Hydraulic Nozzles

Diesel engines require a fuel

injector nozzle for each cylinder to
atomize and spray fuel
pressurized by the injection pump,
atomization breaks the fuel up into
tiny droplets, in some engines as
small as 10 microns in diameter.
Fuel must be atomized thoroughly
to mix with air for combustion
however atomized fuel is still in the
liquid state, in order to burn it must be vaporized by the heat of the combustion chamber. Smaller
droplets vaporize more quickly and will reduce ignition
delay in most cases they will also result in more complete
combustion. This results in better emissions and fuel
economy. To vaporize and mix with all available oxygen in
the cylinder, the droplets must penetrate all areas of the
combustion chamber. Smaller droplets have smaller mass
and will not penetrate as far as heavier ones. The spray-in
pressure and droplet sizing must be matched to the
turbulence characteristics of the particular chamber. High
turbulence chambers help to break the fuel into smaller
droplets to accelerate vaporiztion. The density and
pressure of the air in a combustion chamber also requires high spray in pressures for the fuel to
penetrate the chamber as quickly as possible. It is also very
important that the fuel does not contact any of the cylinder
hardware or it will condense on the relatively cooler metal and
cause incomplete combustion and direct flame impingement
of the components, burning of the piston crown and possibly
the valves. Fuel contacting the cylinder wall can also cause
cylinder wall wash resulting in piston ring and liner scuffing
and crankcase oil dilution DI (direct injection), combustion
chambers require the highest spray in pressures since there
is not as much turbulence mixing the fuel. Peak pressure from
various pumps will range from 9,000 to 18,000 psi. Spray
velocities can be faster than the speed of sound. 4 to 12 orifii
may be located around the circumference of a nozzle. The
angle of trajectory from the orifice must match the combustion
chamber shape intended by the manufacturer for optimum
performance and emissions. Most nozzles used today are
differential pressure nozzles. When fuel pressure in the
nozzle body rises to a set level, the nozzle opens against
spring pressure and injects fuel. When fuel pressure drops,
the valve closes. The angle of the nozzle spray must precisely
match the combustion chamber design within 2 degrees or
performance complaints result due to poorer vaporization and
combustion and eventual cylinder damage.
Types of Multi-Orifice Injector Nozzles
With the exception of the Cummins PT fuel injectors and the Cummins HPI-TP injectors all of
North Americas injection nozzles are closed nozzles. Open nozzles
are so named because the nozzle is open to the combustion chamber
for part of the engine cycle. In closed nozzles a spring loaded needle
valve seals the nozzle from the combustion chamber at all times other
than when fuel is being injected. Open nozzles are prone to fuel
leakage or dribble and as such they are no longer viable for on
highway engines as they don’t meet the current emission standards.
Injector dribble is a major cause of pre-ignition (fuel knock). As fuel
runs down and remains on the nozzle, carbon will form in this area
and cause burning. Leakage or dribble obviously leads to poor
economy and black exhaust smoke.

The valve used in closed nozzle injectors eliminates

fuel leakage or dribble through the tip pre-ignition and
after burning are all but eliminated and fuel economy
improves. Closed nozzle tips originally had a “sac”
volume , a volume of fuel trapped in the tip of the
injector after the injection event this volume would be
wasted, standard sac volume nozzles gave way to
reduced sac volume nozzle and then to Valve Closes
Orifice, (VCO), type nozzles in which the needle valve
actually seals the orifii eliminating wastage and the
resulting HC emissions..
Modern filtration technology has also reduces clogging of nozzles by removing solids from the fuel
before it reaches the nozzle. Some filtration systems are capable of removing particles as small as
l micron. Closed type injector nozzles are the most popular nozzle type in use today. There are
two types of closed nozzles, the hole type or multi-orifice and the pintle type. Pintle type nozzles
have a small pintle as part of the needle valve that protrudes through the nozzle orifice and helps
to shape the injector spray pattern. Pintle type nozzles are used exclusively with indirect injected
engines and are all but obsolete today. Both nozzle types utilize a spring loaded valve that seals
the nozzle tip this means that the fuel lines are completely closed off when no fuel is being
injected this valve along with the delivery valve in the injection pump maintain a residual line
pressure in the line so it is ready for the next injection cycle. A slight amount of controlled
clearance between the nozzle valve outside diameter and nozzle body allows a small amount of
leakage past the valve into the adjusting spring chamber and nozzle holder body. This clearance
can be as small as 2 to 4 microns. Leakage provides lubrication for the valve spring seal and
adjusting spring. A number of design factors affect the operation and efficiency of hole-type
nozzles.
Spray Hole Design. The number, diameter, and position of the spray holes must be chosen to
provide good atomization of the fuel entering the combustion chamber. This provides optimum air-
fuel mixing throughout the engine's full operating range. Most hole type injector nozzles are set to
an opening pressure of between 1800-5000 psi. This high pressure increases atomization and
reduces the danger of gas blow back through the holes. In general, opening pressures increase
with the degree of engine turbo-charging since the injector must be capable of overcoming the
increased cylinder pressures generated by turbo-charging.
Higher opening pressures do increase stress on the nozzle springs and seats though and low
speed idling may also be rougher and starting more difficult.
Differential ratio
The differential ratio is the ratio between the diameters of the valve guide and seat. When the
valve is closed, fuel pressure acts only on the annulus located between the guide and valve seat.
When the valve is open, pressure acts on this area and the now exposed area of the valve
seat. This means the pressure required to open the valve is greater than the pressure required to
hold the valve open. If these pressures were the same the needle would rapidly oscillate at the
beginning of injection due to the initial pressure drop as the valve opens. The increase in pressure
area once the valve lifts off its seat results in very rapid opening and the differential ratio means
that closing pressure will be between 65 and 85% of opening pressure. A large differential ratio
decreases the amount of stroke to-stroke variation between injectors, particularly at idle speeds
however a large differential ratio increases needle velocity and stress on the need and the nozzle
body.
Needle Mass
The greater the mass of the valve needle, the slower it will move. This is important during the end
of fuel injection when it is necessary to re-seat the valve before the fuel pressure below the seat
has dropped to the level where combustion gases from the cylinder can blow back through the
nozzle opening. A nozz1e that is experiencing gas blowback will have a very short valve seat life.
Valve guide Diameter
The valve guide and nozzle valve can be compared to a cylinder and piston. Like the piston the
nozzle valve moves up and down inside the bore of the guide. This means that the valve guide
diameter has a direct effect on the pushing power of the
nozzle and the distribution of the pressures generated.
During opening, the rapid expansion of space around
the valve seat causes a drop in fuel pressure at the
nozzle orifice. The opposite effect occurs when the valve
closes to cut off injection. A large diameter guide
enables the valve to better control this drop in pressure
and reduces the danger of combustion gas blowback
into the nozzle.
Pintle Nozzles
Pintle injector nozzles are used in small bore, high-
speed engines having pre-combustion, divided, air cell
or energy-cell combustion chambers. This type of nozzle
has a throttling characteristic whereby only a small
amount of fuel is discharged at the beginning of
injection. The fuel flow rate then increases progressively
as the valve lifts higher off its seat.

Pintle Nozzle Construction

The valve of a pintle nozzle is equipped with an extension protruding through the hole in the
bottom of the nozzle body. Certain pintle nozzles are classified as delay nozzles. These nozzles
reduce the amount of fuel injected during the early stages of injection. This limits the amount of
fuel in the combustion chamber at the beginning of injection and reduces the amount of fuel knock
occurring at the beginning of the combustion process. The pilot spray is more effective at idling
when the valve lift is low, when the valve is fully open, the spray changes from a cylindrical pattern
to a conical one.
Spray Patterns
To the naked eye an injector spray cone appears to be solid, but the cone actually consists of
different regions of air-fuel mixtures from very lean to very rich, it is important to note that
combustion in a diesel will begin where the mixture is closest to stoichiometric. Spray cones are
precisely calculated by design engineers to produce maximum fuel efficiency, complete
combustion and minimal emissions. These objectives are achieved through the manipulation of
nozzle hole size, nozzle hole length, spray angle, and injection pressure if the injector opening
pressure is increased the start
of the injector spray would be
delayed and fuel spray velocity
would increase. As a result, the
length of the spray cone would
increase and the spray angle
would decrease. Fuel droplet
size would decrease and the
fuel penetration distance into
the combustion chamber would
increase. Fuel would now spray
to areas in the chamber out of
reach of the air stream. This
would cause an increase in the
ignition delay time, and the
engine would operate with
increased emissions, a loss of
power, high fuel consumption,
and noticeable fuel knock.
Factors that can reduce injector life.
Several factors can reduce the service life of diesel fuel injectors. Abrasives (dirt) in the fuel can
wear down fuel carrying components, enlarge the tolerances of the needle valve and bore,
damage the valve seat, and enlarge the spray orifii. Excessive heat will change the expansion rate
of the nozzle and accelerate wear. This accelerated wear causes higher leakage and reduces the
amount of fuel available for injection because any fuel that leaks by the injector is fuel that should
have been going into the cylinder. Water in the fuel will cause corrosion and can dilute the ability
of the fuel to lubricate sensitive fuel system
components. Water may also not pass through the
spray holes on some multi-hole nozzles, and
superheated expansion due to the combustion
event may cause damage or break off the nozzle
tip. If the sulphur content of the fuel is too high
deposits may form that block passages and affect
performance. Sulphur is also corrosive. Finally,
improper installation can result in insufficient
cooling seizure of the needle valve, or poor valve
seating.
Bench testing of injection nozzles, (pop-
tester).
First clean nozzle externally with a brass wire
brush, this should be done by hand as any
motorised wire brushing can cause extreme
damage to the nozzle orifii.
Nozzle Opening Pressure NOP.
With the nozzle attached to the tester operate the
hand pump sevens time to purge air from the
nozzle. Watch for any external leakage. Operate
pump to nozzle opening pressure, (NOP), three
times and record the pressure.
Variation of more than 150 psi between opening pressures could indicate a sticking valve. NOTE.
Injectors operate at extremely high pressure and the fuel spray can easily penetrate skin and
cause sickness and or DEATH. Wear safety glasses and keep hands clear of all parts of the
injector until the pressure is reduced. Even external leakage of the injector may be of high enough
pressure to penetrate the skin.
Forward leakage test
Operate the pump to maintain slightly less than opening pressure, 150 psi less, and observe the
nozzle tip for 5 to 10 seconds, slight wetting of the injector tip after five seconds is permissible. A
droplet of fuel must not form, if a droplet forms after 5 seconds, the valve seat is leaking, replace
the nozzle.
Back leakage test
Checking the amount of leak-off or back leakage looks for any problems with the nozzle fit in the
bore or lapped surfaces of the nozzle body and holder. The nozzle spacer is one of the lapped
surfaces, it contains two locating pins that position the nozzle radially to ensure proper spray
pattern orientation within the combustion chamber. Both faces of the spacer are lapped to a fine
finish to provide a high-pressure seal between the holder and nozzle body faces. The spacer also
acts as a valve stop. Set the pressure to within 150 psi of the opening pressure and time the
pressure drop. An average pressure drop of approximately 400 to 800 psi in six seconds indicates
that the mating surfaces are not leaking excessively and that the needle valve is being properly
lubricated. If the pressure drops too quickly, the needle valve may be loose in its bore, or the
lapped surfaces may not be sealing properly. If the pressure drop is less than 300 over a six-
second period, the needle valve is not receiving proper lubrication. Lubricating passage and or
seams may be clogged with dirt or sulphur deposits.

Spray Pattern Test

Rapidly pump the
tester hand pump for
several strokes to
purge any air from
the injector. Operate
the hand pump to
raise the fuel
pressure until the
needle valve lids off
of its valve seat and
fuel sprays from the
nozzle. Carefully
observe the spray
pattern, although
observation will not
tell you if the
atomization is good it can indicate a poor spray pattern.
The spray cone from each orifice should be similar in
shape and length, any vertical or horizontal abnormality
indicates a clogged or distorted spray hole. If cleaning
does not correct the pattern the nozzle should be
replaced. A slight chatter is normally heard as the
injector nozzle opens and closes during this test. Chatter
is caused by the needle valve rapidly opening and
closing and only occurs on the test bench because you
cannot sustain the high pressure need to keep the valve
open while manually operating the hand pump. Chatter
does indicate that the needle valve is free in it's bore,
however, absence of chatter does not mean that it is
sticking, although if no audible chatter is heard it would
be a good idea to ensure that the valve does not stick
when the nozzle is disassembled for cleaning.
Cleaning
After disassembly keep each valve with its original
nozzle body, soak all parts of each nozzle in a varnish
removing cleaning agent. The disassembled injector
may also be cleaned in a 15% caustic soda solution, an
air agitated solvent tank, or an ultrasonic cleaner.
Extreme care must be taken while disassembling and
reassembling nozzles as they can be easily distorted
causing leakage and sticking.
Nozzle Problems: Nozzle life is
shortened by cold running
cylinders leaving carbon deposits,
water and dirt in the fuel or
incorrect grade of fuel.
Defective nozzles are indicated by
- black smoke - rough idle - miss-

fire - increased fuel consumption

A new nozzle orifice as above can be destroyed by wire brushing as below!
 In the past many
hours were spent
reconditioning
nozzles as at left
however this work is
too time consuming
today and nozzles
are routinely replaced
and in most cases
the nozzles and the
nozzle holders for an
engine are replaced
as a set.

Electro-hydraulic
injectors
Common rail fuel
injection systems
commonly use
electro-hydraulic
injectors. In these
injector the high
pressure fuel from the common rail is used to hold the injector needle shut in order for an injection
to occur this closing pressure must be removed. Electro-hydraulic injectors were first controlled by
solenoids but in the latest generation they are controlled by piezo-electric actuators, more on the
actuators later. Electro-hydraulic injectors are injectors that use hydraulics to control the opening
of the needle valve and therefore do not rely on spring pressure to set NOP. The needle valve in
these injectors is held closed by a combination of spring and hydraulic forces. When the needle
valve is closed the pressure that exists in the common rail is present in a control chamber above
the nozzle. This pressure acts on a control piston that physically holds the needle in the seated
position. The rail pressure is also
acting on the needle valve annular
area in an attempt to open it however
the surface area of the control piston
is much larger that the valve annular
area so the needle remains closed.
 When injection is
desired the ECM
sends control voltage
of approximately 100
volts to the injector
actuator which in turn
controls the opening
of a very small orifice
drain for the fuel pressure above the control piston. Opening this drain allows the pressure above
the control piston to drop allowing the ever present pressure pushing the needle valve to open the
valve and injection begins at whatever pressure there is in the
rail at that moment. When injection is complete the ECM stops
the signal to the actuator and the drain closes. Pressure
immediately builds up on the control piston which drives the
needle valve shut so injection ends without the characteristic
pressure drop and droplet sizing remains optimum.
Solenoid operated actuators were used in the first generation of
these injectors. They were capable of split shot injection to
reduce engine noise and in some cases multi-pulse injection.
Actuator speed was limited however by self induction of the coil
when the actuator was turned on by the ECM. Self induction
means that as the magnetic field is building in the coil its lines of
force are cutting through the coil winding until the coil is
saturated. This induces a current in the coil whose direction of
flow is opposite to the flow that created the magnetic field so
this current opposes the actuation current and delays coil
saturation and actuator functioning.

Second generation
electro-hydraulic
injectors now use piezo-
electric actuators. These
actuators work on the
principle of piezo-
electricity. A piezo
electric crystal when
subjected to pressure
creates an electric
current you have seen
this effect if you have
ever used a B-B-Q
lighter that you click and
a spark is created.
Researchers have found
that this effect is
reversible that is if a
current is applied to a
piezo crystal that it is
deformed slightly.
Piezo-electric actuators consist of a stack of up to hundreds of crystal wafers that hold the drain
valve closed in the electro-hydraulic injector when the ECM commands injection it sends a 100
volt signal to the actuator and the stack deforms enough to open the drain causing injection to
begin. At the end of injection the current is removed and the stack returns to its normal shape
closing the drain and allowing the pressure to build on the control piston slamming the needle
valve shut.
Piezo-electric actuators do not build a magnetic field and therefore have no self induction delay as
the solenoid actuators do. This increases actuator speed and allows the ECM to break the
injection pulse into as many as seven separate injections during one cylinder firing cycle. This
gives the ECM the power to precisely control combustion chamber pressure during the injection
event to optimize engine and fuel efficiency.