2020

ADVANCED COMPUTER
NETWORKS ASSIGNMENT
1. What is classful addressing and classless addressing?
Classful Addressing:

IPv4 addressing used the concept of classes. This architecture is known as classful
addressing.

In the classful addressing, there are 5 classes in which the address space is divided: A, B,
C, D, and E.

Each class occupies some fraction of the address space.

We can find the class of an address when given the address in binary notation or
dotted-decimal notation by checking the first few bits or first byte.

There is a problem with the classful addressing that is "each class is divided into a fixed
number of blocks with each block having a fixed size".

The "class A addresses" are designed for large organizations to manage a large
number of attached hosts or routers. In a class A address, the first bit of the first octet
is always ‘0’. Thus, class A addresses range from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255(as
01111111 in binary converts to 127 in decimal). The first 8 bits or the first octet denote
the network portion and the rest 24 bits or the 3 octets belong to the host portion.

Example: 10.1.1.1

The "class B addresses" are designed for midsize organizations to manage tens of
thousands of attached hosts or routers. In a class B address, the first octet would always
start with ’10’. Thus, class B addresses range from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. The
first 16 bits or the first two octets denote the network portion and the remaining 16 bits
or two octets belong to the host portion. Example: 172.16.1.1

The "class C addresses" are designed for small organizations to manage a small
number of attached hosts or routers. In a class C address, the first octet would
always start with ‘110’. Thus, class C addresses range from 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255. The first 24 bits or the first three octets denote the network
portion and the rest 8 bits or the remaining one octet belong to the host portion.
Example: 192.168.1.1

Class D is used for multicast addressing and in a class D address the first octet
would always start with ‘1110’. Thus, class D addresses range from 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255. Class D addresses are used by routing protocols like OSPF, RIP,
etc.
Example: 239.2.2.2
Class E addresses are reserved for research purposes and future use. The first
octet in a class E address starts with ‘1111’. Thus, class E addresses range from
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

Classless Addressing:

Classful addressing leads to address depletion. That's the big issue for this schema and
that's why it's not used nowadays.

To overcome the problem of address depletion and to give more organizations access
to the Internet, the classless addressing was designed and implemented. In this
scheme of classless addressing, there are no classes, but the addresses are still granted
in blocks.

Address Blocks

In classless addressing, when an entity(organization or a single household (small

organization) or whatever which uses the internet) needs to be connected to the
Internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses. The size of the block (the number of
addresses) varies based on the nature, size, and need of the entity.

For example, a household (small organization) may be given only two addresses; a
large organization may be given thousands of addresses. On the other hand. An ISP, as
the Internet service provider, may be given hundreds of thousands based on the
number of customers it may serve.

Three restrictions on classless address blocks:

1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous that means one after another.
2. The number of classless addresses in a block must be a power of 2.
3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses
 2. How RIP supports classless addressing using subnet mask explain with
example?

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the oldest distance-vector routing
protocols which employs the hop count as a routing metric. RIP prevents routing loops by
implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from source to destination.
The largest number of hops allowed for RIP is 15, which limits the size of networks that RIP
can support.
RIP implements the split horizon, route poisoning and holddown mechanisms to prevent
incorrect routing information from being propagated.
Consider the above given topology which has 3-routers R1, R2, R3. R1 has IP address
172.16.10.6/30 on s0/0/1, 192.168.20.1/24 on fa0/0. R2 has IP address
172.16.10.2/30 on s0/0/0, 192.168.10.1/24 on fa0/0. R3 has IP address
172.16.10.5/30 on s0/1, 172.16.10.1/30 on s0/0, 10.10.10.1/24 on fa0/0.
Configure RIP for R1 :
R1(config)# router rip
R1(config-router)# network 192.168.20.0
R1(config-router)# network 172.16.10.4
R1(config-router)# version 2
R1(config-router)# no auto-summary

Note : no auto-summary command disables the auto-summarisation. If we don’t select no

auto-summary, then subnet mask will be considered as classful in Version 1.

Configure RIP for R2 :

R2(config)# router rip
R2(config-router)# network 192.168.10.0
R2(config-router)# network 172.16.10.0
R2(config-router)# version 2
R2(config-router)# no auto-summary

Similarly, Configure RIP for R3 :

R3(config)# router rip

R3(config-router)# network 10.10.10.0
R3(config-router)# network 172.16.10.4
R3(config-router)# network 172.16.10.0
R3(config-router)# version 2
R3(config-router)# no auto-summary
RIP timers :

 Update timer : The default timing for routing information being exchanged by
the routers operating RIP is 30 seconds. Using Update timer, the routers
exchange their routing table periodically.
 Invalid timer: If no update comes until 180 seconds, then the destination router
consider it as invalid. In this scenario, the destination router mark hop count as
16 for that router.
 Hold down timer : This is the time for which the router waits for neighbour
router to respond. If the router isn’t able to respond within a given time then it
is declared dead. It is 180 seconds by default.
 Flush time : It is the time after which the entry of the route will be flushed if it
doesn’t respond within the flush time. It is 60 seconds by default. This timer
starts after the route has been declared invalid and after 60 seconds i.e time will
be 180 + 60 = 240