Series, Vol. 77, pp. 349-356. India
Office Library.
&
436
BIBLIOTHEQUE DE LA CHAMBRE DE DEPUTEES, (BCD) Paris
(1). Tomé Pires, Summa Oriental (1512-1515), MS. 1248.
ARCHIVES DU MINISTERE DES AFFAIRES ETRANGERES (AMAE), Paris
(1). Consul Fabre’s Report to the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
dated Manila, Jan. 15, 1842, on the atrocities committed by the Spanish forces
~ after the Battle of Alitao (Tayabas), including the massacre of old men, women
and children (followers of Hermano Pule) which stirred an indignant public
opinion in Manila. AMAE, Correspondence commerciale. Manille, II, 2-3.
(2). Another Consular Report of Consul Fabre, dated Manila, Jan. 23,
1842, on the Mutiny of the Tayabas Regiment led by Sergeant Samaniego
(native of Tayabas), to avenge the Spanish atrocities in Alitao. AMAE, ibid.,
Manille, II, pp. 71-72.
NEWBERRY LIBRARY (NL), Chicago
(1). Suit filed by Dofia Margarita de Figueroa (encomendera and wife
of former Governor Juan Tello de Guzman) at the Manila Audiencia for
recovery of her encomiendas (Tigbauan, Libon and Oas), which Governor
Juan de Silva assigned in 1610 to the College of Santa Potenciana during her
visit to Spain. May 1611. Ayer Collection, NL.
(2). Letter of Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin, dated Manila, June 8, 1720,
which lampoons the Filipino people. Ayer Collection, NL.
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS (LC), Washington, D.C.
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-ARCHIVO GENERAL DE LA NACION (AGN), Mexico City
Ramo de Filipinas:
(1). Mexican soldiers sent to the Philippines by the Viceroy of Mexico
to reinforce the colonial armed forces. Tomo 6, Exp. 5, F. 171-183
(2). Mexican juvenile delinquent, Jose Ortega, son of widow Dona Juana,
de Ortega, was exiled to the Philippines for unruly behavior. 1783. Tomo 17,
Exp-o1.-F,1-3:
(3). Smuggling of two unregistered boxes of goods on board the galleon
San Andres by passenger, Felix Ruiz. 1791. Tomo 25, Exp. 3, F. 32-39.
(4). Situado (annual subsidy from Mexico) amounting to P500,000 was
shipped from Acapulco to Manila. 1801. Tomo 40, Exp. 4, F. 44-56.
447
\
Ramo de la Inquisicion:
(1). Case of Dofia Ines Alvarez de Gibraleon (wife of former Governor
Guido de Lavezaris), charged of witchery. Tomo 130, Doc. 16, F. 37.
(2). Denunciation of Fr. Pedro Chirino, Jesuit, against Friar Juan Bosque,
Augustinian, for immorality. 1601. Tomo 263, Doc. 1, F. 1-8.
(3). Case against Eduardo Logan and Diego O’Kennedy (both Irish resi-
dents of Manila) charged of being members of Freemasonry. Tomo 973, Doc.
13, F. 210-220.
Ramo de Mercedes:
(1). Decree of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, dated Mexico City, Feb.
6, 1543, appointing Captain Andres de Urdaneta as corregidor (magistrate)
of the District of Avalos (Western Mexico). Tomo 2, Exp. 91, F. 37-38.
(2) Decree of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, dated Mexico City, April
18, 1543, appointing Corregidor Urdaneta as one of the troop commanders
who .suppressed the Indian Uprising in Nueva Galicia, Mexico. Tomo 2,
Exp. 167, F. 62-63.
Ramo de Reales Cedulas:
(1). Royal Decree of April 15, 1664 ordering the Viceroy of Mexico to
send punctually and promptly the annual situado to Manila so that the colonial
armed forces would receive their salaries on time. Tomo 4, Exp. 23, F. 56.
Ramo de Presidios y Carceles:
(1). Three Mexican criminals, Miguel Pifa, Celedonio and Lorenzo Mil-
lan, were condemned by the Mexican court to serve ten years in the Philippine
garrison. Tomo 10, Exp. 6, F. 62.
Ramo de Californias: :
(1). The Viceroy of Mexico, upon instruction of King Charles II, ordered
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26, Exp. 96.
Ramo de Civil:
(1). The Manila galleon Santa Rosa, with permit issued by the British
authorities and carrying full cargo, arrived at Acapulco on Sept. 6, 1763.
‘Viceroy Joaquin de Monserrat ordered the confiscation of the galleon ane its
cargo. Tomo 1136, Exp. 1,.F. 1-14.
BIBLIOTECA NACIONAL DE MEXICO
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448
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- INDEX
LA
Adonay, Marcelo, 189
Badjaos, (Sea gypsies), 38
Alimud Din I, 126 Bakr, Abu, Muslim missionary, 36
Baltazar, Francisco, 187
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 18, 35; rise of
234; retreat to Biaknabato, 246; Bamboo Organ of Las Pifias, 189
goes on exile, 249; as a dictator, Banco Espanol-Filipino, first gov-
ernment bank, 174-175
255; inaugural address of 263;
Bankaw revolt, 147
flight of, 272; capture of, 274;
cited, 302 Banks, 174, 175; reopened, 300
Barangays (sailboat), 38
Agrava Board, 404-405; two reports
of, 405
Barangay (Tribal unit), 38; early
government, 43-44
Agriculture, of early Filipinos, 50;
Barter, pre-Spanish, 50
progress of, during the American
Bartolome, Martinez, 94
regime, 292; defects of American
Basco, (General) Jose, economic pol-
policy, 292-293
icy, 168-169
Agricultural Credit Cooperatives
Basi revolt, 157
_ Financing Administration, 364
Bataan, retreat to, 329; fall of, 333
_ Air lines, inter-island, 297
Batasang Bayan (Legislative Advis-
Alas, Antonio de las, 341
ory Council), 397
-Alcaldes mayor, 199
Bates Treaty, 270
_ Alipin or slaves, 41
Bayanthan Folk Dance Troup, 368
_Alunan, Rafael, 341
Baybayin, 47
_ Amusements, of early Filipinos, 42;
Bayot Brothers revolt, 158-159
cockfighting a legalized gambling,
Beyer, Otley H., 20, 22
193; fiestas, 193; horse races, 193-
Biaknabato Republic, inaugurated,
194; Manila lottery established by
Royal decree, 194; Manila lot-
249; Pact of, 249; violated, 250
Blanco, Manuel, 190
_tery a legalized gambling, 194
Blood Compact, 44 |
Anti friar Manifesto of 1888, 217
Bonifacio, Andres, 222; as ‘“‘Hari’’,
Aquino, Benigno S., 341; speaker of
235; at the Tejeros Assembly, 240:
the KALIBAPI, 348
plan to overthrow Aguinaldo, 242;
_ Aquino, Benigno Jr., 371; Lakas ng
death of, 244; execution of, 246
Bayan candidate, 398; investiga-
Brocka, Lino, 415
tion of, murder, 404
Bukaneg, Pedro, 187
' Aquino, Corazon C., 412; first Philip-
Burgos, (Father) Jose, executed, 212,
| pine woman president, 409;
significance of martyrdom, 214
_ achievement, 416
Aquino-Galman murder case, 405
_ Araneta, Gregorio, 281 ; A @
|Archipelago of St. Lazarus, Magel-
lan named the Philippines, 2 Cagayan Valley, 5
Architecture, Spanish architectural Calderon, Felipe, 205
_ styje, 189 Calendars, early Filipino, 49
Arellano, Cayetano, 278; as Chief Calugas, Jose, heroism of, 331
Justice, 281. Cavite Mutiny, 211-212
Arts, of early Filipinos, 48-49 Cebu city, 65
Ati-atihan, 31 Colin, Francisco, 40
461
currency system, 299-300; copper
Confederation of Barangays, 44
coins issued, 263; new paper
Census. of 1903, 283; of 1939, 323
money issued, 263
China, relations with, 33; trade with,
33
Chirino, (Father) Pedro, 47; on lan- D
guage, 182
China Clipper, 298 Dagohoy rebellion, 152 _
Chinese, revolt, 100-102 Dalrymple, Alexander, 131
Christianity, Spain’s legacy, 178 Datu (Chieftain), duties of, 43
Claveria, (General) Narciso, cor- Dawn man, 27
rected calendar, 181; on Filipino Democracy, America’s greatest
surnames, 181 legacy, 302; restored by Pres.
Collaborators, real, 349-350 Aquino, 413
Golonization, threats to, 82 Dewey, George, 252
Commerce of early Filipinos, 50; Diaz, Candido Lopez, a Filipino
during the American regime, 293; inventor, 169
commercial expansion, 293 Diet, Spain improved the Filipino,
Commonwealth, Philippine, birth of 178; westernization of, 303
the, 322; first national election Dimaporo, Ali, 388
under the, 321; achievements of Divorce, practiced by early Filipinos,
the, 322; transfer of, government 43
to Corregidor, 328-329; second Dress, early Filipino, 39; during the
inaugural convention of the, 329- Spanish regime, 179 westerniza-
330; restoration of the, 354, 357; tion of, 303 a
‘last election under, 358 Death March, 334-335
Communist Party of the Philippines, Del Superior Gobierno, first news-
386 paper, 186
Concepcion, Roberto, 383 Doctrina Christiana en Lengua
Congress of the Philippines, aboli- Espanola y Tagala, 183
tion of, 382 — Domingo, Damian, 190
Constitution, revolt in defense of “ Dutch, 89, 93
1815, 157; ratification of 1935, 321;
drafting of the 1935, 320; adoption E
of 1973, 382; salient features of
1973, 383-385; granted Marcos Economy, progress of, during the
immunity from suit, 39; amend- Commonwealth, 323
ment of 1981, 402; salient features Economic Society of Friends of the
of provisional, 414; salient fea- Country, 169
tures of 1986, 415; ratification of Education, of early Filipinos, 48:
1986, 415 Spanish period, 183-184; for col-
Constitutional Commission, (Con- lege boys, 183-184; for women,
Com), 414 185; public school system, 185:
Constitutional Convention, (Con- vocational, . 185-186; under the
Con), 373 Republic, 265; during the Ameri-
Corregidor, bombed by iapancee: can regime, 304-305; progress dur-
333 ing the American regime, 305; of
Council of Indies, 72-73 Filipino pensionados, 306; popular
Curfew, 383 306; reform under Marcos, 392 ©
Currency, of early Filipinos, 50; new Elections, of 1949, 365; of local offi-
462
cials under Martial Law, 399; of Galman, Rolando, 403
regular Batasan members, 406; Ganaps, collaborators, 350
snap presidential, 408 — Garcia, Carlos P., as vice-president,
Encomienda system, 76-77 © of the Philippines, 365; as fourth
Enrile, Juan Ponce, led reform president of the Philippines, 367;
_ movement of the armed forces, 410 administration of, 368; as. first
Exclusive Economic Zone, (EEZ), 4 Con-Con president, 374; death of,
374
F = Geothermal energy, 15
Goiti, Martin de, 67, 96
Family life, of early Filipinos, 40; Gomez, (Father) Mariano, execu-
during the Spanish period, 179-180 tion of, 213
Federal Party, 280 Graft and corruption, during the
Felipe, Julian, 256, 264 Spanish regime, 205 ;
Filipino, as national language. 22-23 Government, reforms under Spanish
Filipino-American relations, collab- regime, 197-201
oration against Spain, 253-254; Governor General, duties of, 73-74
collaboration ends, 259; loyalty of Grayson, Robert W., 267
Filipinos to United States, 287-288 Gregorian calendar, 181
Filipino First Policy , 368 Greater Manila, creation of, 342-343 ©
Filipino flag, 256 Grito de Pueblo, El, 283
Filipino nation, 20-21 Guardia Civil, symbol of Spanish
Filipino nationalism, 195 rule, 201; atrocities, 202
Filipino-Spanish Expedition, 94 Guerrilla warfare, 338-339
Filipino-Spanish Treaty, 65 Gireniere, Paul de la, 169
Filipinos, 18-19; origin, 19-20; races
of, 20; character traits of, 24-26; H
burial and mourning customs, 46; Habeas Corpus, restored, 376
superstitions, 46-47; early system Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, 316-317;
of writing, 47-48; dances of early, 316
42, in Mexico, 112 Harrison, (Governor) Francis Bur-
|Folk dances, of early Filipinos, 42 ton, 286
|Forbes, W. Cameron, 288; as the Heraldo de la Revolucion, El, offi-
American road-building governor, ’ cial organ of First Philippine Rep-
296 ublic, 263
|Foreign relations, under Martial Hermano Pule revolt, 162
Law, 396 3 Hidalgo, Felix, 190
|Forests’ 10 Hospitals, during the Spanish
|Fox, Robert R:, 28 regime, 192
|Frailocracy, 202-203 Houses, early, 38
|Freeman or Timawas, 41 Huks, 365
lFree trade, with America, 293; Human Rights, 204; violated under
_ defects of, with U.S. 294-295 Martial Law, (1976), 391; restora-
|Freedom Constitution, 414 tion of, under Aquino, 416
iG I
463
Ilocos revolt, 151; led by Diego Language and languages, 22; of early
Silang, 154 Filipinos, 47; Spanish, 181, 182;
Independencia, La, 264 preserved, 182; English, 306-307;
India, relation with, 32; cultural Nippongo taught and disseminated
influence, 32 by Japanese, 343
Indonesians, migration of, 28; types Lapu-Lapu, first Filipino hero, 60
of, 28-29 Latin alphabet, 181
Industries, industrial development Laurel, Jose P. 341; President of the
during the American regime, 295 Japanese-sponsored republic, 348
Interim Batasang Pambansa, 378 Laurel-Langley Agreement, 367
Islam, 36 Laurel Salvador H., as vice-presi-
Izquierdo, (General) Rafael de, 211 dent, 413
Lavezaris, Guido de, 141
J Legarda, Benito, as resident com-
missioner, 285 :
Jaena, Graciano Lopez, -215, 216
Legazpi, Miguel Lopez de, expedi-
Japan- Philippine Pact of Alliance,
tion 64; death, 69
349
Legends of the origin of the
Japanese, revolt, 104-105; attack
Filipinos, 19
United States at Pearl Harbor,
Liberal Party, formed, 358; wins
327; invade the Philippines, 327;
election, 358; boycotted election,
propaganda, 344
378
Jones Law of 1916, signed by Pres.
Liga Filipina La object of, 220-221
Wilson, 286-287
Lim-Ah-Hong, 97 }
Jose Rizal P., 219
Literary University of the Philip-
Jose Rizal Centennial Commission,
pines, 266
368
Literature, of early Filipinos, 48;
Journalism, 186; sine the Ameri-
Spanish regime, 186; to propagate
can regime, 309; during the
Christianity, 186-187; under the
American occupation, 309
Republic, 264; during the Ameri-
K can regime, 307
Loaisa expedition, 62
Kabungsawan, Sharif, introduced Lopez, Fernando, as vice-president,
Islam to Mindanao, 36 370
Kalantiaw, Code of, 45; a deliberate Luna (General) Antonio, 267; resis-
hoax, 31 tance of, to the U.S., 267; last
Kalibapi, 344-345 word, 269; death of, 268-269
Kaingin method, 50-51 Luna, Juan, 90
Katipunan, founding of, 222-228; Luzon, largest island, 4
women in, 224; Rizal and the, 226;
discovery of the, 227-228 M
Keesing, F.M., 20
- Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) Mabini, Apolinario, adviser to
Party, 398, 408 Aguinaldo, 257; as political writer,
King, (General) Edward P., 334 264; exile of, 280
Macapagal, Diosdado, as fifth Pres-
L ident of the republic, 362; 369-370;
administration of, 369; signed the
Lakan Dula, 141 Agricultural Land Reform Code,
Land Reform, 393 . 369; propagated Filipino language,
464
369; achievements, 369; formation of, during his first term, 370; bat-
of MAPHILINDO, 370; suc- tle-cry, 370; re-elected, 371; sus-
ceeded Garcia as Con-Con presi- pends Writ of Habeas Corpus,
dent, 374, 375; crisis in administration, 376;
MacArthur, (General) Arthur, cap- extended office beyond 1973, 384;
tured Malolos, 268 imposed Martial law, 386; as a dic-
MacArthur, (General) Douglas, in tator, 386; created 5 Moro pro-
command of USAFFE, 326; flees . vinces, 387; policy to attract Mus-
to Australia, 332; slogan used by, lim Filipinos, 386-387; as comman-
332-333; returns to the Philip- der-in-chief, 389; first President of
pines, 352 the New Philippine Republic, 403;
McNutt, Paul, 360-361 aborted impeachment of, 406;
Magellan, Ferdinand, 1-2; 53-60; downfall of, 412
sees first Filipino, 58; at Huma- Marcos, Ferdinand Jr., 402
bon, 58; conversion by, 59; at Marcos, Imelda R., 380, 402
Cebu, 58-60; invasion of Mactan Marianas, 94
island, 60; death of, 60 Marquina, Felix Berenguer de, 172-
Magsaysay, Ramon, as Secretary of 173
National Defense, 365; defeated Martial Law, proclaimed by Gov.
President Quirino, 365; as third Blanco, 231; 1942, 340; pruc-
President of the Philippines, 365; laimed by Laurel, 352; proclaimed
administration of 366; death of, by Marcos, 378; imposition of
367 1972, explained, 379; measures of,
Makalintal, Querube, 399 381-382; first national election
MAKAPILIS, 350-351 under, 398; end of 1972, 397
Makdum, 36 Maura Law, 200
Malays, migration of, to the Philip- ‘Mexicans, in the Philippines, 109; its
pines, 29-31 ; contribution, 114-115; introduc-
Malolos Congress, achievements of, tion of new ‘industries, 167; intro-
261 duction of animals from, 167;
Malolos Constitution, proclaimed, introduction of new plants, 167
262 Military organization, under Spanish
Malvar, (General) Miguel, 274-275 regime, 201
Ma-yi (Ma-i) Chinese name for Military reforms, 201
Philippines, 1 Mining, an ancient industry, 14
Maniago revolt, 149 Missionaries, 79; as Moro fighters,
Manila, 69; under siege, 133; as 127
Asia’s emporium, 167; opened to Misuari, Nur, 386
world trade, 173-174; captured, Money, first paper, 175
258; as key points of all aviation Monteclaro, Pedro A., 31
routes in the Far East, 298; open Morga, Antonio de, 39, 108-109
city; 329, 220; liberation of, 355. Moro Islamic faith, 119
Manila-Acapulco Trade, 110, 168 Moro National Liberation Front
Malong rebellion, 150-151 (MNLF), 386 ee
Manotoc, Imee Marcos, 390 Murphy, (General) Frank, 11, 23,
Marcos, Ferdinand E., as senate 318, 363
president, 370; as sixth President Music, early Filipino, 41; enriched
of the Philippines, 370; wins the by Spanish and Mexican influence,
‘1969 election, 371; achievement 188; American jazz introduced by
Americans, 311 of the Philippine Commonwealth,
Musical instruments, early Filipino, 321; re-elected, 323; renounced his
42, 188 constitutional rights, 353; suc-
Muslim customs, 119 ceeded Quezon aspresident, 354
Our Lady of the Rosary, 184
N
P
Nacionatista, Partido, 285
Narra, il PDP-Laban Party, 408
National Anthem of the Philippines, Painting, 190
256 > Palaaks, 350
National Citizens Movement for _Palares Revolt, 156
Free Elections (NAMFREL), 409 Palma, Jose, 257
National Economic Protectionism Palaus, 94
(NEPA), 296 Pamaran, Manuel, 405
National Militia, 287 Pampanga Tax revoli, 142
National Research Council, 310 Pampars, 350
Nationalism, birth of, 207; suppres-_ Pandaka pygmaea, 13
sed, 283 Paredes, Quintin, 341
Nationalista Party, split of 358; Parian, 99-100
defeat of, 358 Paterno, Pedro, as peacemaker, 248
National College Entrance Examina- Paul VI, Pope, visit to the Philippines,
tion, 392 374-375, 401
National Economic Development Pearl of the Orient, 168
Authority (NEDA), 394 Pelaez, Emmanuel, as fifth vice-pres-
- National Legislative Advisory Coun- ident, 369
cil, 390 People’s Power Revolution, 410
Negritos, 28 Philip II of Spain, Philippines named”
New People’s Army (NPA), 370, 386 for, 1 ;
New Philippine Republic, birth of, Philippine Amanah Bank, 387 _
401 Philippine Assembly, inaugurated,
New Society, 393 285
Nickel deposit, 14 Philippine Commission (Shurman),
Nobles or Maharlika, 41 278-279 ee
Novales Mutiny, 160 Philippine Commission (Taft), 279
Nixon, Richard, quoted, 380 Philippine Executive Commission,
Nuevo Dia, El, 264, 283 organized, 341-342; 346
Philippine Independence Mission,
315,
Oo Philippine-Japanese Relations, 106
Philippine Long Distance, 382
Observatory of Manila, 191 Philippine-Mexican Relations, 114
Oplan Sagittarius, 381 Philippine National Anthem, 264
Orphanages, 192-193 Philippine National Bank, 300
Osmena, Sergio, 35, as editor, 283; Philippine Postal Savings Bank, 300
as speaker of the assembly, 285; Philippines, naming of, 2; legends
on OSROX Mission, 316; lost pos- about the, 2-3; strategic location,
ition as president pro-tempore of 3; area, 3; agricultural wealth, 10;
the Senate, 318; as vice-president climate, 5-6; earthquakes, 6;
466
fauna, 8; fish and marine wealth, movement in the armed forces, 410-
- 12-13; flora, 9; land bridges, 3; 412
mineral and mineral wealth, 13-14; Real Hospicio de San Jose, 192
natural wonders, 15-17 popula- Recto, Claro, 341
tion, 21; rediscovered, 52, 57; typ- Religion, of early Filipinos, 45
hoon, 6 Religious revolts, 141-146
Pilar, (General) isioila del, 271; Republic Cultural Heritage Awards
death of, 273 for Filipinos, 368
Pineda, Antonio, botanist, 173 Republic of the Philippines, dissol-
Pinpin, Tomas, 183. ved, 357
Polavieja, (General) Camilo, suc- Republica Filipinas, La, 264
ceeds Blanco, 237; execution of Residencia, as judicial institution, 75
Rizal by, 237 Resident Commissioners, defenders
Political parties, 285 of Filipino interest in US, 285
Polo, 78 Revolts, Hermano Pule, 162; Ilocos,
Ports, opening of, 297 151; Irrayas, 146-147; Ladia, 148;
Preparatory Commission for Philip- Malong, 150-151; Maniago, 149;
pine Independence (PCPO) 347 Tamblot, 147
Presidential Action Committee on — Reyes, Ventura de los, 197
Social Amelioration (PACSA) 364 Rice, staple food, 39
Printing Press, established by Rios, Diego de los, last Spanish gov-
Dominicans, 182-183; UST, 183 ernor, 259
Propaganda Movement, 197 Rivera, Primo de, 248 .
Protestant Christianity, 311 Rizal, Jose, 34, 128-129, 190, 215,
221, 237
Robertson, James, 31
Rodriguez, Francisco, banker, 174
Q Roosevelt, Franklin, cited, 317, 320,
329
Quezon, Manuel, 20; as majority ‘Rosario, Anacleto del, chemist, 191,
floor leader, 255; as president of Roxas, Manuel, as war prisoner, 338;
the Senate, 287; as President of speaker of the House of Represen-
the Commonwealth, 321; . re- tatives, 295-296; on economic
elected, 323; secret plan to join nationalism, 295-296; third and
the British Empire, 323-325; last President of the Phil. ‘Com-
monwealth, 359; as first pres-
escape of, 330-331; on collabora-
tion, 345-346; as President in- ident of the Phil. Republic, 359;
administration of, 363; death of,
exile, 352; tenure extended, 353;
364
death of, 354
Quirino, Elpidio, 351; as second Royal Audiencia, 73-75; 198
President of the Philippines, 364; Royal Company of the Philippines,
administration of, 364-365; sus- 171, 172, 173
pends Writ of Habeas Corpus, 375 Ruby Tower, 7
Ruiz, Lorenzo, beatification of,
401-402
R
S
Racial discrimination, 205
Radio stations, established, 298-299 Sabah, 128, claim, 369
- Ramos, (General) Fidel, led reform Salcedo, Juan de, 69-70, 110
467
Saluag Isle, 4 Tolentino, Arturo, 408
Sampaguita, 9 Tolentino, Guillermo, 310
San Francisco Treaty, 367 Tondo Conspiracy, 142
. San Jose, Blancas de, 182 Torre, (General) Carlos Maria de
Sangguniang Bayan, 390 la, 208, 209, 210
Sangleys, 97 Transportation, 175, 296-271
Santos, Jose Abad, execution of, Treaty of Paris, 95, 130, 259-260
336-337 Treaty of Zaragoza, 63
Sarrat Uprising, 157 Tribute, 77
Sciences, progress during the Ameri- Tripoli Agreement, 387-388
can regime, 310 Truman, Harry, 361
Sculpture, Spanish regime, 190 Tydings-McDuffie Law, 317
Si Katuna, or Katuna, 64
Silang, Gabriela, 155-156 U
Slavery, causes, 41; abolition of, 78
Slaves, kinds of 41-42 United Nationalist Democratic Party
Society and social classes of early (UNIDO) 408
Filipinos, 41 United Nations (UN), 352
Solidaridad, La, 217-218 United Nations Convention on the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization Law of the Sea (UNCLOS Tre-
(SEATO), 366 aty), 4 .
Spain, settlement of, 65; coloniza- United Nippon (UN), collaborators,
‘tion of, 71; revolts against, 140; 350
economic achievement, 167; sur- United States Armed Forces in the
names, 181; laws extended, 198; Far East (USAFFE), 326
reign of terror, 232-233 University of San Ignacio, 184
Stimson, (Governor) Henry, University of Santo Tomas, 184
restored cooperation, 289
Student Power, 372 v
Suez Canal, 208
Sumuroy Revolt, 148-149 ’ Vargas, Jorge, 330, 341
Ver, Fabian, 389, 402
T Vera, Santiago de, 74
Viado, Jose; 11 :
Taal volcano, 7 Villalobos, Ruy Lopez de, 1, 63
Tobacco Monopoly, 169 Villamor, Jesus, 328
Tabon man, 28 Virata, Cesar, prime minister, 408
Tadeo, Jaime, 415 Voice of Freedom, 33-34
Taft, William H., 279, 281, 282
Tagalog, 328 WwW
Tattoos, 39-40, 48
Tayabas Regiment Mutiny, 164 Wainwright, (General) Jonathan, 335
Tejeros Assembly, 240 Wilson, Woodrow, 286
Telegraph service, 298 Women, position of, 23-24, 42, 180,
Telephone, 298 304, suffrage granted, 323
Theatre, 187 Wood-Forbes Mission, 288-289
Thomasites, 305 Wood, Leonard, 288-289; death of,
Tirona, Candido, 234 289
Tojo, Premier, 346 World War, II, preparation for, in
468
the Phil., 326; losses, 362 Youth Civic Action Program, 392
Wright, Luke, 282-283, 375 Yulo, Jose, 341
Y Z
469
ABOUT THE AUTHORS