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EppDM5e 03 01
EppDM5e 03 01
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Example 3.1.1 – Finding Truth Values of a Predicate
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Example 3.1.1 – Solution
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Predicates and Quantified Statements Ⅰ(2/2)
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Example 3.1.2 – Finding the Truth Set of a Predicate
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Example 3.1.2 – Solution
a. The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8} because these are exactly the
positive integers that divide 8 evenly.
b. The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8, −1, −2, −4, −8} because the
negative integers −1, −2, −4, and −8 also divide into 8
without leaving a remainder.
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The Universal Quantifier: ∀
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The Universal Quantifier: ∀ (1/3)
One sure way to change predicates into statements is to
assign specific values to all their variables.
For example, if x represents the number 35, the sentence
“x is (evenly) divisible by 5” is a true statement since
35 = 5 · 7. Another way to obtain statements from
predicates is to add quantifiers.
Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities such as
“some” or “all” and tell for how many elements a given
predicate is true.
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The Universal Quantifier: ∀ (2/3)
The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier.
Depending on the context, it is read as “for every,” “for
each,” “for any,” “given any,” or “for all.”
For example, another way to express the sentence “Every
human being is mortal” or “All human beings are mortal” is
to write
∀ human beings x, x is mortal,
which you would read as “For every human being x, x is
mortal.”
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The Universal Quantifier: ∀ (3/3)
If you let H be the set of all human beings, then you can
symbolize the statement more formally by writing
∀x ∈ H, x is mortal.
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Example 3.1.3 – Truth and Falsity of Universal Statements
Write one way to read this statement out loud, and show
that it is true.
b. Consider the statement
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Example 3.1.3 – Solution (1/1)
a. “For every x in the set D, is greater than or equal to x.”
The inequalities below show that is true for each
individual x in D.
Hence
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Example 3.1.3 – Solution (1/2) continued
Hence
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The Existential Quantifier: ∃
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The Existential Quantifier: ∃ (1/2)
The symbol ∃ denotes “there exists” and is called the
existential quantifier. For example, the sentence “There is
a student in Math 140” can be written as
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The Existential Quantifier: ∃ (2/2)
The domain of the predicate variable is generally indicated
either between the ∃ symbol and the variable name or
immediately following the variable name, and the words
such that are inserted just before the predicate.
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Example 3.1.4 – Truth and Falsity of Existential Statements
Write one way to read this statement out loud, and show
that it is true.
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Example 3.1.4 – Solution
a. “There is at least one positive integer m such that
Observe that Thus
is true for a positive integer m, and so
such that is true.
b. Note that is not true for any integers m from 5
through 8:
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Formal vs. Informal Language
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Formal vs. Informal Language (1/1)
It is important to be able to translate from formal to informal
language when trying to make sense of mathematical
concepts that are new to you. It is equally important to be
able to translate from informal to formal language when
thinking out a complicated problem.
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Example 3.1.5 – Translating from Formal to Informal Language
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Example 3.1.5 – Solution (1/2)
a. Every real number has a nonnegative square.
Or: All real numbers have nonnegative squares.
Or: Any real number has a nonnegative square.
Or: The square of each real number is nonnegative.
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Example 3.1.5 – Solution (2/2) continued
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Example 3.1.6 – Trailing Quantifiers
Rewrite the following statements so that the quantifier trails
the rest of the sentence.
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Example 3.1.6 – Solution
a. 2n is even for any integer n.
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Example 3.1.7 – Translating from Informal to Formal Language
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Example 3.1.7 – Solution
a. ∀ triangle t, t has three sides.
Or: ∀t ∈ T, t has three sides (where T is the set of all
triangles).
b. ∀ dog d, d does not have wings.
Or: ∀d ∈ D, d does not have wings (where D is the set
of all dogs).
c. ∃ a program p such that p is structured.
Or: ∃p ∈ P such that p is structured (where P is the set
of all programs).
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Universal Conditional Statements
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Universal Conditional Statements (1/1)
A reasonable argument can be made that the most
important form of statement in mathematics is the
universal conditional statement:
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Example 3.1.8 – Writing Universal Conditional Statements Informally
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Example 3.1.8 – Solution
If a real number is greater than 2, then its square is greater
than 4.
Or: Whenever a real number is greater than 2, its square is
greater than 4.
Or: The square of any real number greater than 2 is greater
than 4.
Or: The squares of all real numbers greater than 2 are
greater than 4.
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Example 3.1.9 – Writing Universal Conditional Statements Formally
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Example 3.1.9 – Solution
a. ∀ real number x, if x is an integer, then x is a rational
number.
Or: ∀x ∈ R, if x ∈ Z then x ∈ Q.
b. ∀x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.
c. ∀x, if x is a fire truck, then x is not green.
It is common, as in (b) and (c) above, to omit explicit
identification of the domain of predicate variables in
universal conditional statements.
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Equivalent Forms of Universal and
Existential Statements
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Equivalent Forms of Universal and Existential Statements
(1/2)
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Equivalent Forms of Universal and Existential Statements
(2/2)
∀x ∈ D, Q(x)
can be rewritten as
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Example 3.1.10 – Equivalent Forms for Universal Statements
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Example 3.1.10 – Solution
∀x, if x is a square then x is a rectangle.
∀ square x, x is a rectangle.
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Example 3.1.11 – Equivalent Forms for Existential Statements
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Example 3.1.11 – Solution
a. ∃n such that Prime(n) ∧ Even(n).
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Bound Variables and Scope
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Bound Variables and Scope (1/2)
For example, consider the following statements:
Statements (1) and (2) both call the variable x, but the x in
Statement (1) serves a different function from the x in
Statement (2).
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Bound Variables and Scope (2/2)
We say that the variable x is bound by the quantifier that
controls it and that its scope begins when the quantifier
introduces it and ends at the end of the quantified
statement.
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Implicit Quantification
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Implicit Quantification (1/2)
Consider the statement
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Implicit Quantification (2/2)
Existential quantification can also be implicit. For instance,
the statement “The number 24 can be written as a sum of
two even integers” can be expressed formally as “∃ even
integers m and n such that 24 = m + n.”
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Example 3.1.12 – Using ⇒ and ⇔
Let
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Example 3.1.12 – Solution (1/2)
1. As noted in Example 3.1.2, the truth set of Q(n) is
{1, 2, 4, 8} when the domain of n is By similar
reasoning the truth set of R(n) is {1, 2, 4}.
n is a factor of 4 ⇒ n is a factor of 8.
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Example 3.1.12 – Solution (2/2) continued
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Tarski’s World
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Tarski’s World (1/1)
Tarski’s World is a computer program developed by
information scientists Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy
to help teach the principles of logic.
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Example 3.1.13 – Investigating Tarski’s World (1/3)
Figure 3.1.1
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Example 3.1.13 – Investigating Tarski’s World (2/3)
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Example 3.1.13 – Investigating Tarski’s World (3/3)
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Example 3.1.13 – Solution
a. This statement is true: Every triangle is blue.
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