Formaion of Katabatic wind: On clear nights, the land surface radiates its heat into space very quickly
Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the weather experienced during the passage Of an idealized cold front
resulting in a cold layer of air next to the land surface. If the ground is sloping, the air at point X in the figure is
colder and hence denser than at point Y, which is at the same horizontal level. Air from point X at the top of
the hill starts sliding down due to gravitational force and is called a 'Katabatic wind' (in Greek 'Kata' means
'down' and 'Biano' means 'to move'). If the mountain is high and the slope is steep, Katabatic winds can reach
sea level with force 7 or more in a very short while. Because of their sudden onset and great force, they are a
menace to small craft and vessels at anchor. The onset of Katabatic winds cannot be predicted because they
have no relationship with isobars - they are caused more by gravitational force than by pressure gradient.
They are frequently experienced in the Adriatic Sea (e.g., Bora, Mistral), off Greenland, in the fjords of Norway
and many other places having a high hinterland. Anabatic wind: During daytime, the land surface gets heated
quickly, resulting in a layer of warm air next to the land surface. The air at points X in the figure is warmer
than at point Y. The relatively colder air at Y subsides into the valley and the warm air, thus displaced from the
valley, slides gently up the mountain side. This is called an Anabatic wind (in Greek 'Ana' means 'up' and
'Biano' means 'to move'). Anabatic winds are much weaker than Katabatic winds. They are of no importance
to the mariner (navigation in valleys is a landlubber's problem!) but are mentioned here only because they are
the direct opposite of Katabatic winds. Land breeze: During the night, the land gives off its heat very quickly
and the air in contact with it also cools rapidly resulting in a high pressure over the land. The temperature of
the sea surface, and hence the temperature of the air in contact with it, remains fairly constant resulting in a
relatively low pressure over the sea. The isobars run roughly parallel to the coast.Since the distance between
the HP over land and the LP over sea is small, the wind blows directly across the isobars from the land
towards the sea. The land breeze sets in a couple of hours after sunset and blows until about half-hour after
sunrise. Sea breeze: During the day, the land gets extremely hot and the air in contact with it gets heated,
resulting in a low pressure over land. The temperature of the sea surface, and hence the temperature of the
air over it, remains fairly constant resulting in a relatively high pressure over sea. The isobars run roughly
parallel tothe coast. Since the distance between the high and the low pressure areas is quite small and the
pressure gradient is fairly high, the wind blows directly across the isobars from the HP over the sea, towards
the LP over land. The sea breeze usually sets in by about 1000 or 1100 hours local time, reaches a maximum
force of 3 to 4 by about 1400 hours and dies down about sunset. In rare cases, sea breezes have been
detected as far away as 100 miles from the coast South West Monsoon; During northern summer, the
continent of Asia gets very warm and the resultant low pressure over it centres over the Thar Desert (NW part
of the Indian sub-continent) with a pressure of about 994 mb. This low is considerably lower than the
equatorial low of 1012 mb and hence a pressure gradient exists from the equator towards NW India. The SE
Trade winds, blowing from the oceanic high of 30°S towards the equatorial low, cross over the equator and
blow, as a strong SW wind called the SW Monsoon, towards the low over NW India. The SW direction is the
result of gradient force and Coriolis force. The SW Monsoon blows from June to October and brings heavy rain
to the West Coast of India, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The wind force is about 7 or 8 in the
Arabian Sea and about 6 or 7 in the Bay of Bengal The same SW Monsoon is also experienced in the China Sea.
The North East Monsoon: During northern winter, the continent of Asia gets cold and the resultant high
pressure over it centres over Siberia with a pressure of about 1036 mb. Theequatorial low of 1012 mb. being
oceanic, remains practically unaffected by the change of season.The anticyclonic winds, around the Siberian
high, reach the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea as the NE Monsoon with a force of 3 to 4. Heavy rain falls on
theEast Coast of India. The NE Monsoon blows from December to April. In the China Sea the pressure gradient
is larger, resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind direction in this region is between north and
north- east
Intertropical Convergence ZoneEquatorial Low Pressure The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by
sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the
northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator though its
specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic Equator, it is called the near-equatorial
trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonial circulation, it is sometimes referred to as
a monsoon trough, a usage that is more common in Australia and parts of Asia POLAR EASTERLIES The Polar
easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from North-East to Sout-west direction in the northern
hemisphere and southeast to Northwest in southern hemisphere. They blow from the polar high pressure
areas to the sub-polar lows. The anticyclonic winds, around the Siberian high, reach the Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea as the NE Monsoon blows from December to April In the China Sea the pressure gradient is
larger, resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind direction in this region is between north and north-
east. The WesterliesThe Westerlies are the winds blowing from sub-tropical high pressure belt towards the
sub polar low belt. They blow from southwest to northeast in northem hemisphere and northwest to
southeast in the souther hemisphere. The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent
due to vast expanse of water, while those of the northern hemisphere are irregular because of uneven relief
of vast land-masses. The westerlies are best developed between 40 and 65'S latitude. These latitudes are
often called: Roaring forties, Furious fifties and shrieking sixties.". Dreaded term for sailors Equatorial Low
Pressure Belt or 'Doldrums' Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes. Width may vary between 5°N and 5'S and
20°N and 20'S. This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds from two hemispheres from
sub-tropical high pressure belts. This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely calm air
movements. The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun. As this region lies along
the equator, it receives highest amount of insolation. Due to intense heating, air gets warmed up and rises
over the equatorial region (convection). Whenever there is vertically upward movement of air, the region at
the surface will be at low pressure. Thus the belt along the equator is called equatorial low pressure belt.
Facsimile charts for mariners: Surface weather charts 1.1. Weather analysis charts: These charts give the
weather situation, at the preceding synoptic hour, over the entire area. They show the weather experienced
at each land and ship station, all pressure systems, isobars, wind directions, fronts, frontal depressions, etc.
With the good, basic knowledge of meteorology that a Master is required to possess, he can size up the
overall situation and take any urgent steps that may be necessary to ensure the safety of his vessel.b1.2.
Weather prognosis charts: These charts are also called prebaratic charts and contain the same type of
information as weather analysis charts but predicted for a specified future time. They may be made 12 hours,
18 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days or 5 days before the specified time, so that a shipmaster may route his vessel
accordingly.A weather prognosis chart is compiled by a professional meteorologist after studying the weather
analysis chart, upper air charts, thickness charts, atmospheric change of pressure charts, etc., taking into
account various other factors also. The construction of a prognosis chart needs deep knowledge of weather
prediction and expertise gained over several years of study of the weather in that ocean.2. Ice charts2.1. Ice
analysis charts: These charts indicate amounts and boundaries of each type of ice, ice-packs, ice-leads and
ice-bergs, based on actual observation.2.2. Ice prognosis charts: These charts contain.the same type of
information as ice analysischarts, but predicted for a specified future time, and are usually made 12 hours and
24 hours in advance. After studying the situation shown by the ice analysis chart and taking into account
various factors such as winds, currents, temperatures of air and sea, etc., theprognosis charts are made by
experts.3. Wave charts3.1. Wave analysis charts: These charts show isopleths (lines joining all places having
the same value) of wave-heights, in metres, and their direction, based on actual reports.3.2. Wave prognosis
charts: These charts show isopleths of wave-heights, in metres, predict- ed for a specified future time. They
are madeby professional meteorologists and based on a study of weather analysis charts, weather prognosis
charts, wave analysis charts, etc.
Origin, movement and life span TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and travel between W and WNW
During the passage of an idealized cold front, cold air advances over warmer air. This creates a steep slope
with the cold air mass displacing the warmer air mass rapidly. As the cold air mass approaches, it forces the
warm air to rise quickly, leading to the formation of clouds and possibly thunderstorms. Initially, high-level
cirrus clouds may appear, but they will quickly give way to towering cumulonimbus clouds that can produce
heavy rain, lightning, thunder, and gusty winds.The weather conditions experienced during the passage of an
idealized cold front can be summarized as follows:- Initially, high, wispy cirrus clouds may appear in the sky.-
As the cold front approaches, the sky becomes increasingly cloudy, with towering cumulus and cumulonimbus
clouds forming.- Ahead of the cold front, there may be a line of thunderstorms with heavy rain, lightning, and
gusty winds.- As the cold front passes, the temperature drops rapidly, and there may be a sudden gust of wind
or a shift in wind direction.- Behind the cold front, the air is usually cooler, drier, and more stable than ahead
of it.Cyclone: A cyclone is a low-pressure system with winds that spiral inward and counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones are often associated with cloudy and rainy weather, as the rising air in the
low-pressure center cools and forms clouds that can produce precipitation. Cyclones can also cause strong
winds, storm surges, and sometimes even tornadoes.2. Anticyclone: An anticyclone is a high-pressure system
with winds that spiral outward and clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Anticyclones are usually associated
with clear and dry weather, as the sinking air in the high-pressure center inhibits cloud formation and
precipitation. Anticyclones can also cause light winds and temperature inversions, where warm air is trapped
above cooler air near the ground. Ridge: A ridge is an elongated area of high pressure that forms a bulge in
the atmospheric pressure contours. Ridges can cause warm and dry weather, as the sinking air in the high-
pressure center inhibits cloud formation and precipitation. Ridges can also cause light winds and high
temperatures.4. Col: A col is a region of low pressure between two high-pressure systems or ridges. Cols can
cause light winds and variable weather, as the air tends to converge and rise in the center of the col, which
can lead to cloud formation and precipitation.5. Trough: A trough is an elongated area of low pressure that
forms a dip in the atmospheric pressure contours. Troughs can cause unstable weather, as the rising air in the
low-pressure center can lead to cloud formation and precipitation. Troughs can also cause strong winds and
sometimes thunderstormsVoluntary observing fleetThe Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has a
program called the "Voluntary Observing Fleet" that encourages people to become citizen scientists and
contribute to weather forecasting by providing real-time weather observations from their local areas. The
program is open to anyone interested in observing weather conditions in their vicinity, including fishermen,
farmers, students, and weather enthusiasts. The data collected by these volunteers is used by IMD to improve
weather forecasting and issue accurate warnings of severe weather events such as cyclones, thunderstorms,
and heavy rainfall. Participants in the Voluntary Observing Fleet receive training from IMD on how to make
weather observations and report their data through various channels such as phone, email, or an app. They
also receive weather-related information and updates from IMD. The program has been successful in
expanding the coverage of weather observations across India, especially in remote and rural areas where IMD
does not have weather stations. It has also helped to create awareness and interest in weather-related issues
among the public..Overall, the Voluntary Observing Fleet under IMD is a great example of how citizen science
can play a crucial role in improving our understanding of weather patterns and forecasting
accuracyInternational system of weather reporting The international system of weather reporting is a global
network of weather observation stations that provide data on various weather parameters such as
temperature, pressure, wind speed, and precipitation. The data collected from these stations is used by
meteorological agencies around the world to prepare weather forecasts and issue warnings of severe weather
events. The system is based on a standardized code called the "SYNOP code" (Surface SYNOptic code). which
is used to report surface weather observations. The code is used by weather observers at each station to
encode the weather parameters they observe into a specific format, which can be transmitted to
meteorological agencies through various communication channels such as radio, satellite, and internet. The
data collected from weather stations is also shared among countries through various international
agreements and organizations such as the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). which coordinates and
promotes international cooperation in meteorology. The international system of weather reporting is crucial
for global weather forecasting and understanding climate patterns. It enables meteorologists to collect data
from a wide range of locations and integrate it into weather models to produce accurate forecasts and climate
projections. It also helps in monitoring and predicting severe weather events such as tropical cyclones,
heatwaves, and droughts, which can have significant impacts on human societies and the environment. A
warm front is a boundary between a warm air mass and a cold air mass, where the warm air mass is
advancing and replacing the cold air mass. As the warm air mass moves over the cold air mass, it rises, cools,
and condenses, producing clouds and precipitation. The temperature typically rises gradually as the warm
front moves through an area. A cold front Is a boundary between a cold air mass and a warm air mass, where
the cold air mass is advancing and replacing the warm air mass. As the cold air mass moves over the warm air
mass, it lifts the warm air, causing it to cool and condense, producing clouds and precipitation. The
temperature typically drops rapidly as the cold front moves through an area.
Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the weather experienced during the passage of an idealized warm
front During the passage of an idealized warm front, warm air advances over colder air. This creates a slope
with warm air rising gradually over the denser, colder air. As the warm air rises, it cools and condenses,
leading to the formation of clouds. Initially, high-level cirrus clouds appear, followed by mid-level altostratus
and altocumulus clouds, and eventually lower-level stratus clouds. Precipitation typically occurs over a broad
area ahead of the front as the rising warm air cools and condenses.The weather conditions experienced
during the passage of an idealized warm front can be summarized as follows:- Initially, high, wispy cirrus
clouds appear in the sky.- As the warm front approaches, the sky becomes increasingly cloudy, with lower-
level clouds forming, such as altostratus and altocumulus clouds.Ahead of the warm front, there is usually a
broad area of precipitation, which may be light rain or drizzle. The precipitation may be preceded by a period
of light snow or sleet.- As the warm front passes, the precipitation may become more intense, with moderate
to heavy rain or showers.- The temperature ahead of the front is usually cooler than behind it, with a gradual
rise in temperature as the front passes.Warning signs of an approaching TRS 8.1. Swell: The very violent
winds of the eye-wall send swell out in a radial direction. Swell can be experienced as much as a thousand
miles away. Swell travels much faster than the speed of travel of the storm. Swell, therefore, approaches from
the direction of the storm centre. Swell is usually the first indication of an approaching TRS Atmospheric
pressure: Falls steadily. The approach of a TRS should be suspected if: The ship is in an area where TRSS
generally occur. If the time of the year is within the season when TRSS generally occur. The aneroid
barometric pressure (corrected for index error & height above sea level), with due allowance for semi-diurnal
variation time (for the time of the day), is >3 mb below normal.The presence of a TRS is confirmed if the
foregoing conditions are met and the fall of barometric pressure is more than 5 mb below normal. Note: A
pressure drop of 20 mb is sufficient to cause a well developed TRS.
8.3. Weather: 8.3.1. Cirrus clouds in bands or filaments aligned towards the direction of the storm centre.
8.3.2. Unusually clear visibility may occur. 8.3.3. Sometimes peculiar dark red/copper colour of sky is seen at
sunset before a TRS. 8.3.4. Increase of wind force as the pressure falls.
8.3.5. Threatening appearance of dense, heavy clouds on the horizon. 8.3.6. Frequent lightning may be seen.
8.4. Storm warnings: Weather reports based on 8.3.7. Succession of squalls, with or without rain. satellite
pictures and observations from other vessels may contain storm warnings which give the position and
pressure of the storm centre and also probable direction of movement of the storm.
in the NH and between W and WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track,
they curve away from the equator curve to N and then recurve to NE in the NH; curve to S and then recurve to
SE in the SH (see following diagram). The recurving is such that the storm travels around the oceanic high
(which is situated at about 30°N and 30°S in the middle of large oceans). After recurving, the speed of travel
increases to about 15 to 20 knots. Sometimes, a TRS does not curve or recurve at all, but continues on its
original path. crosses the coast and dissipates quickly thereafter due to friction and lack of moisture. It is
important to note that all TRSS do not follow such definite paths and speeds. In their initial stages, occasional
storms have remained practically stationary or made small loops for as long as four daysThe life span of a TRS
in anything from one to nineteen days, the average being about six days. StructureA well-developed TRS has
three distinct parts: 5.1. The eye or vortex: A calm central area of lowest pressure, having a diameter between
4 miles and 30 miles, the average being about 10 miles.5.2. The eye-wall: An inner ring of hurricane force
winds having a width usually between 4 miles and 30 miles. The winds in the eye-wall blow in a perfectly
circular path with a speed as high as 130 knots with occasional gusts up to 150 knots. The pressure gradient in
the eye-wall is very steep and, therefore, the barograph would register a near vertical trend, downward
before the eye and upward behind it, as shown in the accompanying figureThe Outer storm area: The area
surrounding the eye-wall, having a diameter between 50 miles and 800 miles, the average being about 500
miles. Winds in this region are strong (about force 6 or 7) and the pressure gradient is much less than in the
eye-wall.
Action when approach of a TRS is confirmed 9.1. Obtain the bearing of the storm centre. 9.2. Ascertain in
which semi-circle the vessel lies. 9.3. Take avoiding action. 9.1. Obtain the bearing of the storm centre. 'Face
the wind, and according to Buys Ballot's law, the storm centre will lie 8 to 12 points on your right in the NH,
left in the SH'. If the pressure has fallen 5 mb below normal, allow 12 points as it means that either the vessel
is in the outer fringes of a well developed TRS, or that a new TRS is forming in the vicinity. If the pressure has
fallen 20 mb or more below normal, allow 8 points as it means that the vessel is near the eye of a well
developed TRS. 9.2. To ascertain in which semicircle vessel lies: For stationary observer, if the wind veers,
vessel is in the RHSC and if it backs, LHSC. This holds good for both NH and SH. While determining the
semicircle, the following points should be noted:9.2.1.Wind observations, though logged every hour during
bad weather, should be compared with that 2 hours earlier. This is to give time for significant veering or
backing and hence weed out errors that may be caused by irregular gusts of wind9.2.2. Veering or backing,
once detected, should be continuous while the observer remains stationary, i.e. a veering wind should
continue to veer and a backing wind should continue to back. If the wind veers at first and then backs, or if it
backs at first and then veers, the vessel must have passed fromone semicircle into another, due to change of
path of the storm. 9.2.3. During the two-hour interval between observations, while veering or backing of wind
is being decided, the observer must be stationary i.e., vessel should remain hove to. If not, the conclusion
arrived at regarding RHSC or LHSC may be wrong and disastrous consequences may result as explained below:
If a vessel was overtaking a TRS or it if was approaching a stationary TRS from its rear, the wind would veer in
the LHSC and back in the RHSC. An unwary navigator would then arrive at a wrong conclusion. regarding semi-
circle and take the avoiding action mentioned later in this chapter, which action, instead of taking him away
from
Practical Rules for navigation for manoeuvring in the vicinity of TRS; Navigating in the vicinity of a Tropical
Cyclonic Storm (TRS) can be challenging and dangerous. Here are some practical rules for navigation and
maneuvering in these conditions: 1. Avoid the storm: The best course of action is to avoid the storm
altogether. If possible, alter your route to avoid the predicted path of the TRS, 2. Maintain a safe distance: If
you cannot avoid the TRS, maintain a safe distance from the storm. The size and intensity of the TRS will
determine how far away you need to be. As a general rule, stay at least 100 nautical miles away from the
center of the storm. 3. Keep a constant watch: Maintain a constant watch for changes in wind direction and
speed, as well as changes in barometric pressure and sea conditions. 4. Reduce speed: Reduce your speed to a
safe level for the prevailing conditions. This will give you more time to react to any changes in the storm's
intensity or direction. 5. Use radar and other instruments: Use radar and other instruments to track the
movement of the TRS and to monitor changes in wind direction and speed. 6. Be prepared for heavy weather:
Be prepared for heavy weather and high seas. Secure all loose items on deck and ensure that all hatches and
doors are properly secured. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, such as a life jacket and safety
harness. 7. Follow local regulations: Follow any local regulations or guidelines for navigating in the vicinity of a
TRS. In some cases, local authorities may impose speed limits or restrict navigation in certain areas.
Comparison between a TRS and a temperate latitude depression;Tropical Cyclonic Storms (TRS) and
temperate latitude depressions are both types of low-pressure weather systems, but they differ in several key
ways. 1. Geographic location: TRSS typically form in the tropics, between 5 and 30 degrees latitude, while
temperate latitude depressions form in the mid-latitudes, between 30 and 60 degrees latitude. 2.
Temperature gradient: Temperate latitude depressions are driven by the temperature gradient between cold
polar air and warm subtropical air, while TRSS are driven by warm ocean temperatures and high humidity. 3.
Wind speeds: TRSS typically have much higher wind speeds than temperate latitude depressions. The
strongest TRSS can produce sustained winds of over 100 knots, while the strongest temperate latitude
depressions rarely exceed 70 knots.4. Storm structure: TRSS are characterized by a well-defined eye at the
center of the storm,surrounded by a band of intense thunderstorms. In contrast, temperate latitude
depressions have a more diffuse structure, with multiple centers of low pressure and a broader area of
precipitation. 5. Duration: TRSS typically last for several days to a week, while temperate latitude depressions
can persist for several weeks.114/194 6. Impacts: Both TRSS and temperate latitude depressions can cause
significant impacts, such as high winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surge. However, TRSS are more likely to
produce catastrophic impacts, such as widespread flooding and extensive damage to infrastructure.Describe
the weather associated with anticyclones Anticyclones are generally associated with calm and fair weather
conditions. As the name suggests, they are characterized by high pressure, with sinking air in the center of the
system inhibiting cloud formation and precipitation. Here are some of the typical weather conditions
associated with anticyclones:1. Clear skies: Anticyclones tend to be associated with sunny or mostly clear
skies, as the sinking air in the center of the system inhibits cloud formation.2. Dry weather: The dry air
associated with anticyclones often leads to lower relative humidity and dry conditions at the surface.3. Light
winds: The winds associated with anticyclones are generally light and gentle, as the high- pressure system
creates a stable environment that inhibits strong winds.4. Temperature changes: Anticyclones can lead to
changes in temperature, with clear nights often leading to cooling at the surface and warmer days due to the
sunshine.5. Fog: Clear nights and light winds associated with anticyclones can sometimes lead to theformation
of fog, particularly in valleys and low-lying areas.
Formaion of Katabatic wind: On clear nights, the land surface radiates its heat into space very quickly
resulting in a cold layer of air next to the land surface. If the ground is sloping, the air at point X in the figure is
colder and hence denser than at point Y, which is at the same horizontal level. Air from point X at the top of
the hill starts sliding down due to gravitational force and is called a 'Katabatic wind' (in Greek 'Kata' means
'down' and 'Biano' means 'to move'). If the mountain is high and the slope is steep, Katabatic winds can reach
sea level with force 7 or more in a very short while. Because of their sudden onset and great force, they are a
menace to small craft and vessels at anchor. The onset of Katabatic winds cannot be predicted because they
have no relationship with isobars - they are caused more by gravitational force than by pressure gradient.
They are frequently experienced in the Adriatic Sea (e.g., Bora, Mistral), off Greenland, in the fjords of Norway
and many other places having a high hinterland Anabatic wind: During daytime, the land surface gets heated
quickly, resulting in a layer of warm air next to the land surface. The air at points X in the figure is warmer
than at point Y. The relatively colder air at Y subsides into the valley and the warm air, thus displaced from the
valley, slides gently up the mountain side. This is called an Anabatic wind (in Greek 'Ana' means 'up' and
'Biano' means 'to move'). Anabatic winds are much weaker than Katabatic winds. They are of no importance
to the mariner (navigation in valleys is a landlubber's problem!) but are mentioned here only because they are
the direct opposite of Katabatic winds Land breeze: During the night, the land gives off its heat very quickly
and the air in contact with it also cools rapidly resulting in a high pressure over the land. The temperature of
the sea surface, and hence the temperature of the air in contact with it, remains fairly constant resulting in a
relatively low pressure over the sea. The isobars run roughly parallel to the coast.Since the distance between
the HP over land and the LP over sea is small, the wind blows directly across the isobars from the land
towards the sea. The land breeze sets in a couple of hours after sunset and blows until about half-hour after
sunrise. Sea breeze: During the day, the land gets extremely hot and the air in contact with it gets heated,
resulting in a low pressure over land. The temperature of the sea surface, and hence the temperature of the
air over it, remains fairly constant resulting in a relatively high pressure over sea. The isobars run roughly
parallel tothe coast. Since the distance between the high and the low pressure areas is quite small and the
pressure gradient is fairly high, the wind blows directly across the isobars from the HP over the sea, towards
the LP over land. The sea breeze usually sets in by about 1000 or 1100 hours local time, reaches a maximum
force of 3 to 4 by about 1400 hours and dies down about sunset. In rare cases, sea breezes have been
detected as far away as 100 miles from the coast. South West Monsoon; During northern summer, the
continent of Asia gets very warm and the resultant low pressure over it centres over the Thar Desert (NW part
of the Indian sub-continent) with a pressure of about 994 mb. This low is considerably lower than the
equatorial low of 1012 mb and hence a pressure gradient exists from the equator towards NW India. The SE
Trade winds, blowing from the oceanic high of 30°S towards the equatorial low, cross over the equator and
blow, as a strong SW wind called the SW Monsoon, towards the low over NW India. The SW direction is the
result of gradient force and Coriolis force. The SW Monsoon blows from June to October and brings heavy rain
to the West Coast of India, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The wind force is about 7 or 8 in the
Arabian Sea and about 6 or 7 in the Bay of Bengal The same SW Monsoon is also experienced in the China Sea
The North East Monsoon: During northern winter, the continent of Asia gets cold and the resultant high
pressure over it centres over Siberia with a pressure of about 1036 mb. Theequatorial low of 1012 mb. being
oceanic, remains practically unaffected by the change of season.The anticyclonic winds, around the Siberian
high, reach the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea as the NE Monsoon with a force of 3 to 4. Heavy rain falls on
theEast Coast of India. The NE Monsoon blows from December to April. In the China Sea the pressure gradient
is larger, resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind direction in this region is between north and
north- east Intertropical Convergence ZoneEquatorial Low Pressure The Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the
area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator
though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic Equator, it is called the near-
equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonial circulation, it is sometimes
referred to as a monsoon trough, a usage that is more common in Australia and parts of Asia.
POLAR EASTERLIES The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from North-East to Sout-west
direction in the northern hemisphere and southeast to Northwest in southern hemisphere. They blow from
the polar high pressure areas to the sub-polar lows. The anticyclonic winds, around the Siberian high, reach
the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea as the NE Monsoon blows from December to April In the China Sea the
pressure gradient is larger, resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind direction in this region is
between north and north-east. The WesterliesThe Westerlies are the winds blowing from sub-tropical high
pressure belt towards the sub polar low belt. They blow from southwest to northeast in northem hemisphere
and northwest to southeast in the souther hemisphere. The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are
stronger and persistent due to vast expanse of water, while those of the northern hemisphere are irregular
because of uneven relief of vast land-masses. The westerlies are best developed between 40 and 65'S
latitude. These latitudes are often called: Roaring forties, Furious fifties and shrieking sixties.". Dreaded term
for sailors Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or 'Doldrums'Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes. Width may vary
between 5°N and 5'S and 20°N and 20'S. This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds from
two hemispheres from sub-tropical high pressure belts. This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the
extremely calm air movements. The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun. As
this region lies along the equator, it receives highest amount of insolation. Due to intense heating, air gets
warmed up and rises over the equatorial region (convection). Whenever there is vertically upward movement
of air, the region at the surface will be at low pressure. Thus the belt along the equator is called equatorial low
pressure belt. A warm front is a boundary between a warm air mass and a cold air mass, where the warm air
mass is advancing and replacing the cold air mass. As the warm air mass moves over the cold air mass, it rises,
cools, and condenses, producing clouds and precipitation. The temperature typically rises gradually as the
warm front moves through an area. A cold front Is a boundary between a cold air mass and a warm air mass,
where the cold air mass is advancing and replacing the warm air mass. As the cold air mass moves over the
warm air mass, it lifts the warm air, causing it to cool and condense, producing clouds and precipitation. The
temperature typically drops rapidly as the cold front moves through an area. Describe, with the aid of a
diagram, the weather experienced during the passage of an idealized warm front During the passage of an
idealized warm front, warm air advances over colder air. This creates a slope with warm air rising gradually
over the denser, colder air. As the warm air rises, it cools and condenses, leading to the formation of clouds.
Initially, high-level cirrus clouds appear, followed by mid-level altostratus and altocumulus clouds, and
eventually lower-level stratus clouds. Precipitation typically occurs over a broad area ahead of the front as the
rising warm air cools and condenses.The weather conditions experienced during the passage of an idealized
warm front can be summarized as follows:- Initially, high, wispy cirrus clouds appear in the sky.- As the warm
front approaches, the sky becomes increasingly cloudy, with lower-level clouds forming, such as altostratus
and altocumulus clouds.Ahead of the warm front, there is usually a broad area of precipitation, which may be
light rain or drizzle. The precipitation may be preceded by a period of light snow or sleet.- As the warm front
passes, the precipitation may become more intense, with moderate to heavy rain or showers.- The
temperature ahead of the front is usually cooler than behind it, with a gradual rise in temperature as the front
passes. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the weather experienced during the passage Of an idealized
cold front During the passage of an idealized cold front, cold air advances over warmer air. This creates a
steep slope with the cold air mass displacing the warmer air mass rapidly. As the cold air mass approaches, it
forces the warm air to rise quickly, leading to the formation of clouds and possibly thunderstorms. Initially,
high-level cirrus clouds may appear, but they will quickly give way to towering cumulonimbus clouds that can
produce heavy rain, lightning, thunder, and gusty winds.The weather conditions experienced during the
passage of an idealized cold front can be summarized as follows:- Initially, high, wispy cirrus clouds may
appear in the sky.- As the cold front approaches, the sky becomes increasingly cloudy, with towering cumulus
and cumulonimbus clouds forming.- Ahead of the cold front, there may be a line of thunderstorms with heavy
rain, lightning, and gusty winds.- As the cold front passes, the temperature drops rapidly, and there may be a
sudden gust of wind or a shift in wind direction.- Behind the cold front, the air is usually cooler, drier, and
more stable than ahead of it.Cyclone: A cyclone is a low-pressure system with winds that spiral inward and
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones are often associated with cloudy and rainy weather,
as the rising air in the low-pressure center cools and forms clouds that can produce precipitation. Cyclones
can also cause strong winds, storm surges, and sometimes even tornadoes.2. Anticyclone: An anticyclone is a
high-pressure system with winds that spiral outward and clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Anticyclones
are usually associated with clear and dry weather, as the sinking air in the high-pressure center inhibits cloud
formation and precipitation. Anticyclones can also cause light winds and temperature inversions, where warm
air is trapped above cooler air near the ground.
Ridge: A ridge is an elongated area of high pressure that forms a bulge in the atmospheric pressure contours.
Ridges can cause warm and dry weather, as the sinking air in the high-pressure center inhibits cloud formation
and precipitation. Ridges can also cause light winds and high temperatures.4. Col: A col is a region of low
pressure between two high-pressure systems or ridges. Cols can cause light winds and variable weather, as
the air tends to converge and rise in the center of the col, which can lead to cloud formation and
precipitation.5. Trough: A trough is an elongated area of low pressure that forms a dip in the atmospheric
pressure contours. Troughs can cause unstable weather, as the rising air in the low-pressure center can lead
to cloud formation and precipitation. Troughs can also cause strong winds and sometimes
thunderstormsVoluntary observing fleetThe Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has a program called
the "Voluntary Observing Fleet" that encourages people to become citizen scientists and contribute to
weather forecasting by providing real-time weather observations from their local areas. The program is open
to anyone interested in observing weather conditions in their vicinity, including fishermen, farmers, students,
and weather enthusiasts. The data collected by these volunteers is used by IMD to improve weather
forecasting and issue accurate warnings of severe weather events such as cyclones, thunderstorms, and heavy
rainfall. Participants in the Voluntary Observing Fleet receive training from IMD on how to make weather
observations and report their data through various channels such as phone, email, or an app. They also
receive weather-related information and updates from IMD. The program has been successful in expanding
the coverage of weather observations across India, especially in remote and rural areas where IMD does not
have weather stations. It has also helped to create awareness and interest in weather-related issues among
the public..Overall, the Voluntary Observing Fleet under IMD is a great example of how citizen science can
play a crucial role in improving our understanding of weather patterns and forecasting accuracy International
system of weather reporting The international system of weather reporting is a global network of weather observation
stations that provide data on various weather parameters such as temperature, pressure, wind speed, and precipitation.
The data collected from these stations is used by meteorological agencies around the world to prepare weather forecasts
and issue warnings of severe weather events. The system is based on a standardized code called the "SYNOP code" (Surface
SYNOptic code). which is used to report surface weather observations. The code is used by weather observers at each
station to encode the weather parameters they observe into a specific format, which can be transmitted to meteorological
agencies through various communication channels such as radio, satellite, and internet. The data collected from weather
stations is also shared among countries through various international agreements and organizations such as the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO). which coordinates and promotes international cooperation in meteorology. The
international system of weather reporting is crucial for global weather forecasting and understanding climate patterns. It
enables meteorologists to collect data from a wide range of locations and integrate it into weather models to produce
accurate forecasts and climate projections. It also helps in monitoring and predicting severe weather events such as tropical
cyclones, heatwaves, and droughts, which can have significant impacts on human societies and the environment. Facsimile
charts for mariners: Surface weather charts 1.1. Weather analysis charts: These charts give the weather situation, at the
preceding synoptic hour, over the entire area. They show the weather experienced at each land and ship station, all
pressure systems, isobars, wind directions, fronts, frontal depressions, etc. With the good, basic knowledge of meteorology
that a Master is required to possess, he can size up the overall situation and take any urgent steps that may be necessary to
ensure the safety of his vessel.b1.2. Weather prognosis charts: These charts are also called prebaratic charts and contain
the same type of information as weather analysis charts but predicted for a specified future time. They may be made 12
hours, 18 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days or 5 days before the specified time, so that a shipmaster may route his vessel
accordingly.A weather prognosis chart is compiled by a professional meteorologist after studying the weather analysis
chart, upper air charts, thickness charts, atmospheric change of pressure charts, etc., taking into account various other
factors also. The construction of a prognosis chart needs deep knowledge of weather prediction and expertise gained over
several years of study of the weather in that ocean.2. Ice charts2.1. Ice analysis charts: These charts indicate amounts and
boundaries of each type of ice, ice-packs, ice-leads and ice-bergs, based on actual observation.2.2. Ice prognosis charts:
These charts contain.the same type of information as ice analysischarts, but predicted for a specified future time, and are
usually made 12 hours and 24 hours in advance. After studying the situation shown by the ice analysis chart and taking into
account various factors such as winds, currents, temperatures of air and sea, etc., theprognosis charts are made by
experts.3. Wave charts3.1. Wave analysis charts: These charts show isopleths (lines joining all places having the same
value) of wave-heights, in metres, and their direction, based on actual reports.3.2. Wave prognosis charts: These charts
show isopleths of wave-heights, in metres, predict- ed for a specified future time. They are madeby professional
meteorologists and based on a study of weather analysis charts, weather prognosis charts, wave analysis charts, etc. Origin,
movement and life span TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and travel between W and WNW in the NH and
between W and WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track, they curve away from the
equator curve to N and then recurve to NE in the NH; curve to S and then recurve to SE in the SH (see following diagram).
The recurving is such that the storm travels around the oceanic high (which is situated at about 30°N and 30°S in the middle
of large oceans). After recurving, the speed of travel increases to about 15 to 20 knots. Sometimes, a TRS does not curve or
recurve at all, but continues on its original path. crosses the coast and dissipates quickly thereafter due to friction and lack
of moisture. It is important to note that all TRSS do not follow such definite paths and speeds. In their initial stages,
occasional storms have remained practically stationary or made small loops for as long as four daysThe life span of a TRS in
anything from one to nineteen days, the average being about six days. StructureA well-developed TRS has three distinct
parts: 5.1. The eye or vortex: A calm central area of lowest pressure, having a diameter between 4 miles and 30 miles, the
average being about 10 miles.5.2. The eye-wall: An inner ring of hurricane force winds having a width usually between 4
miles and 30 miles. The winds in the eye-wall blow in a perfectly circular path with a speed as high as 130 knots with
occasional gusts up to 150 knots. The pressure gradient in the eye-wall is very steep and, therefore, the barograph would
register a near vertical trend, downward before the eye and upward behind it, as shown in the accompanying figureThe
Outer storm area: The area surrounding the eye-wall, having a diameter between 50 miles and 800 miles, the average being
about 500 miles. Winds in this region are strong (about force 6 or 7) and the pressure gradient is much less than in the eye-
wall.Warning signs of an approaching TRS 8.1. Swell: The very violent winds of the eye-wall send swell out in a radial
direction. Swell can be experienced as much as a thousand miles away. Swell travels much faster than the speed of travel of
the storm. Swell, therefore, approaches from the direction of the storm centre. Swell is usually the first indication of an
approaching TRS Atmospheric pressure: Falls steadily. The approach of a TRS should be suspected if: The ship is in an area
where TRSS generally occur. If the time of the year is within the season when TRSS generally occur. The aneroid barometric
pressure (corrected for index error & height above sea level), with due allowance for semi-diurnal variation time (for the
time of the day), is >3 mb below normal.The presence of a TRS is confirmed if the foregoing conditions are met and the fall
of barometric pressure is more than 5 mb below normal. Note: A pressure drop of 20 mb is sufficient to cause a well
developed TRS.8.3. Weather: 8.3.1. Cirrus clouds in bands or filaments aligned towards the direction of the storm centre.
8.3.2. Unusually clear visibility may occur. 8.3.3. Sometimes peculiar dark red/copper colour of sky is seen at sunset before
a TRS. 8.3.4. Increase of wind force as the pressure falls. 8.3.5. Threatening appearance of dense, heavy clouds on the
horizon. 8.3.6. Frequent lightning may be seen. 8.4. Storm warnings: Weather reports based on 8.3.7. Succession of squalls,
with or without rain. satellite pictures and observations from other vessels may contain storm warnings which give the
position and pressure of the storm centre and also probable direction of movement of the storm. Action when approach of
a TRS is confirmed 9.1. Obtain the bearing of the storm centre. 9.2. Ascertain in which semi-circle the vessel lies. 9.3. Take
avoiding action. 9.1. Obtain the bearing of the storm centre. 'Face the wind, and according to Buys Ballot's law, the storm
centre will lie 8 to 12 points on your right in the NH, left in the SH'. If the pressure has fallen 5 mb below normal, allow 12
points as it means that either the vessel is in the outer fringes of a well developed TRS, or that a new TRS is forming in the
vicinity. If the pressure has fallen 20 mb or more below normal, allow 8 points as it means that the vessel is near the eye of
a well developed TRS. 9.2. To ascertain in which semicircle vessel lies: For stationary observer, if the wind veers, vessel is in
the RHSC and if it backs, LHSC. This holds good for both NH and SH. While determining the semicircle, the following points
should be noted:9.2.1.Wind observations, though logged every hour during bad weather, should be compared with that 2
hours earlier. This is to give time for significant veering or backing and hence weed out errors that may be caused by
irregular gusts of wind9.2.2. Veering or backing, once detected, should be continuous while the observer remains
stationary, i.e. a veering wind should continue to veer and a backing wind should continue to back. If the wind veers at first
and then backs, or if it backs at first and then veers, the vessel must have passed fromone semicircle into another, due to
change of path of the storm. 9.2.3. During the two-hour interval between observations, while veering or backing of wind is
being decided, the observer must be stationary i.e., vessel should remain hove to. If not, the conclusion arrived at regarding
RHSC or LHSC may be wrong and disastrous consequences may result as explained below: If a vessel was overtaking a TRS or
it if was approaching a stationary TRS from its rear, the wind would veer in the LHSC and back in the RHSC. An unwary
navigator would then arrive at a wrong conclusion. regarding semi-circle and take the avoiding action mentioned later in
this chapter, which action, instead of taking him away from Practical Rules for navigation for manoeuvring in the vicinity of
TRS; Navigating in the vicinity of a Tropical Cyclonic Storm (TRS) can be challenging and dangerous. Here are some practical
rules for navigation and maneuvering in these conditions: 1. Avoid the storm: The best course of action is to avoid the storm
altogether. If possible, alter your route to avoid the predicted path of the TRS, 2. Maintain a safe distance: If you cannot
avoid the TRS, maintain a safe distance from the storm. The size and intensity of the TRS will determine how far away you
need to be. As a general rule, stay at least 100 nautical miles away from the center of the storm. 3. Keep a constant watch:
Maintain a constant watch for changes in wind direction and speed, as well as changes in barometric pressure and sea
conditions. 4. Reduce speed: Reduce your speed to a safe level for the prevailing conditions. This will give you more time to
react to any changes in the storm's intensity or direction. 5. Use radar and other instruments: Use radar and other
instruments to track the movement of the TRS and to monitor changes in wind direction and speed. 6. Be prepared for
heavy weather: Be prepared for heavy weather and high seas. Secure all loose items on deck and ensure that all hatches
and doors are properly secured. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, such as a life jacket and safety harness.
7. Follow local regulations: Follow any local regulations or guidelines for navigating in the vicinity of a TRS. In some cases,
local authorities may impose speed limits or restrict navigation in certain areas.
Comparison between a TRS and a temperate latitude depression;Tropical Cyclonic Storms (TRS) and temperate latitude
depressions are both types of low-pressure weather systems, but they differ in several key ways. 1. Geographic location:
TRSS typically form in the tropics, between 5 and 30 degrees latitude, while temperate latitude depressions form in the mid-
latitudes, between 30 and 60 degrees latitude. 2. Temperature gradient: Temperate latitude depressions are driven by the
temperature gradient between cold polar air and warm subtropical air, while TRSS are driven by warm ocean temperatures
and high humidity. 3. Wind speeds: TRSS typically have much higher wind speeds than temperate latitude depressions. The
strongest TRSS can produce sustained winds of over 100 knots, while the strongest temperate latitude depressions rarely
exceed 70 knots.4. Storm structure: TRSS are characterized by a well-defined eye at the center of the storm,surrounded by
a band of intense thunderstorms. In contrast, temperate latitude depressions have a more diffuse structure, with multiple
centers of low pressure and a broader area of precipitation. 5. Duration: TRSS typically last for several days to a week, while
temperate latitude depressions can persist for weeks.114/194 6. Impacts: Both TRSS and temperate latitude depressions
can cause significant impacts, such as high winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surge. However, TRSS are more likely to produce
catastrophic impacts, such as widespread flooding and extensive damage to infrastructure. Describe the weather
associated with anticyclones Anticyclones are generally associated with calm and fair weather conditions. As the name
suggests, they are characterized by high pressure, with sinking air in the center of the system inhibiting cloud formation and
precipitation. Here are some of the typical weather conditions associated with anticyclones:1. Clear skies: Anticyclones tend
to be associated with sunny or mostly clear skies, as the sinking air in the center of the system inhibits cloud formation.2.
Dry weather: The dry air associated with anticyclones often leads to lower relative humidity and dry conditions at the
surface.3. Light winds: The winds associated with anticyclones are generally light and gentle, as the high- pressure system
creates a stable environment that inhibits strong winds.4. Temperature changes: Anticyclones can lead to changes in
temperature, with clear nights often leading to cooling at the surface and warmer days due to the sunshine.5. Fog: Clear
nights and light winds associated with anticyclones can sometimes lead to theformation of fog, particularly in valleys and
low-lying areas. Properties of TEMPERATURE: Temperature is one of the most important physical factors affecting the
distribution of life in the oceans Temperature controls the rate at which organisms metabolize, or break down, food items
into nutrients that they can use. The temperature of surface water of the oceans is 26.7°C (80°F) and the temperature
gradually decreases from equator towards the poles Surface temperatures in the ocean also vo seasonally, with t 134/194
greatest differences in seasonal temperatures Occurring near the poles Temperatures remain relatively unchanged near the
equator. SALINITY: Sea water salinity is expressed as a ratio of salt (in grams) to liter of water. In sea water there is typically
close to 35 grams of dissolved salts in each liter. The normal range of ocean salinity ranges between 33-37 grams per liter
(33% -37%) Interactions between salinity and temperature affect other physical properties of ocean water. Salinity also
serves as one of the driving forces of major oceanic current systems The Atlantic Ocean has the highest salinity of the five
oceans Some of the inorganic salts and other chemical compounds become dissolved in the ocean water once they reach
the ocean.• Sodium (Na+), chlorine (CI-), magnesium (Mg2+), and calcium (Ca2+) are inorganic salts that make up most of
the solid material that has become dissolved in the oceans DENSITY: The average density of ocean is 1.03 g/cm3. 75% of the
water in the oceans has temperatures ranging between 0° and 6°C; the average temperature is 3.5°C Water is cold at the
depth and gets warmer towards surface. In coastal areas, fresh water in a river tends to flow toward the ocean along the
river's surface, while the more dense salt water flows upstream along the bottom of the riverRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TEMPERATURE SALINITY AND DENSITY OF SEA WAter: The density of water increases as the salinity increases The density
of seawater (salinity greater than 24.7) increases as temperature decreases at all temperatures above the freezing point
Water of salinity less than 24.7 has an anomalous density maximum. Pure water has its maximum density at about 4°C, but
the maximum density of water occurs at lower temperatures as salinity increases. Between 4°C and the freezing point, the
density of pure water decreases as temperature decreases. Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans Photic or
euphotic zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic zone receives adequate solar insolation. Aphotic zone
extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone does not receive adequate sunrays.Thermocline The boundary usually
begins around 100- 400 m below the sea surface and extends several hundred of meters downward. This boundary region,
from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total volume
ofwater is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C. The profile shows a
boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the deeper layers. Waves: Waves refer to the general term
for the motion of water on the ocean's surface caused by wind, seismic activity, or other disturbances. Waves can vary in
size, shape, and energy, and they are typically categorized based on their characteristics, such as height, period, and
wavelength. Wind-generated waves are the most common type and are formed by the transfer of energy from the wind to
the water surface. They tend to be more localized and have shorter periods.Swell: Swell specifically refers to a type of wave
characterized by long wavelengths and a more uniform, regular pattern. Swell waves are typically generated by distant
weather systems, such as storms or intense winds, far away from the location where they are observed. As they travel
across the ocean, these waves experience minimal interaction with local wind conditions and undergo a process called wave
dispersion, which results in longer wavelengths and smoother crests. Swell waves can travel vast distances and carry a
significant amount of energy. Relationship between tides and phases of moonSpring tides occur around new and full moon
when the Sun, Moon and Earth form a line i.e. a synergy. The Tidal force due to the Sun and the moon add up. On these
occasion, the height of high tide is highest compared to any other day of the fortnight and height of low water is the lowest
than any other day of the same fortnight. These are called the Spring tide, or just Springs. The word 'Spring' does not relate
to the season, but is connected with the verb 'to spring' which means 'to jump, burst forth or rise'. On the days of the Spring
Tide, the tidal range is maximum. Tidal Range is defined as the difference in height of tide between two adjacent High and
Low waters.Neap Tides:Neap tides occur when Moon is at 1 or 3rd quarter and separated from the Sun by 90° when viewed
from the Earth. In this configuration, their gravitational forces do not add up like during Spring tide. During Neap tide, the
height of high tide is lowest and the height of low tide is the highest compared to these Spring & Neap Tides
Explained:heights on any other day of the fortnight At these points in the lunar cycle, the tidal range is at its minimum.
Perigee & Apogee of the Moon: When the Moon is at Perigee the tidal range increases, and when it is at Apogee, the range
shrinks. Every 7%½ lunations (the full cycle from full moon to new to full), Perigee coincides with either a new or full moon
causing Perigean Spring Tides with the largest tidal range.TYPES OF TIDES Diurnal Tide: A single high and a single low tide
occur each day. They tend to occur in certain areas when the moon is at its furthest from the equator. Semi-diurnal tides:
Two high and two low waters occur daily and are of relatively similar heights and ranges. This type is more likely to occur
when the moon is over the equator. Semi-diurnal tides have a period of 12 hrs and 25 min. Mixed Tides: The two high
waters or the two low waters on a given day may not be of the same height which is known as the daily inequality. During
Mixed Tides there would be the higher high water the lower high water the higher low water the lower low water. The
daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon is over the equator. Tidal Cycle and Tidal bore: Tide
changes occur in the following sequence: When Sea level rises over several hours, increasingly covering the intertidal zone -
Tide is said to be 'Flooding'. When the water stops after reaching its highest level - it is called as 'High Tide'. Then sea level
falls over several hours, increasingly revealing the intertidal zone-tide is said to be 'Ebbing'. When the water stops falling,
reaching its lowest level - it is called a 'Low.Types if Winds: Wind Waves: Wind waves are the most common type of waves
in the ocean. They are generated by the transfer of energy from the wind to the water surface. Wind waves can vary in size
and energy, ranging from small ripples to large swells. They are characterized by relatively shorter wavelengths and
irregular patterns. Swell Waves: Swell waves are long-period waves that have traveled a considerable distance from their
area of generation, often due to distant storms or weather systems. Swell waves have longer wavelengths and a more
uniform, regular pattern compared to wind waves. They can travel across vast oceanic distances and provide consistent and
predictable wave conditions in certain regions.Seiche: Seiche refers to a standing wave that oscillates back and forth in a
confined or partially enclosed body of water, such as a bay, harbor, or lake. Seiches are typically caused by changes in
atmospheric pressure, wind, or seismic activity. They can produce noticeable fluctuations in water levels along coastlines
and within enclosed water bodies. Rogue Waves: Rogue waves, also known as freak waves or monster waves, are
exceptionally large and unpredictable waves that can occur unexpectedly in the ocean. They are characterized by their
significantly larger size compared to the surrounding waves. Rogue waves can be extremely dangerous and pose a threat to
maritime activities.Tsunamis: Tsunamis are large ocean waves that are primarily generated by seismic activity, such as
underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Unlike wind or swell waves, tsunamis have extremely long
wavelengths and travel at high speeds across the ocean. They can cause significant destruction and are particularly
dangerous when they reach the coastline.Internal Waves: Internal waves occur within the water column of the ocean and
are often not visible at the surface. They result from density variations within the ocean caused by differences in
temperature, salinity, and other factors. Internal waves can propagate horizontally or vertically and can have significant
impacts on ocean currents and ecosystems Wave Speed: In deep water, where the depth is significantly greater than the
wavelength of the wave, the wave speed is primarily determined by the wavelength and is not affected by the depth.
However, in shallow water, where the depth is comparable to or smaller than the wavelength, the wave speed is influenced
by the depth. As the water depth decreases, the wave speed decreases. Wave Height: In deep water, waves have relatively
low wave heights compared to their wavelengths. The energy of the wave is primarily concentrated beneath the surface,
with minimal surface expression. In shallow water, waves become steeper and the wave heights increase as the waves
interact with the seabed. The wave energy is compressed, causing the wave to "feel" the bottom and rise up, resulting in
larger wave heights. Wave Lengthening: As waves move from deep water to shallow water, their wavelengths decrease.
This phenomenon is known as wave lengthening or shoaling. The reduction in wavelength is a consequence of the wave
speed being influenced by the water depth. The shorter wavelength contributes to an increase in wave steepness. Wave
Breaking: In shallow water, waves eventually reach a critical steepness where they become unstable and break. Wave
breaking occurs when the wave height exceeds a certain threshold relative to the water depth. Breaking waves transform
the wave's energy into turbulence and wave motion near the shoreline. Wave Refraction: Refraction is the bending of
waves as they encounter a change in water depth or coastline shape. In shallow water, waves tend to refract towards the
coastline. As the wave fronts become parallel to the shore, wave energy concentrates along headlands and dissipates in
bays or embayments.Sea Waves: Sea waves refer to the general term for the waves that occur on the surface of the ocean.
These waves are typically generated by the local wind and are influenced by factors such as wind speed, duration, and fetch
(the distance over which the wind blows). Sea waves can vary in size, energy, and shape, ranging from small ripples to larger
breaking waves. Swell: Swell refers to a type of wave that has traveled a significant distance from its point of origin, often
generated by distant storms or weather systems. Swell waves have longer wavelengths, a more uniform and regular
pattern, and carry a considerable amount of energy. Unlike sea waves, swell waves have a more predictable nature and
provide consistent wave conditions in certain regions.
Storm Surge: A storm surge is a temporary rise in sea level that occurs during severe weather events, such as
hurricanes or intense storms. It is caused by a combination of factors, including low atmospheric pressure, strong
onshore winds, and the frictional effects of the wind on the ocean surface. Storm surges can lead to coastal
flooding and pose a significant threat to coastal areas due to the combined effects of high waves and elevated
water levels. Tsunami: A tsunami is a series of ocean waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of
water, usually due to undersea earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Unlike typical wind-generated
waves, tsunamis have extremely long wavelengths and travel across the ocean at high speeds. They can cause
devastating damage and loss of life when they reach the coast, as the energy of the tsunami is released upon
approaching shallow water Bore Tides: Bore tides, also known as tidal bores, are a unique type of tidal
phenomenon that occurs in certain locations where incoming tides create a wave that travels up a river or
narrow estuary against the direction of the river's current. Bore tides are typically characterized by a steep and
often breaking wave front, resulting in a surge of water moving upstream. Some well-known examples of bore
tides include the Severn Bore in the UK and the Qiantang River Bore in China. Tide-Producing Forces: The
primary forces that produce tides are gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun.
The gravitational attraction of these celestial bodies causes a bulging effect on the Earth's oceans. This
gravitational force, along with other factors like the Earth's rotation and the shape of ocean basins, leads to the
formation of tides Tide Prediction and Analysis: Predicting tides involves analyzing astronomical data, such as
the positions of the Moon and the Sun, along with other factors like local topography and historical tidal
observations. Tide tables and tidal prediction charts are commonly used to provide information about the
expected times and heights of high and low tides for specific locations. Computer models and numerical
simulations are also employed to refine tidal predictions and account for additional factors that influence tides,
such as wind and atmospheric pressure. Tidal Streams: Tidal streams refer to the movement of water associated
with tidal currents. Tidal streams are influenced by the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun, as well as
the shape of the coastlines and the bathymetry of the ocean floor. Tidal stream data is crucial for navigation,
particularly in areas with strong tidal currents, as it helps mariners determine the direction, speed, and timing of
tidal flows. What Causes Current Currents are created and driven by two forces, the Sun and the rotation of the
earth. Just like the winds, Currents are also indirectly caused by the uneven heating of the earth by the sun.
Uneven heating of the earth creates variation in atmospheric pressures, which causes winds and then winds
moves waters of oceans which are known as currents. Uneven heating of the oceans also creates variation in
density which also cause currents. Currents cause transfer of heat in warmer oceans to cooler part of oceans
(Example Gulf Stream). Effects of Ocean Currents on Climate Westerlies cause Gulf Stream, later becoming
North Atlantic Drift and then Norwegian current which make UK and Northern coasts of Europe 10 to 20°C
warmer than Newfoundland which lies on the same latitude but freezes in winter. Similarly in Pacific, Japanese
and Russian ports freeze but ports on the western coast of Canada and USA remain ice free. Ocean Currents and
Tidal Currents There is a tendency to consider both ocean and tidal currents to be synonymous which is
incorrect. Ocean currents:are caused by winds they flow mostly in the open seas and oceans. are generally
unchanging Tidal Streams (also called tidal currents):are caused by tides. occur near the coast and harbours. vary
in time and intensity depending upon the timings and range of tides. Classification of Warm and Cold
currentsWarm and Cold Currents Currents can also be classified as Warm and Cold currents where 'warm' and
'cold' are relative terms. For e.g. the Norwegian current can be cold as 10°C, but it is decidedly warmer compared
to the below zero ambient winter temperature off the Norwegian coast. 1) Warm currents are experienced along
the western shores of oceans and they occur when waters from equatorial regions flow towards colder higher
latitudes. Examples of Warm currents are: The Gulf Stream The North Atlantic Drift The Brazilian current The
Norwegian current The Kuro Shio The Alaskan current The East Australian current The Agulhas current 2) Cold
currents are experienced along the eastern shores of oceans. They occur when waters from higher latitudes flow
towards warmer lower latitudes. Examples of Cold currents are: The Labrador current The Portuguese current
The Canary current The Falkland current The Benguela current The Oya Shio current The Californian current The
Humboldt current The West Australian current Characteristics of Ocean Currents: Direction and Speed: Ocean
currents have a specific direction in which water moves within the ocean. Currents can flow in both horizontal
and vertical directions, influenced by factors such as wind patterns, temperature gradients, and the shape of
coastlines. The speed of ocean currents can vary significantly, ranging from a few centimeters per second to
several meters per second. Stability and Persistence: Ocean currents generally exhibit stability and persistence
over time. They can maintain their flow patterns for extended periods, influenced by factors such as the Earth's
rotation (Coriolis effect), density differences, and large-scale circulation patterns like the global thermohaline
circulation. Depth and Vertical Structure: Ocean currents can extend from the surface to various depths within
the ocean. Some currents, such as surface currents driven by winds, are primarily confined to the uppermost
layer of the ocean, while others, like deep ocean currents, can flow thousands of meters below the surface.
Vertical mixing and stratification of water masses can occur along currents, leading to distinct vertical structures.
Temperature and Salinity: Ocean currents can transport water masses with different temperature and salinity
characteristics. Currents flowing from warmer regions to colder regions can carry warmer water, influencing the
local climate and temperature patterns. Similarly, currents flowing from regions of higher salinity to lower
salinity can transport water with different salinity levels, affecting oceanic ecosystems. Source Region and
Movement of Water Masses: Surface Currents: Surface currents are primarily driven by wind patterns and can
be influenced by the Earth's rotation and the distribution of continents. They tend to originate in specific regions
and follow predictable paths, known as gyres. For example, the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic originates in the
Gulf of Mexico and flows northeastward along the eastern coast of the United States before turning eastward
across the Atlantic Ocean. Deep Ocean Currents: Deep ocean currents, also known as thermohaline circulation,
are driven by density differences caused by variations in temperature and salinity. These currents typically occur
in the deeper layers of the ocean and play a crucial role in global heat transport and nutrient distribution. Deep
ocean currents are often associated with large-scale water masses such as Antarctic Bottom Water and North
Atlantic Deep Water. Upwelling and Downwelling: Upwelling and downwelling are vertical movements of water
masses in the ocean. Upwelling occurs when deep, nutrient-rich waters rise to the surface, usually driven by wind
or oceanographic processes. It often supports productive marine ecosystems. Downwelling, on the other hand,
involves the sinking of surface waters to deeper layers, typically occurring in regions of high evaporation or
where surface waters become denser due to cooling or increased salinity. Aneroid Barometer:Principle: An
aneroid barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure. It consists of a flexible metal box or
capsule that expands or contracts in response to changes in atmospheric pressure. The movement of the capsule
is mechanically linked to a pointer on a dial, which indicates the pressure reading.Use and Operation: Aneroid
barometers are commonly used in weather forecasting, aviation, and other applications where monitoring
changes in atmospheric pressure is important. To operate an aneroid barometer, the device is calibrated and set
to zero at a known pressure reference. As atmospheric pressure changes, the capsule expands or contracts,
causing the pointer on the dial to move and indicate the corresponding pressure reading. Barograph: Principle: A
barograph is a specialized form of a barometer that continuously records changes in atmospheric pressure over
time. It uses the same principle as an aneroid barometer, with a flexible metal capsule that responds to pressure
changes. However, instead of a single dial, a barograph incorporates a mechanical or electronic mechanism that
records the pressure readings on a rotating drum or chart. Use and Operation: Barographs are used for long-
term monitoring and analysis of atmospheric pressure trends. They provide a graphical representation of
pressure changes over time, allowing meteorologists and researchers to study patterns and make predictions.
The recording mechanism in a barograph moves a pen or stylus across a paper chart, creating a continuous trace
of pressure fluctuations Hygrometer Principle: A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure humidity or
moisture content in the air. Different types of hygrometers use various principles to determine humidity,
including hair tension, electrical resistance, or changes incapacitance. Use and Operation: Hygrometers find
applications in weather forecasting, indoor climate control, and manufacturing processes where humidity control
is important. Depending on the type of hygrometer, it may use a sensor or element that reacts to changes in
moisture, translating them into a humidity reading. The reading can be displayed digitally or on an analog scale.
Hydrometer: Principle: A hydrometer is a device used to measure the density or specific gravity of a liquid. It
typically consists of a weighted glass tube with a graduated scale. The hydrometer floats in the liquid, and the
depth to which it sinks indicates the density or specific gravity of the liquid. Use and Operation: Hydrometers are
commonly used in various industries, such as brewing, winemaking, and automotive battery maintenance. By
measuring the density or specific gravity of a liquid, they can provide information about the concentration or
composition of substances dissolved in the liquid. Hydrometers are calibrated for specific liquids or applications
to ensure accurate measurements. Stevenson's Screen: Principle: Stevenson's screen, also known as a
thermometer shelter, is a specially designed enclosure used to house meteorological instruments, such as
thermometers, hygrometers, and barometers. It is designed to protect the instruments from direct sunlight,
precipitation, and other external factors that could affect their accuracy.Use and Operation: Stevenson's screens
are primarily used in weather stations to provide a standardized and controlled environment for meteorological
instruments. The screen is made of a double-louvered structure to allow for adequate air circulation while
preventing direct sunlight from reaching the instruments. This helps ensure accurate measurements of
temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. AnemometerPrinciple: An anemometer is an instrument used
to measure wind speed or airflow. The principle behind an anemometer is usually based on the rotation of a
device or the measurement of pressure differences caused by the wind. Use and Operation: Anemometers are
commonly used in weather forecasting, environmental monitoring, and various industries such as aviation,
meteorology, and energy production.
Formation Radiation FOG: Radiation fog is a type of fog that forms during clear, calm nights when the Earth's surface cools
rapidly. It occurs in areas where the ground can radiate heat efficiently, such as valleys, low-lying areas, and areas with high
moisture content, such as near bodies of water or wetlands. The formation of radiation fog can be influenced by various
factors, including temperature, humidity, and wind patterns. During the day, the ground and the air above it absorb heat
from the sun, leading to a warmer surface. As the sun sets and the temperature drops, the Earth's surface begins to lose
heat through radiation. This cooling causes the air near the ground to cool as well. If the temperature reaches the dew
point, which is the temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture, condensation occurs, leading to the
formation of fog. In areas with higher moisture content, such as near water bodies, the chances of radiation fog formation
are increased. The presence of water vapor in the air provides the necessary moisture for condensation to occur.
Additionally, calm wind conditions are essential for radiation fog formation because they prevent the mixing of the cool
surface air with the surrounding atmosphere. Radiation fog is more common during certain seasons, particularly in late
autumn and winter when nights are longer and temperatures tend to drop more significantly. These conditions allow for
more efficient radiational cooling of the Earth's surface, increasing the chances of fog formation. As the sun rises and the
Earth's surface begins to warm again, radiation fog starts to disperse. The fog dissipates as the warming of the ground
causes the air near the surface to mix with the surrounding atmosphere. Wind, particularly light winds, aids in the dispersal
of radiation fog by helping to mix the cooler foggy air with warmer air, eventually leading to its dissipation.
FOrmation of Advection Fog: Advection fog is a type of fog that forms when warm, moist air moves horizontally over a
cooler surface. It occurs in areas where there is a temperature difference between the air mass and the underlying surface,
commonly found near coastal regions and along the boundaries of warm and cold ocean currents. The formation and
dispersal of advection fog can be influenced by various factors, including temperature, wind, and the characteristics of the
underlying surface. Advection fog typically forms when warm, moist air flows over a cooler surface, causing the air to cool
and reach its dew point temperature, at which condensation occurs. The cooling of the air can happen due to contact with a
cooler ocean, cold landmass, or temperature differences between the air and the surface it is moving over. The moisture in
the warm air condenses into fog as it cools to the dew point temperature. Coastal regions are particularly prone to
advection fog formation, as the cool marine air interacts with the warmer, moist air over the ocean. This process is common
in areas where there is a significant temperature contrast between the cool oceanic waters and the adjacent landmass, such
as along the western coasts of continents where cold ocean currents flow. The seasonality of advection fog formation can
vary depending on the geographical location and prevailing weather patterns. In some regions, advection fog occurs more
frequently during the spring and summer months when the temperature contrasts between the ocean and land are more
pronounced. In other areas, advection fog can occur year-round, especially in coastal regions influenced by persistent cool
oceanic currents. The dispersal of advection fog depends on changes in the wind patterns or the warming of the surface. As
the wind direction shifts or increases in speed, it can carry the fog away from the region, resulting in its dispersal.
Additionally, if the underlying surface, such as the land or ocean, warms up due to solar radiation, it can cause the fog to
evaporate and disperse. Heat of Vaporization: Heat of vaporization refers to the amount of heat energy required to
convert a liquid into a vapor at a constant temperature and pressure. For water, the heat of vaporization is relatively high,
meaning it requires a significant amount of energy to convert water from a liquid to a vapor state. The heat of vaporization
is an important factor in the Earth's energy balance, as it influences the transfer of heat and energy during the evaporation
and condensation of water.
Dew Point: The dew point is the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with moisture, leading to the formation of
dew, frost, or fog. When the temperature drops below the dew point, water vapor in the air begins to condense into liquid
water or ice. The dew point is an indicator of the moisture content in the air and is influenced by both temperature and
humidity. Absolute Humidity: Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of moisture present in the air.
It is measured in terms of the mass of water vapor per unit volume of air (grams per cubic meter). Absolute humidity
provides information about the total moisture content of the air but does not take into account the air's capacity to hold
moisture. Relative Humidity: Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor present in the air to the maximum
amount of moisture the air can hold at a particular temperature. It is expressed as a percentage and indicates how close the
air is to being saturated with moisture. Relative humidity is influenced by both temperature and the amount of moisture in
the air. When the relative humidity reaches 100%, the air is fully saturated, and any further cooling or addition of moisture
may result in the formation of dew, fog, or precipitation. Supercooling: Supercooling refers to the phenomenon in which a
substance remains in a liquid state below its normal freezing point without solidifying. It occurs when there are no
impurities or nucleation sites present to initiate the crystallization process.Supercooling is commonly observed in water,
where it can remain in a liquid state below 0°C (32°F) until an external disturbance or nucleation agent triggers the rapid
crystallization and freezing. Frost Point: Frost point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture and
frost begins to form on surfaces. It is similar to the dew point but specifically refers to the formation of frost (ice crystals)
rather than liquid dew droplets. Frost point is influenced by the temperature and humidity of the air and indicates the
conditions under which frost formation is likely to occur. Diurnal Variation of Water Vapor: Diurnal variation refers to the
daily cycle of changes in water vapor content in the atmosphere. The diurnal variation of water vapor is primarily influenced
by temperature and solar radiation. During the day, as the sun rises and heats the Earth's surface, the temperature
increases. This causes an increase in the evaporation of water from various sources such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and
vegetation. As a result, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere tends to rise during daytime hours. In the afternoon,
when solar radiation and surface heating reach their peak, the atmosphere becomes well-mixed, allowing water vapor to
disperse and mix more evenly. This leads to relatively uniform humidity levels in the atmosphere during the daytime. As the
sun sets and the Earth's surface cools down in the evening, the temperature decreases. The cooler air near the surface
cannot hold as much moisture, so water vapor begins to condense, resulting in higher relative humidity and the potential
for fog formation or dew deposition. Seasonal Variation of Water Vapor: Seasonal variation refers to the changes in water
vapor content in the atmosphere over different seasons. The seasonal variation of water vapor is influenced by factors such
as temperature, proximity to water bodies, prevailing wind patterns, and the presence of weather systems. In general,
warmer seasons tend to have higher water vapor content compared to colder seasons. Warmer temperatures increase the
evaporation rates from water bodies, leading to greater moisture availability in the atmosphere. Seasonal variation is also
influenced by regional factors. For example, coastal areas often experience higher humidity and water vapor content due to
the presence of nearby oceans or large water bodies. In contrast, inland regions might have lower water vapor content,
especially in arid or desert regions. Furthermore, prevailing wind patterns can transport moisture from one region to
another, influencing the distribution of water vapor. For instance, winds blowing from oceanic areas can carry moisture
inland, increasing the water vapor content in those regions. Weather systems, such as tropical cyclones and monsoons, can
also affect seasonal variation. These systems bring significant amounts of moisture and result in increased water vapor
content during their respective seasons. Tropical Revolving Storm:Geographic Location: Tropical revolving storms occur in
the tropical regions of the Earth, generally between latitudes 10 degrees and 25 degrees north and south of the equator.
Source of Energy: These storms derive their energy primarily from the warm ocean waters, typically with sea surface
temperatures of at least 27°C (80°F).Formation: Tropical revolving storms usually develop from tropical disturbances, such
as tropical waves or clusters of thunderstorms.Structure: The storms are characterized by a well-defined circulation center,
known as the eye, surrounded by bands of intense thunderstorms called rainbands.Wind Speed: Tropical revolving storms
are categorized based on their maximum sustained wind speed. They are known as tropical depressions (up to 38 mph),
tropical storms (39-73 mph), or hurricanes/typhoons/cyclones (74 mph and above) depending on the region. Duration:
These storms can last for several days to weeks, with slow movement across the ocean or land.Temperate Latitude
Depression:Geographic Location: Temperate latitude depressions occur in the mid-latitudes of the Earth, typically between
30 degrees and 60 degrees north and south of the equator.Source of Energy: These depressions derive their energy from
the temperature contrast between warm and cold air masses.Formation: Temperate latitude depressions are associated
with the meeting of warm and cold air masses, often along the boundaries of contrasting air masses, such as fronts.
Structure: These depressions have a more elongated shape compared to tropical revolving storms and lack a distinct eye or
rainbands.Wind Speed: The wind speeds associated with temperate latitude depressions can vary widely, but they generally
have lower maximum sustained wind speeds compared to tropical revolving storms.Duration: These depressions are often
faster-moving systems, with a lifespan of a few days to a week. Hazards:Ice Formation: Ice can form on the vessel's hull,
deck, and equipment, leading to reduced maneuverability and stability.Reduced Visibility: Snowfall, fog, or blizzards can
significantly impair visibility, making navigation more challenging.Freezing Spray: Water spray can freeze upon contact with
the vessel, causing ice accumulation and potentially affecting stability. Icing on Navigational Aids: Navigational aids, such as
buoys and markers, can become ice-covered, making them difficult to identify and navigate around.Icebergs and Ice Floes:
Large icebergs and drifting ice floes pose a serious risk of collision and can damage or sink vessels.Precautions:Monitor
Weather Forecasts: Stay updated on weather conditions, including ice reports and severe weather warnings, to plan
navigation accordingly.Ice Detection and Monitoring: Use ice detection systems and radar to identify and track ice
formations in the vicinity, adjusting course if necessary.Maintain Vessel Stability: Regularly de-ice the vessel and ensure
proper ballast and stability measures are in place to counterbalance ice accumulation.Enhanced Lookout: Assign additional
personnel as lookouts to spot icebergs, ice floes, and other hazards ahead of time.Use Icebreakers if Available: Icebreaker
assistance can be sought in severe ice conditions to safely navigate through heavily ice-covered areas.Several factors can
affect the properties of an air mass, which is a large body of air with relatively uniform temperature, moisture content, and
stability. The following factors influence the characteristics of an air mass:Source Region: The region from which an air
mass originates plays a crucial role in determining its properties. Different source regions have distinct characteristics, such
as temperature, moisture availability, vegetation cover, and surface topography, which influence the properties of the air
mass.Latitude: The latitude of the source region affects the temperature of the air mass. Air masses originating from
tropical regions are generally warmer, while those from polar regions are colder. The latitude also affects the amount of
solar energy received, which in turn influences the moisture content and stability of the air mass.Surface Type: The nature
of the underlying surface in the source region can impact the properties of an air mass. For example, air masses that form over
land surfaces are typically drier compared to those that form over oceanic surfaces, which have higher moisture content. Surface
characteristics, such as vegetation, snow cover, or urban areas, can also influence the properties of the air mass.Surface Temperature: The
temperature of the underlying surface in the source region can influence the temperature of the air mass. For example, air masses forming
over warm surfaces tend to be warmer, while those forming over cold surfaces tend to be colder.Moisture Availability: The availability of
moisture in the source region affects the moisture content of an air mass. Air masses forming over water bodies, such as oceans or large
lakes, tend to be more humid compared to those forming over arid regions or continental interiors.Air Mass Modification: As an air mass
moves away from its source region, it can undergo modifications due to interactions with other air masses, surface features,
and atmospheric processes. These modifications can alter the
Cold Front: A cold front is shown on a synoptic chart as a solid blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of the
advancing front. A cold front forms when a cold air mass displaces a warm air mass, resulting in the cold air mass advancing
towards the warm air mass. As the cold air displaces the warm air, it forces the warm air to rise, creating clouds and
potentially leading to the development of precipitation and thunderstorms along the front. Warm Front: A warm front is
represented by a solid red line with semicircles pointing in the direction of the front's movement. A warm front occurs
when a warm air mass advances and replaces a cold air mass. As the warm air rises over the colder air, it gradually cools and
condenses, forming a wide range of clouds. Precipitation along a warm front is often more widespread and less intense
compared to a cold front. Occluded Front: An occluded front is indicated on a synoptic chart as a purple line with
alternating triangles and semicircles pointing towards the direction of movement. An occlusion forms when a fast-moving
cold front catches up to and overtakes a slow-moving warm front. There are two types of occlusions: cold occlusion and
warm occlusion. In a cold occlusion, the air behind the occlusion is colder than the air ahead of it. In a warm occlusion, the
air behind the occlusion is warmer than the air ahead of it. Occluded fronts often produce a mixture of weather conditions,
including precipitation, as well as a variety of cloud types.
Weather observations from ships play a crucial role in improving weather forecasts derived from synoptic and prognostic
charts. Here's how ship observations contribute to forecast improvement: Data Gaps Filling: Ships often traverse areas
where land-based weather stations are sparse or nonexistent, such as the open ocean. By collecting weather data from
these regions, ships help fill gaps in the observational network, providing valuable information that would otherwise be
missing. This helps to improve the spatial coverage of weather data and reduces uncertainties in the forecast models. Real-
Time Data: Ship observations provide real-time weather data from various locations across the oceans. This data includes
measurements such as air temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction, sea surface temperature, wave
height, and cloud cover. These real-time observations contribute to a more accurate representation of the current weather
conditions, allowing forecasters to make adjustments to the forecast in near real-time. Validation of Model Output: Ship
observations are used to validate the accuracy of forecast models. By comparing the observed weather conditions on board
a ship with the predicted conditions from the synoptic and prognostic charts, meteorologists can assess the performance of
the models and identify any biases or discrepancies. This feedback loop helps improve the models' skill and reliability over
time. Specialized Observations: Some ships are equipped with additional meteorological instruments and sensors that
provide specialized data. For example, research vessels often carry instruments for measuring atmospheric profiles,
oceanographic data, and other atmospheric parameters. These specialized observations offer valuable insights into specific
atmospheric processes, such as vertical temperature and moisture profiles, which can enhance the accuracy of forecasts,
especially for severe weather events. Data Assimilation: Ship observations are assimilated into numerical weather
prediction models, where they are combined with other observational data, such as satellite data, radar data, and ground-
based observations. Through a process called data assimilation, the models adjust their initial conditions based on the
observed data, helping to improve the accuracy and reliability of the forecast output.TYPES OF INFORMATION RECEIVED BY
FACSIMILE MACHINES Facsimile machines are designed to receive and transmit images and documents over radio
communications. ⚫ The types of information are as follows: 1.WEATHER CHARTS: Used to predict weather patterns • Make
decisions while at sea 2.NAVIGATION CHARTS: Information about sea depths, shoals Other navigational hazards 3.NEWS
AND INFORMATION: Weather alerts, safety warnings • Updates on port conditions. 4.DOCUMENTS: Bill of lading, manifests
Other business documents for cargo operations 5.MEDICAL INFORMATION: • Medical conditions, prescription information
⚫ Reports which are important for the health of crew SERVICES PROVIDED FOR STORM WARNINGS AT PORT 1.NATIONAL
WEATHER SERVICE: Weather alerts for storms • Broadcasted via radio, television and internet 2.AUTOMATED WEATHER
STATIONS: Provide real time weather data ⚫ Including wind speed and direction, air temperature, barometric pressure
3.LOCAL OBSERVATIONS • Weather conditions such as wind speed, cloud cover, and sea state. • Observations are combined
for a comprehensive view of weather 4.COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Critical during storm events ⚫ Communication
including radios, phones, And email 5.EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANS: • Activated during severe weather events • Outline
procedures for evacuating personnel, securing cargo etc. 6. VESSEL TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT: To monitor ship movements
during storms Vessels may be diverted to avoid dangerous conditions.Characteristics of TRS: Low atmospheric pressure:
TRS are associated with low atmospheric pressure at the centre of the storm. This low-pressure system creates the
conditions for the storm to form and intensify. Strong winds: Tropical cyclones are known for their strong winds. These
winds can reach extremely high speeds and can cause significant damage to structures, vegetation, and infrastructure.
Heavy rainfall: TRS are accompanied by heavy rainfall. The storms can produce torrential downpours, resulting in
widespread and intense precipitation, which can lead to flooding and water-related hazards. Eyewall: TRS have a distinctive
structure that includes an eyewall. The eyewall is a ring of intense thunderstorms surrounding the calm eye of the storm. It
is typically the region with the most powerful winds and heaviest precipitation. Eyewall clouds: Within the eyewall, there
are dense and towering clouds known as eyewall clouds. These clouds are responsible for the most severe weather
conditions within the storm, including intense rainfall, strong winds, and thunderstorms. Central dense overcast (CDO): The
central dense overcast refers to at large area of high clouds covering the centre of the storm, including the eye. It appears
dense and can obstruct sunlight from reaching the eye. These characteristics of TRS contribute to their destructive potential
and the risks they pose to human safety, infrastructure, and the environment. Action to be taken when the presence of
TRS is confirmed. Monitor weather reports: Keep a close eye on weather reports and updates from meteorological agencies
to track the progress of the storm. Secure the ship: Make sure all loose objects on deck are secured or stowed below deck.
Close and secure all hatches, windows, and doors. Make sure all cargo is properly secured. Change course or speed:
Depending on the location and movement of the storm, it may be necessary to change course or speed to avoid the worst
of the weather. Reduce speed: If the ship cannot avoid the storm, reduce speed to minimize the impact of the waves and
wind. Use storm anchors: In extreme cases, it may be necessary to use storm anchors to hold the ship in position and
prevent it from drifting. Prepare the crew: Ensure all crew members are familiar with emergency procedures and are
prepared to act quickly if needed. • Stay in communication: Maintain communication with other ships in the area, as well as
with shore-based authorities and weather services. Comparison between a Tropical Revolving Storm and a Temperate
Latitude Depression: Tropical Revolving Storm:Forms over tropical or subtropical waters. Primary energy source is latent
heat released by condensation within thunderstorms.Classified based on wind speed: tropical depression, tropical storm,
and hurricane/typhoon. Characterized by a well-defined eye at the center and spiraling rainbands. Typically have a warm
core and exhibit symmetric circulation. Associated with heavy rainfall, strong winds, storm surge, and potential for
widespread destruction.Usually move from east to west or west-northwest under the influence of trade winds or
subtropical high-pressure systems.Have a relatively short lifespan, lasting from a few days to a couple of weeks.Temperate
Latitude Depression: Forms in mid-latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees.Result from the interaction of contrasting air
masses, such as warm and cold fronts.Largely fueled by temperature contrasts and baroclinic instability. Classified based on
atmospheric pressure and frontal characteristics.Characterized by a cyclonic circulation, with multiple fronts and occluded
fronts.Exhibit asymmetrical structure with a warm sector and colder air masses. Associated with a variety of weather
conditions, including rain, snow, high winds, and thunderstorms. Move with the prevailin. The warning signs of an
approaching Tropical Revolving Storm, also known as a tropical cyclone or hurricane, include: Increasing Wind Speed: As
a tropical storm approaches, there will be a gradual increase in wind speed. Initially, the winds may be gentle, but they will
progressively intensify as the storm nears.Darkening Sky: The sky may become increasingly cloudy and dark as the storm
system approaches. This can be an indication of the storm's development and the potential for heavy rainfall.Barometric
Pressure Drop: A rapid drop in barometric pressure is often observed as a tropical storm approaches. Monitoring the
barometric pressure can provide an indication of the storm's proximity.Rising Sea Level: The approach of a tropical storm
can cause a rise in sea level, resulting in storm surges along coastal areas. This can lead to flooding and potential coastal
damage.Increasing Wave Height: The waves in the vicinity of the storm will gradually become larger and more powerful as
the storm gets closer. This can be observed through buoy data or visual assessment. Squally Weather: As the storm
approaches, there may be an increase in squalls, characterized by sudden gusts of wind, heavy rain, and rapid changes in
weather conditions.Equipments and Publications carried on these ships: The specific equipment and publications carried
on voluntary observing fleet ships may vary, but they generally include the following: Meteorological Instruments: These
include instruments for measuring parameters such as wind speed and direction (anemometer), air temperature
(thermometer), atmospheric pressure (barometer), humidity (hygrometer), and sea surface temperature (sea surface
thermometer).Automatic Weather Stations (AWS): Many ships are equipped with AWS that continuously monitor and
record meteorological data. AWS are automated systems that measure and transmit weather observations at regular
intervals.Navigational Instruments: Ships typically carry navigational equipment such as radar, global positioning system
(GPS), and compasses for safe navigation.Meteorological Publications: Ships often carry meteorological publications,
including weather charts, synoptic charts, weather forecasting bulletins, and navigational publications that provide
information on weather systems, sea conditions, and navigational warnings.Communication Equipment: Ships maintain
communication systems such as radios, satellite communication terminals, or data transmission equipment to relay
weather observations and receive weather information and forecasts.Different types of weather services for shipping
include:Marine Weather Forecasting: Meteorological agencies provide weather forecasts specifically tailored for maritime activities. These
forecasts include information on wind speed and direction, wave heights, visibility, and weather conditions along shipping routes and in
coastal areas. They help shipmasters and mariners plan their voyages and make informed decisions to ensure safety and efficiency.Storm
Warnings and Alerts: Weather services issue storm warnings and alerts to notify ships of severe weather conditions, such as tropical cyclones,
hurricanes, gales, or heavy storms. These warnings provide critical information for shipmasters to take necessary precautions and avoid
dangerous weather conditions. Navigational Warnings: Meteorological agencies issue navigational warnings related to weather conditions
that could impact navigation. These warnings may include information about fog, icebergs, strong currents, or any other hazards that could
affect safe passage.Sea Ice Information: In regions with icy waters, weather services provide information on sea ice conditions, icebergs, and
ice movements. This helps ships navigate safely through icy waters and avoid ice-related hazards. Specialized Weather Services: Some
weather services offer specialized services for specific maritime sectors, such as offshore oil and gas operations, fishing activities, or maritime
events. These services provide customized weather information and forecasts tailored to the unique needs of these sectors. Weather Routing
and Consultation: Weather services may offer weather routing and consultation services to assist shipmasters in planning the most efficient
and safe routes based on weather conditions. They provide guidance on avoiding adverse weather systems, optimizing fuel efficiency, and
minimizing voyage duration.meteorology, a ridge refers to an elongated area of high pressure that extends vertically through the
atmosphere. It is characterized by a dome-like shape, where the atmospheric pressure is relatively higher compared to the surrounding areas.
Ridges are typically associated with stable and fair weather conditions. Here's more information about ridges and the weather they bring:
Pressure and Wind Flow: A ridge forms when air masses converge and ascend, leading to subsidence (sinking air) in the upper levels of the
atmosphere. As a result, the atmospheric pressure increases, and the wind flow around the ridge is generally clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.Clear Skies and Sunshine: Ridges often bring clear skies, reduced cloud cover,
and abundant sunshine. The subsiding air associated with a ridge suppresses cloud formation and promotes atmospheric stability. This stable
atmospheric condition inhibits the vertical development of clouds, resulting in Light Winds: RTemperature: s.Fog Potential: R