ASSIGNMENT 3

1) What factors must be considered in bridge type selection?

a) Geometric Conditions of the Site
- Horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and below
the roadway.
b) Subsurface Conditions of the Site
- The foundation soil type and its bearing capacity
c) Functional Requirements
- to carry not only present but also future volumes of traffic
d) Aesthetics
e) Economics and ease of Maintenance
- bridge with the minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints, and widest spacing of girders
will be the most economical.
- Deck joints are high maintenance cost items, so minimizing their number will reduce the life
cycle cost of the bridge.
f) Legal Considerations
- The requirements of environmental laws and other applicable laws much be met.
2) Compare and contrast the classical and modern bridge selection criteria and describe the reason for the
shift in thought?
Classic bridge selection depends on
-stiffness
-cost
-structural stability
-life span of bridge
Modern bridge selection depends on
-aesthetic value
-traffic capacity
-future widening
-structural stability
-foundation condition
-erection procedure :-financing &community valuing
The shaft on thought comes from
-giving great concern for aesthetic values
-further research & sudies
-experiences
3) Give at least five bridge types and the span or situation under which it’s appropriate to use each type of
bridge?
a) Culverts: are used for small spans through highway embankments with span length of 15m.
b) Slab Bridges: for small spans up to 12m. These bridges can be built on ground supported false
work or constructed of precast elements
c) T-Girder bridges: are generally economical for spans of 10-20m. These are usually constructed on
ground supported false work.
d) Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridges: spans of 25-50m and have been used for spans well over
100m. They have low dead load, which may be of value when foundation conditions are poor.
e) Composite Steel Box Girder Bridges: are used for spans of 20-150m. These bridges are more
economical in the upper span ranges where depth may be limited.
4) What types of bridges best suit a curved alignment?
- Cast in – Situ Reinforced Concrete Box Girder: these are used for spans of 15-35m.
Their torsional resistance is also good which make them suitable for curved alignment.
5) Compare and contrast cable stayed bridge and suspension bridges with respect to span length, load
transfer and position of tendons?

- In suspension bridges the main cables are curved and continuous between the towers. The
deck and other vertical loading are suspended from these cables at relatively short intervals.
Being relatively flexible, the main cable develops funicular shape, which is a function of the
magnitude and position of the loading.
- In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are straight and extend from one tower and connected to
the deck directly at discrete points. Being, taut, they furnish relatively inflexible support
along the span at several points and provide a bridge with relatively greater stiffness than that
achievable in suspension bridges.
- Both types of bridges rely on very high strength steel cables or tendons.
- Both cable-stayed and suspension bridges provide for long – span.
6) What is the difference between through and crest truss bridge?
- Through truss bridge, the floor is supported at the lower panel points. The upper panel points
of the trusses are connected together laterally and diagonally, by sway bracing. Vertical and
diagonal members obstruct motorists, view that this type is not favoured for highway.
- In deck truss, the floor is supported at the upper panel points. Because these types do not
obstruct the view of motorists, they are favoured for highway bridges
7) From safety and aesthetics, which is given priority during bridge design?
- It is safety b/c; if bridge build without it safety but aesthetics no one can use b/c fear for his
life but without aesthetics and with safety people can use it. For example Truss bridges are not
good on aesthetics but they are safe.
- The main purpose of bridge is to cross safely not to show the beauty of bridge.
8) What factors determine your bridge total span and the span sub divisions?
- Safety: related to length of bridge needed
: related to applied load on the bridge and transferring to the foundation.
- Aesthetics: according to beauty while seeing
- Economy: the cost to build
: the cost to maintenance

ASSIGNMENT 4
1) What is the purpose of code load specification?
- To insure safety and serviceability.
- To have common language(standards).
2) List loads to be considered for bridge superstructure design. Do the same for abutments and piers?
For Superstructure design
Permanent Loads
Dead Loads
- DC: dead load of structural components and Non-structural attachments
- DW: dead load of wearing Surfaces and Utilities
Earth Loads
- EH: horizontal earth pressure load
- ES: earth surcharge load
- DD: down drag
Transient Loads
Live Loads
LL: Vehicular live load
PL: pedestrian live load
IM: vehicular dynamic load allowance
CE: vehicular centrifugal force
 BR: vehicular braking force
CT: vehicular collision force
Wind Loads
WL: wind on live load
WS: wind load on structure
For abutments and piers design

Water Loads, WA

- Static pressure
- Buoyancy
- Stream pressure
- Wave load
Earth pressure due to live load surcharge, LS
SE: settlement
3) Give examples of construction loads that can cause different and critical stresses than service loads?

CR = creep
DC = dead load of structural components
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting
from the construction process

ES = earth surcharge load

EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
WS = wind load on structure
ASSIGNMENT 5
1) What is the importance of superstructure analysis in bridge design? For what types of bridges is small
deformation theory used? For what types is large deformation used?
- Overall economy in the whole bridge structure i.e. a light superstructure is economical not
only in material requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller size for
substructure and foundations.
- Small deformation theory is used for deformations are small and negligible as not to affect
force effects. Static analysis will be used for structures that are relatively insensitive to
dynamic action of moving live loads and, wind and earthquake loads, and which undergo
small deformation.
- Large deformation theory is used for flexible bridges and long slender components, due to
their susceptibility to vibration and their large deformations by using dynamic analysis . For
these types of bridges dynamic effects of moving live loads may exceed the allowance given
by impact, IM. Dynamic analysis should be carried out not only for wind and earthquake
loads but also for moving live loads.
2) How do you select method of analysis to use in bridge design in general and deck slab in particular?

- To select method of analysis based on the span length. For bridges of small and medium size,
we can use elastic analysis by neglecting deformation.

- For Deck Bridge the load carrying mechanism is by plate action. In the absence of closed
form solution to G.R Kirchhoff partial differential equation, approximate methods are
developed.
- We can also apply strip method, which AASHTO recommends to use.
3) What factors affect load distribution in reinforced concrete girder bridges?
 - The stiffness of the slab and its span.
- Spacing and stiffness of beams.
4) What are the advantages of continuous reinforced concrete bridge construction over multiple simple
span reinforced concrete bridges? What are the disadvantages?
advantages
- Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since on line of bearings are used over
the piers.
- Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material.
- Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and maintenance
cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus improved.
- Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
- Better architectural appearance.
- Lesser Vibration and deflection.
Disadvantages
- Analysis is laborious and time consuming.
- Not suitable on yielding foundations.
5) What are the advantages and disadvantage of concrete and steel superstructure construction?
Advantages of concrete;
- Adaptability of concrete to a wide variety of structural shapes and forms, and low cost of
maintenance (less than 1% of construction cost per year).
- The other advantages are long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic
loads than steel bridges.
- continuous and monolithic, attributes, which translate into easy construction, low cost and
good seismic resistance
- aesthetic appearance

Disadvantage of concrete

- large dead weight (which require larger foundation)

- difficulty to widen or rebuild,
- longer construction time
- it requires formwork and false work
- Expensive.

Advantage of steel

- It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its yield point.
It has high tensile and compressive strengths. Past the yield point it offers considerable
ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.
- Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge. They
can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
- Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures wich translates into
reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
- Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an important
consideration when overhead clearance is required.
- Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.
Disadvantage of steel
- Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high maintenance cost.
Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the superstructure also.
- that steel fatigues under repeated loading (its strength decreases under repeated loading at
high number of cycles of loading)
6) What are the advantages of concrete-steel composite superstructure construction?
 - In composite construction, the dead loads are resisted by the steel beams alone (assuming
unshored construction), whereas the superimposed dead loads and live loads are resisted by the
composite action of the slab and the steel beam acting as a unit.
7) What are the advantages of concrete box girder bridges over other types of concrete bridges?
- The relatively shallow depth of box girders is an advantage where headroom is limited like in
urban overpasses.
- Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as
aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed within the box,
facilitating rigid connection to the pier.
- They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable ducts,
storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
- The other advantages are, as mentioned previously, their torisional stiffness and aesthetics.
8) How do you overcome the buckling of webs of plate girders?
- Adding more plates
- Protecting from torsional effects
- Using high stiff materials.

ASSIGNMENT 6
1) Give different types of abutments and piers and situations for which to use them?
Abutments
a) Gravity Abutment: These are used for abutments of small height.
b) Cantilever Abutment: derive lateral resistance through embedment of the stem by cantilever action
c) Counterfort Abutment: used for larger heights for which cantilever abutments will be uneconomical
d) Stub Abutment: used at the top of an embankment or slope. Unless rock foundation exists at the site, stub
abutment is supported on piles.
e) Spill Through Abutment: this utilizes two or more columns with a cap beam at the top.
f) Reinforced earth Abutment: It is being used in many parts of the world, and is preferred for its low cost and
aesthetics.
piers
a) solid Wall Pier: used at water crossings since they can be constructed to proportions that are both slender
and streamlined, which has a minimal resistance to flow.
b) Hammer Head Pier: These are used for high piers. These are predominantly used in urban areas because
they are attractive and occupy minimum space providing relatively large clearance for underpass traffic.
c) Column Bent Pier: consists of a cap beam and supporting columns in the form of a frame.
d) Pile Bent Pier: in marine environment.
2) What are the causes of scour?
- natural scour and channel shifting on alluvial rivers
- scour caused by changes to the river channel u/s or d/s
- general scour caused by reduction in the channel width at bridge site
- local scour at the base of piers, abutments and river training works due to turbulence
3) Why do we need scour protection? What are the different methods used for scour protection?
- Scour protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of the flood.
Methods used to protect scour
- Riprap: Is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection
and loose bank or embankment material from erosion by water current
- Gabion and Reno mattresses: The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel wire
mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m and 4m long by 1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high.
- Filter Blankets: used to protect non – cohesive and fine bank materials that may be washed
away through the space between the voids in riprap or gabion lining.
- Vegetation
- aprons or revetments
- groynes
4) Why do we need to estimate scour depth at the bridge sites? Why do we need to protect scour in our
bridge design and construction?
- The scour protection is need to be placed well below the scour depth, we are
expected to determine the scour depth first before providing protection. otherwise the material
that we place for protection will be washed away.
5) What are the two most commonly used methods to determine depth of general scour at bridges? How is
scour depth determined in each of these methods?
- The Area – Velocity Method: In this method the flow through the structure is assumed to be
equal to the unrestricted flow calculated on the basis of velocity measurement or estimates
made.
- The Competent Velocity Method: The competent velocity (Vc) is the largest velocity that will
not cause scour to the river bed. In this method a probable scour line is drawn and area of flow
increased (by As) Until the resulting mean velocity of flow is reduced to Vc.
6) How are depth local scour determined at piers and abutments?
- We first determine length to width ratio of pier
- Then we determine pier nose shape
- At last we enter to the graph with the value obtained above and read for local scour depth to
pier width ratio.

ASSIGNMENT 7
1) What function do bearing serve? What factors affect bearing type selection?
Functions are as follows:

- To transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure, and

- To accommodate relative movements between the superstructure and the substructure.
Factors

- A simply supported span requires fixed bearings at one and expansion joints at the other.
- A continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing on all other supports
- A two span girder will have fixed bearing at the centre support and expansion bearings at the two
abutments
2) What are the advantages of elastometric bearings over others?
- Elastomeric bearing has shown good weathering performance and so incurs low maintenance cost. This
type is favored for bearings. This is used for medium to large spans.
3) What factors are considered in determining types and sizes of railings?
- Traffic railings is used when a bridge is for the execution use of highway traffic
- A combination railing in conjunction with raised curb and side walk is used on low-speed highways.
- On high speed highways the pedestrian path should have both an out board pedestrian railing and an
inboard combination railing

ASSIGNMENT 8
1) Why should you control erosion in culverts? How do you control it?
- Culverts are cross drainage structures used to drain rain run off collected by side ditches from one side
of the highway to the other.
- Control may be achieved by reducing the gradient, installing check-drains or by building a drop inlet. It
is also important to control the velocity of flow at the outlet, because erosion damage to the road
embankment or surrounding farmland occurs more frequently at the discharge end. For this reason,
where gradients arc steep. A curtain wall is often necessary at the outlet of a culvert carrying more than
a minimal flow, in order to prevent scour undermining the structure. A concrete or rip rap apron may
be required to dissipate the energy of the discharge, or it may be necessary to contain the flow in a
paved channel until the natural gradient becomes small enough not to induce fast flows with
consequential deepening of the channel
2) How do we decide on whether to use a bridge, a culvert or a low level water crossing?
- When the waterway opening is less than about 15m 2, and particularly where the road crosses the
waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be cheaper than a bridge
3) In what circumstances are fords and bed level causeways the best solution for river crossings?
- In favourable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively simple
alternatives to conventional bridges.
4) When is it best to use culverts?

- Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the road crosses the
waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be cheaper than a bridge.
- For a span ranging up to 6m.
- For cross drainage work.

5) What are the points to be considered in culvert location and alignment?

- Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is an established stream
or not
- Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing alignment, unless the
alignment can be improved
- The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
- Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This could cause severe
damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert would be expensive.
6) How do you protect erosion from occurring at culverts?
- reducing the gradient,
- installing check-drains,
- Building a drop inlet.

ASSIGNMENT 9
1) Why do we have to continuously inspect bridges and maintain them?

- The objective of bridge inspection comprises monitoring and evaluation of the performance of each
bridge structure throughout its service life so that any deficiency in performance could be detected and
corrected early.
- The object of maintenance inspections is to detect in good time any defect which may cause an
unacceptable safety or serviceability risk or a serious maintenance requirement in order to safeguard
the public, the structure and the environment and to enable appropriate remedial action to be taken.
- We have to maintain, because of the bridge have to serve for its life time safely without causing any
default. Since bridges were constructed with huge amount of nation investment we need to conserve
this notational investment and to secure public safety.
2) Where are the common locations of deficiencies?
- Foundations.
- Bearings.
- Floor systems.
- Connections.
- Truss members
3) What should the contents of bridge file (bridge book) be? What are the different types of inspections and
the bridge types these are carried out for?
 - The individual files on each bridge should containing structural drawings, and particulars of first
construction repairs, maintenance works, inspections, etc.

Types of inspection and the bridge types these are carried out for

- Routine inspection: applicable to short span bridges.

- In-depth inspection: in old bridges and structures of major proportions where structural failure could
result in catastrophic consequence.
- Special inspection: Undertaken after special events such as earthquake, cyclone or passage on
unusually heavy loads.
4) Describe the different types of inspections. How are these inspections carried out? What are the different
trouble spots to be checked for deficiencies?
Types of inspection:-
a) Routine inspection
- It is particularly applicable to short span bridges.
- It usually involves a general examination of the structure, conducted on a regular basis, to look for
obvious outward physical evidence of distress that might require repair or maintenance attention.
- This Should include adjacent earth work, sand water ways and River banks; the latter for scour or
flooding or for conditions such as debris collection or block ages which could lead to these
b) In-depth inspection
- Requires a detailed visual examination of all superstructure and substructure elements.
- It comprises a close examination, within touching distance of the inspect able parts of a structure,
utilizing as necessary suitable inspection techniques, access and traffic management, and should
include adjacent earthworks and waterways.
- Suitable inspection techniques should include hammer tapping to detect delamination of concrete cover
and paint thickness readings.
- It may be scheduled once in three to five years.
c) Special inspection
- Undertaken after special events such as earthquake, cyclone or passage of unusually heavy loads.
- Structures in areas of mineral extraction, when subsidence occurs.
- For river bridge foundations after flooding.
- For those structures at intervals not exceeding six months and during special bridge event.

The different trouble spots to be checked for deficiencies;

- Deterioration and cracks in concrete

- Evidence of foundation settlement and movement
- Metalwork cracks
- Loose connections
- Damaged members
- Poorly farmed structural details
- Indiscriminate past repairs
- Excessive vibrations
- Distress near expansion joints
- Inoperative expansion bearings
- Areas which have shown problems on other similar structures.
5) How do you decide between maintenance and rehabilitation to carry out for a bridge?
- If the damages are easy and small we can maintain it. But if the damage is complex and big we should
rehabilitee it. So selection between rehabilitations and maintenance depends on the damage that the
bridge has it. According to the damage we choose between the rehabilitation and maintenance.
6) What are the problems we usually encounter in bearings? How do we maintain them to avoid these
problems? Why elastomeric bearings favored are compared to other types?
- The problem we usually encounter in bearing is related with climate condition. During in high
temperature and low temperature time we should check that the bearing is properly moved along the
temperature.
- To avoid the problem arises over the climate condition we gives properly gives joint space for
movement.
- We maintain by rising the deck up and lubricating the bearing and move down back the deck.
- The elastomeric bearing is good because It has good weathering performance.
7) What do you check for elastomeric bearings during inspection?
- Elastomeric bearing has shown good weathering performance and so incurs low maintenance cost. This
type is favoured for bearings. This is used for medium to large spans.