DATE: February 19, 2023

DESCRIBING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

Before conducting any research, you must devise a plan to collect and evaluate
data, tackle the challenges and reach a conclusion.

A detailed plan will give your research direction, sharpen your research methods
and set your study up for success. This detailed plan is referred to as research design in
the professional realm.

Research design is a blueprint of a scientific study. It includes research

methodologies, tools, and techniques to conduct the research. It helps to identify and
address the problem that may rise during the process of research and analysis.

Here are some principles of a sound research design:

 Identifies the problems

 Reviews literature around the problem statement
 Specifies hypothesis
 Describes sources of data
 Defines how data will be interpreted

Characteristics of Research Design

Validity

There are many ways to measure the results of research. A good research design
helps select the right measuring tools to gauge results according to the research
objective.

Generalized

A good research design draws an outcome that can be applied to a large set of
people and is not limited to sample size or the research group.

Neutrality

At the start of every research, a researcher needs to make some assumptions that
will be tested during the research. A proper research design ensures that the
assumptions are free of bias and neutral. It also provides that the data collected
throughout the research is based on the assumptions made at the beginning of the
research.

Main Elements of a Research Design

Reliability
 Research design, when done right, can generate similar results every time it is
performed. However, yielding similar results is only possible if your research design is
reliable.

Here are some of the elements of a good research design:

 Purpose statement
 Data collection methods
 Techniques of data analysis
 Types of research methodologies
 Challenges of the research
 Prerequisites required for study
 Duration of the research study
 Measurement of analysis

What is the need for Research Design?

Research design gives direction to the study. Among the areas addressed by a
research design are the following:

 Reduces inaccuracy
 Increases efficiency and reliability
 Eliminates bias and errors
 Minimizes wastage of time
 Helpful in testing the hypothesis
 Provides a direction to the research

Important concepts of Research Design

Variable

Variable is a concept that can take on various quantitative values. For instance,
weight, height, etc.
Dependent Variable

A dependent variable is a variable that is tested in an experiment. It is dependent,

in some way on the variation of an independent variable.

Independent Variable

An independent variable in an experiment is considered to stand on its own. For

instance, if the test scores of a class are an outcome of their efforts; efforts are an
independent variable, and the score is a dependent variable.

Hypothesis

It is defined as the hypothesis that needs to be tested in an experiment.

What Are the Different Types of Research Design?

 A researcher must be well-versed in different types of research design. Moreover,
a clear understanding of different research designs helps choose the proper technique
for the research.

Research design is broadly divided into quantitative and qualitative research

design. I’ll walk you through them in detail below.

Quantitative research design

Quantitative research design aims at finding answers to who, what, where, how,
and when through the course of research. Moreover, the outcome of the quantitative
analysis is easy to represent in the form of statistics, graphs, charts, and numbers.

Qualitative research design

Qualitative research design focuses on finding answers to how and why. It uses
open-ended questions and helps the subjects express their views clearly.
Qualitative research is ideal for businesses that aim to understand customers’ behavior
and requirements.

You can further break the types of research designs into five categories.

Experimental design

This type of research design looks at a problem scientifically by establishing a

clear cause and effect of every event. It also tries to understand the impact of the
independent variable on the dependable variable. Often social sciences use it to
observe human behaviors and understand the social psychology of the human being
better.

Correlational design

Correlation research design establishes a relationship between two related

variables. The researcher observes the variables over time and then draws conclusions
based on them. This type of research design requires two different groups.
A correlation coefficient determines the relationship between two variables. The value of
the correlation coefficient ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is +1,
it indicates a positive relationship between the two variables, and -1 means a negative
relationship.

Descriptive design

Descriptive design is a theory-based research method describing the research’s

primary subject matter. This type of research design uses data collection techniques like
natural observation, case studies, and surveys to derive results. This type of research
design provides insight into the why and how of research.

Diagnostic design
 In diagnostic research, the design strives to explore the reason behind an issue
and find solutions to solve it. This type of research design tries to solve the problems in
a structured form divided into three phases- the issue’s inception, diagnosis of the issue,
and solution for the issue.

Explanatory design

In this research design, the researcher explores concepts and ideas on a subject
to explore more theories. The main aim of the research is to explore the subjects’
undiscovered aspects and answer questions like what, how, and why.

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

In anything, beginnings are always hard. And, beginning a research paper is no

exception. Students and professionals alike somehow struggle with how to write an
introduction for a research paper.

This short guide will describe the purpose of a research paper introduction and how
to create a good one.

What is an introduction for a research paper?

Introductions to research papers do a lot of work. They guide your reader from a
general subject area to the narrow topic that your paper covers. They also explain your
paper’s:

 Scope: The topic that the research will be covering

 Context: The background of your topic
 Importance: Why your research matters in the context of an industry or the
world

Why is an introduction vital to a research paper?

The introduction to your research paper is as important as it is critical.

Your readers will not know what your research paper is about from the title. That is
where your introduction comes in. A good introduction will:

 Help your reader understand your topic’s background

 Explain why your research paper is worth reading
 Offer a guide for navigating the rest of the piece
 Pique your reader’s interest

Without a clear introduction, your readers will struggle. They may feel confused
when they start reading your paper. They might even give up entirely. Your introduction
will ground them and prepare them for the in-depth research to come.
What should you include in an introduction for a research paper?

Research paper introductions are always unique. After all, research is original by
definition. However, they often contain six essential items. These are:

 An overview of the topic. Start with a general overview of your topic. Narrow the
overview until you address your paper’s specific subject. Then, mention questions
or concerns you had about the case. Note that you will address them in the
publication.

 Prior research. Your introduction is the place to review other conclusions on your

topic. Include both older scholars and modern scholars. This background
information shows that you are aware of prior research. It also introduces past
findings to those who might not have that expertise.

 A rationale for your paper. Explain why your topic needs to be addressed right
now. If applicable, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can show a
problem with former theories or reveal a gap in current research. No matter how
you do it, a good rationale will interest your readers and demonstrate why they
must read the rest of your paper.

 Describe the methodology you used. Recount your processes to make your

paper more credible. Lay out your goal and the questions you will address. Reveal
how you conducted research and describe how you measured results. Moreover,
explain why you made key choices.

 A thesis statement. Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement.

This statement summarizes the ideas that will run through your entire research
article. It should be straightforward and clear.

 An outline. Introductions often conclude with an outline. Your layout should

quickly review what you intend to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a
roadmap, guiding your reader to the end of your paper.

These six items are emphasized more or less, depending on your field. For example, a
physics research paper might emphasize methodology. An English journal article might
highlight the overview.

RESEARCH METHOD

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are

used for the conduct of research. At times, a distinction is also made between research
techniques and research methods. Research techniques refer to the behavior and
instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations,
recording data, techniques of processing data, and the like. Research methods refer to
the behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research techniques.

For a better understanding, details of the difference between these two terms are
given in the following table:
Type Methods Techniques
1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film
Research listening, and Research records analysis.

(ii) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference

and abstract guides, contents analysis

2. Field Research i) Non-participant direct observation Observational behavioral scales, use of scorecards, etc.

Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders,

ii)Participant observation photographic techniques.

Recording mass behavior, interviews using

independent observers in public places.
(iii) Mass observation

Identification of social and economic background of

respondents.
(iv) Mail questionnaire

Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of

sociometric scales.
(v) Opinionnaire
Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and
closed questions.
vi) Personal interview
Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience
and its effects.
(vii) Focused interview
Small groups of respondents are interviewed
simultaneously.

(viii) Group interview

Used as a survey technique for information and for
discerning opinion; may also be used as a follow up of
questionnaire.
ix) Telephone survey
Cross sectional collection of data for intensive
analysis, longitudinal collection of data of intensive
character
(x) Case study and life history
RESEARCH LOCALE

This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes, in brief, the place
where the study is conducted. Only important features which have the bearing on the
present study are included.

The research locale shows the target population.

WRITING THE METHODS SECTION

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a

study’s validity is judged. Therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how an
experiment was done and the rationale for why specific experimental procedures were
chosen.

The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research
question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the
results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly. Therefore, the methods
section structure should: describe the materials used in the study, explain how the
materials were prepared for the study, describe the research protocol, explain how
measurements were made and what calculations were performed, and state which
statistical tests were done to analyze the data.

Once all elements of the methods section are written, subsequent drafts
should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and logically as possibly. The
description of preparations, measurements, and the protocol should be organized
chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented,
information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. Material in each
section should be organized by topic from most to least important.

DESCRIBING THE RESEARCH LOCALE

Research locale discusses the sites where sampling or data collection will take
place. Here are the guidelines in writing the research locale:

1. Only identify the locale by its name only if you have sought permission. If the
permission was not granted, refer to the locale to its characteristics (i.e., an
autonomous university in Quezon City; a tertiary, two-hundred bed capacity
hospital; fisherfolk community in Cavite).
2. Describe the area in terms of its geographic location (up to city or municipal
level, unless contraindicated by the institution). For locations outside the city
capital/main city, always indicate how far it is from the capital in terms of
kilometers, for instance, “Lingayen, Pangasinan (221 kms from Manila).”
3. Discuss details about the locale that relates it to the study’s focus. If needed,
you may also discuss the social and historical context of the place.
4. Justify why this location is the best place for you to access samples and collect
data.
5. You may use maps when: (1) the area is not frequently heard of; (2) you have
multiple sites whose locations you have to indicate.
6. If your study has multiple sites, a full description is written for each.

RESEARCH SUBJECTS

A research subject is an individual that participates in research. Information (or

'data') is collected from or about the individual to help answer the question under study.
Sometimes research subjects are referred to as human subjects, research participants or
study volunteers.

DESCRIBING THE SAMPLE

There is a challenge in defining and describing populations and samples. This

becomes even more confusing to novice researchers.

The population of interest for the study is comprised of the individuals, dyads,
groups, organizations, or other entities one seeks to understand and to whom or to
which the study results may be generalized or transferred and is the principal group
about which the research is concerned. Populations create boundaries for the scope of a
study and provide environmental and context cues for the reader. Such boundaries
place natural delimitations upon the research to afford the researcher the proper focus
so as not to present a one-size-fits-all set of results. The definition of boundaries also
allows the researcher to clearly identify subpopulations, such as the target population,
sampling frame, and sample, and to ensure alignment between these groups within the
research (Salkind, 2010).

The target population is the specific, conceptually bounded group of potential

participants to whom the researcher may have access that represents the nature of the
population of interest. To be successful in defining the target population, one must
examine all the boundary considerations in an iterative manner to ensure that the end
description of the target population is inclusive enough to provide sufficient data to the
study. The target population must also be exclusive enough to avoid having participants
who do not represent the study’s needs, which will misrepresent the population of
interest. Much like the population of interest, the boundaries of the target population
must be defined such that the researcher and other stakeholders understand the nature
and extent of the group to be studied. Such considerations are important not only for
ensuring the efficacy of the research, but also assist in budgeting resources for
investigating the research problem. A well-defined target population describes inclusion
and/or exclusion criteria for who or for which entities may participate in the study. The
target population must be a complete subset of the population of interest – members of
the target population must also be described by the boundaries of the population of
interest. Additionally, the target population is further restricted such that the researcher
may clearly operationalize the boundaries for participation (Kalleberg et al., 1990). It is
from the target population that the sampling frame is developed.

The sample is the set of units selected to represent the population of interest
(Gravetter & Wallnau, 2017). The data provided about the sample will be analyzed and
the results inferred (quantitative) or transferred (qualitative) to the population of
interest. The sample should be representative of that population of interest, a
requirement addressed by prescribing the correct sampling frame and by using an
appropriate sampling method. When selecting a sample, there are two primary
considerations: how many units must be in the sample (sample size) and how will these
units be selected (sampling methods).

Take note that when conducting a research about a group of people, it is rarely
possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample.
The sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you
will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called
a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods that you can
use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group.
  Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in

the methodology section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you approached
minimizing research bias in your work.

The Sampling Process

The sampling process comprises of several stage. The first stage is defining the
target population. A population can be defined as all people or items (unit of analysis)
with the characteristics that one wishes to study. The unit of analysis may be a person,
group, organization, country, object, or any other entity that you wish to draw scientific
inferences about. 

The second step in the sampling process is to choose a sampling frame. This is an
accessible section of the target population (usually a list with contact information) from
where a sample can be drawn. If your target population is professional employees at
work, because you cannot access all professional employees around the world, a more
realistic sampling frame will be employee lists of one or two local companies that are
willing to participate in your study. Note that sampling frames may not entirely be
representative of the population at large, and if so, inferences derived by such a sample
may not be generalizable to the population.

The last step in sampling is choosing a sample from the sampling frame using a
well-defined sampling technique. Sampling techniques can be grouped into two broad
categories: probability (random) sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability
sampling is ideal if the generalizability of results is important for your study, but there
may be unique circumstances where non-probability sampling can also be justified. 

EVALUATING THE SAMPLE PLAN

 Sampling techniques can be classified into two major categories: Probability
(Statistical Sampling/Proportional Sampling) and Non-probability (Non-statistical
Sampling).

a) Probability/ Statistical Sampling/ Proportional Sampling

In probability sampling, the population to be sampled is defined by the

number of items/units. It is usually used to reveal the presence (or absence) of a defined
characteristic in a portfolio of items/units with similar characteristics. Probability
sampling options use random or quasi-random options to select the sample, and then
use statistical generalization to draw inferences about that population. To minimize bias,
these options have specific rules on selection of the sampling frame, size of the sample,
and managing variation within the sample. Consider why you want to study your
population of interest and what you want to do with the information that you have
gathered, before you choose your option.

The options include:

 Simple random: drawing a sample from the population completely at

random.
 Systematic: selecting every nth case from a list (e.g. every 10th client).
 Cluster sampling in which larger clusters are further subdivided into smaller,
more targeted groupings for the purposes of surveying.
 Stratified: splitting the population into strata (sections or segments) in order
to ensure distinct categories are adequately represented before selecting a random
sample from each.

Each of the options starts with a sampling frame, which can be thought of as a
list of all elements in the population of interest (e.g. names of individuals, telephone
numbers, house addresses, and census tracts). The sampling frame operationally defines
the target population from which the sample is drawn and to which the sample data will
be generalized.

Simple Random

This technique gives all units in the population an equal opportunity of being
selected by using a method that will select units completely at random. To use this
technique you will need a complete list of everyone in the population – a sampling
frame. Sampling is done in a single stage with each element selected independently.
You can randomly select by using a random number generator or by using a random
number table, or by pulling out of a hat. It is very effective if you have a small or
moderate sized population.

Systematic sampling

Samples are drawn by starting at a randomly selected element in the sampling frame
and then taking every nth element. Systematic sampling is easier to perform and hence is
less subject to interviewer errors than simple random sampling.
Stratified Random sampling

This technique divides the population into meaningful homogenous or similar groups
based on a certain characteristic (e.g. gender, race, socioeconomic status) called strata,
and then selects a random sample from each group. Stratified sampling ensures greater
representativeness on a characteristic of interest Evaluation Capacity Development (ECD)
project – Uganda 2 within the population. This method allows you to study a wider
range of the population without a larger sample size.

Cluster Sampling

The sample is selected in stages, first selecting groups of elements, or clusters (e.g. city
blocks, census tracts, schools), and then selecting individual elements from each cluster
(e.g. randomly or by systematic sampling). In case there is no list of every member of the
population, it is still possible to choose a random sample by using cluster sampling.
Cluster sampling divides your population into groups and a simple random selection of
those groups is made. You then survey everybody within the selected groups

Method Best When

Simple random sampling Whole population is available

Stratified sampling (random within target There are specific sub-groups to

groups) investigate (e.g. demographic groupings)

Systematic sampling (every nth person) When a stream of representative people

are available (e.g. in the street)

Cluster sampling (all in limited groups) When population groups are separated
and access to all is difficult, e.g. in many
distant cities

b) Non-probability/ Non-statistical Sampling

The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that non-

probability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does.
With non-probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it
will often be hard for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer
probabilistic or random sampling methods over non-probabilistic ones, and consider
them to be more accurate and rigorous. Non-probability sampling can be classified into
purposive, snowball, convenience sampling or quota sampling.

Purposive Sampling (or Purposeful)

This is sampling with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or more specific
predefined groups we are seeking. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations
where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for
proportionality is not the primary concern. The variables to which the sample is drawn
up are linked to the research question. Purposive sampling options study information-
rich cases from a given population to make analytical inferences about the population.
Units are selected based on one or more predetermined characteristics and the sample
size can be as small as one (n=1). To minimize bias, this cluster of options encourages
transparency in case selection, triangulation, and seeking out of disconfirming evidence.
Only people with specified characteristics are selected. These characteristics can
represent the range of characteristics in your population of interest, or you can focus on
some characteristics in particular. For example, if you are evaluating the attitudes of
drivers towards speeding, you may want to only sample those who have got penalty
points. Or, you could sample those with extreme characteristics by only selecting drivers
who have been disqualified as a result of multiple offences.

Snowball sampling

A type of purpose sampling where existing participants recruit future subjects from
among their acquaintances. Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling
snowball. Using this approach, a few potential respondents are contacted and asked
whether they know of anybody with the characteristics that you are looking for in your
evaluation. For example, if you wanted to interview a sample of
vegetarians/cyclists/people with a particular disability/people that support a particular
political party or the homeless, your initial contacts may well have knowledge of other.
In these cases you are not likely to be able to find good lists of people of these
characteristics within a specific geographical area. However, if you go to that area and
identify one or two, you may find that they know very well who the others in their
vicinity are and how you can find them. This makes it easier to contact people you might
Evaluation Capacity Development (ECD) project – Uganda 3 not otherwise have any way
of getting in touch with. However, it does introduce a lot of bias into your results
because your samples are all likely to know each other and to have similar opinions.
With this method you survey whoever you happen to have access to. It is also called
'opportunity sampling'. This is commonly used in market research.

Quota

This is another method commonly used in market research. With quota sampling, you
divide the population (e.g. older drivers) into distinct parts (strata). You then decide how
many of each stratum you want to have in the total sample. For example, you could
stand outside an out-of-town supermarket in the day time. You have decided that you
want to survey 50 male drivers aged over 65. Every time you see a male older driver
enter the store you ask if he is aged over 65 and you continue until you reach your
quota of 50 completed surveys. This is the non-random form of stratified sampling.

Method Best When

Quota sampling (get only as many as you
need)
Proportionate quota sampling (in
proportion to population sub-groups)
Non-proportionate quota sampling
(minimum number from each sub-group)
You have access to a wide population,
including sub-groups
You know the population distribution
across groups, and when normal sampling
may not give enough in minority groups
There is likely to be a wide variation in the
studied characteristic within minority

Purposive sampling (based on intent) You
are studying particular groups
Expert sampling (seeking 'experts')
Snowball sampling (ask for
recommendations)
Modal instances sampling (focus on
'typical' people)
Diversity sampling (deliberately seeking
variation)
groups
You are studying particular groups
You want expert opinion
You seek similar subjects (eg. young
drinkers)
When sought 'typical' opinion may get lost
in a wider study, and when you are able to
identify the 'typical' group
You are specifically seeking differences,
e.g. to identify subgroups or potential
conflicts

WRITING THE SAMPLE SECTION

The sample section is one case where writing a dissertation typically differs from
APA guidelines for writing journal articles. According to APA guidelines, the major
demographic characteristics of the sample must be described, including sex, age, and
race/ethnicity as well as socioeconomic status and disability status where possible and
appropriate. This means that the researcher must tell how many participants were
male/female, the average age of the sample, and describe the ethnicity of participants.
Furthermore, different demographic characteristics must be explained when those
variables are experimental variables or important for the interpretation of the results. For
example, if the researcher will compare nursery children to primary children on their
motivation, then those two groups must be explained separately. How many
males/females were in nursery school? How many were in primary school? Other
characteristics such as national origin, level of education, health status, and language
preference can help give readers a better understanding of the sample. Finally, in
experimental, quasi-experimental, and causal-comparative designs, state the total
number of participants in the study and the number assigned to each experimental
condition or group.

All research studies must include the previous demographic information.

However, completing a dissertation is different than writing an empirical paper for
publication. The sample section of a dissertation is typically written before the sample
has been properly identified. Therefore, it is oftentimes not possible to thoroughly
describe the sample in first drafts of a dissertation. The researcher should work with
their supervisor to determine how much information needs to be included in the sample
section before the study has been completed. After the study is finished, the researcher
needs to determine whether the relevant demographic information should be included
in the sample section or in the beginning of the Results section.

There are two other points that should be considered when writing the sample
section. The first is missing data and the second is ethical considerations.

Missing data. All studies will have missing data and/or participants who drop out of the
study. This is perfectly normal, so researchers have developed acceptable methods for
handling missing data. In absolutely no instances should a researcher make up
data. Instead, the researcher should educate themselves about acceptable practices for
overcoming the problem of missing data.

There are two types of missing data. First, a participant might have just skipped one
item on a questionnaire. Strategies for overcoming missing data on just one or two
items will be described when discussing data analysis in Coding Data from the
Instrument. The second type of missing data is when a participant is missing a score for
one or more variables in the study, perhaps because they were absent on the day of
testing or they skipped one page of the questionnaire.

There can be two possible outcomes for missing data on an entire variable. In some
cases, enough information is still available for the participant to be included in the
sample. For example, if a researcher is comparing boys' and girls' achievement in
English, Maths, and Science, a student may have a score in English and Maths but not
Science. In this case, the researcher can use that student's English and Math scores, but
they will be considered missing in Science. It is best to report this type of missing data in
the results section. In the table with the mean scores for Maths, English, and Science,
you must also report the sample size (symbolized by "N") for each of the mean scores.
Perhaps there were 53 Maths scores, 52 English scores, and 47 English scores. These
sample sizes should be accurately reported in a column in the table of mean scores in
the results section.

In other cases, missing data may exclude the participant from the study entirely. For
example, in a pre-post test study, 100 participants completed the pre-test, but only 86
participants completed the post-test. In this case, the 14 individuals who did not
complete the post-test have to be removed entirely from the analysis. This information
needs to be reported in the sample section, as well as a brief explanation of why they
did not complete the post-test. "One hundred participants completed the pre-test, but
only 86 completed the post-test. Of the 14 participants who did not complete the post-
test, 9 were absent from school on the day of the post-test whereas 5 others transferred
to different schools during the time of the experiment."

There may be other participants who have available data but are excluded from the
analysis for various reasons: perhaps their responses on the questionnaire were not
clear, or they fell outside the target population (maybe only people ages 18 and older
were identified as the target population, but a few 17 year olds completed the
questionnaire), or the participants did not attend enough of the treatment sessions. All
of these details must also be reported in the sample section: How many participants
were excluded from the analysis and for what reasons?

Finally, researchers must accurately report the number of participants in a sample. While
researchers should work hard to get as many questionnaires returned as possible, it is
practically impossible that all questionnaires will be returned. Perhaps the researcher
distributed 100 questionnaires, but only 92 were returned. The sample size for this study
is 92, not 100. Researchers know that not all questionnaires will be returned.

Ethical principles and code of conduct. As stated in Ethical Considerations,

researchers must follow standard ethical principles when interacting with human
participants, including voluntary participation in the research, informed consent, and
confidentiality and anonymity where appropriate. A statement in the Sample section
should state that APA's ethical standards were followed.

REFERENCES:

2021. How To Write An Introduction For A Research Paper. https://www.microsoft.com/en-

us/microsoft-365-life-hacks/writing/how-to-write-an-introduction-for-a-research-paper

2022. 5 Types of Research Design – Elements, Needs and Characteristics.

https://emeritus.org/in/learn/types-of-research-design/

Research Guide: Research Methods. https://library.up.ac.za/c.php?

g=485435&p=3917773

Kallet, R.H. 2004. How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2 nd Revised Edition. 2004.
https://ccsuniversity.ac.in/bridge-library/pdf/Research-Methodology-CR-Kothari.pdf

2019. Research Format. https://spumresearchformat.blogspot.com/2019/07/research-

locale.html

Participating in a research study.

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