Phonetics and Phonology II

It is a functional approach of phonetics and phonology that analyses naturally

occurring discourse in everyday speech. It analyses meanings and the negotiation of
meaning, or the choices we make on a moment-by-moment basis, which are
situationally specific depending on the context.

Intonation has to do with changes in pitch. Different languages have different

intonation patterns. Intonation choices do not change the meaning of the word, but in
some languages if you produce a falling tone, you might produce a change in the
lexical meaning of the word, but not in English.
The minimum unit of intonation is the tone unit.
According to Brazil, there are four subsystems that make up the system of intonation:
- Prominence when we produce a tone unit, we select which information to
highlight or make prominent based on the informativeness, which is the
assessment that we make as regards how much information a word is providing
in that specific communicational event. If we think that this word is adding
valuable information to the communicative context, then we highlight it; if it is
not, then we make it non-prominent.
- Tone (or pitch movement of the tonic) depending on the status of information,
i.e. whether we’re presenting it as new or as part of the shared knowledge
between ourselves and the audience
- Key (pitch height on the onset) depending on whether the information we
present is contrasted, additive or equative
- Termination (pitch height on the tonic syllable)

According to Brazil, a tone unit is the minimum unit of intonation. When we speak, we
produce utterances, which can be divided into minimum choices of intonation which
are called tone units.

There are two types of tone units.

 - Extended tone unit: it has more than one prominent syllable, so the onset and
the tonic syllables do not coincide.
- Minimal tone unit: it has only one prominent syllable, which is also the tonic.
Hence, the onset syllable and the tonic syllable coincide.

- The tonic segment: is the most important and compulsory element of the tone
unit. It is delimited by the first and the last prominent syllable.
- The onset syllable: is the first prominent syllable in a tone unit. Key starts here.
- The tonic syllable: the last prominent syllable in a tone unit. An obligatory
element of the tone unit. Here occurs the major pitch movement. Tones and
termination are found here.
- Proclitic segment: the stretch before the beginning of the tonic segment. It
does not contain prominent syllables. This is an optional element.
- Enclitic segment: the stretch that extends after the tonic segment. It does not
contain prominent syllables. This is also an optional element.

Brazil says that prominence is the name given to a property that is associated with a
word by virtue of its function as a constituent part of a tone unit. It is a linguistic choice
available to the speaker independent of grammatical structure and of word-accent.
One depends on the other, the informativeness of a word in that specific
communicative context usually determines if it is prominent or not, but it is the
speaker’s decision. Thus, the speaker may choose to leave non-prominent pieces of
information he assumes that are part of the common ground or shared knowledge
between him and his intended audience. Ultimately, the speaker chooses whether to
present information as shared or new.

Tones are changes in pitch movement. They have a meaningful load regarding
informativeness. We select which tones to produce regarding information status and
interpersonal relationships with the interlocutor.
- Proclaiming tones: falling, rise-fall
From the informational status point of view, we use proclaiming tones when
we want to provide new information.
From the role of status point of view, proclaiming tones convey
divergence/separateness between speakers.

1. Falling tone: from the point of view of role relationships and interpersonal
meanings, we may use a proclaiming tone in order to show that we
disagree with the other person. For example, “↘well” “↘surely”
“↘honestly”. To show divergence, distance or that you’re in a position of
authority.
2. Rise-fall tone: Brazil claims that when the speaker uses a rise-fall, he is
simultaneously adding information both to the common ground and to
their own store of knowledge. The information is marked as doubly new.

- Referring tones: rising, fall-rise

From the informational status point of view, they mark the matter as part of
the common ground.
As regards social meanings, they convey solidarity, convergence, togetherness.

1. Rising tone: common ground assumptions. Shared knowledge. Exert

dominance.
2. Fall-rise tone: We may use a fall-rise tone on items such as “frankly”,
“honestly” or “to tell you the truth” to insinuate intimacy or solidarity.
Common ground assumptions. Shared knowledge.

- Level tone: for discourse planning. When we think about what we’re going to
say next. So, we buy time, we usually say empty words, fillings or just some
mumbling. When we repeat things by heart.
 ↘ ↗↘ ↗ ↘↗
New information New information Shared Shared
(I’m telling u sth (I’m telling u sth information (I’m information (I’m
new) new that I’ve just reminding u of sth referring to sth I
discovered) u know) think we both
know)
Linguistically non- Linguistically Linguistically Linguistically non-
dominant dominant dominant dominant
Divergence (I’m Divergence Convergence (I’m Convergence
showing building solidarity
divergence from and trying to be
my interlocutor) inclusive)

Key is pitch height or pitch level produced through the whole tone unit. It is relative to
each speaker.

The relative highness or lowness of a tone as perceived by the ear. When we speak, we
choose prominence, tones and pitch height. The pitch height we produce on the onset
syllable of the tone unit is called key, and the one we produce on the tonic syllable is
called termination, if we had an extended tone unit, where the onset and the tonic do
not coincide. But, if we have a minimal tone unit, key and termination can coincide.

→ conveys contrastive meaning (sth contrary to expectations) / disagreement /

strong agreement.
We mark HK with [ ]. This is a marked choice because the speakers produce it when
they depart from the norm and they raise the height of their voice on the onset
syllable. The more instances of HK the speaker produces, the angrier and more annoyed
he may sound.

→ additive meaning: adding more information, building, expanding more context

on a certain idea.
This is an unmarked choice because is the normal way the speaker communicates.

→ equative meaning (it means that is an equivalent meaning of something that

was said before), when we paraphrase something / aside comments / to show
agreement in conversations in expressions like “Hmm” or “Mmm”.
We mark LK with ( ). It represents a phonological departure from the norm, i.e., it says
something as regards what somebody said before or the same speaker can be
clarifying something or making aside comments. It is a marked choice since
interlocutors deviate from their usual communicative behaviour going downwards.
Brazil says that the equative meaning of LK pervades the whole tone unit even if it has
HT or MT in the same tone unit. That is to say that the meaning of LK pervades through
the whole tone unit.

Termination is realized on the tonic syllable, which also carries the tone or pitch
movement.
Across speakers, termination regulates conversational behaviour, because it sets
constraints on the interlocutor. This means that the termination chosen to terminate
one tone, projects expectations about the pitch height or key the interlocutor may
choose to answer with.
The interlocutor may choose to comply with these expectations, in this case we talk
about PITCH CONCORD. But, if the interlocutor does not comply with those
expectations, we talk about PITCH DISCREPANCY.

HIGH TERMINATION EXPECTS HIGH KEY

MID TERMINATION EXPECTS MID KEY

LOW TERMINATION --------------------- BRINGS THE PITCH SEQUENCE TO AN END AND IT

DOESN’T PRESENT ANY EXPECTATIONS AS IT BRINGS ALL CONSTRAINTS TO AN END.

As regards Low Termination, the interlocutor can freely choose to start with:
- High Key → new topic or mini topic
- Mid Key → same topic
- Low Key → acknowledge receipt of information
According to Brazil, pitch sequence is a higher order phonological unit which is above
the tone unit. We mark the end of a pitch sequence using ///.
It is a unit of indefinite length, which begins immediately after a tone unit with low
termination and includes all succeeding tone units until the next one with low
termination.
Its end tents to coincide with the end of a topic.
They have great communicative value because they help speakers with topic
management.
When the interlocutor fulfils our expectations by answering using the same pitch
height we chose in the termination of our utterance, we are in an instance of PITCH
CONCORD

So high termination expects an

HIGH PITCH
HIGH KEY answer that begins with high
TERMINATION CONCORD
key.
Mid termination expects an
answer that begins with mid key.
MID PITCH
MID KEY If the interlocutor complies with
TERMINATION CONCORD
the expectation, there is an
instance of pitch concord.
Low termination does not
project any expectations as it
There is
brings the pitch sequence to an
LOW neither
X end. It signals the end of a topic
TERMINATION concord nor
sometimes, and it can also be
discrepancy
used to let the other person
know that it’s their turn to speak.

If the interlocutors select a non-expected pitch level, i.e., they do not fulfil the
expectations set up on the termination used by the previous speaker, that is an
instance of PITCH DISCREPANCY.

HIGH TERMINATION MID KEY PITCH DISCREPANCY

MID TERMINATION HIGH KEY PITCH DISCREPANCY
There is neither concord nor
LOW TERMINATION X
discrepancy
Across speakers, termination regulates conversational behaviour.
In short presentations, instances of LT allow interlocutors to phonologically organise
discourse. It also has a key role since it marks the boundaries of pitch sequences. We
usually organise oral presentations by resorting to paratones or oral paragraphs, which
start with HK, and then we may continue adding meaning using MK, then we might
resort to instances of LK, and finally, we finish with LT in order to say, without saying it,
that we’ve finished that particular idea.
Low Termination signals the end of a topic, sub-topic, mini-topic or an aspect of the
same topic.
When we deliver a speech, boundaries between oral paragraphs are usually
accompanied by other phonological cues. For example, we can produce a long pause
(more than a second) and we can produce laringealization (the sound that we produce
after finishing an idea and leaving the floor to the other speaker “ehh…”.

Paratones are one type of pitch sequences, are higher order phonological units above
the level of the tone unit.
They start with HK and they play a fundamental role in the phonological organisation
and management of the information delivered to different types of audiences.

In monologic oral presentations, one and only one speaker decides what Key and
Termination to use in order to organise speech.
By changing pitch level, we can segment discourse into different paratones or oral
paragraphs. Throughout a particular speech, for example “A writer’s speech” if we use
these phonological tools, it can guide our audience more effectively.
Paratones start with HK and finish with LT.

Interlocutors structure monologues phonologically by resorting to paratones, or oral

paragraphs.
Paratones are instances of pitch sequences, they start right after LT with HK and go on
till the following instance of LT.
Oral paragraphs beginning with HK → mark the “chunk” as distinct and separate from
what has been said before. HK marks the beginning of a new topic, sub-topic or mini-
topic.
Oral paragraphs beginning with MD → mark the new “chunk” as being closely related
to the previous paratone, by adding meaning related to the topic already discussed
before.
Oral paragraphs beginning with LK → mark the content of that “chunk” as a
reformulation or restatement of the same idea expressed in the previous utterances or
paratones.
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