MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT

A statement is any declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both. For
example; Mobile numbers in Nigeria have 11 digits, 5 is larger than 7, 12 is a perfect
square, etc.
A predicate is a statement or mathematical assertion that contains variables, sometimes
referred to as predicate variables, and may be true or false depending on those variables’
value or values.

Proposition on the other hand is a statement that is, by itself either true of false.
Propositional logic is a mathematical system for reasoning about propositions and how
they relate to one another. Every statement in propositional logic consists of propositional
variables combined via propositional connectives.
Types Of Propositions-
In propositional logic, there are two types of propositions-

1. Atomic propositions
2. Compound propositions
1. Atomic Propositions-
• Atomic propositions are those propositions that cannot be divided further.
• Small letters like p, q, r, s etc are used to represent atomic propositions.
Examples-
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 The examples of atomic propositions are-
▪ p: Sun rises in the east.
▪ q: Sun sets in the west.
▪ r: Apples are red.
▪ s: Grapes are green.
3. Compound Propositions-
Compound propositions are those propositions that are formed by combining one or more
atomic propositions using connectives.
In other words, compound propositions are those propositions that contain some
connective.
Capital letters like P, Q, R, S etc. are used to represent compound propositions.

Examples-
▪ P: Sun rises in the east and Sun sets in the west.
▪ Q: Apples are red and Grapes are green
Statements That Are Not Propositions-
Following kinds of statements are not propositions-
1. Command
2. Question
3. Exclamation
4. Inconsistent
5. Predicate or Proposition Function
Examples-
Following statements are not propositions-
• Close the door. (Command)
• Do you speak French? (Question)
• What a beautiful picture! (Exclamation)
• I always tell lie. (Inconsistent)
• P(x): x + 3 = 5 (Predicate)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON PROPOSITIONS-

Identify which of the following statements are propositions-
1. France is a country.
2. 2020 will be a leap year.
3. Sun rises in the west.
4. P(x): x + 6 = 7
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5. P (5): 5 + 6 = 2
6. Apples are oranges.
7. Grapes are black.
8. Two and two makes 4.
9. x > 10
10.Open the door.
11.Are you tired?
12.What a bright sunny day!
13.Mumbai is in India.
14.I always tell truth.
15.I always tell lie.
16.Do not go there.
17.This sentence is true.
18.This sentence is false.
19.It will rain tomorrow.
20.Fan is rotating.
Solutions-
1. Proposition (True)
2. Proposition (True)
3. Proposition (False)
4. Not a proposition (Predicate)
5. Proposition (False)
6. Proposition (False)
7. Proposition (False)
8. Proposition (True)
9. Not a proposition (Predicate)
10.Not a proposition (Command)
11.Not a proposition (Question)
12.Not a proposition (Exclamation)
13.Proposition (True)
14.Proposition (True)
15.Not a proposition (Inconsistent)
16.Not a proposition (Command)
17.Proposition (True)
18.Not a proposition (Inconsistent)

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19.Proposition (Will be confirmed tomorrow whether true or false)
20.Proposition (True if fan is rotating otherwise false)

Propositional Variables
Every statement in propositional logic consists of propositional variables combined via
propositional connectives. Each proposition will be represented by a propositional
variable. Propositional variables are usually represented as lower-case letters, such as p,
q, r, s, etc. Each variable can take one of two values: true or
false.

Propositional Connectives The connectives

Connectives encode how propositions are related, such as “If ∧ and (& or .)
you liked it, then you should have put a ring on it.” There are ∨ or (| or +)
seven propositional connectives, many of which will be ¬ not (∼)
familiar from programming. ⇒ implies (⊃ or →)
⇔ if and only if
Logical Connectives
▪ P ∧ Q is read as “P and Q,” and it is called a conjunction.
▪ P ∨ Q is read as “P or Q,” and it is called a disjunction.
▪ P → Q is read as “if P then Q,” and it is called an implication or conditional.
▪ P ↔ Q is read as “P if and only if Q,” and it is called a bi-conditional.
▪ ¬P is read as “not P,” and it is called a negation.
The truth value of a statement is determined by the truth value(s) of its part(s), depending
on the connectives:
Truth Conditions for Connectives.
▪ P ∧ Q is true when both P and Q are true
▪ P ∨ Q is true when P or Q or both are true.
▪ P → Q is true when P is false or Q is true or both.
▪ P ↔ Q is true when P and Q are both true, or both false.
▪ ¬P is true when P is false and vice versa.

SETS, SET NOTATIONS AND OPERATIONS

Definition of Set: An informal definition of set is that it is an unordered collection of
objects or items. The idea of a set is simple: A set is a collection of elements. The set
{white, red, green) contains the names of the colors white, red, and green and nothing
else. The set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1003456792311 contains seven integers. The set {red,

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yellow, blue) contains the names of primary colors. A set of stamps stored in loose-leaf
notebooks on a shelf is usually called a stamp collection. The set of past presidents of the
United States consists of {George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, ...}. The
"..." is called an ellipsis and indicates that the list contains other elements.
What is the basic characteristic of a set? For any set A and any element b, either b is
in A or b is not in A. If you ask whether an element is in a set, the answer is either yes or
no. The objects that comprise of the set are called elements. The number of objects in a
set can be finite or infinite
Set Notation
Set notation refers to the different symbols used in the process of working within and
across the sets. The simplest set notation used to represent the elements of a set is the
curly brackets {}. An example of a set is A = {a, b, c, d}. Here the set is represented with
a capital letter, and its elements are denoted by small letters.

Set notation can be broadly classified as for set representation and for set operations. The
set representation notations are μ - universal set, Ø - null set, ⊂ - subset: ∈ - belongs to,
A' - complement of a set. And the set notations for operations across sets are U - union,
∩ - intersection, - difference, Δ - Delta.

What Is Set Notation?

Set notations are the basic symbols used to denote the various representations across set
operations. Set notation is used to denote any working within and across the sets. All the
symbols except the number elements can be easily considered as the notations for sets.
The simplest set notation is the Curley brackets, which are used to enclose and represent
the elements of the set. The elements of a set are written using flower brackets {}, or by
using parenthesis ().
The elements of a set are written and separated by commas. For example, set A containing
the five vowels of the English alphabets is written as A = {a, e, i, o, u}. The sets are
denoted by capital letters and the elements of the set are denoted by small letters. Set
notation is further used to represent various sets and operations. Further, it is possible to
represent the various relations and functions across sets, only with the help of set notation.

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 Broadly the set notations can be classified for set representations and for set operations.
Let us now study in detail, the set notation for set representation, and the set formation
for set operations.

Set Notation for Set Representation

Set notation used to generally represent some of the common sets are the universal set,
empty set, the complement of a set. Further, we use special symbols of subset and belongs
to, to relate the elements or the set itself, to another set.
• μ - Universal Set: This includes all the elements of all the sets which are being
considered for set operations. If there is a set A of consonants, and set B of consonants,
then μ - universal set represents all the English alphabets. Hence a universal set can be
called a set that includes all the elements of all the sets under consideration.
• Ø - Null Set: A set that does not have any elements in it is referred to as a null set. It is
also called an empty set and is represented as Ø = {}.
• A' - Complement of A Set: The complement of a set is all the elements of the universal
set, except the elements of the set A. For a set A, its complement is A' = μ - A. If the set
A = {2, 3, 4, 5}, and μ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, then A' = μ - A = {1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
• ⊂ - Subset: The subset symbol is used to represent a set formed by taking a few elements
of a given set. For a set A = {a, b, c, d, e}, if a new set B = {b, c, d} is formed by taking
a few elements of set A, then we say that B is a subset of A, and this is denoted as B ⊂ A.
Since there are fewer elements in set B, compared to set A, then B is called the proper
subset of A. Also, if B had equal or same elements of set A, then it would be denoted as
B ⊂ A.
• ∈ - Belongs to: This symbol '∈' is used, if a particular element is said to be belonging to
a set A. If the set A = {a, b, c}, then we refer that the element a belongs to set A, as a ∈
A. And if a particular element d does not belong to the set A, then we denote it as d ∉ set
A. The symbol ∉ means that it does not belong to the set.

Set Notation for Set Operations

Set notation help in conducting various operations across sets. The operations of union,
intersection, difference, delta, across two or more sets are denoted by the various set
notations, using symbols.
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• U - Union of Sets: This operation of union of sets combines all the elements of the two
sets and presents it as a single set. Here the common elements of the sets are written only
once in the final union set. For two sets A = {a, b, c, d}, and B = {c, d, e}, we have A U
B = {a, b, c, d, e}. The elements in the union set have more elements than in the individual
sets.
• ∩ - Intersection of Sets: The operation of intersection of sets takes the common elements
of the two sets to form a new set. For the sets A = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, B = {e, f, g, h, i}, we
have A ∩ B = {e, f}. Here we have taken the common elements and the number of
elements in the intersection set is lesser than the elements in the individual sets.
• - Difference: The difference of the two sets uses the same symbol of subtraction. Here
the elements remaining after removing the common elements from the given set give the
difference between the two sets. For the sets A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {b, c, d}, we have
the difference of sets, between the sets A - B = A - (A ∩ B) = {a, b, c, d, e} - {b, c, d} =
{a. e}.
• A' - Complement: For a set A, its complement is written as A' or Ac. The complement of
a set is the set obtained after removing the given set elements from the universal set and
taking the remaining elements. The formula for the complement of a set is A' = μ - A.
• Δ - Delta: The notation of delta between two sets gives the elements remaining after
removing the common elements from the union of the two sets. For two sets A, and B we
have A Δ B = (A U B) - (A ∩ B), Or A Δ B = (A - B) U (B - A). Also, the A Δ B takes the
elements of only set A and only set B.
• Example 1: Find the set notation used to represent the elements of only A, among the
two sets A, and B?
Solution:
The set only A is written as A - B, and represents the elements which are in the set A, and
which are not common to both the sets.
Only A = A - Common elements of set A and set B
A- B = A - (A ∩ B)
Thus, the set notation for only A is A- B = A - (A ∩ B).
• Example 2: Using set notation express the different formulas used to represent A Δ B.
Solution:
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Here A Δ B represents the elements that are available in only set A, or only set B.
A Δ B = Elements of only set A or only set B
A Δ B = (only A) U (only B)
A Δ B = (A - B) U (B - A)
Another representation of A Δ B is all the elements of set A and set B, except the common
elements of the sets A and B.
A Δ B = (AUB) - (A ∩B)
Thus, using set notation, we have A Δ B = (A - B) U (B - A) and A Δ B = (AUB) - (A
∩B).

RULES OF SET THEORY AND SET OPERATIONS

Let P, Q and R be sets.

i. Commutative Law: (P ∪ Q) = (Q ∪ P) and (P ∩ Q) = (Q ∩ P).
ii. Associative Law: (P ∪ (Q ∪ R)) = ((P ∪ Q) ∪ R) and (P ∩ (Q ∩ R)) = ((P ∩ Q) ∩ R).
iii. Distributive Law: (P ∪ (Q ∩ R)) = (P ∪ Q) ∩ (P ∪ R) and (P ∩ (Q ∪ R)) = (P ∩ Q) ∪
(P ∩ R).
iv. De Morgan’s Law: (P ∪ Q)C = (Pc ∩ Qc) and (P ∩ Q)C = (Pc ∪ Qc)
Let U be a universal set, and let A and B be subsets of U. Then:

Example: Verify De Morgan's Laws for the sets A = 11, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 5, 6, 8}
when the universal set is U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).

Some special sets we will consider in this unit:

• ∅ The empty set that contains no element (also denoted as { }).
• U The universe set is the set of all elements
• ℕ {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, the non-negative integers
• ℕ+ {1, 2, 3, . . .}, the positive integers

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• ℤ {. . . −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 . . .}, the integers
• ℚ {q | q = a/b, a, b ∈ ℤ, b 6= 0}, the rational numbers
• ℚ+ {q | q ∈ Q, q > 0}, the positive rational
• ℝ the real numbers
• ℝ+ The positive reals
• P(A) The power set of any set A is the set of all subsets of A.

DISJOINT SET
Sets X and Y are said to be disjoint sets, if they have no element in common, that is, no
element of X is in Y and no element of Y is in X.
Example
i. Given 𝑋 = {1,2,3} and 𝑌 = {4,5,6}, then 𝑋 and 𝑌 are disjoint sets.
ii. If 𝑃 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝑄 = {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝑃 and 𝑄 are not disjoint sets, since 𝑑 is
in both sets.

PRODUCTS OF SETS
The next operation on sets is familiar, because it is the formalism behind the way we are
used to seeing points in two-dimensional space represented as ordered pairs.
Definition. For any sets X and Y, the product X x Y is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
such that a ∈ X and b ∈ Y. When X = Y, this set is also denoted X2. Similarly, the product
of n sets X1 .... Xn is the set of all ordered n-tuples (xl, ..., Xn) of elements such that x1 ∈
X1.... and Xn ∈ Xn . When n copies of the same set X are used, the resulting Cartesian
product X x ... x X is the set of all ordered n-tuples of elements in X, denoted Xn.
Example: Let X = (0, 1) and C = {a, b}. Then, X x C = ((0, a), (0, b), (1, a), (1, b)), and C
x C = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}. The product of two sets is sometimes referred to as the
Cartesian product.

POWER SET
We call the set of all subsets of A, the power set of A, and write it as P(A).
Let A be a set. The power set of A, denoted P(A), is P(A) = {X: X ⊂ A)
Example1: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Find P(A).
Solution: P(A) is a set of sets, all of which are subsets of A.
So, P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
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Note: The power set of a set A is normally, 2n, where n is the cardinality of the set A.
Therefore, since |A| = 3, the cardinality of the power set of A, |P(A)| = 23 = 8.
Note: Although 2 ∈ A, it will be wrong to say that 2 ∈ P(A) because none of the elements
in P(A) are numbers. However, we can say that {2} ∈ P(A) because {2} ⊆ A.
Other Examples of Power Set

We can relate the symbols of union and intersect to resemble the logic symbols of “or”
and “and”. Remember that the statement x ∈ A ∪ B is read as x is an element of A or x
is an element of B. Therefore,
x ∈ A ∪ B ↔ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B.
Similarly,
x ∈ A ∩ B ↔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B.
Also,
x ∉ A ↔ ¬ (x ∈ A)

Problem
Let A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {1, 2, 3}, D = {1, 3, {4, 5}, x}, and
E = {7, 8, 9}.
Using the above Sets, determine each statement to be either true, false, or meaningless.
1. A ⊂ B. 2. B ⊂ A. 3. A ∈ C. 4. ∅ ∈ B. 5. ∅ ⊂ A.
6. A < E. 7. 3 ∈ C. 8. x ⊂ D. 9. {9} ⊂ E.
SOLUTION
1. True. Every element in A is an element in B.
2. False. For example, 1 ∈ B but 1 ∉ A.
3. False. The elements in C are 1, 2, and 3. The set A is not equal to 1, 2, or 3.
4. False. The set B has exactly 6 elements, and none of them is an empty set.
5. True. Everything in the empty set (nothing) is also an element of A. Notice that the

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empty set is a subset of every set.
6. Meaningless. A set cannot be less than another set.
7. True. 3 is one of the elements of the set C.
8. Meaningless. x is not a set, so it cannot be a subset of another set.
9. True. 9 is the only element of the set {9}, and is an element of E, so every element in
{9} is an element of E.

VENN DIAGRAMS
A Venn Diagram is a great tool used to visualize and represent operations on sets. It is
used to display sets as intersecting circles. We can highlight a region under consideration
when we carry out an operation. The cardinality of a set can be represented by putting
numbers in the corresponding area.

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5.

6.

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