Topic 5: Energy transfers in and between organisms

Contents (checklist)
5.1 Photosynthesis..................................................................................................................................2
Overview of photosynthesis .................................................................................................................. 2
The light-dependent reaction ................................................................................................................ 2
The light-independent reaction (Calvin cycle) ....................................................................................... 3
Environmental factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis ................................................................... 3
5.2 Respiration .......................................................................................................................................5
Glycolysis ................................................................................................................................................ 5
After glycolysis if no oxygen present (anaerobic respiration) ............................................................... 5
After glycolysis if oxygen present (aerobic respiration) ........................................................................ 5
Other respiratory substrates 
............................................................................................................... 7
5.3 Energy and ecosystems .....................................................................................................................8
Principles ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Measuring biomass ................................................................................................................................ 8
Gross and net primary production......................................................................................................... 8
Net production of consumers ................................................................................................................ 9
Rates of productivity units ..................................................................................................................... 9
Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient ............................................................................ 9
Farming practices to increase energy transfer efficiency ...................................................................... 9
5.4 Nutrient cycles ................................................................................................................................10
The simple sequence of a nutrient cycle .............................................................................................10
Role of saprobionts in recycling chemical elements ...........................................................................10
Role of mycorrhizae in recycling chemical elements...........................................................................10
Main stages of the nitrogen cycle ........................................................................................................10
Nitrogen cycle importance 
 ................................................................................................................11
Stages of the phosphorous cycle .........................................................................................................11
Fertilisers..............................................................................................................................................11
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5.1 Photosynthesis
Overview of photosynthesis
• Light dependent reaction on thylakoid membrane in
chloroplast
• Light independent reaction in stroma in chloroplast

The light-dependent reaction

• Chlorophyll (in photosystem II) absorbs light energy (photon) which excites electrons to a higher
energy level, releasing them from chlorophyll = photoionisation
• Some energy from electrons released during photoionisation is conserved in the production of ATP and
reduced NADP:
• Production of ATP
1. Electrons pass down electron transfer chain (electron carriers) from PSII to PSI via redox
reactions, losing energy at each step
2. This energy is used to actively transport protons from stroma into thylakoid
3. Creating a proton / electrochemical gradient across the thylakoid membrane (higher in
thylakoid than stroma)
4. Protons move by facilitated diffusion down the electrochemical gradient into the stroma via
the enzyme ATP synthase embedded in the thylakoid membrane
5. Energy from this allows ADP + Pi ATP (photophosphorylation)
This is called the chemiosmotic theory
• Production of reduced NADP
1. In PSI electrons are excited and transferred to NADP (with a proton from photolysis) to
reduce NADP to form reduced NADP
• Photolysis (splitting of water using light energy) produces protons, electrons and oxygen (2H 2O O2 +
4e- + 4H+)
• Electrons replace those lost from chlorophyll

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Products of the light dependent reaction
• ATP light independent reaction
• Reduced NADP light independent reaction
• Oxygen leaves cell as a by-product or used in
respiration

The light-independent reaction (Calvin cycle)

CO2 reacts with RuBP

(ribulose bisphosphate)
(5C), catalysed by the
enzyme rubisco.

(5/6) TP used
to regenerate Produces 2 molecules of
RuBP (using glycerate 3-phosphate
rest of ATP). (GP) (3C).

Some TP
converted GP reduced to triose
into useful phosphate (TP) using
organic products from light
substances dependent reaction:
eg. glucose. energy from the
hydrolysis of ATP and H+
from reduced NADP.

Environmental factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis

Limiting factors
• A factor is limiting if when it’s made a more favourable value, the rate of photosynthesis increases,
• until photosynthesis is limited by a different factor

Temperature
• Rate of photosynthesis increases as temp increases up to an optimum,
decreases after
• Limits light independent reaction as it’s enzyme controlled (rubisco)
• Increasing temp up to optimum…
• More Ek.
• More E-S complexes (rubisco).
• Above optimum…
• H bonds in tertiary structure break active site changes shape / enzyme denatured (rubisco)
• Fewer E-S complexes

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Light intensity
• Rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases (then
plateaus)
• If light intensity was dramatically reduced …
• Levels of ATP and reduced NADP would fall, because…
• Light dependent reaction limited as less
photoionisation of chlorophyll (and less photolysis)
• So, the light independent reaction would also slow/stop…
• GP can’t be reduced to TP (requires ATP and reduced
NADP)
• TP can’t regenerate RuBP (requires ATP)

CO2 concentration
• Rate of photosynthesis increases as CO2 conc increases (then
plateaus)
• If carbon dioxide concentration dramatically decreased…
• Limits light independent reaction
• Less CO2 to combine with RuBP to form GP
• Less GP reduced to TP
• Less TP (and GP) converted to organic substances e.g.
hexose and to regenerate RuBP

Common agricultural practices used to overcome the effect of these limiting factors
• You might be asked to evaluate data relating to common agricultural practices used to overcome the
effect of these limiting factors
• For example, growing plants under artificial lighting to maximise light intensity, or heating a
greenhouse to increase the temperature and burning fuel, such as paraffin burners, to release more
carbon dioxide
• If limiting factors are minimal, rate of photosynthesis will increase, so:

More ATP to provide

Faster production of
energy for growth Higher yield so more
glucose allowing
e.g. cell division, profit.
faster respiration.
protein synthesis.

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5.2 Respiration
Glycolysis
• Occurs in cytoplasm
• Anaerobic process (doesn’t require oxygen); the first stage of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
1. Phosphorylation of glucose to glucose phosphate
• Using the inorganic phosphates from 2 ATP
2. Hydrolysed to 2 X triose phosphate
3. 2 X Triose phosphate oxidised to 2 X pyruvate
• 2 NAD reduced (collects hydrogen ions)
• 4 ATP regenerated
• 4 gained – 2 used = net production of 2 ATP

After glycolysis if no oxygen present (anaerobic respiration)

1. Pyruvate converted to lactate (animal cells, some bacteria) or
ethanol (plants, yeast)
2. Oxidising reduced NAD NAD regenerated
3. So glycolysis can continue which needs / uses NAD
• Note: Some energy still in lactate (incomplete breakdown of
glucose)
• Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than aerobic
respiration; the ATP yield is lower. The majority of ATP is formed
in oxidative phosphorylation

After glycolysis if oxygen present (aerobic respiration)

• Pyruvate actively transported into the
mitochondrial matrix
• Stages of aerobic respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Link reaction
3. Krebs cycle
4. Oxidative phosphorylation 


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Aerobic respiration stage 2: Link reaction
• Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
• Pyruvate oxidised and decarboxylated = acetate
• CO2 and reduced NAD produced
• Acetate combines with coenzyme A = Acetyl Coenzyme A
• Per glucose molecule, 2 X Acetyl CoA, 2 X CO2 and 2 X reduced NAD produced

Aerobic respiration stage 3: Krebs cycle

• Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
• Acetyl coenzyme A reacts with a 4-carbon molecule (oxaloacetate), producing a 6-carbon molecule
(citrate) that enters the Krebs cycle
• Coenzyme A released
• 6C molecule 5C 4C molecule (4C molecule regenerated) through a series of oxidation-reduction
reactions...
• Decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
• CO2 removed
• Coenzymes NAD & FAD reduced (key point – important for oxidative phosphorylation)
• ATP produced by substrate level phosphorylation (direct transfer of Pi from intermediate
compound to ADP)

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Aerobic respiration stage 4: Oxidative phosphorylation
• On the cristae of mitochondria
• Reduced NAD/FAD oxidised to release H atoms split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-)
• Electrons transferred down the electron transport chain (a chain of carriers at decreasing energy
levels) by redox reactions
• Energy released by electrons used in the production of ATP from ADP + Pi (chemiosmotic theory):
a. Energy used by electron carriers to actively transport protons from the matrix to the
intermembrane space
b. Protons diffuse down an electrochemical gradient, via ATP synthase (embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane) back into the matrix
c. Releasing energy to combine ADP + Pi to ATP
• In the matrix at the end of the electron transport chain, oxygen is the final electron acceptor –
protons, electrons and oxygen combine to form water

Why is oxygen needed for the production of ATP on the cristae of the mitochondrion?
• Oxygen = terminal electron acceptor for electrons passing along the ETC
• The ETC releases the energy for the formation of (most) ATP (from ADP + P i)
• No oxygen to accept them = electrons can’t be passed along the electron transport chain
• The Krebs cycle and link reaction also stop in the absence of oxygen because NAD and FAD (converted
from reduced NAD/FAD as they release their H atoms for the ETC,) cannot be produced

Other respiratory substrates 


• Other respiratory substrates include the breakdown products of lipids and amino acids, which enter
the Krebs cycle. For example:
• Fatty acids from the hydrolysis of lipids are converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A
• Amino acids from the hydrolysis of proteins are converted to intermediates in Krebs cycle

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5.3 Energy and ecosystems

Principles
• In any ecosystem, there are producers (autotrophs)
• Photoautotrophs use light energy to synthesise their own food, while
chemoautotrophs use inorganic molecules
• Through photosynthesis, plants synthesise organic compounds (e.g. glucose) from
(atmospheric, or aquatic,) carbon dioxide
• Most sugars synthesised used by as respiratory substrates
• Rest used to make other groups of biological molecules e.g. cellulose form plant
biomass
• Heterotrophs (e.g. animals) cannot synthesise their own energy, but must obtain it from autotrophs or
other heterotrophs; they act as consumers in food webs
• Biomass and its stored energy are transferred through trophic levels in a food web
(inefficiently)

Measuring biomass
• Biomass can be measured in terms of:
• Mass of carbon
• Dry mass of tissue per given area
1. Sample of organism dried in an oven set to a low temperature.
• Low temperature to avoid combustion (loss of biomass / CO2)
2. Sample reweighed at regular intervals e.g. every day
3. All water removed when mass remains constant
4. Mass of carbon taken to be 50% of dry mass
• Dry mass more representative because water content of samples varies
• The chemical energy stored in dry biomass can be estimated using calorimetry
• Sample of dry biomass burnt
• Energy released is used to heat a known volume of water
• Change in temperature of water used to calculate the chemical energy

Gross and net primary production

• Gross primary production (GPP)
• Chemical energy store in plant biomass, in a given area / volume, in a given time
• i.e. the total energy resulting from photosynthesis
• Net primary production (NPP)
• Chemical energy store in plant biomass after respiratory losses (R) to the environment have
been taken into account
• NPP = GPP – R
• The NPP is available for plant growth and reproduction
• The NPP is also available to other trophic levels in the ecosystem, such as herbivores and
decomposers

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Net production of consumers

• To work out the net production of consumers (N), the formula below can be used:
• N = I – (F + R)
• I = the chemical energy store in ingested food
• F = the chemical energy lost to the environment in faeces and urine
• R = respiratory losses to the environment

Rates of productivity units

• Rates of productivity are recorded using the units: kJ ha-1 year-1
• kJ: a unit for energy
• Per unit area (e.g. ha): different environments vary in size; standardizes results so
environments can be compared
• Per year: more representative as takes into account the effect of seasonal variation
(temperature etc.) on biomass so environments can be compared

Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient

• Sun producer • Producer primary consumer secondary
• Wrong wavelength of light consumer etc.
• Light strikes non-photosynthetic • Respiratory loss – energy used for
region e.g. bark metabolism e.g. active transport
• Light reflected • Lost as heat
• Lost as heat • Not all plant/animal eaten e.g. bones
• Some food not digested ( faeces)

Farming practices to increase energy transfer efficiency

Crops
• Simplifying food webs to reduce energy/biomass losses to non-human food chains:
• Herbicides kill weeds less competition more energy to create biomass
• Fungicides reduce fungal infections more energy to create biomass
• Pesticides reduce loss of biomass from crops
• Fertilisers e.g. nitrates to prevent poor growth due to lack of nutrients

Livestock
• Reducing respiratory losses within a human food chain (so more energy to create biomass):
• Restrict movement
• Keep warm (especially in winter)
• Slaughter animal while still growing / young, when most of their energy is used for growth
• Selective breeding to produce breeds with higher growth rates
• Treated with antibiotics to prevent loss of energy due to pathogens

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5.4 Nutrient cycles

The simple sequence of a nutrient cycle
Nutrients taken Producer Producer eaten When producers /
up by producer incorporates and nutrients consumers die, complex
Inorganic
as an inorganic nutrients into passed to molecules are broken
ion
ion (simple complex consumer and down by saprobiontic
released.
inorganic organic along food microorganisms
molecule). molecules. chain. (decomposition).

Role of saprobionts in recycling chemical elements

• Feed on remains of dead plants / animals and their waste products e.g. faeces, urea, and break down
the organic molecules
• By secreting enzymes for extracellular digestion
• Saprobionts absorb soluble needed nutrients

Role of mycorrhizae in recycling chemical elements

• Symbiotic relationship between fungi and roots of plants = mycorrhizae
• Fungi act as an extension of the plant roots (made of thin strands called hyphae)
• Increase surface area of root system increase rate of absorption of water / nutrients
• Mutualistic relationship – plant also provides fungi with carbohydrates

Main stages of the nitrogen cycle

All involve microorganisms
(fungi / bacteria)

• Ammonification
• Nitrification
• Nitrogen fixation
• Denitrification

Ammonification 

• Nitrogen-containing compounds e.g. proteins from dead organisms / animal waste broken down.
• Converted to ammonia which goes on to form ammonium ions (NH4+) in the soil.
• By saprobionts.
• By secreting enzymes for extracellular digestion.

Nitrification
• Ammonium ions in the soil nitrites nitrates (nitrogen-containing compounds)
• A two-stage oxidation reaction
• By nitrifying bacteria
• Bacteria need oxygen to carry out conversions

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• Nitrates (nutrients) can be absorbed by plant root hair cells by active transport
• Application – farmers aerate their soil increase O2 allowing number of nitrifying bacteria to
increase and denitrifying bacteria to decrease maximise nitrogen availability

Denitrification
• Nitrates in the soil nitrogen gas
• By denitrifying bacteria (anaerobically respire)
• When low oxygen conc. in soil i.e. waterlogged
• Because more anaerobic denitrifying bacteria (and less aerobic nitrifying and nitrogen
fixing bacteria)
• (Reduces availability of nitrogen compounds for plants) 


Nitrogen fixation 

• Nitrogen gas (N2) converted (reduction) to nitrogen containing compounds e.g. ammonia
• By nitrogen-fixing bacteria
• Can be ‘free living’ in the soil
• Or ‘mutualistic’ (live in nodules on roots of plants e.g. legumes; acquire carbohydrates from
plant while the plant acquires amino acids from bacteria)

Nitrogen cycle importance 


• Nitrogen gas (N2) is unreactive and not easily converted into other compounds
• Most plants can only take up nitrogen (by active transport in roots) in the form of nitrate
• Used by plants / animals to make proteins / nucleic acids (assimilated) growth

Stages of the phosphorous cycle

1. Phosphate ions in rocks released (to soil) by erosion / weathering
2. Phosphate ions taken into plants by roots and incorporated into their biomass (assimilated)
• DNA, RNA, phospholipids (and NADP and RuBP in plants).
• Rate of absorption increased by Mycorrhizae
3. Phosphate ions transferred through food chain e.g. as herbivores eat plants
4. Some phosphate ions lost from animals in waste products (excretion), and plants and animals die
• Decomposed by Saprobionts – release enzymes for extracellular digestion
• Release phosphate ions to the soil
• Note: Weathering of rocks also releases phosphate ions into seas, lakes and rivers
• Taken up by aquatic producers e.g. algae
• Passed along food chain to birds
• Guano, a waste product of birds, returns a many phosphate ions to soils in coastal areas

Fertilisers
The need for fertilisers
• Replaces nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) lost from an ecosystem’s nutrient cycle when...
• Crops are harvested
• Livestock (animals) removed
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• Nutrients removed from soil and incorporated into their biomass can’t be released back
into the soil through decomposition by saprobionts

• Hence, fertilisers improve the efficiency of energy transfer (more energy can be used for growth)
• Nutrient could no longer be a limiting factor
• Increase productivity of agricultural land

Natural and artificial fertilisers

Artificial fertilisers Natural fertilisers

• Inorganic • Organic
• Contain pure chemicals e.g. ammonium nitrate • E.g. manure, compost, sewage
as powders / pellets • Cheaper / free but exact nutrients cannot be
• Inorganic substances more water soluble so controlled
larger quantities washed away, impacting the
environment

Fertilisers – environmental issues 


• Leaching of nutrients
• Rain / irrigation systems wash water-soluble compounds out of soil into waterways e.g. rivers
• Worse when more fertiliser added to field than used (excess)
• Leaching leads to eutrophication
1. Rapid growth of algae in ponds and rivers (algal bloom)
2. Algae blocks light, preventing it from reaching plants below
3. Death of the plants below as they cannot photosynthesise
4. Aerobically respiring saprobionts decompose the dead plant
matter, reducing oxygen concentration of water
5. Leading to death of aquatic organisms due to lack of dissolved
oxygen for aerobic respiration
• Leaching less likely with natural fertilisers.
• Nitrogen / phosphorous contained in organic molecules
• Organic molecules less soluble in water so need to be decomposed by saprobionts before
nitrogen and phosphorous are released (as soluble inorganic molecules)
• Can also reduce species diversity
• Favour fast growing plants e.g. grass / nettles slower-growing plants lose out less
organisms who feed off them

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