ABCG4203 Politics and Media Module

ABCG4203
Politics and the Media
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

ABCG4203
POLITICS AND THE
MEDIA
Assoc Prof Dr Ali Salman
Prof Emeritus Dr Samsudin A Rahim
Assoc Prof Dr Balan Rathakrishnan

Second edition 2021
First edition 2017
Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), ABCG4203

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM).
www.oum.edu.my

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix–xvii
Topic 1 Introduction to Media and Politics 1

1.1 Defining the Concept of Media 2
1.2 Media Systems 2
1.3 Theories of Media Systems 3
1.3.1 Authoritarian Theory 4
1.3.2 Free Press Theory 5
1.3.3 Social Responsibility Theory 5
1.3.4 Soviet Media Theory 6
1.3.5 Development Media Theory 6
1.3.6 Democratic Participant Media Theory 7
1.3.7 Postscripts on Press Theory 8
1.4 Concepts in Political System 8
1.4.1 Political System from Marxist Perspective 9
1.4.2 Political System from Capitalist Industrialist 10
Perspective
1.4.3 Monarchy 10
1.4.4 Power 11
1.4.5 Control and Freedom 12
1.4.6 Developmental Politics 13
Summary 13
Key Terms 15
References 15
Topic 2 Relationship between Media and Politics 17

2.1 What is a Political System? 18
2.2 What is Media System? 19
2.3 Relationship Between Media System and Political System: 20
Theoretical Perspectives
2.3.1 Authoritarian Theory 20
2.3.2 Soviet Communist Theory 21
2.3.3 Libertarian Theory 22
2.3.4 Social Responsibility Theory 23
2.3.5 Developmental Theory 23
2.3.6 Democratic Participant Theory 24

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.4 Relationship Between Media and Politics: 25

Historical Perspective
2.4.1 Media and Politics in Developed Countries 27
2.4.2 Media and Politics in the Communist System 29
2.4.3 Media and Politics in Developing Countries 30
2.4.4 Pluralistic Approach to Media and Politics 32
Summary 34
Key Terms 35
References 35
Topic 3 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 37

Historical Perspectives
3.1 Mass Media Development and British Colonisation 38
3.1.1 Vernacular Newspapers 39
3.2 Role of Mass Media during British Colonisation 40
3.2.1 Role of Newspapers 40
3.2.2 Role of Radio Broadcasting Services 42
3.3 Mass Media during Japanese Occupation 43
3.3.1 Japanese Alliance with Kesatuan Melayu 44
3.3.2 Aftermath of Japanese Invasion 44
3.4 Mass Media and Politics: Pre-Independence 45
3.4.1 Independence from the British in 1957 46
Summary 47
Key Terms 48
References 49
Topic 4 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 50

Theoretical Perspectives
4.1 Mass Society, Politics and the Media 51
4.1.1 Mass Society 52
4.1.2 Politics and Mass Society 53
4.1.3 Mass Media 53
4.1.4 Mass Media and Mass Society 54
4.1.5 Mass Media as Mass Communication 55
4.2 Media Theories 56
4.2.1 Media Dependency Theory 56
4.2.2 Effects of Media Messages 58
4.2.3 Political Economy Media Theory 61
4.2.4 Hegemony Theory of Media 62
Summary 64
Key Terms 66
References 66

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Media and Mediation Function 68

5.1 Concept of Mediation in Media and Politics 69
5.1.1 Functions of Mass Media in Democratic Society 70
5.1.2 Mass Media and Public Opinion 71
5.1.3 Mass Media and Agenda Setting 72
5.2 Mass Media and Social Institutions 73
5.2.1 Mass Media and National Development 73
5.2.2 Mass Media and Social Integration 74
5.3 Hegemony Theory of Mass Media and Political 75
Organisations
5.3.1 Mass Media and Political Parties 75
5.3.2 Mass Media and Non-Governmental Organisations 77
5.3.3 Mass Media and Governmental Organisations 78
Summary 79
Key Terms 80
References 80
Topic 6 Electronic, Print and New Media: Their Position in a Political 82

System
6.1 Defining Concept of Mass Media 83
6.2 Electronic Media and Political System 84
6.2.1 Concept of Electronic Media and the Electronic 84
Media Organisation
6.2.2 Politics of Electronic Media 85
6.3 Print Media and Political System 85
6.3.1 Politics of Print Media 86
6.3.2 Power of Static Media 86
6.4 Politics and the Political Press 88
6.4.1 Political Parties and Press Ownership 88
6.4.3 Elements of Political Press 89
6.4.4 Communication Technology and Self-Identity 89
6.5 Media, Government and Political Parties 90
6.5.1 Relationship between Mass Media and Government 90
6.5.2 Relationship between Mass Media and Political 91
Parties
Summary 92
Key Terms 93
References 93

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Mass Media and Propaganda 95

7.1 Defining Propaganda 96
7.2 Political Propaganda 97
7.3 Types of Political Propaganda 98
7.3.1 Bandwagon 98
7.3.2 Name-Calling 99
7.3.3 Endorsement 100
7.3.4 Glittering Generalities 100
7.3.5 Stacked Cards 101
7.3.6 Just Plain Folks 101
7.3.7 Fear 102
7.4 Propaganda Theories in 1930s 102
7.4.1 Behaviourism 103
7.4.2 Freudianism 103
7.4.3 Magic Bullet Theory 104
7.4.4 LasswellÊs Propaganda Theory 104
7.5 Mass Media as Tools for Political Propaganda 105
7.5.1 Power of Mass Media 105
7.6 Mass Media and General Election 107
7.7 Smart Partnership: News and the Political Communication 108
Process
7.7.1 Rise of Internet Usage in Communication Process 108
7.7.2 Implications of the Rise in Internet Usage in News 109
and Political Communication Process
7.8 Mass Media and Political Consensus 110
7.8.1 Role of the Media in Political Consensus 110
7.8.2 Social Media and Political Consensus 111
7.9 Mass Media, Conflict and Political Participation 111
7.9.1 Functions of Media in Conflicts and Peace Building 112
7.9.2 Media as Watchdog, Gatekeeper and Peace Promoter 112
Summary 114
Key Terms 114
References 115
Topic 8 Media and Politics: The Process 117

8.1 Media and Gatekeepers 118
8.1.1 Media Owners and Political Affiliation 118
8.2 Functions of the Editorial 119
8.3 Censorship 120
8.3.1 Political Censorship 121
8.3.2 Censorship in Malaysia 121
8.4 Politics of Advertisement and the Media 122

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
8.5 Political Journalism and the Media 124

8.5.1 Nature of Political Journalism 124
8.6 Elements of Political Journalism 126
8.6.1 Political Organisations 126
8.6.2 Audience 128
8.6.3 Media 128
8.7 Politics of the Front Page 129
8.7.1 Editorials and Editorial Pages 130
8.8 Prime Time News 130
8.8.1 Politics of Protocol in Prime Time News 131
Summary 132
Key Terms 133
References 133
Topic 9 Media Politics and Globalisation 136

9.1 Globalisation 137
9.1.1 Globalisation and Sociocultural Transformation 138
9.1.2 Globalisation and Political Transformation 141
9.1.3 Globalisation and Economic Transformation 142
9.2 Globalisation and Media System 143
9.3 New Media and Politics 144
Summary 146
Key Terms 147
References 147
Topic 10 Research Methods and Evaluation Process of Media and 149

Politics
10.1 Politics 150
10.2 Impact Study of Political Information in the Media 151
10.2.1 Types of Methods 151
10.2.2 Evaluation Process 152
10.2.3 Usage and Function of Impact Analysis 152
10.3 Content Analysis 153
10.3.1 Value of Content Analysis to Political Process 154
10.3.2 Types of Content Analysis 155
10.4 General Methods and Process of Content Analysis 156
Summary 157
Key Terms 158
References 158

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course materials. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend
in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the
Course Guide as you go through the course materials as it will help you to
clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
ABCG4203 Politics and the Media is one of the courses offered at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
10 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Communication
programme. This course aims to introduce learners to the close relationship
between media and politics, and how the media is used to determine trends and
patterns in the political direction of a country. Learners will also learn media
theories which explain the nature of the relationship between politics and the
media.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you
begin this course, please ensure that you have the correct course materials,
understand the course requirements, and know how the course is conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for
every credit hour. As such, for a 3 credit hour course, you are expected to
spend 120 study hours. Figure 1 shows the student learning time (SLT).
Figure 1: Student Learning Time
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:
1. Explain the relationship between media and politics, the roles of media and
the roles of politics.
2. Analyse critically the nature of relationship between media and the politics
and its impact on the political and the media system.
3. Identify the relationship between media and politics by using different
models of media systems.
4. Solve or handle any issue related to politics and the media.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the concepts of media and politics, focusing on the concept of
media and media systems. Theories on media systems are highlighted. Various
concepts in the political system are also discussed to equip learners with
knowledge of the complementary roles of the media and politics.
Topic 2 addresses the relationship between the media system and political system,
from the theoretical and historical perspectives. The topic also describes the nature
of the media and politics in developed and developing countries, including the use
of post-colonial and pluralistic approaches.
Topic 3 discusses the historical perspective of the relationship between the media
and politics in Malaysia. The discussion centres on mass media development and
British colonisation, British colonialism, and the rise of mass media. The role of
mass media during the British colonisation, Japanese occupation, and pre-
independence period are also discussed.
Topic 4 examines the relationship between the media and politics from the
theoretical perspectives of mass society, politics and media; and the concepts of
society, mass society, and mass media. The three theories of media, namely, media
dependency, political economy media theory, and hegemony theory, are also
discussed.
Topic 5 outlines the concept of mediation, media, and politics. The relationship
between mass media, social institutions, and political organisations is also
covered. Among the pertinent areas highlighted are mass mediaÊs function in a
democratic society, mass media and public opinion, mass media and agenda
setting, mass media and political parties, and mass media and non-governmental
as well as governmental organisations.
Topic 6 explains the position of electronic, print, and new media in the political
system. Media, government, and political parties are the main focus of this topic.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 7 discusses the issue of propaganda, focusing on mass media as tools of

political propaganda, including the role of the media in general elections. Other
subtopics that are highlighted include smart partnership; news and the political
communication process; mass media and political consensus; and mass media,
conflict and political participation.
Topic 8 discusses the role of gatekeepers in relation to media ownership

and political affiliation, editorial functions, censorship, and the politics of
advertisement and the media. This topic also discusses the nature and elements of
political journalism, the politics of the front page, editorials and the editorial page,
the significance of prime time news, and the politics of protocol in prime time
news.
Topic 9 focuses on media, politics and globalisation, encompassing socio-cultural,

technological, political, and economic transformation as a consequence of
globalisation.
Topic 10 discusses the study of media and politics, focusing on methods and
processes to conduct studies on the impact of political information on an audience.
The topic also discusses content analysis with particular reference to the value of
content analysis for the political process.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise
your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently
refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge
your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be located after one subtopic or a few subtopics.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component,
reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the
question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the
subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly
in the module itself.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
answer questions, explore short case studies or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module
and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage in Higher
Order Thinking skills (HOTs) i.e. analysing, synthesising and evaluating instead
of only recalling and defining.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. It summarises
various important parts of each topic and helps you to recap the whole topic.
By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge
retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully
understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic

contents and sources can be found in this section. The list may appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (in the References section), at the end of
every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to
the suggested references to obtain additional information and enhance your
overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course. There is no prior knowledge needed.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Berelson, B. R. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. Free Press.
Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of mass communication: An introductory text

(3rd ed.). Bakinfol.
Khan, M. A. (2016). Multinational enterprise management strategies in developing

countries. IGI Global.
Lasswell, H. D., Lerner, D., & Pool, I. S. (1952). The comparative study of symbols:
An introduction. Stanford University Press.
Macionis, J. J. (2009). Culture, society: The basics (10th ed.). Prentice Hall.
McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: An introduction. Sage.
McQuail, D. (2010). McQuailÊs mass communication theory (6th ed.). Sage.
Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in

Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(17), 31–41.

COURSE GUIDE  xvii
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
and several of them are shown in Figure 2. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged
to make full use of the resources available through this library.
Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library

xviii COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Introduction to
Media and
1 Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following:
1. Explain the concepts of media and politics.
2. Describe media systems and their components.
3. Identify four main normative theories and two additions.
4. Discuss the relationship and differences between the normative
theories.
5. Discuss the role of politics and government in the media system.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will introduce the concepts of media and politics. Through the first
discussion, you are expected to understand the meaning of media and media
system. You will also be exposed to various normative theories of the press and its
relationship with the political system. The aim is to equip you with knowledge of
the operations of the press within the political system.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA AND POLITICS
1.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MEDIA

What is media? Media is the main means of mass communication. Media means
technology that is intended to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of
communication used to reach the vast majority of the general public. Television,
radio, newspapers, and the Internet are regarded collectively as media. Media is,
thus, communication channels through which news, entertainment, education,
data, and promotional messages are disseminated. Media includes every
broadcasting and narrowcasting medium, such as newspaper, magazine, TV,
radio, billboard, direct mail, telephone, fax, and the Internet.
With the advent of the Internet, media can be classified into two:
(a) Traditional media includes television, radio, newspapers, magazines,

newsletters and other print publications.
(b) Social media describes the new generation of digital, computerised, or

networked information and communication technologies. These can take
many different forms, including Internet forums, blogs, wikis, podcasts, and
picture, music and video sharing. Examples of social media applications are
Google Groups, Wikipedia, Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter,
LinkedIn, WhatsApp, Telegram, and WeChat.
1.2 MEDIA SYSTEMS

The term „media system‰, although frequently used in subject literature, does not
possess a normative or clear-cut, unambiguous definition (Gurevitch, Bennett,
Curran & Woollacott, 2005). Media system, as an internally complex, autonomous
entity being part of a greater whole, such as a country, is also treated as a system
(Wieslaw, 2009).
The term was first developed with the onset of television, which resulted in great
changes in the reception of mass media communication, also influencing the
economic basis of its functioning (Gurevitch et al., 2005). A media system is
composed of institutional structures and final products, which recipients use
directly and frequently as these are addressed to them (newspapers, journals,
radio and TV programmes) as well as entities (such as press agencies and
distributors), with which people are less familiar but which, nevertheless, are
crucial to the functioning of the media system.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA AND POLITICS  3
A media systemÊs character is dependent upon the primal market or the relations
between media broadcasters, recipients, and the advertising market (advertisers
and advertising agencies) as well as on the secondary market, which includes
connections between broadcasters and media institutions and also the owners of
media entities (Wieslaw, 2009).
1.3 THEORIES OF MEDIA SYSTEMS

Normative theories of communication are a group of four press theories proposed
by Siebert et al. (1963). These are the authoritarian, free press, social responsibility,
and Soviet media theories (see Figure 1.1). Some scholars refer to these theories as
Western theories of mass media.
Figure 1.1: Four Press Theories
The media does not exist in a vacuum and normative theories try to explain how
socio-political structures that surround the media affect its expected roles,
freedom, and accountabilities. This theory explains how media systems behave
when operated by different kinds of government, such as libertarian,
authoritarian, communist, and socially responsible governments. Normative
theories are therefore based on different types of government systems. The media

is important for states to survive and depending on the government of the day,
can be used in the way the government wants to. For example, a government can
use the media as propaganda machinery.
Later additions to the four theories of the press include the development media
theory and democratic participant media theory, which were added by McQuail
(1987). Development media theory talks about audience participation in the media
while the latter focuses on the media as a tool for development.
1.3.1 Authoritarian Theory

Authoritarian theory was developed in England in the 16th and 17th centuries.
This theory was operationalised as strict control of content by a state and general
lack of freedom for the public to criticise state policies. Under an authoritarian
media system, ownership of the media can be either public or private. Ownership
of printing media is mostly private, while broadcast media usually remains in the
hands of the government.
The authoritarian theory describes a situation where states view mass media as an
instrument at all times. The role of the media is to mainly educate citizens and act
as a propaganda tool for the ruling party.
The main difference between the authoritarian theory and the Soviet-Communist
theory is that while the former allows both private and public media ownership,
the latter only allows public media ownership. Another difference is that while the
authoritarian media is mainly used to maintain societal status quo, a Soviet-
Communist media is often used to bring about societal change. Countries where
the media practise the authoritarian theory include Russia, North Korea, China,
Iran, and Saudi Arabia.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. What is authoritarian theory?
2. Describe the differences between authoritarian theory and

Soviet-Communist theory.

1.3.2 Free Press Theory

According to the free press theory, also known as libertarian theory, the media or
press has absolute freedom to publish without interference and also acts as a
watchdog. This theory came from the libertarian thoughts of Europe during the
16th century, after the invention of the printing press and after the press
movement. Among the advocates of this theory were renowned personalities like
John Locke, John Milton, John Stuart Mill, and Thomas Jefferson. This theory is
said to thrive in England and the United States.
The public is given a lot of press freedom, and government control over the press
is very much limited, if not absent. However, some restrictions are put in place as
preventive measures against the likely abuse of freedom, such as through libel,
false advertising, and false news. The press is an autonomous body rather than
another arm or extension of the government.
1.3.3 Social Responsibility Theory

As the name implies, the press in this political system is free to publish anything
as long as it is responsible for its publication. At present, the social responsibility
theory is practised in most European countries and those countries which are
under European influence.
The main role of the press is to help in the preservation and growth of democracy.
Adhering to guidelines and regulations makes the press behave in a responsible
manner. Governments have the right to intervene by censoring information they
deem to be inappropriate for social order.
Audiences are tasked with the duty of being responsible in their understanding of
the things shown in the media. The government cannot simply intrude too much
into the press as it wills.
The media is taken to be a spokesperson of the poor and marginalised as well as

provider of diverse views or perspectives. Corporations or companies which use
the press for commercialisation and profit purposes are allowed limited space.

1.3.4 Soviet Media Theory

This theory originated from Marxist, Leninist, and Stalinist thoughts, with a
mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich HegelÊs ideology. It is called the Soviet Media
Theory or Communist Media Theory. The governmentÊs role in the press and
media is very central as it controls media and communication totally to serve the
working classes and their interests. According to this theory, the state has absolute
power to control any media for the benefit of the people. There is no private
ownership of the press and other media in this system.
The government media is an instrument of control and propaganda to create a

strong socialised society and to provide information, education, entertainment,
motivation, and mobilisation. The theory advocates that all media message
systems are in the service of the state and represent the voice of the masses.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Normative theories seek to locate media structure and performance

within the milieu in which it operates. Explain.
1.3.5 Development Media Theory

This theory states that the media should support the government to bring about
socio-economic development for citizens (McQuail,1987, 2010). It argues that until
a nation is well established and its economic development is well underway, the
media must be supportive rather than critical of the government, so as to assist the
government in implementing its policies.
As the name implies, the theory relates to the media in developing nations. It
favours journalism that seeks out good news and requires bad news stories to be
treated with caution, as such stories are said to be economically damaging to a
nation in its delicate efforts for growth and change. The main duty of the media is
to fulfil social and political duties; hence, media freedom, while desirable, should
come after national integration, socio-economic modernisation, promotion of
literacy, and cultural creativity.
The development media theory seeks to promote the positive; it takes care and
guards the autonomy of developing nations and places special emphasis on
indigenous cultures. It is both a theory of state support and a theory of resistance
to the norms of competing nations and competing media theories.

According to McQuail (1987) and Folarin (2005), as the press performs its
responsibilities, it should bear the following tenets in mind:
(a) The media must accept and carry out positive development tasks that are in
line with the policies formulated by the political leadership. Freedom of the
press should not be at variance with the economic priorities of the
government and the development needs of the citizenry.
(b) The media should therefore give priority to coverage of areas that touch on
the lives of the people. Media content should be development-driven and
centre on the socio-economic and political lives of the people.
(c) In the overall interest of development, the state has the right to intervene
in media operations through censorship devices, especially when
the activities of the press are not in consonance with the development
objectives of the government.
(d) Mass media should accord priority to politically, geographically, and
culturally contiguous developing countries in their coverage as part of the
holistic strategy for less developed societies.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Briefly describe development media theory.
1.3.6 Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory is said to represent the idealistic dreams of how the media ought to
operate. It is one which any healthy democracy should regard as a goal.
Democratic participant theory stands for defence against commercialisation and
monopoly while at the same time resisting the bureaucracy of public media
institutions (Watson, 2003). This theory challenges reigning theories and offers a
positive strategy towards the achievement of new forms of media institutions.
The model emphasises the role of the receiver in the communication process
and integrates the receiverÊs rights to relevant information, to be heard as well as
to hear and be shown. Media messages and content should not be affected by
bureaucratic and political control. Instead, the media should exist in respect of the
interests and needs of the recipients and should not be justified in respect of
interests and needs of the media entity.
This theory encourages small-scale multiple local non-institutional media because

they link senders with receivers and favour horizontal interactions.
1.3.7 Postscripts on Press Theory

To sum up, according to the authoritarian theory, the media is controlled and
censored by government ministries in the country, but for the libertarian theory,
the media is fully free without any intervention from any authority or government.
For the social responsibility theory, the press is relatively free on one hand, but on
the other, the government controls the press by raising questions. In the case of the
Soviet media theory, the media is under the total control of the nationÊs leaders.
The media in authoritarian regimes are the mouthpiece of the ruling government.
They operate in a tight and controlled atmosphere. The content of the media is
strictly monitored under an authoritarian regime. A libertarian regime is the
opposite of an authoritarian regime. Under a libertarian regime, the media is free
to operate as there are no restrictions. According to the social responsibility theory,
the media is tasked with operating responsibly and acts as its own watchdog. The
Soviet media theory, on the other hand, is not very different from the authoritarian
theory as both advocate control and restrictions for the media.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. What do you understand by the concepts of media and media

system?
2. Compare the normative theories of the press and deliberate on

which one is the best for Malaysia.
1.4 CONCEPTS IN POLITICAL SYSTEM

Various concepts can be discussed in relation to a political system. In the following
subtopics, we will focus on several main concepts, namely, the political system
from the Marxist and capitalist industrialist perspectives, the system of monarchy,
power, control and freedom, and developmental politics.

1.4.1 Political System from Marxist Perspective

According to the Marxist perspective, the political system is one of struggle
between the bourgeoisie (owners of private property and means of production)
and the proletariat (workers), with economics as the foundation on which society
is built. Marxists believe that the state is an arena in which the haves and the have-
nots struggle.
For Marxists, a democratic state or republic, especially in a capitalist economic

system, is undesirable. Engels (1892) said, „The modern state, no matter what its
form, is essentially a capitalist machine.‰ This machine is an unacceptable state
since it so clearly focuses on exploiting its citizens.
The ideal state for the Marxist is no state at all, since any government (whether a
democracy or a dictatorship) is a means for preserving class antagonism. Marx and
Engels (1848) said, „Political power is merely the organised power of one class for
oppressing another.‰
In the Marxist view of human social development, the state evolved at a point in
history when it was necessary for society and it will cease to exist when it is no
longer necessary. It is merely a transitory phenomenon. Engels (1884) said, „The
State is simply a product of society at a certain stage of evolution.‰
Since freedom means no government at all to Marxists, freedom is an illusion until

a classless society is established.
Marxists believe that only communism makes the state absolutely unnecessary, for
there is nobody to be suppressed. For Marxists, communism must be established
worldwide in order for Marxists to achieve their political ends. They believe that
at some point in history, the state will fade away completely. If the state exists
anywhere in the world, then classes would still exist as a threat to a completely
classless society.

1.4.2 Political System from Capitalist Industrialist

Perspective
For capitalists, an economic and political system is characterised by a free market
for goods and services and private control of production and consumption. In
capitalism, the economic system is based on private ownership of the means of
production and their operation for profit (Baptist & Hyman, 2014; Zimbalist et al.,
1988). The government has minimal control in the process of production. In a
capitalist system, the government does not restrict private property or prevent
individuals from working where they deem fit. The government also does not
prevent firms from determining what wages they will pay and what prices they
will charge for their products.
Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many different times,
places, and cultures. Following the decline of mercantile business, mixed capitalist
systems became dominant in the Western world and have continued to spread.
Today, most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which combine
elements of free markets with state intervention, and in some cases, with economic
planning.
The major characteristics of capitalism include private property, capital

accumulation, wage labour, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive
markets. In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment are
determined by the owners of the factors of production in financial and capital
markets. Prices and the distribution of goods are mainly determined by
competition in the market.
1.4.3 Monarchy
This is a system of government in which a king or queen rules. The authority, or
crown, in a monarchy is generally inherited. The monarch, or ruler, is often only
the head of state, not the head of government. Many monarchies, such as Britain
and Denmark, are actually governed by parliaments. There are also constitutional
monarchies, which are distinct from absolute monarchies. Malaysia is one of the
best examples of constitutional monarchies.
In a constitutional monarchy, the king or queen is governed by the constitution.

The monarch shares power with a constitutionally elected government. The
monarch may be the de facto head of state or a purely ceremonial leader. The
constitution allocates the rest of the governmentÊs power to the executive,
legislature, and judiciary.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Discuss the workings of the constitutional monarchy in Malaysia and

share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
An absolute monarchy is a form of government in which the monarch has absolute

power over the people. The monarch has unrestricted political power over the
sovereign state and its people. Absolute monarchies are often hereditary but other
means of transmission of power are attested. Absolute monarchy differs from
constitutional monarchy, as a monarchÊs authority in a constitutional monarchy is
legally bound or restricted by a constitution.
In theory, an absolute monarch exercises total power over the land, but in practice,
the monarchy is counterbalanced by political groups. These political groups are
from the social classes and castes of the realm, such as the aristocracy, clergy, and
middle and lower classes. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures
and other governmental bodies that the monarchy can alter or dissolve at will.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
What is the difference between constitutional monarchy and absolute

monarchy?
1.4.4 Power
Power and politics go together since it is politics that gives power to the authorities
to run the day-to-day activities. What is politics, then? Politics is the exercise of
power, the public allocation of values, the resolution of conflict, and the
competition among individuals, groups, or states pursuing their interests
(Danziger, 1991).
Power, then, can be said to be the fuel of politics. In other words, the ability to
influence the making of binding decisions is the essence of politics. Power can be
political, economic or military power. Our concern here is political power. Political
power is the control of, or influence on, political decisions. It is the ability to make
or influence political decisions.

The notion that some people have more power than others is one of the
most noticeable facts of human existence. The concept of power is ancient
and ubiquitous. A great number of scholars, from Plato and Aristotle, through
Machiavelli and Hobbes, to Pareto and Weber, devoted much attention to
power and the phenomena associated with it. The word „power‰ and its synonyms
are embedded everywhere in the language of civilised people, often in subtly
different ways (Dahl, 1957).
1.4.5 Control and Freedom

There are numerous ways in which we can conceive of, and ask questions about,
freedom and control. These are concepts that lie at the very heart
of sociology. Although Marx, Durkheim, Weber, Simmel, and Mead came up
with different perspectives, they were all concerned with the ways in which
individuals and groups were variously enabled and restrained by the structures
and cultures within which they found themselves, and how they created,
conserved, changed, and negotiated those structures and cultures (Barker, 2003).
For even longer, the concept of freedom, or determinism, has been at the root of
philosophy. Freedom has been variously associated with further concepts such as
causation and control, and chaos and confusion. Sometimes, HeisenbergÊs
Uncertainty Principle is invoked to explain how we can have choice: as not
everything is determined, the argument goes, we are free to make decisions
(Barker, 2003).
Power and control go hand in hand. Control emanates from having power. Control
over the masses needs to be exercised as spelt out by the law, failing which, it may
be replaced by anarchy.
In exercising control, the freedom of the people cannot be taken away from them
or trampled upon. There should be a balance between control and freedom in any
political system. The people should be free to carry out their day-to-day activities
as long as the activities are done within the confines of the law. Being free does not
guarantee one the space to cross the line. Similarly, being in control does not mean
abuse of power.
The various arms of the government should work hand in hand to ensure that
power to control the masses is not abused. As the saying goes, absolute power
corrupts absolutely. Likewise, in exercising freedom, individuals should be
mindful of the fact that freedom is not absolute. A citizen cannot simply do what
he or she likes to do. In whatever we do as citizens living in a community, we have
to be mindful of our actions.

1.4.6 Developmental Politics

Politics and development are very much related whereby development is
dependent upon politics as in the case of developing countries. A countryÊs
political system has effects on its economic development.
Developmental politics advocates for media support for an existing political

regime and its efforts to bring about national economic development. It argues that
until a nation is well established and its economic development well underway,
the media must be supportive rather than critical of the government. Journalists,
in their writings or stories, must not inhibit government efforts to promote
development. They should, rather, assist the government in implementing policies
for the betterment of the society at large.
 The media are the main means of mass communication. Television, radio,
newspapers, and the Internet are regarded collectively as the media. The media
are communication channels through which news, entertainment, education
data, and promotional messages are disseminated.
 The media system is composed of institutional structures and final products

which recipients use directly and frequently as they are addressed to them
(newspapers, journals, radio and TV programmes) as well as entities (such as
press agencies and distributors).
 Theories of media system are also called normative theories of the

press. These comprise the authoritarian theory, free press theory, social
responsibility theory, and Soviet media theory proposed by Siebert, Peterson,
and Schramm. Normative theories are based on different types of government
systems.
 Later additions to the four theories of the press include the development media
theory and democratic participant media theory, which were added by
McQuail.

 According to the Marxist perspective, a political system involves a struggle

between the bourgeoisie (owners of private property and means of production)
and the proletariat (workers). Economics is the foundation on which society is
built.
 In the Marxist view of human social development, the state evolved when it
was necessary and will cease to exist when it is no longer necessary.
 For capitalists, an economic and political system is characterised by a

free market for goods and services, and private control of production and
consumption. The economic system is based on private ownership of the
means of production and their operation for profit. The government has
minimal or little control over the production process.
 Monarchy is a system of government whereby a king or queen rules a country.

The monarchy is generally inherited. The monarch is often the head of only the
state, not the government. Many monarchies are governed by parliaments.
Constitutional monarchies are different from absolute monarchies.
 Politics is the exercise of power, the public allocation of values, and the
resolution of conflict and competition among individuals, groups or states
pursuing their respective interests.
 Power is the fuel of politics. The ability to influence the making of binding
decisions is the essence of politics.

Absolute monarchy Marxist perspective

Authoritarian theory Mass communication
Bourgeoisie Media
Capitalism Media systems
Capitalist industrialist Monarchy
Constitutional monarchy Normative theories
Control and freedom Political power
Democratic participant theory Political system
Development media theory Power
Developmental politics Private property
Free market Proletariat
Free press theory Social responsibility theory
Libertarian theory Soviet media theory
Baptist, E. E., & Hyman, L. (2014). American capitalism: A reader. Simon &
Schuster.
Barker, E. (2003). And the wisdom to know the difference? Freedom, control and
the sociology of religion. Sociology of Religion, 64(3), 285–307.
Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioral Science, 2(3), 201–215.
Danziger, J. N. (1991). Understanding the political world: An introduction to

political science. Longman.
Engels, F. (1892). Socialism: Utopian and scientific (E. B. Aveling, Trans.).

Whitehead Estate.

Engels, F. (1884). Origin of the family, private property and the state: In the light
of the researches of Lewis H. Morgan. Foreign Languages Press.
Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of mass communication: An introductory text

(3rd ed.). Bakinfol.
Gurevitch, M., Bennett, T., Curran, J., & Woollacott, J. (2005). Culture, society and
the media. Taylor & Francis e-Library.
McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: An introduction. Sage.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1848). Manifesto of the Communist party. International
Publishers.
Siebert, F. S., Peterson, T., & Schramm, W. (1963). Four theories of the press.
University of Illinois Press.
Watson, J. (2003). Media communication: An introduction to theory and process.

Palgrave Macmillan.
Wieslaw, S. (2009). Media system: Scope – structure – definition. Media Studies,

38(3), 1–9.
Zimbalist, A., Sherman, H. J., & Brown, S. (1988). Comparing economic systems: A
political-economic approach. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Topic  Relationship
2 between Media
and Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define political system and media system.
2. Explain the relationship between media and the political system.
3. Discuss how media operate in countries with different political
systems.
4. Identify the various constraints and challenges faced by the media
within different political systems.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will introduce two important concepts, namely, media system and
political system, and explain how they function in a country. In many instances,
the political system of a country is influenced by the development of its media
system. In a democratic system of government, the media are operated as free
private enterprises. In a more autocratic government, such as in a communist
system of government, the media are operated solely by state enterprises.
However, in recent developments in communist states, there has been a shift
towards private enterprises jointly working with state enterprises in operating
media entities and managing media organisations.

18  TOPIC 2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND POLITICS
2.1 WHAT IS A POLITICAL SYSTEM?

The social system consists of many subsystems. Each subsystem has certain
specified functions to perform. Derbyshire and Derbyshire (2000), in their
Encyclopaedia of World Political Systems, broadly define a countryÊs political
system as, „the dynamic interplay of peopleÊs ideas and interests: the whole
process of demand and response which politics represents.‰ According to Almond
and Powell (1966), the concept of political system „has acquired wide currency
because it directs attention to the entire scope of political activities within a society,
regardless of where in the society such activities may be located‰.
The political system is interwoven with other subsystems in society. There is a

close relationship between the social and political systems. The basic concern
would always remain with regularisation and institutionalisation of power,
making of authoritative decisions, and conflict resolution, to name a few aspects
of human behaviour with a clear political bias. The agency which has been
entrusted with these functions is the state and its organ which actively undertakes
these jobs is known as the government.
Political systems can manifest in different forms of government, as outlined in

Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Forms of Government
Form Description
Monarchy A political system in which the government is under the control of one
powerful leader.
Constitutional A government in which leadership rests in the hands of a

monarchy representative government, based upon a written constitution, with a
monarch (king or queen) as a respected figurehead.
Theocracy A political system in which the government is under the control of a

religious organisation or its officials.
Democracy A political system in which the government is under the control of the
citizens themselves, or elected representatives chosen from eligible
citizens.
Communism A system of government in which a single, totalitarian party holds

power. It is characterised by state control of the economy, and
restriction on personal freedoms. It was first proposed by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto.

TOPIC 2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND POLITICS  19
2.2 WHAT IS MEDIA SYSTEM?

According to Schneider (2002, as cited in Engesser & Franzetti, 2011), most of the
time, the definition of media system implies its dependence on the specific political
system of a society. Siebert et al. (1963), on the other hand, argue that „one cannot
understand the news media without understanding the nature of the state, the
system of political parties, the pattern of relations between economic and political
interests, and the development of civil society, among other elements of social
structure.‰
The media system plays an important role in connecting the government with the
people it governs. The survival of a government depends very much on the
support of the people. The media is used to inform people about government
policies and ideologies. At the same time, the media provides feedback from the
people with regard to suitability and relevance of government policies to their
personal development.
Hallin and Mancini (2004) argued that one cannot understand the media system
without understanding the nature of the state political system, which includes:
 system of political parties
 pattern of relations between economic and political interests
 development of civil society
Hallin and Mancini (2004) describe the relationship between politics and the media
as political parallelism. According to them, political parallelism is the degree to
which the structure of the media system parallels that of the party system.
Parallelism can be found in the ownership of the news media, media content, and
audiences.

2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA SYSTEM

AND POLITICAL SYSTEM: THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVES
One of the earlier works on the relationship between the political system of a
country and its influence on the media system is Four Theories of the Press by
Siebert et al. (1963). The four theories are as follows:
 authoritarian
 libertarian
 social responsibility
 Soviet communist
Although these four theories have been influential in comparative studies of media
systems, there have also been criticisms levelled at them. The theories put forward
are deemed inadequate to describe the media system especially in developing
countries, many of which had just regained independence after the Second World
War. To overcome this inadequacy, Hachten (1981) put forward a developmental
model of media system.
2.3.1 Authoritarian Theory

This theory originated from the philosophy of Plato (407 to 327 BC). The English
monarchs used this approach when the printing press was invented by censoring,
licensing, taxing, and making laws. The press was used as a weapon to increase
the power of the rulers. The authorities controlled the media by providing rights
and licences to some selected media and not to many others.
The media had to respect what the authorities wanted and work according to their
wishes even though it was not under the direct control of the state or ruling classes.
The media could not work independently and their works were susceptible to the
following censorships:
 political
 military
 religious
 economic

The authorities could also withdraw their licences. Sensitive issues could not be
published and if allowed, were only published through press releases. This theory
is justified by the belief that the rights of the state are greater than the rights of the
individual. So, the state controls the media, especially in time of emergencies like
wars and conflicts.
2.3.2 Soviet Communist Theory

Communism is not defined as an economic system. It is a political system rather
than an economic system. Communist countries function under a single dominant
communist party. In theory, under communism, all means of production are
owned in common, rather than by individuals. In practice, a single authoritarian
party controls both the political and economic systems.
The communist theory of mass media came into being along with the concept of
communism proposed by Georg Hegel, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Engels (see
Figure 2.1). Mass media, in MarxÊs view, was supposed to be responsible for the
socialist system of governance while communist media was supposed to help in
implementing social policies. The communist and Marxist government rule and
communist theory of mass communication was used by the then Soviet Union
(Russia) in 1917.
Figure 2.1: Hegel (left), Marx (centre) and Engels (right)
Sources: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01992h9/p01992d8 and

http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-manchester-30375063

The media are actually owned by the people and operated through the state. Their
purpose is to support the Marxist system and to achieve the goals of the state as
expressed through the Communist Party, especially to build a classless, Marxist
society. This system works best in a closed and tightly controlled media
environment. Now, essentially limited to the PeopleÊs Republic of China, Cuba,
and North Korea, this theory is a spin-off of authoritarianism.
Marx defended the right to freedom of the press, arguing that restrictions like
censorship were instituted by the bourgeois elite (Shambala, 2014). He claimed
that censorship is a tool of the powerful to oppress the powerless.
In a communist country, the individualÊs best interest is indistinguishable from the

societyÊs best interest. The idea of individual freedom is incompatible with
communist ideology. The only reason to uphold individual rights to speech and
information would be to better the society.
Marxist Vladimir Lenin, who founded the Soviet state and the Communist Party
newspaper Pravda, called for the media to be „collective propagandists, agitators
and organisers‰ (as cited in Siebert et al., 1963). The 1925 Soviet constitution was
clear: The fundamental purpose of the press was „to strengthen communist social
order.‰
In communist countries, the economic structure is socialist. Unconcerned about

profit, communist media people choose to provide coverage that furthers the
governmentÊs ideological goals. In fact, media decision makers are usually
government officials chosen because they are in tune with MarxÊs central idea on
the inevitability of historical processes. When the Soviet Union was in full bloom
as a communist state, for example, all the editors of the leading publications were
high officials in the Communist Party. Off limits in the communist media,
however, is criticism of Marxist ideology, which is accorded the sacred respect that
ultimate truth deserves.
2.3.3 Libertarian Theory

This theory came from the libertarian thoughts of Europe during the 16th century
after the invention of the printing press and after the press movement. It was
advocated by many renowned personalities like Lao Tzu, John Locke, John Milton,
John Stuart Mill, and Thomas Jefferson.
Milton proposed the concept of a free market of ideas, where given vast resources
of information, people will eventually use their rational mind to consume the right
information or find the truth in the information. The theory advocated freedom of
thought and individualism.
There is no control by the authorities and everyone has the right to voice opinions.
There is also no censorship and the government must not hold any power to
control or suppress the media. All people can interpret and decide which
information they need and discover the authenticity of information. The rationality
of human beings enables them to do this.
The press should not restrict any information, even if it criticises government
policies. Though the media has enormous power, abuse of power can be dealt with
legally.
2.3.4 Social Responsibility Theory

This theory is guided by ethics that place on the media an obligation towards the
environment, society, culture, and economy. The media, like any other sector,
should not harm, but promote environmental and socio-cultural aspects in relation
to the economy of the place.
The social responsibility theory is a relatively a new concept which started in the
mid-20th century. Much like the Libertarian theory, it also started in Europe and
took shape alongside the Commission on the Freedom of Press in the US in 1949.
The theory is mostly used in developed countries.
The mediaÊs freedom is accompanied by responsibilities towards society. One of

these responsibilities is to provide meaningful information to society. This theory
encourages total freedom of the press and absence of censorship, but also believes
that the media should be regulated according to social responsibilities and external
control. Media content must be filtered through public obligation and interference.
2.3.5 Developmental Theory

Leaning towards authoritarianism, developmentalism is a relatively new theory
that suggests that the government mobilise the media to serve national goals in
times of economic and social development.
Some of the goals the media is expected to help achieve include the following:
 political integration
 literacy
 economic self-sufficiency
 eradication of disease

Information is considered a scarce resource and must be carefully managed

by the state in order to achieve national goals. As more democracies replace
would-be dictatorships throughout the world, the developmental theory, closely
associated with government censorship, has fallen on hard times as newly
emerging democracies endorse the social responsibility theory instead.
2.3.6 Democratic Participant Theory

This theory was started by grassroot level media in the 1960s. It emerged because
of dissatisfaction with other models such as libertarian theory and social
responsibility theory.
This theory believes there is democratic and professional hegemony in the

media today and the media is totally commercial. All ill practices should be
removed for the media to be democratic and easily accessible or participatory.
There should be no monopolisation (public/private) and centralisation of
media. The media should be pluralistic, decentralised, bottom-up or horizontal
and have equality. The major concept is participation and full circular
communication.
This theory promotes the following:
 the right to information (global and local)
 the right to express (feedback)
 the right to use new technologies (means of communication)
 freedom to local data
 freedom to take part in social action
In the process, it expects the government to provide funds, training, and subsidies
after identification if they have financial or technical difficulties.
This theory is more relevant in liberal democratic developed countries than

developing and less developed countries because the countries in transition from
underdevelopment and non-democracy allegedly lack the infrastructure and
professional skills needed for the free media of a democracy.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What are the major differences between the authoritarian system
and Soviet communist system?
2. In what way is the libertarian media system different from the

social responsibility media system?
3. Why did Hachten introduce the developmental theory of the

media?
4. What are the main elements of the democratic participant theory?
2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND

POLITICS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
A critical aspect of a functioning democracy is to be well informed in order to
participate effectively in that democracy. One of the most important ways that
many people are informed is through mainstream media. Many countries had
signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but freedom of opinion,
expression, and information (Article 19) is hardly a reality.
The interdependence between media systems and political systems is generally

not in doubt. The extent to which a media system is free from political influence
can be seen in the extent to which the media experiences freedom in both operation
and content. One indicator that is used to gauge media freedom from state
intervention is the World Press Freedom Index. The index ranks each countryÊs
media in terms of low state intervention to the highest state intervention in its
organisation, content, and regulations.
One of the most important and dominant questions in the study of political
communication is how the media aids citizens to become informed voters. The
media is expected to provide sufficient and relevant political information so that
citizens can hold their representatives to account and make informed choices. Yet,
there is considerable uncertainty about whether recent changes in the media
environment are supporting or impeding increased knowledge of public affairs. It
is desirable that the media adequately informs the electorate about public affairs.
News and commentary enable citizens to make informed and effective choices
about the exercise of state power.

The 2020 World Press Freedom Index produced by Reporters without Borders
showed that the top five countries with the freest media are Norway, Finland,
Denmark, Sweden, and Netherlands. The bottom five countries with the most
restricted media are North Korea, Turkmenistan, Eritrea, China, and Djibouti.
The major democratic countries and most developed countries are not necessarily
practising the freest media. The US is ranked 45th while the United Kingdom is
35th. France and Germany, the two most developed countries in Europe, are
ranked 34th and 11th respectively. Japan, another developed country, is ranked
66th.
The World Press Freedom Index showed a decline of 12 per cent in media freedom
from 2013 to 2020. However, the situation is different for Malaysia when the
country registered the biggest rise in the 2020 Index from 101st to 22nd due to the
effects of changes in the government through the polls in 2018. The press freedom
in Malaysia received a breath of fresh air after Prime Minister Najib RazakÊs ruling
coalition suffered a surprising defeat in the 14th General Election in May 2018, its
first defeat in modern Malaysian history. Journalists and media outlets that had
been blacklisted, such as the Sarawak Report investigative news website, were able
to resume working without fear of harassment. The general environment for
journalists became much more relaxed, self-censorship declined dramatically, and
the print media began offering a fuller and more balanced range of viewpoints,
including support for the new ruling coalition, and support for the old ruling
coalition, now in the opposition. The Pakatan Harapan (PH) government kept its
promise to repeal the Orwellian provisions of the anti-fake news law adopted by
the outgoing government. But the authorities still had a draconian legislative
arsenal with which to suppress media freedom, an arsenal that included the
1948 Sedition Act, the 1972 Official Secrets Act, and the 1998 Communications and
Multimedia Act. Under these laws, which need a complete overhaul, the
authorities had strict control over publication licences and journalists could be
sentenced to 20 years in prison on sedition charges. They posed a constant threat
to media personnel, who still could not express themselves with complete
freedom, despite all the progress.
Nevertheless, world press freedom will be determined by the many crises that
threaten the right to freely report independent, diverse, and reliable information.
These converging crises affect the future of journalism: geopolitical crisis (due to
the aggressiveness of authoritarian regimes); technological crisis (due to lack of
democratic guarantees); democratic crisis (due to polarisation and repressive
policies); crisis of trust (due to suspicion and even hatred of the media); and
economic crisis (impoverishing quality journalism). Among the reasons such crises
could threaten the world press freedom are the following:

(a) Health crises, such as the coronavirus pandemic, illustrate the negative
factors threatening the right to reliable information, and are an exacerbating
factor. There is a clear correlation between suppression of media freedom in
response to the coronavirus pandemic, and a countryÊs ranking in the index.
For example, China (177th) and Iran (down 3 at 173rd) censored their major
coronavirus outbreaks extensively, while in Iraq (down 6 at 162nd), the
authorities stripped Reuters of its licence for three months after it published
a story questioning official coronavirus figures.
(b) Authoritarian governments used the public health crisis as an opportunity

to implement the notorious „shock doctrine‰ – they took advantage of the
fact that politics were on hold, the public was stunned, and protests were out
of the question to impose measures that would have been impossible in
normal times.
It is difficult to determine freedom of a political system. However, in many

instances, one has to look at the guarantee of fundamental rights in national
constitutions and their differentiation into freedom of the press, of information and
opinion. Relevant for the comparison of media systems and political systems are
also governmental capabilities to limit the freedom of the media through
censorship, occupational bans, or governmental media ownership.
Generally, discussions on the relationship between politics and the media are
based on three main factors:
 ownership of media or media economics
 convergence of media due to digitisation of media
 media policies and the changing local and global environment
2.4.1 Media and Politics in Developed Countries

There are differences in financing, organising, and the purpose of media in
developed countries. Europe has a stronger footing in public broadcasting while
in the US, media organisations are driven by commercial entities.
Underlying these differences is a divergence of institutional goals. American

television is directed towards maximising revenue and is oriented towards serving
the American consumer. By contrast, European television gives relatively greater
priority to serving the needs of democracy. This gives rise to one very concrete and
important difference.

The principal American television channels transmit news and current affairs
programmes at the fringe of popular viewing times. In contrast, the principal
channels in several European countries (with the partial exception of Britain)
transmit news and current affairs during peak times.
What can explain the rather large country differences, particularly between the US
on one side and the European countries on the other? There are at least two
obvious explanations, both relating to the way TV is organised. In the US, public
television is weak and under resourced, whereas in Northern Europe, public
television is relatively well financed and still important. No less important,
commercial television in the US is subject to minimal regulation. In Northern
Europe, however, commercial television is incorporated into the regime of public
service (with the partial exception of Britain).
In all countries, except the US, there has been a substantial growth in the total
volume of news and current affairs programmes on leading television channels
from 1987 to 1997. This growth was partly a consequence of the expansion of
daytime provision of news and current affairs content, but it also arose from the
ending of television monopolies and the rise of new general channels, offering
news and current affairs programmes that built large audiences.
Viewing statistics demonstrate that there are also significant differences in TV

news consumption among various countries. Generally, audience figures are
higher in democratic corporatist countries compared to liberal countries, but with
the United Kingdom being much closer to other European countries than to the
US. According to Aalberg and Curran (2012), Dagsrevyen, the most popular
evening news show in Norway, was watched by approximately 15% of the
Norwegian population on average in 2007.
The most popular news programme in the US, NBC Nightly News, was watched
by less than 3% of the American population (Aalberg & Curran, 2012). Translated
into market shares, this means 66% of Norwegians watching television at that time
of day were tuned into the public service news. In the US, however, only 12% of
those who watched television at that time were tuned into NBCÊs evening
newscast. This dramatic difference in people watching the news can be seen as a
consequence of differences in political culture, geography, and the way in which
television is organised.
Some nations can influence and control their media greatly. In addition, powerful
corporations are becoming major influences on mainstream media. In some places,
major multinational corporations own media stations and outlets. As numbers of
media outlets increase, the ownership is becoming ever more concentrated as
mega mergers take hold. At the same time, vertical integration gives the big

players even more avenues to cross-sell and cross-market their products for even
more amazing profits. An effect of this though is a reduction in diversity and depth
of content that the public can get, while increasing the political and economic
power of corporations and advertisers. An informed population is a crucial
element of a functioning democracy.
2.4.2 Media and Politics in the Communist System

As Siebert et al. (1963) mention in their book, Four Theories of Mass Media, the
basic Soviet Communist understanding of the media was as a „collective
propagandist, collective agitator, instruments to be controlled by the state,
instruments of social change and social control, and instruments of serious
purpose‰. At present, the PeopleÊs Republic of China is the dominant country
practising the communist media theory. Not much information is available about
the media systems in the PeopleÊs Republic of Korea and the Republic of Cuba.
The Chinese media have been held under the control of the Communist Party of
China (CPC) since the establishment of the party in the early 20th century.
However, the practices of political control exerted over the mass media have been
subject to many changes as a result of economic reform and opening up to the
outside world.
ChinaÊs constitution affords its citizens freedom of speech and press, but the
opacity of Chinese media regulations allows authorities to crack down on news
stories by claiming that they expose state secrets and endanger the country. The
definition of state secrets in China remains vague, facilitating censorship of any
information that authorities feel threaten their political or economic interests.
The Chinese government has long kept a tight rein on both traditional and new
media to avoid potential subversion of its authority. Its tactics often entail strict
media controls using monitoring systems and firewalls, shuttering publications or
websites, and jailing dissident journalists, bloggers, and activists.
The Chinese government does not own every media source in China, but its
propaganda department is in charge of censorship of all media content.
Censorship is the active attempt by the party to suppress material that a
production entity plans to compose or has already composed. All the above-
mentioned media function not mainly as vehicles of social communication or as
the voice of different groups but as mouthpieces of the party or as propaganda
tools to promote the official ideology and consolidate the power of the state. Thus,
censorship is vital in this system. On the other hand, the media itself will conduct
self-censorship.

The government reviews and enforces laws related to information flow within,
into, and out of China. The most powerful monitoring body is the Communist
PartyÊs Central Propaganda Department, which coordinates with the General
Administration of Press and Publication and State Administration of Radio, Film,
and Television to ensure that all contents promote party doctrine.
With the emergence of new media, the Chinese government deploys myriad ways
of censoring the Internet. The Golden Shield Project, colloquially known as the
Great Firewall, is the centre of the governmentÊs online censorship and
surveillance effort. Its methods include bandwidth throttling, keyword filtering,
and blocking access to certain websites. According to Reporters without Borders,
the firewall makes large-scale use of Deep Packet Inspection technology to block
access based on keyword detection.
The Propaganda Department can cancel rebroadcasts of television news

programmes or dismiss individuals associated with the piece deemed
unacceptable. Controversial cases in which the media has challenged the partyÊs
top-down control have resulted in the removal of editors, resignations of
journalists, imprisonment of editors and journalists, and forced closure of news
organisations in print and broadcast organisations, such as the Southern Daily of
Guangdong, 21st Century World Herald and Southern Metropolitan Post.
Since the economic reform, the state no longer fully subsidises the media. It has
urged the industry to turn towards marketisation to generate profits to sustain
operations (Nhan, 2008). The PartyÊs „Making Media Big and Strong‰ Policy of
January 2002 aimed to promote the creation of powerful and profitable domestic
media conglomerates under the partyÊs control that were ready for global
competition.
Commercialisation of media operations allowed the CCP to redesign its partyÊs

message in a glossy package for easier public digestion. Media managers
exchanged the dogmatic style of the Mao era to adopt the Western model of flashy
advertising and polished presentations.
2.4.3 Media and Politics in Developing Countries

According to the United Nations (UN), a developing country has a relatively low
standard of living, undeveloped industrial base, and moderate to low Human
Development Index (HDI) (Das, 2016). This index is a comparative measure of
poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors for countries
worldwide. Developing countries are defined according to their Gross National
Income (GNI) per capita per year. Countries with a GNI of US$4,035 and less are
defined as developing (World Bank Report, 2021).
National elections provide a common context of key developments in the media

freedom situation in many developing countries. These interesting times are
particularly challenging for the media in maintaining their role to document a
nationÊs unfolding history as citizens exercise their right to directly participate in
politics.
In workshops on „Elections and the Media‰ in Jakarta, media practitioners echoed

the challenges faced by the media in elections where the added pressure of raised
political stakes also increased the challenge of independence, safety risks, and
ethical issues of the profession (Southeast Asian Press Alliance, 2014).
While elections normally flood citizens with unprecedented amounts of political

information from campaigns, the question should still be raised on whether voters
are getting relevant information to make informed choices. Political propaganda
dominates electoral discourses, instead of a sober accounting of the track records
and conduct of politicians and parties.
Beyond the role of and challenges during elections, there is a concrete stake for the
media in the political contests, with the chances of improvement or restriction of
press freedom and related issues changing between contesting parties or
politicians.
Those with restricted media environments remain as unchanged as their

politics. There may be little overt censorship reported because control has
been institutionalised through self-censorship by media houses or individual
journalists who do not wish to risk their professions, safety, or freedom.
The media acts as a watchdog of the government and its capacity to provide a civic
forum in which meaningful and serious political debate can take place is often
viewed as the key democratic role of the mass media and journalists. In addition,
the press is a significant mechanism for circulating and exchanging information,
which is vital for the functioning of democracy.
Political journalists in developing countries are under constant pressure to

facilitate the formation of public opinion, and feed that opinion back to the public.
This includes the provision of space for the expression of dissent, without which
the notion of democratic consensus would be meaningless. The media, therefore,
has an obligation to provide the audience with information upon which to base
political decisions and further, fight any attempts by the government to do the
publicÊs business behind closed doors.

2.4.4 Pluralistic Approach to Media and Politics

Debates around the importance of media pluralism in the European Union (EU)
began in the mid-1990s, when the main concern was to address the issues of media
ownership and concentration.
Pluralism refers to diversity in the most general sense. However, the concept
includes a number of aspects and has been interpreted from different perspectives,
and consequently is measured by using many different qualitative and
quantitative criteria. In analysing the concept of pluralism, two perspectives have
to be mentioned: internal and external pluralism.
Internal pluralism reflects how social and political diversity are reflected in media
content. That is, the representation of different cultural groups in the media as well
as divergent political or ideological opinions and viewpoints. Internal pluralism
plays an important role in news and public affairs coverage, and also for public
broadcasting and media landscapes dominated by one (monopoly) or two
(duopoly) players. Governments not only stimulate internal pluralism by
facilitating public service broadcasting, but also by means of financial support
such as grants, press funds, and reduced tax rates.
External pluralism covers the number of owners, media companies, independent

editorial boards, channels, titles, or programmes. This type of pluralism is
also known as the plurality of suppliers. From the perspective of the free
marketplace of ideas, competition between these media content suppliers is
considered essential in order to ensure a free choice of media content and the
availability of a wide variety of opinions and ideas. Policies on media
concentration are most concerned with the market power that owners or
companies may gain and the subsequent possibility of exerting influence.
There are three main types of media concentration:

(a) The most common type of media concentration is horizontal concentration
in one link of the production value chain.
(b) A second type of media concentration is vertical concentration in two or
more links of the media value chain.
(c) A third form of media concentration is diagonal concentration (i.e., cross-
media ownership), that is a publisher or a broadcaster entering into other
media types in addition to its usual operations; for instance, a publisher that
becomes active in a radio or television station in addition to a daily paper.

The media as the fourth estate is expected to play the role of watchdog on the three
branches of government:
 legislature
 executive
 judiciary
However, when the mediaÊs many-faceted voice is owned by a small number of

corporate masters, concerns about its willingness to keep its role as a watchdog is
questioned.
In 1983, fifty corporations controlled most of the American media, including

magazines, books, music, news feeds, newspapers, movies, radio, and television.
By 1992, that number had dropped by half. In 2000, six corporations had
ownership of most media. In 2017, five of it dominated the industry: Time Warner,
Disney, MurdochÊs News Corporation, Bertelsmann of Germany, and Viacom. As
of September 2020, these six media giants control 90% of the media outlets in the
US – AT&T, CBS, Comcast, Disney, News Corp, and Viacom (Louise, 2020).
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. How has media censorship evolved from the 19th century to the
21st century?
2. How has digitisation changed the media landscape from 19th

century media to today's global media?
3. Why is there a need for a pluralistic media system in the current

media environment?
ACTIVITY 2.1
Discuss and present the workings of the legislature, executive, and
judiciary in the Malaysian context in myINSPIRE. You may refer to
sources from the Internet, journal articles, news articles, and others to
substantiate your arguments.

 Almost every country promises freedom of speech and expression which, to a

certain extent, extends to freedom of the press as enshrined in the countryÊs
constitution. In practice, different political systems interpret and execute this
freedom differently according to their domestic policies and leaderships.
 In the current environment, with the advancement of globalisation and

digitisation of media, there are convergence and emergence of new media
complementing and to some extent, challenging the existence and influence of
the mass media. Besides state-owned media, there are also media
conglomerates.
 The emergence of new media has shifted the control of media content from
media organisations, including state-owned media organisations, onto the
consumer. Consumers are now prosumers, as they are involved in producing
and consuming media content.
 While information disseminated through the media is important in helping

citizens in their voting decisions, citizens now demand more information to
help them participate in political processes, such as taking part in protests,
giving comments on policies, and expressing unhappiness with government
decisions that adversely affect their lives.
 Historically, censorship has shifted from getting a permit and licence to

publish, censorship of material that seems to jeopardise the security of the
state, and economic censorship in terms of taxes on printing material, to self-
censorship. It is now more difficult to perform censorship at the source.
 The way forward is to encourage a pluralistic media system. In such a system,

we not only have diverse media organisations operating different kinds of
media outlets and platforms, but also have access to diversity in media content.
It goes back to the philosophy that people have rational minds, and if given a
diversity of opinions and information, rational minds will find the truth.
 At the centre of relations between media and political systems, is the citizen.
In a more democratic country, the citizens make a much bigger contribution in
shaping the media-politics relationship. However, in authoritarian
governments, extreme suppression of citizensÊ right to freedom could lead to
backlash against the government through people power.

Authoritarian theory Media system

Commercialisation of media Pluralistic media
Democratic participant theory Political parallelism
Development theory Political system
Digitisation of media Press freedom index
External pluralism Propaganda
Free market of ideas Self-censorship
Internal pluralism Social responsibility theory
Libertarian theory Vertical integration
Aalberg, T., & Curran, J. (2012). How media inform democracy: A comparative
approach. Routledge.
Almond, G. A., & Powell, G. B. (1966). Comparative politics: A developmental

approach. Little, Brown and Company.
Das, R. C. (2016). Handbook of research on global indicators of economic and

political convergence. IGI Global.
Derbyshire, J. D., & Derbyshire, I. (2000). Encyclopedia of world political systems.

Sharpe Reference.
Engesser, S., & Franzetti, A. (2011). Media systems and political systems:
Dimensions of comparison. International Communication Gazette, 73(4),
273–301.
Hachten, W. A. (1981). The world news prism: Changing media clashing

ideologies. Iowa State University Press.
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing media system: Three models of
media and politics. Cambridge University Press.

Louise, N. (2020, September 18). These 6 corporations control 90% of the media
outlets in America. The illusion of choice and objectivity. Tech Startups.
https://techstartups.com/2020/09/18/6-corporations-control-90-media-
america-illusion-choice-objectivity-2020/
Nhan, V. L. (2008). Media in China: Methods of state control. The Orator, 3, 36–50.
Reporters without Borders. (2020). 2020 world press freedom index.

https://rsf.org/en/ranking
Shambala. (2014). Tibet seeks the moral stand for freedom of the world and
democracy. http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1184699
Siebert, F. S., Peterson, T., & Schramm, W. (1963). Four theories of the press.
University of Illinois Press.
Southeast Asian Press Alliance (SEAPA). (2014). Media at political crossroads.

https://www.seapa.org/media-at-political-crossroads-regional-press-
freedom-overview-2014/
Valcke, P., Sukosd, M., & Picard, R. G. (2015). Media pluralism and diversity:
Concepts, risks and global trends. Palgrave Macmillan.
Wolfsfeld, G. (2011). Making sense of media and politics: Five principles in

political communication. Routledge.
World Bank (2020). Developing Countries [online].

https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519

between the
3 Media and
Politics in
Malaysia:
A Historical
Perspective
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the different phases of British colonisation in Malaysia and
the rise of the media.
2. Describe the role played by English language newspapers during
British colonisation.
3. Discuss the role played by vernacular newspapers during British
colonisation.
4. Compare the different roles played by vernacular newspapers in
raising political consciousness among different ethnic groups
during the pre-independence period.

38  TOPIC 3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MEDIA AND POLITICS IN MALAYSIA:
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
 INTRODUCTION
To understand the development of media and politics in Malaysia from a historical
perspective, we have to look at the historical development of Malaysia as a state.
British intervention in Malaysia can be traced back to the early 19th century
following the establishment of the British settlement in Penang in 1786, in
Singapore in 1819, and in Malacca in 1824. This topic will cover mass media
development and British colonisation, the role of mass media during British
colonisation, mass media during the Japanese occupation, and mass media and
politics in the pre-independence period.
3.1 MASS MEDIA DEVELOPMENT AND

BRITISH COLONISATION
The Prince of Wales Island Gazette, which began to be published in Penang in
1806, is regarded as the first newspaper during the British colonisation of Malaysia.
Its publisher, A.B. Bone, started the newspaper as the Government Gazette, later
renamed it the Prince of Wales Island Government Gazette, and then settled on the
Prince of Wales Island Gazette. It was suggested that the earlier emphasis on the
newspaper being a government gazette was to show that it had government
sanction and protection. In reality, the newspaper was strictly a private enterprise,
although at times it relied on government financial assistance to sustain
operations. The publisher wanted the public to know that it had good working
relations with the Straits Settlement government and therefore, was a reliable
source of government information. The government engaged the newspaper as a
source of information dissemination on administrative matters and official
government advertisements. Such a reciprocal relationship was evident as the
government allowed the publisher to use this phrase under its masthead –
„published under the sanction and patronage of government‰ (Dhari Othman,
1992; Mohd Safar Hasim, 1996).
When the Prince of Wales Island Gazette ceased publication in August 1827,
another newspaper, Penang Register and Miscellany, was established by Norman
Macalister McIntyre in 1827. This newspaper was not permitted to use the phrase
„published under sanction and patronage of government‰ under its masthead. It
was also not given the 60 dollar monthly allowance for publishing government
information as was given to the publisher of the Prince of Wales Island Gazette.
Instead, the government paid the newspaper a per line cost of printing although
the publisher was willing to reserve the front page of the newspaper for
government notices and other related matters. Eventually, the government
allowed the newspaper to use under its masthead the phrase. „Government
Notifications inserted in the Penang Register and Miscellany and signed by the
TOPIC 3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MEDIA AND POLITICS IN MALAYSIA:  39
proper Authorities are to be considered as Official‰. However, this newspaper was

short-lived as it ceased publication in September 1828 due to revocation of its
licence by the government as it had breached government censorship protocols
(Mohd Safar Hasim, 1996).
In Malacca, another British settlement, a school teacher named John Henry Moore
submitted an application to publish a newspaper, The Malacca Observer, to the
acting Resident Counsellor in August 1826. The Malacca Observer was given the
licence to publish on the day its application was received by the acting Resident
Counsellor. The publication was subject to censorship by the local authorities.
Among others, it had to submit its proof block for government approval before
printing. About three years into its operation, the newspaper was subjected to a
licensing review when it published an article which the authorities felt did not
reflect an action which was to be taken by the government. The article was about
possible action against the Headman of Naning, who refused to pay agricultural
tax. After much deliberation, The Malacca Observer ceased publication in
October 1829.
In Singapore, a commercial newspaper was established in January 1824. Known as

the Singapore Chronicle, its editor was Francis James Bernard. It was speculated
that although the newspaper was a private enterprise, the actual de facto editor
was John Crawford, the Singapore Resident, because he had applied for the licence
to publish on behalf of Bernard. When Bernard was replaced by William Campbell
as the editor, he not only continued publishing the Singapore Chronicle, but at the
same time, applied to publish yet another newspaper, Commercial Register and
Advertiser. The application was submitted in 1826.
During the latter part of the 19th century when the British started intervening in
the Malay states, several newspapers were published. Perak Pioneer and Native
States Advertiser, began to be published in Taiping, the then capital of Perak, in
1894 by Syed Abdol Hassan Ibnay Burhan. They were considered the earliest
newspapers to be published in the Federated Malay States. In Selangor,
J. H. M. Robson started publishing The Malay Mail in 1896 (Roff, 1961).
3.1.1 Vernacular Newspapers

Besides the development of English language newspapers to cater to British
administrators and commercial ventures, the late 19th century also saw the
development of non-English language newspapers to cater to the needs of the
emerging multiracial population in the Malay States and Straits Settlements. The
first Malay-language newspaper, Jawi Peranakkan, began to be published in
Singapore in 1876 by Munshi Mohammad bin Dada Mohidin. Another Malay
newspaper, Sekola Melayu, began to be published in 1888 by Munshi Muhammad
Ali bin Ghulam and by the Baba Chinese in 1894. It was reported that about
14 Malay newspapers were published at the end of the 19th century. In the Malay
States, Haji Abdul Kadir Setia Raja started publishing the first Malay newspaper,
Seri Perak• in 1893 (Lent, 1978).
The Indian-language newspaper, Singai Warthamaani, was first published in

Singapore in 1875 by S. K. Mathsuhum. This was followed by other Indian-
language newspapers such as Tejahbimani, published in Perak in 1896, and
Pinanggu Wartamani, in Penang in 1897. Other newspapers published around the
same period were Ulanga Nesan, Singai Nesan, Hindu Nesan, and Thangi Nesan,
which lasted until the end of the 19th century.
The earliest Chinese-language newspapers in Malaysia were published by a British

individual in Malacca and Singapore but they were not meant for local Chinese
readers. Instead, they were circulated in mainland China for missionary purposes.
The Chinese Monthly Magazine was first published in Malacca in 1819 by the
London Missionary Society. In 1881, Lat Pao, the first Chinese newspaper, was
published in Singapore by a Chinese businessman, See Ewe Lay. This newspaper
lasted for 51 years until 1932. The other major Chinese newspaper was Thien Nan
Shai Pao, first published in 1885. The content of these early Chinese newspapers
were dominated by news from mainland China and Hong Kong as an indication
of overseas Chinese attachment to their homeland (Hock, 1967).
3.2 ROLE OF MASS MEDIA DURING BRITISH

COLONISATION
The role of mass media during British colonisation, especially newspapers and
radio, was very crucial. These mass media were used by the colonial masters to
further their agenda and strengthen their grip on their colonies. In Malaya, as
Malaysia was formerly known, there were several newspapers and radio stations,
some of which still continue today, albeit under different names.
3.2.1 Role of Newspapers

During British colonisation in the 20th century, more newspapers were published
in major languages to cater to the different needs and aspirations of the colonial
administrators and business community. Some also focused on the rise of
nationalism among the native population and the social need of migrant
populations to keep in touch with their homelands.

Among the earlier English language newspapers was Straits Echo, first published
in Penang by Criterion Press in 1904. At about the same time in the Federated
Malay States, two newspapers, Times of Malaya and PlantersÊ and MinersÊ
Gazette, were published. These newspapers were edited by Silas Penny and
J. A. S. Jennings. In 1915, another newspaper, Malayan Tribute, was published in
Singapore by Lim Boon Huat and A. W. Westerhout. It could be said that the major
role of English newspapers before the Second World War was primarily as
economic journals, meeting the needs of the commercial sector.
During the years 1935 and 1936, there were 25 new newspapers published in the
Malay language. Increasing commercialisation and professionalism in journalism,
combined with affordable price, caused newspapers to flourish. By 1931, with over
one-third of the males being literate, these newspapers and magazines were
widely popular, especially among school teachers and government workers. In
addition to Warta Malaya (1931–1941), prominent Malaysian newspapers in
circulation before the Second World War included Majlis (1931–1941), Lembaga
(1935–1941), and Utusan Malayu (1939–1941).
During the second quarter of the 19th century, two prominent newspapers were
published, which were Warta Malaya (1930–1942) and Utusan Melayu. The
publisher of Warta Malaya was Syed Hussein Ali Alsagoff, a wealthy Arab
merchant. It was edited by Dato Onn Jaffar, who later became a well-known
nationalist who fought for Malayan independence. The other newspapers, Utusan
Melayu and its Sunday edition Utusan Zama, were published in 1932 by Utusan
Press Limited. One of its editors was Yusof Ishak, who later became the first
president of the Republic of Singapore.
The role of Chinese newspapers in the early 19th century was to drum up support
from overseas Chinese on political issues in mainland China between the
reformists and nationalist groups. Among the newspapers published with
financial support from the reformists were Thien Nan Shin Pao (1898–1905) and
Penang Sin Pao (1895–1941). On the nationalist side, they tried to gain support
through Thoe Lan Jit Pao (1904–11906) and Chong Shing Yit Pao (1907–1910).
After the 1911 revolution in China, local Chinese-language newspapers focused

much of their content on commerce. Two main newspapers, Nanyang Siang Pao
(1923) and Sin Chew Jit Pao (1929), were first published in Singapore and survived
until the present time. Currently, they are being published in Kuala Lumpur.
Besides Singapore and Penang, which became the centres for growth of Chinese-
language newspapers, several newspapers were also published in Kuala Lumpur,
such as Yi Qun Bao (1919–1936), Zhong Hua Shung (1925–1937), and Ma Hua Ri
Bao (1937–1941).

Among the prominent Tamil-language newspapers in the first quarter of the

19th century was Tamil Nesan, which began publication in 1923. It has survived
until now. It was reported that there were 13 other Tamil newspapers during that
period but many were short-lived. The newspapers carried local and national
news and substantial news on events happening in India. Other newspapers
during this period included Kaliyugam by V. Govindersamy and Sinthaman by V.
Balammal. Both newspapers reported on the condition of Indians working in
plantations and also about women. However, towards the second quarter of the
19th century, there began a reformation among Tamil communities. Tamil
newspapers encouraged Tamils to stay in Malaya and regard this country as their
place of residence. Consequently, many became Malayan citizens. Other
newspapers which echoed the same message asking Indians to work towards
becoming Malayan citizens were Samudaya Oolin, Bharata Mithran, and Tamilan.
3.2.2 Role of Radio Broadcasting Services

Besides the development of newspapers during British colonisation, there was also
the early development of radio broadcasting service. The first radio station was
established in Kuala Lumpur, which was the up-country gathering point for
rubber estate workers and tin mines and also the capital of the Federated Malay
States. It was an unofficial amateur radio club which organised plans to create a
local service. It was started by wireless radio enthusiasts operating individually,
and then through wireless associations, was set up in various parts of Malaya such
as in Johor, Penang, and Kuala Lumpur.
Although experimental broadcasts by the Singapore amateur group had begun

earlier, the Kuala Lumpur operation was more successful. The Kuala Lumpur
Amateur Wireless Society started experimental work in November 1929 and
officially commenced its regular broadcast service at 6.30pm with „tea dance
music from the Selangor Club‰. A talk on the activities of the radio club was also
transmitted at night.
The development of radio in colonial Malaya did not start until the late 1930s. This
was followed by the efforts of Sir Shenton Thomas, who opened the Studio of
Broadcasting Corporation of Malaya and its transmitter at Caldecott Hill,
Singapore, on 11 March 1937. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) of
Malaya was then taken over by the Straits Settlements and became a part of the
British Information Ministry, better known as the Malayan Broadcasting
Corporation.

SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What was the main purpose of newspaper publications in the
early days of British colonisation?
2. How was censorship carried out under British colonisation

compared to under the administration of the British East India
Company?
3. What were the roles of vernacular newspapers during British

colonisation?
3.3 MASS MEDIA DURING JAPANESE

OCCUPATION
The Japanese occupied Malaya when the Allied forces surrendered in Singapore
on 16 February 1942. The Japanese remained in occupation until their surrender to
the Allied forces in Penang on 4 September 1945 aboard HMS Nelson. During this
period of Japanese occupation, the publication of all pre-war newspapers was
suspended. Newspapers during the Japanese occupation were regarded as tools
of the Japanese Army Propaganda Department. The Japanese administration
published several newspapers, among which were Penang Shimbun in Penang
(1942–1945), and Malai Shimbun (1943–1945) and Shanan Shimbun (1942–1945) in
Singapore.
The invading Japanese forces used slogans such as „Asia for Asians‰ to win
support from the local Malays. The Japanese worked hard to convince the local
population that they were the actual saviours of Malaya while Britain was
portrayed as an imperialist force that wished to exploit MalayaÊs resources. The
Malay newspapers published by the Japanese were the Malay-language edition of
Penang Shimbun, published in Penang, Berita Perak, Berita Malai, and Semangat
Asia. Abdul Rahim Kajai and Ishak Hj Muhammad were involved in editing Berita
Malai and Semangat Asia, both published by Malai Shaimbun Sya in Singapore.
The two men later on became well-known nationalists who fought British
colonisation of Malaya.

3.3.1 Japanese Alliance with Kesatuan Melayu

Another link forged by the Japanese was with Ibrahim Yaacob of Kesatuan Melayu
Muda, a pro-independence Malay organisation. On the eve of the Second World
War, Ibrahim and members of Kesatuan Melayu Muda actively encouraged anti-
British sentiments. With Japanese aid, the organisation purchased the influential
Singapore-based Malay publication, Warta Malaya. Close to the time of the
Japanese invasion, Ibrahim, Ishak Muhammad and a number of other Kesatuan
Melayu Muda leaders were arrested and imprisoned by the British.
During the Battle of Malaya, Kesatuan Melayu Muda members assisted the
Japanese as they believed that the Japanese would give Malaya independence.
When the Japanese captured Singapore, the arrested members were released by
the Japanese. Mustapha Hussain, the organisationÊs vice-president, and the others
requested that the Japanese grant Malaya independence but the request was
turned down. Instead, the Japanese disbanded Kesatuan Melayu Muda and
established Pembela Tanah Ayer (also known as Malai Giyu Gun or by its Malay
acronym, PETA). Ibrahim was given the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in charge of a
militia comprising 2,000 men.
In place of Chinese newspapers published by Chinese businessmen, the Japanese

administration published Syonan Shimbun and Melaka New Newspaper. Indian
newspapers were left to the Indian Independent League, whose leader Chandra
Bose collaborated with the Japanese administration in Malaya. The newspapers
published in Tamil were Sutaandira India, Sutandiratayam, and Yurabharatham.
They were geared towards creating awareness among Indians towards IndiaÊs
independence. Other newspapers published at that time were Azad Hind in the
Hindi language and Sutandra Bharaham in the Malayalam language.
3.3.2 Aftermath of Japanese Invasion

Following Japanese invasion and the end of British rule in Singapore in 1942, the
Japanese took over and used the existing radio channels in Penang, Malacca, Kuala
Lumpur, Seremban, and Singapore to transmit Japanese propaganda. However, in
1945, the British seized power and reclaimed the stations. On 1 April 1946, the
Department of Broadcasting was established in Singapore. When a state of
emergency was declared in 1948 as a result of an outbreak of social riots,

it became necessary to further enhance and develop radio services. In the early
1950s, broadcasting activities in Malaya were operated from a temporary studio in
Jalan Young in Kuala Lumpur. It later moved to the Federal House, Kuala Lumpur,
in 1956. It was here that broadcasting in Malaysia grew with the establishment of
several stations throughout the country, including in Sabah and Sarawak.
The Japanese invasion and occupation of Malaya lowered the prestige of the
British. The people had seen how the Japanese had defeated the British. Although
the British had fought bravely, they had failed to protect Malaya and prevent the
Japanese from causing hardship, suffering, and fear to the people. The people thus
lost confidence in British protection. During the occupation, the Japanese had
encouraged the Malays to be conscious of the fact that they were the rightful
owners of Malaya. They held some administrative posts during the Japanese
occupation and this made them eager to protect their rights and to govern the
country themselves. They began to develop strong feelings of nationalism which
were not present before the war.
3.4 MASS MEDIA AND POLITICS: PRE-

INDEPENDENCE
The British Military Administration (BMA) was an interim government from
September 1945 to March 1946. The Federated Malay States, Unfederated Malay
States, and Straits Settlements, including Singapore, were placed under temporary
British military rule. The BMA ended when all the Malay States and the
Settlements of Penang and Malacca joined the short-lived Malayan Union.
Singapore became a Crown Colony. On 1 April 1946, the Malayan Union officially
came into existence with Sir Edward Gent as its governor. The Straits Settlements,
comprising Penang, Malacca, and Singapore, were officially dissolved.
Malay nationalism, which had been brewing since the 1930s, reached its apex after
the Second World War, especially with the suggestion by the British to set up the
Malayan Union in April 1946. The proposed Malayan Union was aimed at
reducing the power of the Malay rulers to only the administration of Malay
customs and Islam. Citizenship would be opened to migrant workers and other
non-Malays who qualified on birth, residential, and other terms. The Malayan
Union awakened political activity and heightened ethnic consciousness and
nationalism among the different ethnic groups in the Malay states and Straits
Settlements.

The Malays saw the Malayan Union as reducing their control over the political and
economic affairs of the country. The British would control the political and
economic policies, and encourage an influx of Chinese and Indian migrant workers
to Malaya. These sentiments were channelled through various newspapers, such
as Utusan Melayu and its weekend edition Utusan Zaman in Singapore, Majlis in
Kuala Lumpur, and Warta Negara in Penang. Utusan Melayu played a prominent
role in creating awareness of the consequences of the Malayan Union among the
Malays and the Malay rulers.
Through its editorials, the newspaper managed to convince Malay organisations

to form a united front by convening the National Malay Congress, which
subsequently led to the formation of the United Malays National Organisation
(UMNO), which was inaugurated in Johor Bahru on 11 May 1946. Datuk Onn
Jaafar became its first president. The party later managed to convince the British
to drop the idea of the Malayan Union and instead, introduce the Federation of
Malaya in 1948.
Non-Malays were also prompted to fight for their rights, and organised political
parties such as the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) and Malayan Democratic
Union, which came under an umbrella organisation called the All-Malaya Council
of Joint Action (AMCJA) headed by a prominent Chinese leader, Tan Cheng Lock.
3.4.1 Independence from the British in 1957

The Federation of Malaya gained its independence from the British in August 1957.
Such was the power of the press at that time, especially Utusan Melayu, in
galvanising Malay support to reject the British idea of Malayan Union and unite
the Malays under the UMNO banner to achieve independence for Malaya.
Other language newspapers which ceased publication during the Japanese

occupation resumed publication after the war. Among these were Sin Chew Jit Poh
and Nanyang Siang Pau, first published in Singapore and Penang, but
subsequently moved to Kuala Lumpur after Malaya gained independence. The
Indian newspapers which were republished were Tamil Nesan and Tamil Murasu.
Among the major English newspapers that survived the Japanese occupation
were the Straits Times, The Malay Mail, and the Straits Echo. While the Malay
newspapers mirrored Malay nationalism, vernacular newspapers became outlets
for non-Malays to protect their interests and be critical of pro-Malay policies by
the British administration. The English newspapers positioned themselves as the
defender of the interests of immigrants in light of the growing force of Malay
nationalism as championed by the Malay newspapers.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. What was the role of newspapers during the Japanese
occupation?
2. In what way did the Japanese occupation change the content of

newspapers after the Second World War?
3. What role did radio broadcasting play in the early development

of socio-politics in Malaysia?
ACTIVITY 3.1
Discuss and present the pre- and post-independence scenario of the
media and politics in Malaysia to your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
 The media during British colonisation in the 19th and 20th centuries was
mainly about newspapers. Radio did not start in Malaysia until 1930.
 The first newspaper was the Prince of Wales Island Gazette, which began to be
published in Penang in 1806. Most of its contents was on commerce and
government information.
 Censorship of newspapers in the early days was direct, carried out through
licensing issued by the office of the governor and later through registration of
the printing press.
 During the early 19th century, most of the newspapers published were in the
English language, catering to the British administration and commercial
activities. Most of the newspapers were published in Penang, Singapore, and
Malacca.
 Chinese-language newspapers, published in the early 19th century, sought the

support of overseas Chinese with regard to politics in mainland China i.e., the
struggle between nationalists and communists.

 Indian-language newspapers were published mainly to cater to the needs of

Indian migrant workers for news about their homeland and later to support
the fight for Indian independence.
 Malay newspapers played a prominent role in highlighting the economic

plight of the Malay population and subsequently in spreading Malay
nationalism to gain independence from the British.
 During the Japanese occupation, all newspapers ceased publication. The

Japanese Army Propaganda Division took over the publication of all
newspapers in different languages.
 After the Second World War and with the return of the British, newspapers
became critical of the British administration. The Chinese and Indian
newspapers raised issues related to their wellbeing and possible integration as
citizens of Malaya.
 Some of the editors of Malay newspapers later on became prominent

nationalists who fought for MalayaÊs independence.
British Broadcasting Corporation Malay nationalism

Colonial rule Malayan Union
East India Company Press censorship
Japanese occupation Prince of Wales Island Gazette
Jawi Peranakan Straits Settlements

Dhari Othman. (1992). Malaysian press: A brief history of newspaper in British

Malaya. Jurnal Komunikasi, 8, 117–130.
Hock, C. M. (1967). The early Chinese newspaper of Singapore 1881–1912.

University Malaya Press.
Lent, J. (1978). MalaysiaÊs national language mass media: History and present
status. South East Asia Studies, 15(4), 598–612.
Mohd Safar Hasim. (1996). Perkembangan sistem akhbar di Malaysia sejak 1806.
Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Roff, W. (1961). Guide to Malay periodicals: 1876–1941. Department of History,

University Malaya.

between the
4 Media and
Politics in
Malaysia: A
Theoretical
Perspective
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the concepts of society, mass society, mass media, and
politics.
2. Describe the relationship between the media and politics.
3. Describe the characteristics of mass society.
4. Elaborate on how outside influence controls editorial decisions.
5. Explain the three assumptions of the media hegemony theory.

A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between the media and politics is very important in the workings
of a country. Oftentimes, the masses perceive politics as controlling the media,
especially in less democratic countries. However, in democratic countries, the
media has the upper hand. Some still see the relationship as complementary,
whereby the media and the political system work hand in hand. To further
understand the political environment or the space in which the media operates,
and the relationship between the media and politics, especially the power
relationship, we need to be familiar with several important theoretical
underpinnings.
4.1 MASS SOCIETY, POLITICS AND THE

MEDIA
Scholars have provided different views of society as a concept. Society can be
viewed as a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function. It is
a total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of the action in
terms of means-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic (Coser, 1977; Parsons, 1975).
A society consists of a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual

aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and liberties.
This ever-changing complex system, which is called society, is a web of social
relationships (Ginsberg, 2011; MacIver & Page, 1937).
In sociology, „society‰ is the most central term. It is derived from the Latin word
socius, which means companionship or friendship. Aristotle said that, „Man is a
social animal.‰ Man cannot live alone, that is, he always needs the company of
other people.
In sociology, society refers to a group of people who form a semi-closed social

system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the
group. Essentially, society is a population of humans characterised by forms of
relationships between individuals who share a unique culture and/or institutions.

Generally, a society is an economic, social, and industrial infrastructure, of which

a diverse mass of people are a part. It may also refer to an organised voluntary
association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political,
patriotic, or other purposes. It is within society that the arms of politics and the
media play their various roles, which are by and large complementary. Without
society, there would be no politics, let alone the media.
The role of politics and the media is that of creating balance and harmony. Politics
is responsible for the running of the day-to-day affairs of a country. The media,
meanwhile, helps to convey the information needed for the smooth running of the
government and society at large.
4.1.1 Mass Society

The word „mass‰, as used in social sciences, is taken to mean a group of people
with common characteristics. It means a body or group of people with more
similarities than differences.
Mass society is any society of the modern era that possesses a mass culture and
large-scale, impersonal, social institutions. A mass society is a society dominated
by a small number of interconnected elites who control the conditions of life of the
many, often by means of persuasion and manipulation (McQuail, 2005). In the late
19th century work of Émile Durkheim, the term was connected with society to
denote a mass of identical, atomistic individuals.
In a mass society, power is vested in bureaucracies, thereby leaving people in local

communities with little control over their lives. For example, state officials dictate
that local schools must meet educational standards, local products must be
government-certified, and every citizen must maintain extensive tax records.
Although such rules may protect and improve social equality, they also force us to
deal more and more with nameless officials in distant and often indifferent
bureaucracies, and they weaken the independence of families and local
communities (Macionis, 2009).
A sociologist, Mills (1956), outlined the following characteristics of a mass society:
(a) Far fewer people express opinions than receive them; for the community
of public becomes an abstract collection of individuals who receive
impressions from the mass media.
(b) The communications that prevail are so organised that it is difficult or

impossible for the individual to answer back immediately or with any effect.

(c) The realisation of opinion in action is controlled by authorities who organise

and control the channels of such action.
(d) The mass has no autonomy from institutions; on the contrary, agents of
authorised institutions penetrate this mass, reducing any autonomy it may
have in the formation of opinions through discussion.
4.1.2 Politics and Mass Society

The term „politics‰ is taken from the Greek word politika. This term originated
from AristotleÊs book on governing and governments as modelled on his view
about „affairs of the city.‰ The meaning of the root term relates to citizens, civic,
civil, and belonging to the state. It is this relationship that brings politics closer to
the masses.
Generally, politics is commonly defined as the ability to persuade and influence

the electorate to provide political power and authority in the governmental affairs
of the state. Politics is also the science of governance in the control of the internal
and external affairs of the state. The management of political, economic, social, and
administrative affairs in the public sector has been the concept of governance of
the state. On the basis of the definition of politics, the sovereign power of the
government is to control the various state affairs.
The art of governance provides internal affairs to the administrative and sovereign
rights to carry on political agenda that would best suit the interests of the political
party and development thrusts for the generation of common welfare to the
society. This validates the electoral promises of public officials on the ability to
influence and persuade the electorate or masses to pursue political platforms. It
serves as the basis to gauge the political performance of those who are elected as
government officials of the state by the masses.
4.1.3 Mass Media

Mass media is the mechanism used to communicate to the general public. Mass
media refers to technology that is aimed at reaching a mass and wide audience
(viewers, listeners). It is the primary means of communication used to reach the
vast majority of the general public. The most common mass media platforms are
newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet. The general public
usually depend on the mass media to obtain information regarding various issues
in society, ranging from politics and social issues to entertainment and trending
news in popular culture.

Mass media has evolved significantly over time. The newspaper was the original
platform for mass media. For a long period, the public relied on writers and
journalists at local newspapers to provide them with the latest news on current
events. This was followed years later in the 1890s by the invention of the radio.
The radio became very popular, with families gathering around the radio to listen
to their favourite radio stations about the latest news on politics, social issues, and
entertainment. Later on, the television was invented. As it projected pictures in
addition to sounds, the television became more attractive and quickly replaced the
radio as the most effective platform to reach an audience.
Since the advancement of the Internet, the general public is now able to access
those same news outlets in an instant, with just the click of a mouse, instead of
having to wait for scheduled programmes. Today, the Internet has become the
most relevant form of mass media and one of the main transmission tools for news
outlets.
4.1.4 Mass Media and Mass Society

The concept of „mass society‰ views modern society in terms of an abstract, often
vague definition of society as a whole, within which modern society is viewed as
a mass society. Mass society consists of components which are divided between
the elites (economic, cultural, political, intellectual), and the remainder of society.
Some argue that this approach is a response to the perceived decline in social
standards, moral values, and cultural integrity that come about with a mass
society.
Media, on the other hand, has been viewed with pessimism as a major agent of
standardisation, alienation, and cause of widespread cultural uniformity. Scholars
like Leavis and Eliot (stated in Brookeman, 1984) perceive the media as a major
threat to an established and elite cultural heritage and civilisation, and as
purveyors of forms of massification, inferior cultures, and standardisation.
In the United States, for example, mass communication research is deployed to

show how the media is responsible for creating a new society of conformity,
alienation, standardisation, declining intellectual and cultural standards, and a
civilisation of gameshows and soap operas. Mass media is blamed for societal
problems. However, mass media practitioners argue that they operate within a
societal framework and they only report what they see and hear.

4.1.5 Mass Media as Mass Communication

Mass communication is a process whereby a person, group of people, or an
organisation sends a message through a channel of communication to a large
group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and organisations. You can think
of the large group of anonymous and heterogeneous people as either the general
public or a segment of the general public. Channels of mass communication are
the agents of mass media such as print, radio, television, and social media,
including Internet-abled media. The sender of the message is usually a
professional communicator who often represents an organisation. Mass
communication is an expensive process. Unlike interpersonal communication,
feedback for mass communication is usually slow and indirect. However, social
media has changed peopleÊs outlook on mass media.
The following are some types of mass communication:
• advertising: consists of communication attempting to induce purchasing

behaviour
• journalism: such as news
• public relations: communication intended to influence public opinion of a

product or organisation
• politics: for example, campaigning
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Explain the main characteristics of mass society.
2. What do you understand by the concept of mass media?
ACTIVITY 4.1
Citing current examples, explain the relationship between the media

and politics. Discuss your answer with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE.

4.2 MEDIA THEORIES

We will now explore media theories that describe the relationships and
interdependency of media, audience, and politics. Political economy, whereby
elites control economic institutions, which in turn affect other social institutions
including the mass media, will be discussed. Let us focus on the different media
theories in the following subtopics.
4.2.1 Media Dependency Theory

Society and the media coexist and influence each other. In this relationship, society
is said to depend on the media. People use the media for many reasons, including
information, entertainment, and para-social relationships. The media dependency
theory states that the more people depend on the media to fulfil these needs, the
more important the media will become to them. In other words, when individuals
depend on the media for their daily dosage of news and other information, the
media will have much more influence and power over them.
The media dependency theory was originally proposed by Ball-Rokeach and

DeFleur (1976). They used the theory „to investigate peopleÊs dependency on mass
media to satisfy clusters of needs arising from social roles to individual
dispositions‰. The theory, as shown in Figure 4.1, is combined with several
perspectives, such as psychoanalytics and social system theory, systematic and
casual approach, and base elements from the uses and gratification theory but with
less focus on effects.

Figure 4.1: A Model of Media Dependency Relationship
Source: Adapted from Ball-Rokeach (1985).
There are three types of media dependency:
• information gathering and creating
• information processing
• information dissemination

According to scholars and researchers, crisis communication is one of the areas

which depend on the media. The media has a tendency to shape and form the
reality of the public during and after a crisis situation. The publicÊs dependence on
the media in crisis situations is more intense than in non-crisis situations.
The media dependency theory is one of the first theories which regarded the
audience as an active part of the communication process. The media dependency
theory is expanded from the theory of uses and gratification.
Dependence on the media varies in degree according to these aspects:
• individual: The media has the ability to satisfy audience needs. People will
become more dependent on the media if it satisfies their needs. Otherwise,
media dependence will become less.
• social stability: The audience reconsider their beliefs, practices, and behaviours
when there are strong social changes, conflicts, riots, or elections, whereby they
will re-evaluate and make new decisions. During this period, media
dependency is dramatically increased because there is a strong need for
information, support, and advice.
• active audience: In the communication process, the active audience choose the
media depending on their needs and other factors such as economic
conditions, society, and culture. If there are alternative sources
of information, support, and advice that fulfil the audienceÊs needs, media
dependency will decrease.
4.2.2 Effects of Media Messages

Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976; 1989) suggest that the cognitive, behavioural, and
affective consequences of media use are premised upon the characteristics of both
individuals and their social environment.
(a) Cognitive
There are five types of cognitive effects that affect an audience.
(i) The first effect is the creation and resolution of ambiguity. Ambiguity
occurs when audiences receive inadequate or incomplete information
about their social world. When there is high ambiguity, stress is
created, and audiences are more likely to turn to mass media to resolve
ambiguity. Ambiguity might be especially widespread during times of
social change or conflict.

(ii) The second effect is agenda setting. Like any other effect, media agenda
setting effects are heightened when an audienceÊs needs, and therefore,
dependency on the media, are high. For instance, if our informational
needs and dependency on the media was high during the invasion of
Iraq in 2003, we would have been more susceptible to agenda-setting
effects, and we would have perceived the Iraq War as the most
important problem.
(iii) The third effect is attitude formation. The media exposes us to

completely new people, such as political figures and celebrities, not to
mention physical objects like birth control pills and car safety
mechanisms that we come to form attitudes about. Dependency does
not suggest that the media is uniform in its ability to influence
attitudes, but that the media plays a role in selecting people and objects
for people to form attitudes about. People experiencing greater media
dependency will form more complex attitudes about these attitude-
objects than people with low media dependency.
(iv) The media has the potential cognitive effect of expanding peopleÊs
belief systems. The media can create a kind of enlargement of peopleÊs
beliefs by disseminating information about other people, places, and
things. Expansion of peopleÊs belief systems refers to a broadening or
enlargement of beliefs in a certain category. For example, a constant
flow of information on global warming will expand peopleÊs beliefs
about pollution affecting the earthÊs atmosphere, about cap and trade
and other policies, and about personal contributions to global
warming. These beliefs meet with and are incorporated into an existing
value system regarding religion, free enterprise, work, ecology,
patriotism, recreation, and the family.
(v) The last effect is value clarification and conflict. The media helps
citizens to clarify values (equality, freedom, honesty, forgiveness) often
by precipitating information about value conflicts. For instance, during
the 1960s, the mass media regularly reported on the activities of the
civil rights movement in the United States, presenting conflicts
between individual freedoms (e.g., a businessmanÊs property rights to
deny entry to black people) and equality (e.g., human rights). When
such conflicts play out in the mass media, the value conflicts are
identified, resulting in audiences forming their own value positions.
Such positions can be painful to articulate because they can force a

choice between mutually incompatible goals and the means for

obtaining them. However, in the process of trying to decide which is
more important in a particular case, general value priorities can
become clarified.
(b) Affective
Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) mentioned several possible affective
effects of media that are more likely to occur during times of heightened
dependency.
(i) Desensitisation can occur in people. For example, prolonged exposure

to violent content can have a numbing effect on audiences, promoting
insensitivity or the lack of desire to help others when violent
encounters happen in real life.
(ii) Exposure to news messages or TV dramas that portray crime-ridden

cities can increase peopleÊs fear or anxiety about living in or even
travelling to a city.
(iii) The media can affect morale and bring about feelings of alienation. The
degree of positive or negative mass media depictions of social groups
can cause fluctuations in peopleÊs morale. They might feel they belong
to or are alienated from certain groups.
(c) Behavioural
Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur identified two broad categories of behavioural
effects as follows:
(i) Activation effects refer to instances where media audiences do things,

which they otherwise would not have done, as a consequence of
receiving media messages. Behavioural effects are largely thought to
work through cognitive and affective effects. For instance, a woman
reading a news story about sexism in the workplace might form an
attitude towards sexism that creates a negative emotional state, the
culmination of which is joining a womenÊs rights march in her local
community.
(ii) Deactivation effects refer to instances where media audiences do not

do things, which they otherwise would have done, as a consequence of
media messages. For example, primary presidential campaigns have
become longer and increasingly use more media to target audiences.
As such, primary campaigns might elicit negative attitudes towards the
electoral process and negative affective states such as boredom or
disgust that in turn might make a person not turn out to vote.

4.2.3 Political Economy Media Theory

Political economy theorists study elite control of economic institutions, such as
banks and stock markets, and then try to show how this control affects many other
social institutions, including mass media. Herbert Schiller (1986) suggests that
corporate influence pervades nearly every aspect of society, from simple things
like our diet and the clothes we wear, to who we elect for president.
Political economy is the study of social relations, particularly power relations, that
commonly constitute the production, distribution, and consumption of resources,
including communication resources (Donsbach, 2008). This approach has a certain
practical value because it calls attention to how the communication business
operates, for example, how communication products move through a chain of
producers, such as from film studio to wholesalers, retailers, and finally,
consumers, whose purchases, rentals, and attention are fed back into new
processes of production.
A more general definition of political economy is the study of control and survival
in social life. Control here refers specifically to the internal organisation of social
group members and the process of adapting to change. Survival, on the other
hand, means how people produce what is needed for social reproduction and
continuity. Control processes are generally political, in that they constitute the
social organisation of relationships within a community, and survival processes
are mainly economic, because they concern processes of production and
reproduction. Political economy has consistently been placed at the forefront of the
goal of understanding social change and historical transformation.
The study of power relations is the basis of the study of media and
communications:
(a) Power and knowledge are closely interlinked.
(b) Power is the means by which certain individuals and groups are able to
dominate others.
(c) Power is potentially or actually part of all social relationships.
(d) Usually, a person who has control also has power.
(e) Media power is exerted by controlling the informational environment,
system of influences, commands, and feedback.
(f) Traditionally, power is vested in editors.

However, in the present world, power could be vested in any of the following:
• competition in the market place
• interest groups
• advertisers
• audience
• readers
• government
• owners
Outside influences control editorial decisions and could be in any of the forms
mentioned in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Forms of Outside Influences
Form Description
Operational Control of editors or reporters
Allocative Through the allocation of funds or personnel for certain programmes or

certain sections of the newspaper, and denial of funds for other sections
or programmes
External Pressure from advertisers or consumer groups
Media diversity is when media outlets are owned by a number of persons making
a diversity of opinions a realistic expectation. Democratic governments attempt to
ensure diversity and are cautious of concentration in media ownership.
The questions that need to be asked are: Can the Internet and other new technology
break the hold of media giants? Is the influence of media giants benign or harmful
to democracy and freedom? Is there too much power in the hands of too few?
4.2.4 Hegemony Theory of Media

Hegemony is most frequently used to describe the most powerful state in the
international system. Hegemony, according to Gramsci (1891–1937), centres on the
role of ideology and state power in capitalist society. In this hegemonic system, the
dominant social group or nation has the capacity to exercise intellectual and moral
direction over society or others and builds a new system of alliances to support its

aims. For Gramsci, this happens when this group exercises control over mass
media, schools, religion, and others. The dominant class forcefully imposes its will
on subordinate classes. However, GramsciÊs use of hegemony is related to his
understanding of power, which is broader and richer than that of realists: a
mixture of coercion and consent.
In understanding how the prevailing order was maintained, Marxists concentrated

almost exclusively on the coercive practices and capabilities of the state. The state
was seen as a means for one class to oppress another. Based on this understanding,
it was coercion that prevented exploited members of society from rising up and
changing the system that made them suffer.
Gramsci recognised that while this was true in less developed countries like
Russia, it was not the case in Western Europe. Here, the system was maintained
not only by coercion but also through consent. Consent is created and recreated by
the hegemony of the ruling elite in society.
It is hegemony that makes the political, cultural, and moral values of the dominant
group become widely dispersed throughout society and accepted by subordinate
groups and classes as their own. For Gramsci, dominant ideologies are
institutionalised in society as they become the „common sense‰.
Civil society is a network of institutions and practices in society that enjoy some
autonomy from the state, and through which groups and individuals organise,
represent, and express themselves to each other and the state. These include
media, education system, churches, voluntary organisations, and others.
The media hegemony theory attributes wide influence to mass media and is rooted
in Marxist economics and the concept of hegemony. Hegemony is a concept which
states that the ideas of the ruling class in society become the ruling ideas. The
media is seen as being controlled by the dominant class in society and, thus, it is a
tool for that class to control the rest of society. This theory argues that news and
other media contents are designed and shaped to the requirements of corporate
(capitalist) ideology. However, some scholars challenge the belief that media
hegemony brings about ideological dominance.
Altheide (1984) argues that the media hegemony theory has three assumptions:
(a) Socialisation of journalists involves rules, work routines, and orientations
steeped in the dominant ideology.
(b) Journalists tend to cover topics and present news reports that are
conservative and supportive of the status quo.

(c) Journalists tend to present pro-American coverage and negative coverage of

foreign countries, especially Third World nations.
Thus, the media hegemony theory places power in the hands of media owners and
the status quo. The status quo decides what news report is fit and suitable. Topics
are selected based on the dictates of the power behind media organisations. The
masses have no say in the production of media messages.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Identify three types of media dependency and describe the degree
of dependence.
2. Based on the political economy media theory, explain how outside

influences control editorial decisions.
3. Explain the three assumptions of the media hegemony theory.
ACTIVITY 4.2
What do you understand by hegemony? Give your own examples.
Discuss with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
• The relationship between media and politics is a very important aspect in the
workings of a country. Oftentimes, the masses perceive politics as controlling
the media, especially in less democratic countries.
• Society is a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function

involving a total complex of human relationships.
• A society consists of a system of usages and procedures of authority and

mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour
and liberties.
• Generally, a society is an economic, social, and industrial infrastructure of

which a diverse mass of people are a part. The word „society‰ may also refer
to an organised voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent,
cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes.

• The word „mass‰ as used in social sciences refers to a group of people with
common characteristics. It means a body or group of people with more
similarities than differences.
• Mass society is any society in the modern era that possesses a mass culture and
large-scale, impersonal, social institutions. In a mass society, power is vested
in large bureaucracies, thereby leaving people in local communities with little
control over their lives.
• The term „politics‰ relates to citizens, civic, civil and belonging to a state. It
involves the ability to persuade and influence an electorate to provide political
power and authority in the governmental affairs of a state.
• Mass media are the mechanisms that are used to communicate to the general
public. Mass media means technology that reaches a mass and wide audience
(viewers, listeners).
• Mass communication is a process whereby a person, group of people, or an

organisation sends messages through a channel of communication to a large
group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and organisations.
• The media dependency theory states that the more people depend on the
media to fulfil their needs, the more important the media will become to them.
The media will have much more influence and power over them.
• Political economy is the study of social relations, particularly power relations

that commonly constitute the production, distribution, and consumption of
resources, including communication resources.
• The media hegemony theory attributes wide influence to mass media and is
rooted in Marxist economics. The media is seen as controlled by the dominant
class in society and, thus, is used to wield control over the rest of society.

Channels of mass communication Media

Civic Media dependency theory
Hegemony Media hegemony theory
Mass audience Political economy
Mass communication Political power
Mass media Politics
Mass society Society
Altheide, D. L. (1984). Media hegemony: A failure of perspective. Public Opinion

Quarterly, 48(2), 476–490.
Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1985). The origins of individual media-system dependency: A

sociological framework. Communication Research, 12(4), 485–510.
Ball-Rokeach, S. J., & DeFleur, M. L. (1976). A dependency model of mass-media

effects. Communication Research, 3(1), 3–21.
Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2008). Mass communication theory: Foundation,

ferment, and the future. Wadsworth.
Brookeman, C. (1984). American culture and society since the 1930s. Schocken
Books.
Coser, L. A. (1977). Auguste Comte: Social statics and dynamics. In Masters

of sociological thought: Ideas in historical and social context (2nd ed.).
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
DeFleur, M. L., & Ball-Rokeach, S. (1989). Theories of mass communication

(5th ed.). Longman.
Donsbach, W. (2008). The international encyclopedia of communication.

Blackwell.

Ginsberg, M. (2011). The psychology of society (eBook). Barnes & Noble.
Lowery, W. (2004). Media dependency during a large-scale social disruption: The

case of September 11. Mass Communication & Society, 7(3), 339–357.
Macionis, J. J. (2009). Culture, society: The basics (10th ed.). Prentice Hall.
MacIver, R. M., & Page, C. H. (1937). Society. Holt, Rinehart

and Winston. The Unz Review. http://www.unz.org/Pub/MacIverRM-
1937?View=PDF
Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts

(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Mills, C. W. (1956). The power elite. Oxford University Press.
Parsons, T. (1975). Social systems and the evolution of action theory. The Free
Press.
Schiller, H. I. (1986). Information and the crisis economy. Oxford University Press.

Topic  Media and
Mediation
5 Function
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the mediation function of the media.
2. Analyse the way the media influences public opinion.
3. Describe how the media functions in a democratic society.
4. Explain the hegemony theory.
5. Elaborate on political parties and the fourth state power.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic intends to equip you with knowledge of the media, its function of
mediation, and its inseparable relation to the world of politics in todayÊs daily life.
You will understand the influence of politics on the media, and vice versa, and also
the role of the media in directing public opinion.
The media is the collective means of communication that conveys information

from one end to another, and vice versa. It is the indirect channel of
communication between individuals and groups. It entails various tools such as
radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and books. Due to rapid technological
advancements in the 21st century, electronic media such as the Internet and its
various components have become the most popular means of communication.
Electronic media is used in diverse fields such as politics, economics, business,
cultural, and social communications.

TOPIC 5 MEDIA AND MEDIATION FUNCTION  69
5.1 CONCEPT OF MEDIATION IN MEDIA AND

POLITICS
The strongest relationship between media and politics is located in the word
„mediatisation‰. Politics has become highly mediatised today. This means politics
cannot be separated from the media, which has become like a shadow following
the former wherever it is. Important political events in any country or part of the
world might fall under the spotlight of the media.
The media has professional agents dedicated to hunting for events or news to be
highlighted to the public and others, based on the degree of independence that the
media enjoys in a given environment. This is because the common man, political
leaders, and other members of the public also get information from similar sources
of information. Even the highest elites, like the president or prime minister, also
turn to the media to find out what is going on around them.
Mediation is the principal function of the media. It conveys messages, news,

information, and data from one party to another. In politics, mediation is a very
important role played by certain intermediaries to create awareness and solve
problems for the welfare of everyone. For instance, there has been a long political
and territorial dispute between the Philippines and China over certain rocky
islands in the South China Sea called the Scarborough Shoal (see Figure 5.1). The
Philippines took the case to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for mediation
and ruling on the dispute. In July 2016, the ICJ passed a ruling in favour of the
Philippines. This was a hot political issue making headlines in the media around
the world.
Figure 5.1: Scarborough Shoal
Source: http://www.aljazeera.com

70  TOPIC 5 MEDIA AND MEDIATION FUNCTION
Public demonstrations went on in both China and the Philippines calling on each
government to never give up its claim. Tensions rose high in the region with China
flexing its military muscles and vowing not to accept the ruling. Most probably,
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) will mediate in order to cool
off the rising tension between the two countries and find a peaceful solution to the
issue. Everyone who is concerned about world politics and news is following this
issue as well as other issues from the media.
5.1.1 Functions of Mass Media in Democratic Society

Politics and the art of governing have become strongly tied to the mass media.
Governments and political and other national leaders depend highly on the media
to communicate with the rest of society, particularly in democratic societies where
the media has some freedom in influencing public opinion
and highlighting the daily functions of the government. Even in countries
characterised as dictatorial, authoritarian, or autocratic, the media plays a very
important role in directing the minds of the citizens.
In a democratic society, the media is expected to have a degree of independence

so as to be a credible watchdog, especially of those in political power. The media
is expected to highlight the social, political, and economic performance of the
government to the public in order to call the national leaders to account in case of
errors, wrongdoings, or violation of the democratic agreement between them and
the people. In a democracy, the freedom of the media is a constitutional right, and
a free and open media is very important for an effective and meaningful
democracy. However, the passion of many journalists in uncovering events and
disseminating news about political leaders oftentimes creates hostilities between
the two. Political leaders expect the press to support their views and policies. On
the other hand, many journalists see themselves as watchdogs and guardians of
democracy.
Nevertheless, today, there is noticeable concern in many democratic countries that

the media is not functioning as expected. There are two main reasons for this.
Firstly, in many instances, the media has become commercialised and serves the
interests of those in power. At times, it focuses more on trivial issues like
entertainment, scandals, violence, and personality targeting in order to attract a
wider audience. All too often, the media makes us afraid of the wrong things.
Minor dangers are hysterically blown out of proportion, while much more serious
dangers in our society go largely unnoticed (Glassner, 1999). So far, the Internet
serves more than commercialised media because it cannot be easily controlled.
People are able to express their minds more openly online than they can through
the TV, radio, and newspapers.

Secondly, there is no consensus on the normative expectations and moral values

that the media is universally obliged to adhere to. This means people in different
parts of the world may present subjective arguments to support and justify the
way a certain media behaves, or the way a political authority tries to direct the
course of the media. A group in a given society might support certain information
disseminated by the media, another might be against it, and yet another might
remain neutral. Most cases of selection in the news media can be explained by
structural factors, such as the organisation of news agencies, financing,
dependence on sources, and ratings competition (Ericson et al., 1987).
5.1.2 Mass Media and Public Opinion

Public opinion refers to the views, attitudes, preferences, and feelings of
individuals on a particular issue in public life. These are highly influenced by mass
media and personal ability to absorb first hand or critically analyse the information
provided by the media. Among the most powerful news agencies in the West are
the BBC, CNN, Euro-news, and Monte Carlo, while Al Jazeera, Al Arabiya, LBC,
and Asharq Al-Awsat are the news agencies in the Middle East. The religious and
political leaders of these media agencies are always around to talk freely and pass
news, stands, and positions to their communities and the public to serve their
political and economic ends (Hadeshian, 2006).
Public opinion has become very important in political decision-making in

democratic societies. The masses get their information from the media, analyse it,
and consequently take sides in supporting or opposing a policy or government.
The media has the power to direct public opinion in the desired direction. It directs
a large public population to take action towards certain issues in their countries.
That is why, some scholars have begun to characterise public opinion as a
relatively stable and consistent counterweight that policy makers must, or at least
should, consider (Page & Bouton, 2006).
The public needs information and knowledge about what is taking place around
the world. Mass media provides this knowledge to the public through various
channels. Today, even illiterate individuals are informed, according to their
analytical capacity, on what is happening in their country and other countries. The
media works as a strong intermediary to inform the public about events which
take place in near and far locations.

5.1.3 Mass Media and Agenda Setting

Agenda setting simply refers to the mediaÊs role of highlighting an important event
to make it the prime focus of public opinion. It might repeatedly highlight an event
to make it very important in the view of the public. For example, the event or news
can be placed on the front page or be given a large headline to signify its prime
importance to the viewer. The news might be repeated over and over to the extent
that if anyone is asked about the most important current national issue, a majority
of people might mention it. People need to orient themselves in a complex world
full of complex issues. In the absence of other cues, people tend to judge the
importance of issues from their salience in the media and focus their attention on
those presumably important issues (Fog, 2013).
The media has more power in areas about which most people are not well-
informed. It has less influencing powers when people are informed because they
can make up their minds and counter argue the points presented in the media. It
will be much easier for them to verify the authenticity of the information given by
the media. Furthermore, the agenda-setting effect is stronger for concrete issues
that are easy to visualise than for abstract issues (Yagade & Dozier, 1990).
The media itself can be influenced by the power of the political elite or government
in setting the public agenda of a given issue. Special interest groups also compete
for a share in this influence. In this respect, there is a concept known as priming,
which is closely related to agenda setting. The news media can influence the
criteria by which political candidates are judged by calling attention to some issues
and ignoring others before the speech of the candidate (Fog, 2013). For instance, in
the case of the Philippines, where the main concern of the public is the dispute
with China over the ICJÊs ruling on the Scarborough Shoal in the South China Sea,
the media might shift direction to economic problems in order to set a new agenda
to divert public opinion away from its previous focus.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Explain in some detail how and why politics is said to be
mediatised in the modern world. Give examples.
2. How is it possible for the media to influence public opinion?
Discuss and share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.

SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Explain mediation.
2. How does media function in a democratic society?
3. What is public opinion?
4. Explain the concepts of agenda setting and priming.
5.2 MASS MEDIA AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Social institutions refer to the principal social, political, economic, and other
components of society that enable it to function as one body. Examples of social
institutions are the government (in its various forms across the world), economic
institutions (like the ministries that cater to economic development), the school
(which provides education) and the family (which instils social and cultural values
in people). In the following subtopics, we will explore mass mediaÊs relationship
with national development and social integration.
5.2.1 Mass Media and National Development

National development refers to improvement in many dimensions of society, such
as the economic, social, and political lives of the people. The media plays a very
important role in this aspect. However, this role depends on the type of social and
political environment where the media operates. Its influence is greater where it
can reach a large number of people to draw them into the functional sphere of the
nation. It would not be very effective in societies where social and political
awareness is shallow.
In a parochial society, people are not interested in the political functioning of the
government and the role of the media in directing public opinion is weak. Hence,
national development works freely without much scrutiny. This is because as
mentioned earlier, the media functions as a watchdog on the performance of the
political regime. That function depends on the support it garners from influencing
public opinion that might call the ruling elite into account in terms of wrongdoings
or deliberate poor performance and mismanagement.

It should always be held in mind that the media is not expected to be biased against
the government. Rather, it is expected to influence the opinion of the government
leaders as well. It should also be remembered that the government has a strong
influence on the media, depending on the type of political system that prevails in
the country. This implies that there is a nationwide dialogue between these three
components – the media, the public, and national leaders – on the way national
development moves.
Politically, for instance, there is no doubt that „corruption has a negative impact
on society, particularly in furthering poverty and income inequality‰ (Gupta et al.,
2002). An independent media exposes corruption and corrupt national leaders to
the public. This reduces the level of corruption, which in turn, enhances national
development.
Economically, national leaders, investors, and economic agents also need accurate
information from the media in order to allocate resources for national
development in a proper and timely manner. The government and political leaders
need similar information in order to monitor national economic policies.
Socially, the people need to be well-informed and guided to participate in national

development by adopting adequate and responsible attitudes towards such
development. Several studies conducted in the past showed that the lesser the
restrictions placed on the media, the greater its positive impact on national
development. For example, a study of 51 countries from 1995 to 2004 found that
improving the viability and competitiveness of the media in the economic sector
was associated with a decline in corruption of between 0.6 and 1.7 for economic
influences and 0.7 to 1.4 for political influences (Freille et al., 2007).
5.2.2 Mass Media and Social Integration

The media is very crucial in directing the public towards particular attitudes
related to social integration. National unity and the feeling of belonging to a solid
national community are important aspects of state formation and survival. Most
nations are heterogeneous. This means they are made up of different racial, ethnic,
religious, and cultural structures. It is often very difficult to have a nation united
along these social cleavages. When these diverse national components are
cemented and rallied around the central government, the country will be strong
and the government can operate more easily. This relates to the role of the media
as one of the most important factors that strengthen social integration. It
disseminates positive information that breeds social cohesion and unity among the
people.

Unbiased dissemination of news and views is important in keeping the various

elements of society intact. The media can play a devastating role if it demonises or
stereotypes any group within society. In todayÊs world, we can easily see how the
media plays a leading negative role in creating tension, hostilities, and hatred
towards a particular group in a given society. For instance, the moment this biased
role of the media is mentioned, the mental picture of how Islam and Muslims are
portrayed in western media appears in the minds of many. The positive role of the
media requires the presentation of views and interests of different social identities
to harness better mutual understanding for more national integration and
cohesion. It can iron out divergent views and bring about awareness of the benefits
of national cohesion in order to garner more understanding and social harmony
among different social groups.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. Is it true that the media has more power in areas where the public
is not well-informed? Explain in some detail whether your answer
is yes or no, and provide examples to support your view.
2. Do you agree that the media should be a watchdog over the

government, or should it just be neutral in conveying news without
any critical analysis, and allow the public to decide on their own?
Discuss and share your answers with your coursemates in myISNPIRE.
5.3 HEGEMONY THEORY OF MASS MEDIA

AND POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS
Hegemony theory refers to the overriding influence that the ruling class has over
the minds of journalists. The media comes under the ideological dictatorship of the
ruling class and does not have independent opinions of its own. The media is
modelled in the shape of the dominant national ideology, whether it is of capitalist,
communist, religious, or other orientation.
5.3.1 Mass Media and Political Parties

Political parties are organised groups of individuals who work collectively to
politically rule a country for a certain agreed upon duration and come into power
through national elections. This definition is rather democratic because in many
non-democratic countries, there is a different view.

The media has a very strong influence on political parties. All politicians and
political parties highly depend on the media to gather support for their political
agenda, especially during election campaigns. Since there are two or more political
parties campaigning for power, the public needs to know the messages and
promises of each party in order to choose and vote for a party.
The media delivers the views of each party to the public. It also delivers the
publicÊs views and response to the leaders of political parties for them to act upon
in order to achieve their objectives. The top figures of different political parties
appear constantly in the media to propagate their views and agenda. It should be
remembered that there is not only one press. There are many press media and they
compete against each other. Therefore, one media organisation might favour a
certain party and act as its agent more than it does another.
The time of election is the peak season of commerce when the media makes huge
profits. It is no longer possible to conduct politics today without the media.
Traditionally, the government is divided into the legislature, judiciary, and
executive. Today, many scholars add the media and refer to it as the fourth state
power. This shows how strong and crucial the media is in the political process
across the world. Every political issue is highlighted and discussed through media
channels. But because of the possibility of it being commercialised and controlled
by other forces, some do not yet give the media such greatness as a fourth state
power. This is because it can be manipulated and used by strong agents like
political parties as a tool for their political agenda and interests. In many
democratic or authoritarian countries, media offices and agents are violently
targeted by opponents in dangerous manners that can lead to vandalism and even
murder.
During election campaigns, the leaders of political parties travel to have face-to-
face meetings with the public to propagate their views and policies. However, they
still depend on the media to cover and publicise such meetings and gatherings to
the larger society. Voters outside the country might follow the election campaign
through different media channels. After the political party comes to power and
forms the government, the media continues to play the same roles of informing the
public about the functions of the political leadership. Here, the voters might
monitor and expect the government to fulfil the promises it made before coming
to power.

5.3.2 Mass Media and Non-Governmental

Organisations
There is a strong relationship between the media and non-governmental
organisations (NGOs). Most NGOs disseminate information and increase
awareness on issues related to human rights, minority rights, environmental
concerns, and others. It is here that their objectives converge with the media. It is
because of the similar efforts of the media and the NGOs that a new discipline
known as environmental journalism has emerged. NGOs monitor different social,
economic, and political events and publish reports on them. However, merely
publishing reports on their own websites does not ensure that NGOs will reach
their audiences.
Coverage of a report by the mass media is an efficient way for NGOs to

communicate with their audience. So, maximising coverage will increase their
effectiveness (Couttenier & Hatte, 2015). Thus, both NGOs and the media work
hand in hand to educate the public on important issues. The NGOs are mostly
structured by individuals from society. They represent different social entities and
strive to safeguard public welfare. NGOs, therefore, give a strong boost to the
operation of the media, which is unable to solve all problems alone.
Many independent issues that need pressing solutions are highlighted in written
reports and publications by NGOs. For instance, the issues of sustainable
development and environmental degradation have become focal concerns for
NGOs that they constantly direct their spotlight on them to push for solutions. In
this regard, mass media helps by further highlighting such issues to the public.
That, in turn, supports NGOs in their endeavour.
The public understands that the democratic system needs NGOsÊ active
participation to make important policies for sustainable development. In turn,
government leaders and other responsible organisations learn from such
awareness and are expected to become actively engaged in addressing issues of
concern for common welfare. Hence, the media and NGOs work towards, or are
expected to complement each otherÊs efforts towards, educating the masses as well
as those holding power at the national and international levels.

5.3.3 Mass Media and Governmental Organisations

Governmental organisations include all types of organisations established to carry
out the functions of governments. These include all ministries, the army, and the
police. The government uses these organs to run the country and achieve the
objectives of governing. The media is related to all these organisations as it
monitors their functions in a critical or supportive manner, based on the degree of
independence the media enjoys in the country. The media, either through the TV,
the radio, or newspapers, reports the daily functions of the organisations and
highlights them to the public. This brings about transparency in society.
In the modern world, most governments have become accustomed to the role of
the media. Governmental organisations turn to the media to educate the public on
their functions or on particular issues to get their support and help, especially in
democratic nations.
On many occasions, the government might allow the media to intervene in all its
activities. If the media exposes certain issues that are sensitive for the government
or any of its organisations, this might cause both parties to be at loggerheads. This
is why some government officials or agents might attempt to punish, censor, or
even sue a media channel or individual for such activities. As such, the
government might work to restrict or regulate the functions of the media, while
the media might call for its freedom and the protection of its agents.
On many occasions, journalists and other media agents have been subject to arrest,
persecution, and assassination. Other media channels have been called into
account by the government and their licences have been revoked. In many non-
democratic countries, such as communist states, the media functions as the
mouthpiece of the government.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. During national elections and campaigns for power, is the media

a watchdog or a hunting dog for a political party? Explain your
answer with some real examples.
2. Would you like to be a journalist in the future? Explain why.
Discuss your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.

SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Explain the hegemony theory.
2. What are political parties and fourth state power?
• The word media comes from the noun mediation. Today, politics has become
mediatised. This means the media tries to get involved in every political event.
The ICJÊs ruling in the case of the Philippines versus China in the South China
Sea is a good example of mediatisation and the mediation function of the
media.
• In democratic countries, the media is a watchdog which the public relies on to

check the performance of those elected to hold political office. Public opinion
refers to the views, attitudes preferences, and feelings of individuals on a
particular issue in public life.
• The media has more power in areas where most people are not well-informed.
The media has less influencing power when people are informed because they
can make up their minds and counter argue the points presented in the media.
• Unbiased dissemination of news and views is important to keep the various

elements of society intact. The media can play a devastating role if it demonises
or stereotypes any group within society.
• Political parties are organised groups of individuals working collectively in

order to politically rule a country for a certain period by coming into power
through national elections.
• Both NGOs and the media work together to educate the public on important
issues. NGOs are mostly structured by individuals in society. They represent
different social entities and strive to safeguard public welfare.
• Governmental organisations are all types of organisations established to carry

out the functions of governments. These include all ministries, the army, and
the police.

Agenda setting National development

Censorship National unity
Corruption Non-democratic societies
Democratic societies Non-governmental organisations
Fourth state power Parochial society
Governmental organisations Persecution
Hegemony theory Social institutions
Income inequality Social integration
Mediation State formation and survival
Mediatisation Sustainable development
Baum, M. A., & Potter, P. B. K. (2008). The relationships between mass media,
public opinion, and foreign policy: Toward a theoretical synthesis. The
Annual Review of Political Science, 11(1), 39–65.
Couttenier, M., & Hatte, S. (2016). Mass media effects on non-governmental

organizations. Journal of Development Economics, 123(1), 57–72.
Ericson, R. V., Baranek, P. M., & Chan, J. (1987). Visualizing deviance: A study of
news organization. University of Toronto Press.
Fog, A. (2013). The supposed and the real role of mass media in modern
democracy. http://www.agner.org/cultsel/mediacrisis.pdf
Freille, S., Haque, M. E., & Kneller, R. (2007). A contribution to the empirics of
press freedom and corruption. European Journal of Political Economy, 23(4),
838–862.
Glassner, B. (1999). The culture of fear. Basic Books.

Gupta, S. H., Davoodi, R., & Alonso-Terme, R. (2002). Does corruption affect
income inequality and poverty? Economics of Governance, 3(1), 23–45.
Hadeshian, S. (2006). Public opinion – The role of media. CCR International

Refugee Rights Conference, Toronto. http://ccrweb.ca/sites/
ccrweb.ca/files/static-files/presentations/shadeshianmediaen.pdf
Page, B. I., & Bouton, M. M. (2006). The foreign policy disconnect: What Americans
want from our leaders but donÊt get. University of Chicago Press.
Yagade, A., & Dozier, D. M. (1990). The media agenda-setting effect of concrete
versus abstract issues. Journalism Quarterly, 67(1), 3–10.

Topic  Electronic,
Print and New
6 Media: Their
Position in a
Political
System
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the concept of mass media with reference to electronic,
print, and new media.
2. Explain the mass media organisation and its functions in the
political system.
3. Describe the ownership of political press by the political parties
in Malaysia.
4. Explain the relationship between the mass media, the government
and political parties with reference to their position in a political
system.

TOPIC 6 ELECTRONIC, PRINT AND NEW MEDIA: THEIR POSITION IN A  83
POLITICAL SYSTEM
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide an overview of mass media with reference to the electronic,
print and new media, and their relationship with politics. Mass media have a
powerful influence on politics. They shape the perceptions that average people
and political leaders hold about the political world. Through the first discussion,
you are expected to understand the meaning of electronic, print, and new media
in general. This topic will also discuss mass media organisations and their function
in the political system, and the ownership of political press by political parties in
Malaysia. The aim is to equip you with knowledge of the relationship between
mass media, the government, and political parties, which is essential for a political
system to function in a democratic country.
6.1 DEFINING CONCEPT OF MASS MEDIA

Mass media are the channels carrying messages to a vast, widespread, general
audience. Newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio, and films are
examples of mass media. Media are, thus, communication channels through which
news, entertainment, education, data, and promotional messages are
disseminated.
Mass media consist of the following:
(a) Electronic Media

Electronic media are time organised. They are younger than print media but
lag behind them in effectiveness. Radio, television, films, and theatre are the
main types of electronic media. Video text, broadcast teletext, satellites, and
Internet are the newly emerging media of instant mass communication.
(b) Print Media

Print media are controlled by space rather than time. They can be read at any
available time and can be kept for record. Books, newspapers, magazines,
and newsletters are examples of print media of communication.
(c) Static Media

This group of media derives its name from the fact that it does not involve
motion or sound, for instance, posters, wall charts, exhibits, displays, maps,
and banners.

84  TOPIC 6 ELECTRONIC, PRINT AND NEW MEDIA: THEIR POSITION IN A
POLITICAL SYSTEM
(d) New Media

New media most commonly refers to content available on demand through
the Internet, accessible on any digital device, usually containing interactive
user feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new media
include websites such as online newspapers, blogs, or wikis, video games,
and social media. Thus, video text, broadcast teletext, satellites, and social
media are examples of the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication made possible by new communication technologies.
6.2 ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND POLITICAL

SYSTEM
Television programmes have a significant impact on values, time displacement,
agenda setting, and regulations. Exposure to global and domestic television
programmes exert a deep impact on social values, lifestyles of people, and the
relationship of masses with political leaders and with government and its
functionaries in society. Television is considered one of the significant influential
channels used in politics and election campaigns.
Radio also remains a politically influential mass medium in the developed world.
Radio news and current affairs programmes, particularly those of public
broadcasters, continue to play a major role in setting the public agenda. The role
of radio in politics has been to mould public opinion, create political mobility, and
influence political decisions and voting behaviour.
6.2.1 Concept of Electronic Media and the Electronic

Media Organisation
Electronic media comprises tools of new communication technology such as
television (including satellite TV and web TV), radio (including satellite radio and
web radio), and films (including YouTube). Media in a democratic set up play a
major role in establishing and strengthening accountability and sustainability of
the governments in power. The media provide a platform for political parties to
present their political ideologies during elections.
Electronic media is the linkage institution between governments, political parties,

candidates, and voters. It conveys the messages of politicians according to the
perceived desires and intent of voters. Electronic media in the form of television
and Internet-abled media are central to politics today due to their immediate and
instant dissemination of political events, issues, and developments around the
clock.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
The government, political elites, public, and electronic media influence one
another in a number of ways and on a scale of values. Governments influence the
media by their sourcing of information and by applying different pressures to
achieve and further their political goals.
Electronic media influences the conduct of government officials by raising and

legitimising issues. It influences the public and voters by providing them political
information, which changes their values, beliefs, attitudes, and even behaviours.
The public influence the media through their viewership, listenership, readership,
and collectively through the marketplace.
6.2.2 Politics of Electronic Media

Democracy builds faith in electoral contestation to gain public office and gives
legitimacy to political parties as primary instruments for the acquisition and
transfer of power from one set of individuals to another. Elections are considered
to be a primary and important part of democracy. Elections in democracies
demand that the public have the opportunity to choose representatives and parties
according to their free will. Elections are about freedom and choice. They are also
about control and constraint.
Elections enable voters to collectively decide who will represent them in

parliament. Elections and the media are considered indispensable to each other. In
major political campaigns, television advertising usually consumes much of the
campaign budget whereas, in the area of news stories, several aspects of media
content may influence political communication.
6.3 PRINT MEDIA AND POLITICAL SYSTEM

The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, and
other printed materials. These publications are collectively known as print media.
Print media is responsible for more reporting than other news sources. Many news
reports on television, for example, are merely follow-up stories about news that
first appears in newspapers.
The top American newspapers, such as the New York Times, Washington Post,
and Los Angeles Times, often set the agenda for many other media sources. In
Malaysia, the situation is not much different. The top Malaysian newspapers, such
as the New Straits Times, The Star, Utusan Malaysia, and Berita Harian, are seen
as the front runners in setting the agenda for discussion and policy.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
The influence of print media is therefore significant. Regular readers of print media
tend to be more politically active. Many newspapers, for example, are simply the
voices of political parties. Political parties such as United Malays National
Organisation (UMNO) and Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) have influence
on particular print media, especially newspapers.
6.3.1 Politics of Print Media

In theory, objective journalism is still a mainstay of daily news coverage. Although
publishers in the US favour one viewpoint or another on their editorial pages, they
usually accord the Democratic and Republican parties equal treatment on their
news pages. Newspapers make their political preference known by endorsing
candidates during election campaigns, but many take pride in supporting the best
person for the job and not basing their endorsements on partisan considerations.
In one sense, however, reporting is not as objective as it used to be, because of the
proliferation of „news analysis‰ stories. Objective or descriptive journalism is
typified by the straightforward reporting of facts. However, print reporters today
are faced with a new reality: they cannot compete with the timeliness of television.
Newspapers are published only once a day, while television can report breaking
news instantly.
In order to survive, newspapers run more human-interest stories, more

entertainment stories, and longer news stories that aim to do more than simply
report who, what, when, and where: they also attempt to explain why events
happened as they did and to put them in a larger context. This is interpretative
reporting, and it gives reporters greater licence. In such stories, they are not
required to stick to reporting only what they observe; they can also write what
they think about it. This means newspaper coverage has become increasingly
conjectural.
6.3.2 Power of Static Media

In the 20th century, static media, such as political banners, played a significant role
in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue pressure groups, and even
intra-party communication. Political posters, also known as conservative
communication, also play a major role in politics. Figure 6.1 shows posters during
the 14th general election in Malaysia.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
Figure 6.1: Posters During the 14th General Election in Malaysia
Source: https://says.com/my/news/ge14-battle-for-votes
When television advertisements came on the scene in the 1960s, posters moved
from being a way to present a platform to becoming a way to brand a campaign.
The most basic function of the campaign poster is to present an idealised image of
the candidate.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What do you understand by the power of electronic media, print media,

and new media with reference to the Malaysian political system?
Discuss with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Compare and contrast the concept and role of electronic media, print
media, and new media in politics.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
6.4 POLITICS AND THE POLITICAL PRESS

Political control of the press is much talked about. By controlling the press, political
organisations can ensure that news is published according to their dictates. Hence,
the press becomes another arm of political organisations and governments.
6.4.1 Political Parties and Press Ownership

The mass media in Malaysia includes television, radio, newspapers, and web-
based media such as bloggers. Many media outlets are either owned directly by
the government of Malaysia (e.g. Bernama and Radio Televisyen Malaysia) or
owned by component parties of the government coalition. Opposition parties
publish their own newspapers which are openly sold alongside regular
publications e.g., Parti Keadilan Rakyat publishes Suara Keadilan.
Normally, the largest media firms are owned by the government or private
families. For example, during the administration of the Barisan Nasional
government until 2018, Media Prima Berhad, the subsidiary media corporation
that controlled several television networks, newspapers, and radio stations, was
linked to one of MalaysiaÊs ruling parties, UMNO.
The Utusan Malaysia newspaper was owned by Media Mulia. Syed Mokhtar
Al-Bukhary's Aurora Mulia acquired a majority stake in Utusan's wholly owned
subsidiary Dilof Sdn Bhd after Utusan temporarily ceased operations on 9 October
2019. During the Barisan Nasional administration, political parties and their
investment companies controlled the major newspapers in Malaysia. For example,
the Utusan Melayu Group was owned by UMNO, published three Malay language
dailies, and had strong ties to the Prime MinisterÊs ruling party at the time. Even
the major English newspapers, The Star and New Straits Times, are owned by
political parties. According to Munsuet (2008), The Star, which has a daily
circulation of 302,658 and 310,950 on Sundays, is owned by the Malaysian Chinese
Association (MCA), a political party in the ruling coalition before the coalition was
rejected during the 14th general election in 2018.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
6.4.2 Structure and Power of Political Press

The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to
political instability which characterised the country for much of the 20th century.
In 1968, the Malaysia National News Agency, BERNAMA, began operating
(BERNAMA, 2017). In 1984, the Printing and Publications Act enabled the Minister
of Home Affairs to revoke the licence of any publication deemed dangerous to the
state. There is no judicial review and the ministerÊs decisions are final. Malaysia is
seen as one of the authoritarian countries which are repressive towards the press
(Mohd Azizuddin, 2005).
6.4.3 Elements of Political Press

The press in Malaysia fluctuates between ideas of democracy as ideal and elitism
as a fact in this classist society. In 1998, the Malaysian government allowed
MalaysiaÊs first commercial non-government controlled online newspaper,
MalaysiaKini to begin operations. In the early 2000s, the debate about trying to
censor the Internet in Malaysia continued. In March 2002, both the public and
Parliament were split on the issue; half wanted to see tighter controls and
censorship, while the remaining half wanted the printing press laws to be
discontinued and the Internet to be free from government censorship.
6.4.4 Communication Technology and Self-Identity

As technological advancement accelerates, reactions towards new technologies
also elicited resistance and adoption. During the 2008 General Election, the
new media electoral landscape comprised blogs, party websites, and alternative
news portals. However, in 2008, BN had literally limited online presence and the
emergence of the Internet was said to have challenged the status quo. In February
2013, two and a half months before MalaysiaÊs 13th general elections (GE13), Prime
Minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak was quoted widely in the media saying that the
country would experience its first „social media election‰ (Zahiid, 2013). The
significance of his remarks lies in the exponential growth of social media users in
Malaysia over the preceding five years.
According to the Malaysian Digital AssociationÊs February 2012 report, websites

of the mainstream media, such as thestar.com.my, utusan.com.my
and bharian.com.my, collected 2,221,763, 1,171,578, and 769,772 unique browsers
respectively (Gomez, 2013). Alternative news websites such as malaysiakini.com
and malaysianinsider.com collected 1,858,649 and 1,117,124 unique browsers
respectively in the same period, demonstrating strongly their comparative
strength (Gomez, 2013).
POLITICAL SYSTEM
Hence, in the run-up to GE13, both media and online data pointed towards social
media as the platform where online communications of general elections would
likely be transmitted. The countryÊs opposition coalition was credited
with using new media to overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by
establishment political interests to secure a much-improved showing at the polls.
Communication is increasingly two-way, with the public expecting greater
engagement and interactivity with their political representatives. The Internet and
social media have led to unprecedented complexity in the political communication
process in Malaysia.
6.5 MEDIA, GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL

PARTIES
Mass media is often seen as the bridge between people and their government. In
the following subtopics, the nature of the relationship between mass media and
the government is discussed. The importance of politics to the media and vice
versa cannot be overemphasised. Thus, the type of relationship between the mass
media and political parties is also discussed.
6.5.1 Relationship between Mass Media and

Government
The media and the government are two of the largest institutions in a country. Both
have a common goal – to serve the people. Since 1991, the press in many
developing countries has become more independent and pluralistic.
Media pluralism has become one of the most vital components of a democratic
society, which is a prerequisite for sustainable social and economic development.
However, theoretically, media pluralism does not exist in Malaysia because the
mainstream media is not independent. The press is required to support the policies
of the government and serve the state.
All the media and press acts, the Printing Presses Acts, the Security Offences
(Special Measures) Act (SOSMA), and the Control and Import Acts give the
Ministry of Communications and Multimedia and the censors the authority to ban
imported and domestic materials in Malaysia. There are a few federal laws that
restrict officials from providing journalists with information, unless the
information has an effect on national security or the military.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
Government officials are directed not to talk with journalists or correspondents, if

they deem the information sensitive. Thus, according to Freedom HouseÊs Annual
Freedom of the Press report, in 2020, Malaysia remained „partly free‰, with
middling results in freedom, civil liberties, and political rights.
6.5.2 Relationship between Mass Media and Political

Parties
The media is essential to democracy, and a democratic election is impossible
without the media. A free and fair election is not only about the freedom to vote
and the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a participatory process
where voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about
parties, policies, candidates, and the election process itself in order to make
informed choices.
Inherent to this task is the entitlement of parties and candidates to use the
media as a platform for interaction with the public. Furthermore, the Electoral
Management Body needs to communicate information to the electorate – and to a
variety of other groups, including political parties and candidates.
The numerous ways in which the media ensures democratic electoral processes
generally fall into one of the following types:
(a) Media as Transparency Mechanism/Watchdog

The media provides voters with the necessary information to fully evaluate
the conduct of officials and the process at large. Media presence at voting
and counting centres is critical in preventing electoral fraud, given that full
measures protecting freedom of speech are guaranteed, and that the media
is ideally free to act independently and with impartiality.
(b) Media as Campaign Platform

Candidates and parties use mass media for campaigning, through sponsored
direct access spots, paid political advertising, televised debates, use of social
media, and other mechanisms.
(c) Media as Open Forum for Debate and Discussion/Public Voice

The media enables regular citizens to be heard and therefore influence
political agendas and campaign platforms, and sometimes to garner support
and influence fellow voters.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
(d) Media as Public Educator

The media as a campaign platform educates the public on the political
agendas of all participating political parties and candidates equally. The
media as an open forum for debate and discussion ensures that voters can
educate other voters, politicians, and officials.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. „Mass media acts as a bridge between the people and the
government‰. Discuss this statement based on the political system
in your country.
2. Explain the relationship between mass media and political parties

and discuss which one is best for MalaysiaÊs political parties.
 Mass media consists of electronic, print and static media. As media

communication technology advances, new media (social media, digital media)
has emerged as the platform for instant mass communication.
 Electronic media plays a significant role during elections. It provides an

important platform to present the ideologies of different political parties.
 Electronic media in the form of television and the Internet are central to politics
today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues, and developments around the clock.
 Regular readers of print media tend to be more politically active.
 Political banners have a role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue

pressure groups, and intra-party communication.
 The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to

political instability which characterised the country for much of the 20th
century.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
 In 2018, the countryÊs opposition coalition used new media to overcome the
hostile mainstream media owned by establishment political interests to secure
a much-improved showing at the polls.
 The relationship between mass media and political parties can be divided into
the following: media as transparency mechanism or watchdog, media as a
campaign platform, media as an open forum for debate and discussion or
public voice, and media as a public educator.
Barisan Nasional Mass media

Campaign platform Media pluralism
Control and Import Acts New media
Electoral Management Body Political parties
Electronic media Political system
General election Printed media
Government Printing and Publications Act
Internal Security Act Public educator
Malaysian Digital Association Static media
Mass communication Transparency mechanism
Anuar, M. K. (2005). Politics and the media in Malaysia. Kasarinlan: Philippine

Journal of Third World Studies, 20(1), 25–47.
Asiuzzaman, Md. (2009). Media pluralism and development in Malaysia: A third

eye view. http://www.academia.edu/23983152/Media_Pluralism_and
_Development_in_Malaysia_A_Third_Eye_View
BERNAMA. (2017). About BERNAMA. http://www.bernama.com/

aboutbernama/bi/about-bernama.htm

POLITICAL SYSTEM
Djankov, S., McLiesh, C., Nenova, T., & Shleifer, A. (2001). Who owns the media?
National Bureau of Economic Research.
Drusch, A. (2012). The power of the political poster.

http://www.politico.com/story/2012/05/the-power-of-the-poster-075888
Fielding, S. (2011). Posters and politics. http://www.nottspolitics.org/2011/

07/21/posters-and-politics
Gomez, J. (2013). MalaysiaÊs 13th general election: Social media and its political
impact. http://mediamalaysia.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/GE13_
Social_Media_James_Gomez-090913.pdf.
Leong, P. (2015). Political communication in Malaysia: A study on the use of new

media in politics. eJournal of eDemocracy & Open Government, 7(1), 46–71.
Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani. (2005). Media freedom in Malaysia. Journal of

Contemporary Asia, 35(3), 341–367.
Munsuet. (2008). Ownership of traditional media by the government.

http://mediainmalaysia.blogspot.com/2008/11/ownership-of-traditional-
media-by.html
Weiss, M. L. (2012). Politics in cyberspace: New media in Malaysia. Friedrich-

Ebert-Stiftung.
Yaser, N., Mahsud, M. N., & Chaudhry, I. A. (2011). Effects of exposure to

electronic media political content on votersÊ voting behavior. Berkeley
Journal of Social Sciences, 1(4), 1–22.
Zahiid, S. (2013). Najib: Election 2013 first social media election. The Malaysian
Insider. http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/najibelection
-2013-first-social-media-election

Topic  Mass Media
and
7 Propaganda
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish between propaganda and advertisement.
2. Describe four propaganda theories.
3. Explain the role of mass media as a tool in political propaganda.
4. Discuss the influence of mass media in general elections.
5. Describe how the news and political communication process
works.
6. Discuss the importance of mass media in changing people's
political opinions.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will explore the role of propaganda through mass media in politics. As
you go through the topic, you will be able to understand what propaganda and
political propaganda are in a political system. We will discuss the influence of mass
media in political propaganda (especially during general elections); how political
communication works, and related theories. The overall objective is to critically
assess the role of mass media in a political setting, in recognition of their
importance in swaying public opinion in favour of the government in power.

96  TOPIC 7 MASS MEDIA AND PROPAGANDA
7.1 DEFINING PROPAGANDA

Propaganda can be defined as the spread of ideas, information, or rumours for
the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person (Jowett &
OÊDonnell, 2012). The primary purpose of propaganda is to make us believe,
accept, or approve something without looking closely at the evidence available. It
is very clear that most propaganda devices make use of emotions to prevent critical
thinking in people.
The origin of propaganda dates back to the 16th century during the Counter-
Reformation era. It was used by society to propagate their faith. Propaganda has
also been referred to as a no-holds barred use of communication to propagate
specific beliefs and expectations. Its ultimate goal is to change the way and manner
people act. For example, according to the Nazi Germany propaganda division
during the First World War, the secret to a successful propaganda was to simplify
a complex issue and repeat that simplification several times. Figure 7.1 shows a
quote on propaganda by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler.
Figure 7.1: Hitler on propaganda
Source: https://goo.gl/images/EXCTqC
Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of

something that is physical and specific. It services the economy or other particular
areas, purposes, and tasks. If you take a marketing class, you will be told that
advertising provides services to intended audiences; it provides them the needed
information about the availability of products and so on. If you can accept that,
then you have just been propagandised. Although there could be some element of
truth to that claim, the fact is that there is a lot more going on with advertising.

TOPIC 7 MASS MEDIA AND PROPAGANDA  97
Advertising manipulates people into buying things they never intended to buy for
some illegitimate reason. However, the marketing class will not spend many hours
telling you about the evils of advertising. Rather, you will be informed about the
positive side of advertising in marketing. What you should bear in mind is that
advertisement praises goods while propaganda spreads ideas, and services only
political purposes.
Advertising and propaganda have in common an organised set of methods to

disseminate information to the intended audience, which in some cases result in
peopleÊs acceptance or fulfilment of the needs they both present (McClintock,
2005). In recent years, the term has come to have a political meaning, and both use
agitators.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What are the differences between propaganda and advertising?
7.2 POLITICAL PROPAGANDA

Political propaganda refers to the act of widely publicising deliberate and
misleading information to promote an idea or a particular course of action. The
information is deliberately spread to make it look real to the general public for a
specific agenda by those in power. In most cases, political propaganda contains
deliberate false information (or even lies) that has some hidden agenda unknown
to the general public to achieve the purpose it is created for. Effective propaganda
is covert and is used to discredit the opposition.
Whenever politicians speak, what they are trying to do is sell you their favourite
causes, candidates, or programmes. This is how politics works in most cases. It is
how information operation is spread; it is all about selling a programme, product,
or idea to an audience. Political propaganda sometimes contains some kind of
deliberate false information. It could be agreed that „one personÊs propaganda is
another personÊs truth‰.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
What do you understand by political propaganda? Explain in detail.

7.3 TYPES OF POLITICAL PROPAGANDA

Many techniques are used to disseminate propaganda (Miller, 1937). Figure 7.2
shows the seven main types of political propaganda, which will be explored in the
following subtopics.
Figure 7.2: Types of Political Propaganda
7.3.1 Bandwagon
Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and type of propaganda through which a
writer persuades his readers. The writer suggests that the majority agree on
something, so the readers should too. An example is, „Everyone is voting for Ali,
so he is definitely the best candidate for the post.‰
Bandwagon refers to the phrase „jumping on the bandwagon,‰ which means to

follow what others are doing.

It is about convincing people that everyone else has agreed to a particular cause,
view, or candidate. While listening to a politician or reading a book written by one,
it is often observed that the speaker or writer tries to encourage the audience to
think and act in a particular way because others are doing so, although the
audience may have ideas and beliefs of their own.
A propagandist who uses this approach argues that everyone is doing something
to support a person or cause, in order to convince other people to do the same.
This approach uses phrases such as the following:
• widespread support
• be part of the winning team
• do not be left out, e.g., „We like Barack Obama‰
The bandwagon approach seeks to attract widespread support from the masses. It
creates the impression that everyone is doing it, everyone has joined the
bandwagon, so you should as well. People by nature tend to be attracted by the
majority as they do not want to be left out. Moreover, it is satisfying to be a part of
a winning team. Everyone wants to be a winner or at least be associated with the
winning team. This is seen in politics and sports e.g., football fans want to be
associated with the winning football team.
7.3.2 Name-calling
Name-calling involves the use of derogatory language or words to negatively
portray an opponent. The use of such names naturally will evoke fear or hatred in
viewers, readers, or an audience. The characteristics of name-calling are that it
involves:
• labelling the target
• using sarcasm and ridicule, e.g., racist, fascist, yuppie scum
Name-calling involves making a mockery of or laughing at what the targets say.

They are criticised for their lack of values and their ideals are denounced. Their
words and actions are turned around, taken out of context, and amplified to drown
out denials. A denial might even seem like an admission of guilt (Miller, 1937).
Those who use this propaganda technique find a name that trivialises their
opponent and use it at every opportunity, with a smirk on their faces, and the
laughter of their supporters. This goes a long way towards making the opponent
appear stupid, immoral, or otherwise undesirable.

Name-calling associates the opponent with something that is despised or inferior

in some way. The more the other person or group is socially isolated, the more
others will avoid the person or group. The results are a spiral of isolation that
neutralises opponents and sends a chilling warning to those who might follow in
their path.
Note how, especially in wartime, the other side is given a whole slew of derogatory
names. In the Second World War, the Germans were called Huns, Krauts, the
Boche, and etc., while the Japanese were called Nips, Japs, Slant-eyes and so on.
7.3.3 Endorsement
Endorsement is used to support a candidate, someone who is respected or liked,
or a particular group. Another name for this is testimonial. During ObamaÊs
presidential campaign, talk show host Oprah Winfrey and many other popular
celebrities in the United States endorsed him. This boosted his acceptance by the
public.
The overall intention of celebrity endorsements or testimonials is to associate a

product or service with a well-known person in society. The idea is that if the well-
known person believes that a product is good, then consumers will also believe
that it is good. For example, former US professional basketball player Michael
Jordan is the most commonly used sports figure for testimonials while US
professional golfer Tiger Woods lent his name to the Nike brand.
7.3.4 Glittering Generalities

With this technique, propagandists employ vague sweeping statements (often
slogans or simple catchphrases) using language associated with values and beliefs
deeply held by the audience without providing supporting information or reasons.
They appeal to notions such as honour, glory, love of country, desire for peace,
freedom, and family values. The words and phrases are vague and suggest
different things to different people but the implication is always favourable. These
statements cannot be proven true or false because they really say little or nothing
at all.
The Institute of Propaganda Analysis suggests a number of questions we should

ask ourselves if we are confronted with this technique. For example, what does a
slogan or phrase which is being used really mean? Is there a legitimate connection
between the true meaning of the slogan or phrase and the idea being discussed?
What are the merits of the idea if it is separated from the slogan or phrase?

This propaganda technique makes use of virtue words, which is the opposite of
name calling. A person or an idea is linked to a positive symbol, e.g., democracy,
patriotism, or family. This is an act of referring to words or ideas that evoke a
positive emotional response in an audience. In other words, it refers to a statement
that sounds good but in reality, is essentially meaningless. Its characteristics are
vague, and in the form of slogans or catchphrases. For example, during former
US President Barack ObamaÊs presidential campaign, he had this mantra –
„Change we can believe in‰ while former President Bill Clinton and former Vice
President Al GoreÊs mantra was „Putting people first‰.
This technique uses slogans or simple phrases that sound good but provide little
or no information due to the vagueness of the message or the positive connotations
of the words. For example, a politician says, „A vote for me is a vote for peace.‰
7.3.5 Stacked Cards

This is an effort to present only one side of an issue and not its entirety. In using
this technique, facts which most effectively help to strengthen and authenticate the
point of view of the propagandist are selected and presented. It includes collecting
all the needed materials on a particular subject, as well as selecting materials that
most effectively support the propagandistÊs point of view on the candidate in
question. The candidate's past misdeeds are covered up so that they do not
jeopardise the candidateÊs chances.
The success or failure of this type of propaganda depends on the propagandistsÊ

strategy of selecting facts or „cards‰ and presenting or „stacking‰ them to the
public. For example, when you see advertisements of drug manufacturers, they
normally skim over the possible harmful side effects of their products. The facts
selected and presented to the public are those which could most effectively
strengthen the point of view of propagandists who are championing the cause.
7.3.6 Just Plain Folks

This type of propaganda makes the average person think that the candidate is just
like them. It seeks to win the confidence of the electorate by communicating in the
most common manner and style of the target audience. In political propagandas,
the propagandists could use the language and mannerisms of ordinary folks (e.g.,
wearing simple clothes in face-to-face audio-visual communication) in order to
identify with the average person they are targeting. In this way, it is possible for
the propagandists to win the confidence of those who resent or dislike foreign-
sounding intellectual speeches, words, or mannerisms.

The most recent American Presidents were millionaires (Donald Trump was a
billionaire), but you could see that in most cases, they went to great lengths to
present themselves as ordinary citizens. For example, Bill Clinton ate at
McDonald's, Roland Reagan chopped wood, and Jimmy Carter was a humble
peanut farmer.
7.3.7 Fear
The fear propaganda technique plays on deep-seated fears; it warns the audience
that disaster will result if they do not follow a particular course of action. This
technique involves presenting a dreaded circumstance and usually following it up
with the kind of behaviour that is needed to avoid that horrible event. For example,
an insurance company pamphlet includes pictures of houses destroyed by floods,
followed by details about homeowner's insurance.
When used in politics, the fear propaganda technique is meant to scare people into
voting for a particular candidate and not another. Propagandists could instil fear
in you that your way of life is in danger. They could use pictures, sounds, or words
to arouse fear. For example, they could say that the Third World War might break
out. Will it begin in the Middle East?
7.4 PROPAGANDA THEORIES IN 1930S

There are various theories related to propaganda. The four theories that influenced
propaganda in the 1930s are as follows:
• Behaviourism
• Freudianism
• Magic bullet theory
• LasswellÊs propaganda theory
These theories will be discussed further in the following subtopics.

7.4.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism was formally founded by John B. Watson in 1913. An animalist,
Watson argued that all human action is merely a conditioned response to stimuli
from the external environment. He coined the term „behaviourism‰. He studied
how a certain stimulus led organisms to make certain responses. Watson believed
that psychology was only an objective observation of behaviour. He believed that
the media provided external stimuli that triggered immediate responses from
humans.
Behaviourism is one of three primary learning theories. Its primary goal is to form
a relationship between a stimulus and a response. The views of behaviourism are
similar to those of the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology in the
19th century. In the 20th century, behaviourism was the result of a cognitive
revolution, while in the 21st century, behaviour analysis became a thriving field.
Behaviourism theorists include Ivan Pavlov, the founder of classical conditioning.

He proposed that an unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response.
Meanwhile, B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviourism, which proposed that all
action is determined and not free. He talked about operant response, a behaviour
that controlled the rate at which specific consequences occurred.
Behaviourism equates learning with behaviours that can be observed and

measured. Reinforcement is key to successful transfer through behaviouristic
learning. Behaviourism places a strong emphasis on stimulus, response, and the
relationship between them.
7.4.2 Freudianism
According to Sigmund Freud, the Ego is the rational mind in control. The Id is the
dark side of the self – the egocentric (selfish and self-centred) pleasure-seeking part
of ourselves – that the Ego must struggle to keep in control. The Ego relies on an
internalised set of cultural rules, or Superego, for guidance.
Propaganda theorists developed propaganda using the Freudian theory.

Propaganda could be effective if it could appeal directly to the Id and stimulate it
to overwhelm or overpower Ego. From this perspective, people are seen as
incapable of rationalism, and therefore, incapable of self-control. They are seen as
highly vulnerable to media manipulation and media stimuli, based on the idea that
the Id could trigger actions that the Ego and Superego are powerless to overcome.

7.4.3 Magic Bullet Theory

During the 1920s, the media were assumed to operate like magic bullets that could
penetrate people's minds and create associations between strong emotions and
specific concepts (Severin & Tankard, 2001). As these magic bullets were carefully
controlled, the propagandists felt that they could condition peopleÊs associations,
for example, to instil loyalty to and reverence for their country or to instil negative
emotions, such as fear and loathing, towards their enemies.
According to this theory, the rational mind is just a facade that is not capable of
resisting messages (McQuail et al., 2005). Evidence of this was the October 1938
incident where H. G. WellsÊ War of the Worlds created panic among radio listeners
who believed that the radio broadcast was true.
7.4.4 Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory

In this theory, Harold Lasswell combined behaviourism and Freudianism into a
particular pessimism of the media and their role. He asserted that propaganda was
not so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific messages, but rather
the result of a vulnerable state of mind of the average individual in the country
(McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005).
Lasswell argued that economic depression and escalating political conflicts

induced widespread psychosis and obsession, so people became susceptible to
even crude forms of propaganda. He rejected the simplistic magic bullet theory.
He believed that people needed to be gradually convinced before they could accept
radically different ideas and actions.
There is a need for communicators of propaganda messages to develop a long-

term campaign in which new ideas and images are carefully introduced and
cultivated. Symbols need to be created to make people associate them passionately
to specific emotions. If these cultivation strategies are successful, they are referred
to as Master symbols. These Master symbols are associated with strong emotions
and possess the power to stimulate large-scale beneficial mass action if they are
used wisely (Baran & Davis, 2009).

Lasswell envisioned a long and varied conditioning process. He believed that

exposure to just one or two extremist messages will not have much of an impact.
For a successful social movement to gain power, it could last for months and even
years using a variety of media. He proposed that power to control delivery of
propaganda through the mass media should be placed in the hands of a few elites
and scientific technocrats who would pledge to use their knowledge for good
rather than evil.
ACTIVITY 7.1
How did political propaganda influence your vote in MalaysiaÊs last
general election? Discuss with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
Explain briefly each of the four propaganda theories.
7.5 MASS MEDIA AS TOOLS FOR POLITICAL

PROPAGANDA
Mass media can disseminate news via radio, television, newspapers, the Internet,
and other platforms to reach large numbers of people both nationally and
internationally, in developed and developing countries. It is the mass media that
can shape public opinion more than anything else in any society. This is because it
is the main medium that carries cultural nuances and reinforces all the aspects that
make up the mainstream society at any given time. News items are important as
they can serve as a medium of public discussion and exchange of opinion.
7.5.1 Power of Mass Media

A historical example of propaganda use occurred in Nazi Germany, when „the
Jewish question‰ was reported by the mass media and continually presented as if
it were an obvious central issue. It later became a German issue and the German
public was bombarded daily with coverage of „the Jewish question‰ in print media
and over the airwaves. The government used the power of the mass media to
persuade the majority of Germans to think and accept that the most crucial
question of the day was „What are Germans going to do to all the Jews that are in
our country?‰ As they manipulated the contents of the mass media and constantly

used the communication channels of the mass media with the same central
„problems‰ over an extended period, the Nazi government created an
unwarranted and false issue that was clearly their own agenda to exterminate the
Jews. The government-controlled Propaganda Ministry was created by Hitler to
control the national media network in order for him to cement his authority over
Germans and to achieve his personal objective – to control and rule the world.
During HitlerÊs reign, the Propaganda Ministry created films and posters, radio
broadcasts, childrenÊs literature, and other propaganda materials to drive home
HitlerÊs message to his people. This was a great tool for him in the 1930s and served
the Nazis well throughout the Second World War until the propaganda lost its
effectiveness. Figure 7.3 shows a quote from Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister
of Propaganda of Nazi Germany.
Figure 7.3: A Quote by Goebbels
Source: https://goo.gl/images/CrWAoD

7.6 MASS MEDIA AND GENERAL ELECTION

In the United Kingdom, the main political parties have free rein to spend millions
of pounds on cross media campaigns to win the support and mandate of the
people in a general election. Some of the campaign money is spent on direct
publicity, for example, advertisements on billboards and in newspapers.
The campaign teams also use a range of social media. During interviews and
debates, the leaders may reveal some sound bites which they hope would be
picked up and broadcast in the nightly prime time news.
According to Lord Tim Bell, an advertising executive who advised former Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher during her three successful election campaigns,
„People are more likely to receive a message if it is delivered with humour than if
you shout at them‰.
The mass media has great influence to turn the tide for a political party when the
weak points of its opponents are well handled. They tell the electorate the
consequences of the government's weak policies and proffer solutions to the issues
in question, as if they are the ones that have the most practical solutions.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. What do you understand as the power of mass media? Explain
with examples.
2. Look up the party logos or symbols of the leading political parties

in Malaysia and analyse each one. What are your perceptions of
their underlying values and ideologies?
3. If you were a campaign manager for a political party in Malaysia,

how might you use media to build support?

7.7 SMART PARTNERSHIP: NEWS AND THE

POLITICAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The political communication process can be described as an interactive process
with regard to the transmission of information among politicians, the news media,
and the public. This smart partnership process is downward in its operation, from
governing institutions to citizens, horizontal in linkage among the political actors,
and upward, from public opinion to the authorities.
Its main focus is how messages are generated by different political parties and
interest groups and transmitted through direct and indirect media communication
channels.
Currently, there is an increase in the number of political consultants, pollsters,

advertising executives, and groups of people with personal interest in politics. This
enhances the process of strategic political communication by political parties and
interest groups. For example, NBC News in the United States entered into a smart
partnership with a leading political data firm for in-depth reporting of the
2016 election to enhance election coverage and to study the voting process in depth
in the United States.
In democratic societies, political communication is central to the electoral process.

In the last decade, however, this structural foundation has been altered drastically,
particularly in the post-war trend of the mass media moving from its traditional
world of newspapers, radio, and television towards Internet usage. In fact, in the
last few decades, there is concern about the future of newspapers. Many believe
that in the recent decade, the traditional standards of television news and public
affairs have come under threat from technological advancements and economic
development.
7.7.1 Rise of Internet Usage in Communication

Process
Political communication has witnessed an important rapid change through the rise
of the Internet. The use of networked computers and computer-mediated emails
has existed for scientific elites as early as the 1960s.
However, major breakthroughs in the 1990s transformed the Internet into a virtual
world, serving the functions of reference library, post office, and shopping mall.
The major developments included the birth of the World Wide Web (WWW) in
1990 and the launch of other popular web browsers to access information, such as

Mosaic (1993), Netscape Navigator (1994), and Microsoft Internet Explorer (1995)
(Chapman, 2009). Other innovations include mp3 music files, digital telephony,
and many others.
As the use of the Internet spread globally, the globalised phenomenon became
apparent, and many more users around the world came online and became
netizens. Between 1995 and 2000, the total number of Internet users rapidly grew
from about 26 million to 377 million worldwide, a truly explosive increase within
the space of a few years.
In Malaysia, the Multimedia Super Corridor was established to attract investments

in the areas of telecommunication, multimedia, and electronics, and to produce
silicon wafers and software. As part of MalaysiaÊs Vision 2020, Malaysians can
boast of cellular telephone penetration rates of 1 in every 10 people, where the
current ratio could even be 1 in every 3 people. Many more schools are wired and
21 Internet hosts for 1000 people make it possible to undertake a more vigorous
political communication process.
7.7.2 Implications of the Rise in Internet Usage in

News and Political Communication Process
With the rise in Internet usage, political communication has entered a new
dimension. The political consequence of this is changes in the dissemination of
news from traditional news media, which were mostly dominated by newspapers,
television, and radio.
Cyber-optimists have the most positive perspective of this development and

emphasise Panglossian possibilities (optimistic) of Internet use by ordinary
citizens to participate directly in democratic activities. Digital technologies can
facilitate alternative channels of civil engagement, such as political chatrooms and
electronic voting in general elections and referenda issues. These technologies can
also mobilise virtual communities, thereby revitalising levels of general public
participation in political affairs.
It is very clear that political communication through the old media channels is
undergoing a process of fundamental change, which holds both threats and
promises for the future socioeconomic and political development of the people.
Digital networks can broaden and improve access to information and
communication in remote rural areas and poor neighbourhoods. This could
strengthen the process of democratisation and help reduce the endemic problem
of poverty, which is very common in most developing countries.

7.8 MASS MEDIA AND POLITICAL CONSENSUS

In a democratic government, the ability to arrive at a consensus in the process of
decision making on legislation is largely influenced by mass media. The increasing
influence of media on the society at large, the behaviour of politicians, and the
functioning of political and administrative institutions is called mediatisation
(Stromback, 2008; Hajer, 2009). The question is whether the mass media in todayÊs
society is living up to the social reality in its true sense, or the elites who control
them filter what they see fit to be made public. If we consider what is seen as
politics in todayÊs world, i.e. the activity of professional politicians „representing‰
the people, we may argue that it is politics itself which is fake, and mass media
simply reproduces what it represents.
Mass media, which is mostly owned by political elites, provides a different

political reality to society. There is a tendency to tell the general public what
reflects the feelings of the section of elites who control them. A good example
is the way in which the Anglo-American media distorted the real motive behind
the criminal bombardment of the Iraqi people at the end of 1998. The media was
efficiently used to serve the interests of Anglo-Americans, notwithstanding that
many countries opposed the idea of attacking a sovereign nation. They justified
the invasion and made the general public believe it was a conflict between peace-
loving regimes in the North versus rogue regimes in the South, or, in more
sophisticated versions supported by social democrat intellectuals, as a conflict
between democracies in the North versus despotic regimes in the South over the
control of oil (Picard, 1998).
It is not accidental that in the United States and United Kingdom, where the media
is sometimes guilty of misinformation and disinformation, opinion polls showed
consistently that the vast majority were in favour of the decision making of their
elites during that period of the Iraqi war.
7.8.1 Role of the Media in Political Consensus

The media always plays an important role and acts as an indicator of
public agenda and public mood. Both administrators and politiciansÊ
responsiveness to media coverage is often considered important in enhancing
democratic legitimacy. Ironically, the media is supposed to provide a means to
increase transparency in legislative decision-making processes and policy
outcomes (McChesney, 1999).

In addition, the media is actively used by political and administrative institutions

as outlets to inform the general public, and sometimes to indirectly influence
decision-making processes. In the latter case, communication via the media can be
considered a political strategy. However, it is known that citizens on their own will
only support a political regime which they believe in and which corresponds to
their political values at most times.
7.8.2 Social Media and Political Consensus

Social media has caused political elites to lose their monopoly of news in the
contemporary political environment. The advent of todayÊs social media has
influenced what issues politicians perceive as salient information exclusively for
elites (Zaller, 1999; Margolis & Resnick, 2000). It is argued that social media
represents citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and direct way.
In contrast, traditional media constitutes a stable and well-known information

landscape for policymakers, which most often is distorted to serve elites who own
media organisations. The social media landscape is rather new and versatile. There
is still relatively little knowledge on how governments and politicians are using
and responding to social media.
It could be rightly concluded therefore that the role of the media today is not to
make the system more democratic. In fact, one basic function of the media is, as
Chomsky (2002) stresses, to help keep the general population out of the public
arena because if they get involved, they will just make trouble. Their job is to be
spectators, not participants.
The media can also play a crucial role in offsetting democratic rights and freedoms
won after long struggles. This has been the case all along, when there was a clash
between elites and trade unions, or other popular movements. Walter Lippmann,
the revered American journalist, was explicit about this crucial role played by the
media in politics.
7.9 MASS MEDIA, CONFLICT AND POLITICAL

PARTICIPATION
It is very clear that information is very powerful and can have a positive or
negative impact on public discourses. It can shape what we hear or see during
conflicts. This is true because the perspective of those who control or run the affairs
in the media shapes the news that is disseminated to the general public. It could
change peopleÊs view on issues in which they initially had little interest. It could

even incite people to violence. For example, Hitler used the media to create an
entire worldview of hatred towards the Jews, homosexuals, and even some
minorities, during his time.
Most media professionals determine what their target audience want to see and
hear. In journalism, the common principle is „when it bleeds it leads‰. This means
violent conflicts, not news that hang on dialogue and understanding, make front-
page news. The media covers conflicts rather than dialogue, although it should be
doing the latter. By always covering conflicts, the media distorts reality, which
leads to the erroneous belief among the general public that peace is not pervasive
and is abnormal.
7.9.1 Functions of Media in Conflicts and Peace

Building
The media plays an important role in our everyday life, and this role could be
constructive or destructive. For example, the media could disseminate peaceful
information and also counter hate speech, therefore creating a balance of opinion
in a local environment, which is called information equilibrium. On the other
hand, it could also incite society to commit violence, just like in 2006 when a
cartoonist in Denmark created a message about Islam which caused international
conflict.
The media, in some cases, finds it difficult to create a balance between countering
and preventing hate speech which can be the private opinion of individuals. The
media should be seen as truthful, fair, and balanced in presenting accounts of
events or situations.
7.9.2 Media as Watchdog, Gatekeeper and Peace

Promoter
In most cases, privately owned media serves as a watchdog for the general public.
The perception is that public media, controlled by ruling elites, could hide some
true situations in order to not give the opposition a chance to ridicule their policies,
which could lead to losing support from electorates.

In Sierra Leone, a video documentary exposed the incidence of sexual violence

against women during the civil war there. The film entitled Operation Fine Girl:
Rape Used as a Weapon of War in Sierra was produced by human rights activists
with support from the international non-governmental organisation, Witness. It
raised international outcry and condemnation that led to an investigation of this
heinous crime against women in the country.
Media events can also be used to promote peace and negotiation, to solve
diplomatic deadlocks, and to create a conducive environment when there are
conflicts between communities, regions, and countries. For example, Studio
Ijambo, which had a team of 20 people consisting of Hutu and Tutsi journalists,
was engaged in producing about 100 radio programmes with the purpose of
promoting peace and reconciling warring factions in the country.
It can be concluded, therefore, that the media plays a very crucial role in society. It
not only influences the public to support positive issues, but also recognises
potential conflict and addresses it before the problem gets out of hand.
Although international media covering conflicts might have a different viewpoint,

local media is a recognised part of society and expected to have the ability to
reduce fears. The media should be capable of defusing tension before conflict
escalates to a more critical point. Therefore, the media should play the role of a
watchdog or the „fourth estate‰ or „fifth estate‰. When the media avoids hate
speech, it helps the people to be at peace with one another in society, and prevents
racial abuse, violence, and bloodshed.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. How has the rise of Internet usage influenced political
participation of the electorate in Malaysia? What are the
implications for Malaysian politics? Discuss with examples.
2. Describe the role of the local media in resolving conflict in society.
3. Explain the role of the social media in achieving political consensus

in a democratic government.
4. Explain the role of the media in defusing tension in the 1969 race
riot in Malaysia. Please avoid sentiment in answering this question.
Discuss and share your answers withyour coursemates in myINSPIRE.

• Propaganda is the spread of ideas, information, or rumours to help or harm a

person, a cause or an institution. The primary purpose
of propaganda is to make the target audience believe, accept or approve of
something without looking closely at the evidence available.
• Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of a

service or product that is physical and specific. Advertising praises goods.
Propaganda spreads ideas. Propaganda services only political purposes.
• Types of political propaganda are bandwagon, name-calling, endorsement,

glittering generalities, stacked cards, just plain folks, and fear.
• LasswellÊs propaganda theory combines behaviourism and Freudianism into a

particularly pessimistic view of the media. He saw propaganda as not so much
the result of substance, or the appeal of specific messages, but the result of the
vulnerable state of mind of the average person in a country.
• Social media influences whatever issues politicians perceive as salient. Social

media represents citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and direct
way. In contrast, traditional media constitutes a stable and well-known
information landscape for policymakers, and is sometimes perceived as being
of service to the elites who own it.
Communication Political communication

Conflicts Political consensus
Election Political propaganda
Government Propaganda
Internet Propaganda theories
Mass media Social media

Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2009). Mass communication theory: Foundations,

ferment, and future (5th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Chapman, C. (2009). The history of the Internet in a nutshell. WebFX Blog.

http://sixrevisions.com/resources/the-history-of-the-internet-in-a-
nutshell/
Chomsky, N. (2002). Media control: The spectacular achievements of propaganda.

Open Media Books.
Hajer, M. A. (2009). Authoritative governance: Policy-making in the age of

mediatization. Oxford University Press.
Jowett, G. S., & OÊDonnell, V. (2012). Propaganda and persuasion (5th ed.). Sage.
Margolis, M., & Resnick, D. (2000). Politics as usual: The cyberspace „revolution‰.
Sage.
McChesney, R. W. (1999). Rich media, poor democracy: Communication politics

in dubious times. University of Illinois Press.
McClintock, A. (2005). Propaganda techniques in todayÊs advertising. In

P. S. Gardner (Ed.), New directions: Reading, writing, and critical thinking
(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
McQuail, D., Golding, P., & Bens, E. D. (Eds.). (2005). Communication theory &
research: An EJC anthology. Sage.
Miller, C. (1937). Propaganda analysis. Institute for Propaganda Analysis.
Picard, R. G. (1998). Media concentration, economics, and regulation. In D. Graber,

D. McQuail, & P. Norris (Eds.), The politics of news: The news of politics. CQ
Press.
Severin, W. J., & Tankard, J. W. (2001). Communication theories: Origins, methods

and uses in mass media (5th ed). Longman.

Zaller, J. (1999). A theory of media politics: How the interests of politicians,

journalists, and citizens shape the news. University of Chicago Press.
Stromback, J. (2008). Four phases of mediatization: An analysis of the

mediatization of politics. International Journal of Press/Politics, 13(3),
228–246.

Topic  Media and
Politics: The
8 Process
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the relationship between media ownership, gatekeeping,
and political affiliation.
2. Explain the editorial functions of the media and media censorship.
3. Elaborate on the politics of advertisement and the media.
4. Outline the nature and elements of political journalism.
5. Explain the significance of the editorial and editorial pages.
6. Discuss the politics of protocol in prime-time news.
 INTRODUCTION
Media and politics is a system where political information and roles are supported
through the mass media. Media tends to be the medium that disseminates
information on political affairs to enable the public to be involved in political and
national life. People rely on the media to keep up with politics and understand the
behaviour of political leaders.

118  TOPIC 8 MEDIA AND POLITICS: THE PROCESS
8.1 MEDIA AND GATEKEEPERS

A media gatekeeper is a person in the media who decides what is worthy of being
seen by people. Another way to think about it is that a gatekeeper is the person
who tells writers what to write about. So, the gatekeeperÊs responsibility is to
ensure that a news broadcast is in consonance with the policies of the media owner
and state, and does not violate any rules, laws, ethics or norms of society.
A gatekeeper is responsible for determining the presentation of news in the media

which in turn determines the agenda presented to the audience. The media
gatekeeper in Malaysia is always sensitive to the governmentÊs needs, and filters
and adjusts news to portray government policies. Yang and Md Sidin (2014)
claimed that ownership had an impact on media gatekeeping decisions. They
found that political considerations were the primary external factor influencing
the gatekeeping of newspapers.
8.1.1 Media Owners and Political Affiliation

Capital interest has determined the direction of media growth since the 20th
century. Media owners are often businessmen who become owners of capital and
then found or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
The ownership of media organisations is very closely linked to domination of
political, economic, and cultural flows. Media owners use their media entities to
achieve their own political purposes. Across developing countries, most major
media such as radio stations, television, and newspapers are owned by the
government or ruling party.
MalaysiaÊs mainstream newspapers are largely owned by the government or

businessmen and public figures in close relationship with the coalition parties of
the government. Although the news media is the main avenue of communication
between a government and its people, the Malaysian government appears to adopt
a „government knows best‰ stance when it comes to mainstream media. One
possible reason is that since Malaysia is a developing nation, the government has
to control mainstream media to ensure that it does not side-track and compromise
national development and national security (Anuar, 2007).

TOPIC 8 MEDIA AND POLITICS: THE PROCESS  119
Smeltzer (2008) stated that most of the media in Malaysia may, in fact, directly or
indirectly be owned by members of the ruling party or enjoy the political support
of the economic elites (refer to Table 8.1), and also other main opposition parties
(Kenyon & Marjoribanks, 2007).
Media policies in Malaysia are also under the control of the state government. The
traditional media are said to be government friendly, and allow the government
to have a certain degree of control on media coverage.
Table 8.1: Ownership of Media in Malaysia
Ownership Company Media
UMNO Media Prima Berhad TV3, TV9, TV8, NTV7, HOT.FM, Fly.FM,
New Straits Times, Berita Harian, Harian
Metro
Utusan Melayu (M) Berhad Utusan Malaysia, Utusan Melayu,
KOSMO, Utusan Karya
MCA Star Publications Berhad The Star, Red 104.FM, Suria.FM
PAS Harakah Harakah Daily
DAP The Rocket Rocket
8.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE EDITORIAL

The editorial is a newspaperÊs official outlook on specific issues, including political
issues, and often appears in an official statement called an editorial. Editorials have
to be public watchdogs, to educate and inform the public. According to Duyile
(2005), an editorial is the opinion of the newspaper simply written for the
understanding of readers, leading them to make decisions on the issues being
discussed. They will choose what will be reported and highlighted to the public.
Some common goals of editorials are to inform, educate, and entertain issues
broadcast with reasons and facts for or against something. Journalists today
typically strive to maintain objectivity – presenting a story without bias – but
readers can still choose from among many different media outlets. There are often
distinct differences in the ways different newspapers, television news channels,
and radio networks present news about the same issues.

The editorial is a critical element in positioning a newspaper as a mediator between

the people and the many contending forces in contemporary society. The editorial
is an opinion and attitude of the media as a publishing institution towards a
particular issue or controversy that arises in the community. Opinions written by
editors are assumed to represent the editorial opinions and attitudes of the media.
Editorials in Malaysia may appear in forms like editorial cartoons or columns in

the newspapers mainly for the purpose of agenda setting and framing. Editorial
cartoons, also known as political cartoons, are used to express views on political
issues and regarded as a reflection of freedom of speech.
Editorial cartoons have been published in Malaysian newspapers, such as Utusan

Melayu, Warta Melayu, Majlis and Lembaga since the 1930s. Some of the more
prolific cartoonists at that time included Abu Bakar bin Mohd, Nor Amir Hamzah
bin Mir Baru, Abd Manan Ali Samad and Mohammad Nor Khalid or more
popularly known as Lat (Mahamood, 2004).
Presenting oneÊs ideas freely, even through editorial cartoons, may be risky. Lat is
the only Malaysian cartoonist who has produced editorial cartoons depicting well-
known political figures, including Tun Dr Mahathir, and his caricatures are well
accepted and appreciated (Mahamood, 2004; Ujang, 2009).
8.3 CENSORSHIP
Censorship is a global phenomenon. It involves reviewing something and then
choosing to remove or hide parts that are considered unacceptable. Censorship is
often used by a group which wants to control information for personal gain, or to
prevent other people from accessing information that should be available.
Censorship is a process or idea of keeping things like obscene words or graphic
images from an audience.
There is also such a thing as self-censorship, which is when one refrains from
saying certain things or rewords them, depending on who is listening. Self-
censorship is done to prevent annoyance and avoid punishment by powerful
players, such as the government, major advertisers or corporations owning the
news organisations, where there is no outside power to tell them to censor their
work.

Media censorship takes many forms in the way news is delivered. While news
stories are often edited for length, there are many choices that are made to keep
some information from becoming public. Sometimes, these decisions are made to
safeguard a personÊs privacy, while at other times, the aim is to protect media
outlets from corporate or political fallout.
There are different types of censorship. One of the most common criteria for
censorship is the age limit for viewing different media. Sometimes, censorship can
be carried out in the form of a blanket ban on a certain taboo topic. A taboo topic
is defined according to the governing authority in the country.
8.3.1 Political Censorship

Political censorship happens when a government attempts to conceal, fake, distort
or falsify information that its citizens receive, by suppressing or crowding out
political news in news outlets. The government often uses the power of the army
and secret police to enforce the compliance of journalists with the will of the
authorities to spread the story that the government wants people to believe.
Violent speeches and derogatory comments about a particular race and religion
should be censored as these incite anger among the masses against the person or
organisation he or she is associated with. Such media tactics are often used by
political parties for selfish means while ignoring the greater good of society. This
can only bring unrest among the masses and disrupt peace in society. Censorship
prevents the public display of disrespect to any individual or community and
promotes political correctness.
8.3.2 Censorship in Malaysia

Malaysia has some of the toughest censorship laws in the world. However, the
growth of the Internet has allowed some media activists to express their thoughts
without limitations. Political content is not the only content that is censored. There
is also social, religious, and moral censorship in Malaysia. Some newspapers
which are restricted in their print versions challenge government domination
online as the Internet provides much more freedom.

In Malaysia, censorship and self-censorship are imposed by the government. Self-

censorship means exercising control over what one says and does, especially to
avoid criticism or severe reprimand. As shown in Figure 8.1, there are two types
of self-censorship in Malaysia: salient and proscribed (Loo, 2013).
Figure 8.1: Types of Self-Censorship in Malaysia
Source: Loo (2013)
Malaysian journalists are duty bound to essentially report on „safe‰ issues to

avoid inciting racial strife or propagating salacious promiscuity. According to
former Communications and Multimedia Minister, Datuk Seri Dr Salleh Said
Keruak, self-censorship is important to ensure that the information received is
valid and not detrimental or disruptive to harmony in society and country (Malay
Mail Online, 2015).
For many Malaysian journalists, the real threat does not come so much from
professional sanctions but a learned cautiousness against sackings, unannounced
arrests for „mishandling‰ of information, or in some cases, expensive defamation
actions. Therefore, Malaysian newspapers generally offer a daily diet of general
business news and light social features. Fundamental issues of environmental
degradation, poverty, public corruption, public health, public accountability or
migrant labour are largely ignored (Loo, 2005).
8.4 POLITICS OF ADVERTISEMENT AND THE

MEDIA
Bolland (1989) defines advertising as the „paid placement of organisational
messages in the media‰. Political advertising therefore, refers to the purchase and
use of advertising space, paid for at commercial rates, in order to transmit political
messages to a mass audience. The media used for this purpose may include
cinema, billboards, the press, radio, television, and the Internet.

Advances in media have streamlined the processes of campaigning, giving

politicians and candidates the comfort and options of reaching out to larger
numbers of people and constituents with very little effort.
Apart from disseminating information, political advertisements are also designed

to persuade. The fundamental platform of political communication from
campaigns to voters, even in this changing world, is advertisement. In 1988,
George Bush and Michael Dukakis spent between them some US$85 million on
television advertising. During the 1992 presidential campaign, BushÊs
team spent upwards of US$60 million on television advertising alone. Dwight D.
Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson also successfully utilised the
media for their political advertising campaigns.
In certain countries, political organisations may be regulated by a regulatory

agency. For example, in Australia, the Australian Communications Media
Authority regulates political advertisements. It also regulates political and election
matters in broadcast media under the Broadcasting Services Act.
In Britain, although regulatory and stylistic conventions differ from those of the
US, political advertising is central to political communication. Today, of course,
television has been joined by the Internet as a platform for advertising of all kinds,
including political.
Political advertisement delivers information that cannot be delivered through

news reports. In Malaysia, political advertising has been practised since the 1960s.
Political advertising in Malaysia is more prevalent during elections in order to
raise awareness or encourage a change in votersÊ behaviour or perceptions. During
past general elections, the government expected mainstream media to not only
publicise but also flaunt Barisan NasionalÊs achievements, particularly in the area
of socioeconomic development.
Based on Nielsen (2011) Advertising Information Services, Barisan Nasional spent

RM9.8 million on advertisement in February 2008, which marked the beginning of
the election period. Meanwhile, Transparency International Malaysia (TI-M)
estimated that Barisan Nasional spent 7.68% of its budget of RM94.5 million on
print ads. The New Straits Times and The Star were used to campaign for Barisan
Nasional (Grewal, 2015).

Advertising campaigns are capable of influencing public opinion. The 2008 general
election showed how campaigns by political parties became more intense and
creative through advertising. Government and opposition parties competed to
optimise the power of advertising to garner votes for their respective parties. The
government utilised media advertisements to remind Malaysians to „decide
wisely and vote‰ for candidates and parties that deserved to win the election.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss media censorship in Malaysia. Give examples. Discuss your
answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What do you understand by media ownership, gatekeeping, and
their relationship with political affiliation?
2. Outline the functions of the editorial in the media.
3. Discuss the politics of advertisement and the media.
8.5 POLITICAL JOURNALISM AND THE MEDIA

Political journalism is a broad range of journalism that includes coverage of
all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers
specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.
8.5.1 Nature of Political Journalism

Political journalism argues a position of authority, promotes certain politicians,
raises issues and provides insights to inform the public about public relations, and
mobilises people to act in political terms. Political journalism has four
characteristics (three by Neveu, 2002, and one added by Kaciaf, 2013):
(a) Noble Journalism

Journalists rub shoulders with politicians and cover activities which could
change societyÊs destiny. Noble journalism can be seen in the success of
books that give readers a glimpse into the functioning of power.

(b) Esoteric Journalism

Journalists have access to a reality that most people do not understand or are
not interested in.
(c) Proximity with Politicians

Political journalists are much closer to politicians and this leads them to share
politiciansÊ views and conceptions of politics.
(d) Political Discourses (added by Kaciaf, 2013)

Political discourses are political acts in themselves and thus, are different
from other discourses.
The government and media throughout the world will not always see eye to eye
on ethical and professional issues. By nature, democratically elected governments
expect public and media support for their policies. The press is often the willing
critic. Democracy is better served by either an adversarial press or a consensus-
driven press, depending on cultural perspectives. However, the press should
never be ritually adversarial or habitually cooperative.
Political journalism in Malaysia articulates values through the governmentÊs

broad definition of the mediaÊs role in fostering civic education and national
development. Political journalism in Malaysia is guardedly contentious,
constructively adversarial, and critically supportive. Former Prime Minister,
Tun Dr Mahathir, stated that journalism in Malaysia should be constructive,
consensual, and development-oriented.
The relationship between the Malaysian media and government was borne out of
historical and political necessity. In Malaysia, the democratic government has the
authority to interfere in and control the media. There are ups and downs in the
relationship between the media and government in Malaysia. However, both are
interdependent and there is symbiosis between the two.
Discrepancies between Malaysian journalistsÊ ethical codes and their actual

behaviour points to their professional dilemma in trying to fulfil their prescribed
roles within the constraints and context of a multiracial society going through hard
economic times; and holding their chin up to their Western counterparts, whose
freedom to report and hold the government to public accountability is sacrosanct
(Loo, 1998).

8.6 ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL JOURNALISM

The study of political journalism directs our attention to the relationship between
three elements in the process by which political action is conceived and realised
(McNair, 2011). The elements of political journalism encompass media relations
with political organisations and citizens (see Figure 8.2). These three elements will
be discussed further in the following subtopics.
Figure 8.2: Elements of Political Journalism
Source: McNair (2011)
8.6.1 Political Organisations

The political organisation is made up of political actors who are defined as
individuals who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to
influence the decision-making process (see Figure 8.2). McNair (2011) stated that
these political organisations may seek to do this by attaining institutional political
power, in government or constituent assemblies, through which preferred policies
can be implemented.

(a) Parties
According to McNair (2011), this category of political actors is made up of
like-minded individuals who come together within an agreed organisational
and ideological structure to pursue common goals which reflect the partyÊs
underlying value system or ideology.
There are definitely differences in ideology that exist between political

parties in modern democracies as they share a commitment to constitutional
means of advancing their objectives, which involves attempting to convince
a population as a whole of their correctness, and putting their policies to the
test of periodic elections. Once mandated and they agree to abide by the
constitutional rules of the political system in which they operate, they would
have to respect the limitations put on their power to implement or oppose
policy, until such time as another electoral opportunity comes along.
(b) Public Organisations

According to McNair (2011), surrounding the established institutions of
politics is a host of non-party organisations with political objectives. These
non-party actors can be divided into three categories:
 trade unions
 consumer groups
 professional associations and others
The unity of these organisations is not because of ideology but by some

common feature of their members, for example, work problems (trade
unions) or weakness of the individual citizen facing large corporations
(consumer groups).
(c) Pressure Groups

Pressure groups are stakeholder groups that have a higher degree of political
involvement as the party urges the authorities directly and actively towards
policies and regulations as may be required. Pressure groups may be
distinguished from public organisations as they are less institutionalised and
have more political objectives.
The concerns of pressure groups are usually issues related to conservation

of natural environment and prevention of animal cruelty. They tend to
campaign around single issues, such as the anti-nuclear movement in the
early 1980s (Deacon & Golding, 1994).

(d) Terrorist Organisations

These are groups using or threatening to use physical and psychological
violence to achieve political goals by targeting civilians, contrary to
international law and human values. According to McNair (2011), the term
„terrorist‰ refers to groups which use terror tactics, urban bombing,
hijacking, assassination, and kidnapping, to list the most common, to achieve
their political objectives.
More commonly associated with terrorism, however, are organisations such

as the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland, that is, until the 1998 peace
agreement.
Most of these organisations regard their goals as being outside of the

constitutional process and use violence as a means of persuasion. They
actively court media attention, striving to make their target public.
8.6.2 Audience
The audience can be defined as a market and the programme being presented is
the product offered. Basically, the audience is a group of people who read, listen
to, and watch a variety of media. McNair (2011) states that the target of political
journalismÊs persuasion is the audience.
The audience for a particular political communication may be broad, as in a

billboard advertisement or a US election „spot‰, where the objective is to persuade
an entire nation of voters. Whatever the size and nature of the audience, however,
all political communication is intended to achieve an effect on the receivers of the
message.
8.6.3 Media
Media are forms and channels used to convey information or a message to the
public. These include websites operated by established media organisations such
as the BBC, CNN, and Wall Street Journal; blogs and independent sites such as
Wikileaks which are devoted to reporting, aggregating or commenting on political
issues; and social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, which allow
Internet users to share information rapidly.

In democratic political systems, the media functions both as transmitter of political

communication which originates outside the media organisation itself, and as
sender of political messages constructed by journalists and other producers such
as bloggers. As Figure 8.2 indicates, the role of the media in both respects is crucial.
First, and most obviously, political actors must use the media in order to have their
messages communicated to the desired audience.
Political journalism in Malaysia was built from the idea that media organisations
are partners and associates of the government. Paradoxically, media organisations
in Malaysia are seen as working together with the government for the good of
society within certain boundaries, such as obeying regulations, commercialisation,
and ownership rules, whilst negotiating for more freedom of the press.
The elements of political journalism constitute a complex relationship between

government, the media, and society. The major challenge is government control
over mass media that continues to restrain media freedom, particularly in
Malaysia where the government is believed to own many shares in the countryÊs
private media.
8.7 POLITICS OF THE FRONT PAGE

There are some important issues that will be displayed on the front page, for
example, the issue of elections, war, and international diplomacy. Wolfe et al.
(2009) state that front page news is made up of two aspects: space and attention.
Front-page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on different topics and
have different characteristics because of the extremely limited space on the front
page.
According to Wolfe et al. (2009), front-page coverage, with its dramatically smaller
agenda space, is subject to much higher skew. Compared to full-paper coverage, a
small number of topics often gain a very large proportion of the overall attention.
Similarly, front-page coverage is associated with much greater friction. Because it
has much higher „barriers to entry,‰ front-page attention tends to stay focused on
topics that had been the focus of attention in the previous period.
The power of the news is to set a nationÊs agenda, to focus public attention on a
few key public issues, and it is an immense and well-documented influence. The
front page is traditionally a political medium.

In Malaysia, most of the front-page columns of the New Straits Times and The Star
gave priority to statements made by Barisan Nasional leaders, especially the Prime
Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. The New Straits Times carried positive
reports on Barisan Nasional through headlines like „Barisan Nasional opts for
renewal and the list is ...‰ (21 February 2008), „PM gives report card on Progress
made from 2004–2007‰ (22 February 2008), and „Expansive: BN promises
prudence and accountability‰ (26 February 2008) (as cited in Mohd, 2009).
8.7.1 Editorials and Editorial Pages

An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue.
This article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board. A newspaper
editorial board consists of the editor and business manager. Editorials, usually
unsigned or published without a byline (authorÊs name), represent the opinion of
the newspaper, not the writer. The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page
and frequently contains opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the
publication. However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front
page.
Editorial boards will often approve candidates in upcoming elections, and reading
the editorials from various newspapers on the same topic can give the researcher
a good sense of the general political leaning of a particular source. Editorials are
usually separated from news reporting so that readers can know when they are
reading a factual news report that tries to be objective and when they are reading
the opinion of the editors of the newspaper.
The editorial page of Malaysian newspapers can easily be found in the editorial
(opinion) section for both the New Straits Times and The Star newspapers. These
editorial pages are usually made up of news that discuss political, economic,
education, health, and public issues.
8.8 PRIME TIME NEWS

According to Nielsen (2011), the usual prime time for television is 8pm to 11pm,
Monday through Friday, while more Americans tune in from 9:15pm to 9:30pm
than at any other period during prime time. During this prime time, news and
television programmes will be broadcast by the media. The reason is because this
prime time is the peak hour during which a large number of viewers catch up on
news and programmes after a long day at work.

Prime time news in Malaysia is broadcast from 8pm to 9pm. Prime time news
targets the public after a long busy day at work and broadcasts news that begins
with political issues, issues within the society or community, education, sports,
and finally, world issues.
8.8.1 Politics of Protocol in Prime Time News

Protocol is the official procedure or system of rules governing affairs of state or
diplomatic occasions. Hosso (2014) states that protocol depends on the application
areas and its subjects. It may be divided into the following branches: governmental
or state, diplomatic, military, ecclesiastical, and sports.
According to Hosso (2014), both observance and neglect of rules in protocol have
a signalling effect: one can convey a message or an intention or deliver an opinion.
Politicians always need to convey their message in a credible, believable, and
trustworthy way in order to reach their political goals.
However, in Malaysia, the politics of protocols in prime time television news is

very much controlled and filtered by the government. Only selected scenes and
messages are shared for the people to see.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Define political journalism.
2. Outline the elements of political journalism.
3. What do you understand by the politics of the front page?
4. Explain the functions of the editorial page.
5. Discuss the politics of protocol in prime time news.

 A media gatekeeper decides what is worthy of being seen by people. A

gatekeeper also tells writers what to write about.
 Media owners are businessmen who become owners of capital, and then found
or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
 Censorship is the process of editing/keeping things like obscene words or

graphic images from an audience.
 Political journalism covers all aspects of politics and political science, although
the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and
political power.
 The elements of political journalism encompass media relations with political

organisations and citizens.
 A political organisation is made up of political actors defined as individuals

who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to influence the
decision-making process.
 Front page news is made up of two aspects – space and attention. Front-page
and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on different topics and have
different characteristics because of the extremely limited space on the front
page.
 An editorial presents the opinion of a newspaper on an issue. This article

reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board.
 Editorials are usually unsigned or published without a byline (authorÊs name).

The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently contains
opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.

Censorship Political affiliation

Editorial Political journalism
Editorial page Politics
Front page Politics of advertisement
Gatekeepers Politics of protocol
Media Prime time
Media owners
Anuar, M. K. (2007). Politics and the media in Malaysia. Kasarinian: Philipine

Journal of Third World Studies, 20(1), 25–47.
Bolland, E. J. (1989). Advertising vs. public relations: A comparison using cost-per-

thousand for print ads and PR placements. Public Relations Quarterly, 34(3),
10–12.
Deacon, D., & Golding, P. (1994). Taxation and representation: The media, political
communication and the poll tax. John Libby.
Duyile, D. (2005). Writing for the media – A manual for African journalists. Gong
Communication.
Grewal, I. S. (2015, August 4). Regulating political funding. The Star Online.
http://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/online-exclusive/making-
progress/2015/08/04/regulating-political-funding/
Gunaratne, S. (2002). Freedom of the press: A world system perspective. Gazatte,

64(4), 343–369.
Hosso, N. (2014). Protocol in politics: Politicians are only human.

http://www.academia.edu/9153695/Protocol_in_Politics_-
_Politicians_are_only_human

Kaciaf, N. (2013). Les pages „Politique‰: Une histoire politique de la presse

française, 1945–2006 [Political pages: A history of political journalism in the
French press, 1945–2006]. Rennes University Press.
Kenyon, A. T., & Marjoribanks, T. (2007). Transforming media markets: The case
of Malaysia and Singapore. Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies
and Society, 5(2), 103–118.
Loo, E. (1995). Nurturing community service news values as the core of Asian-
centred journalism. Seminar on Asian values in journalism. Asian Media
Information and Communication Centre.
Loo, E. (1998). Malaysia media „clamp down‰ – So whatÊs new?

http://gbcode.rthk.org.hk/TuniS/app3.rthk.hk/mediadigest/content.php
?aid=1915
Loo, E. (2005). Malaysian media clampdown. Media Digest.

http://rthk.hk/mediadigest/md9810/oct_05.html
Loo, E. (2013). Bridging the cultural gaps in journalism training and education in
Asia. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.
Mahamood, M. (2004). The history of Malay editorial cartoons (1930s–1993).

Utusan Publications & Distributors.
McNair, B. (2011). An introduction to political communication (5th ed.). Routledge.
Mohd, A. M. S. (2009). The public sphere and media politics in Malaysia.

Cambridge Scholars.
Neveu, E. (2002). Four generations of political journalism. In R. Kuhn, & E. Neveu,

Political journalism: New challenges, new practices. Routledge.
Nielsen. (2011) What time is really primetime.
http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2011/what-time-is-really-
primetime.html
Public should practice self-censorship on social media, says minister. (2015,

December 27). Malay Mail Online.
http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/public-should-practice-
self-censorship-on-social-media-says-minister

Smeltzer, S. C. (2008). Blogging in Malaysia: Hope for a new democratic

technology? Journal of International Communication, 14(1), 1–18.
Ujang, Z. (2009). The elevation of higher learning. Malaysian National Institute of

Translation.
Wolfe. M., Boydstun, A. E., & Baumgartner, F. R. (2009). Comparing the topics of
front-page and full-paper stories in the New York Times. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Midwest
Political Science Association.
Yang, L. F., & Md Sidin. (2015). Gatekeeping in the coverage of interethnic

conflicts: An analysis of mainstream and alternative newspapers in Malaysia.
The Journal of the South East Asia Research centre for Communication and
Humanities, 7(1), 23–51.

Topic  Media, Politics
and
9 Globalisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define globalisation.
2. Discuss the impact of globalisation on socio-cultural, political, and
economic transformation.
3. Describe the effect of globalisation on the media system.
4. Explain how new media has transformed politics and political
communication.
 INTRODUCTION
According to some scholars and observers, globalisation began when people began
to travel across the world from one point to another. Thus, globalisation is not new.
For thousands of years, people – and, later, corporations – have been buying from
and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk
Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle
Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises
in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalisation
are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
However, with the advent of information and communications technology (ICT),
rapid globalisation is occurring due to the enabling role of ICT.

TOPIC 9 MEDIA, POLITICS AND GLOBALISATION  137
9.1 GLOBALISATION
Although the word „globalisation‰ was not coined until the second half of the 20th
century, the origin of globalisation has been traced back to the period between 1450
and 1500 AD. This period is referred to as the mercantilist period and characterised
by the development of trade in the quest for commercial empires to broaden their
markets (Amiuwu, 2004; Scholte, 2002; as cited in Ugbam, Chukwu, & Ogbo, 2014).
Propelled by advancements in transportation and information technology,
globalisation has practically shrunk the world into one global village (see
Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Globalisation is Turning Everything That is Different Into One Thing
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/502010689686280918/

138  TOPIC 9 MEDIA, POLITICS AND GLOBALISATION
Globalisation means different things to different people. For some, it creates

positive political, economic, and technological progress. Globalisation is a process
of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided
by information technology.
The process has effects on the environment, culture, political systems, economic
development, and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies
around the world. According to Friedman (2000), globalisation is the inexorable
integration of markets, nation states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed
before. The following subtopics will further discuss globalisation and
sociocultural, political, and economic transformation.
9.1.1 Globalisation and Sociocultural Transformation

Before the advent of globalisation, our societies were mainly agrarian, as in
they were mostly involved in agriculture. Later on, the forces of globalisation
marginalised such types of societies.
Agricultural activities became activities of the few as most of the population are
freed to work in factories, shops, and offices (Giddens, 2013). Cities became greatly
populated, but at the same time, emphasised the anonymity of modern life. The
result was the expansion of industrial technology into military as well as civilian
life and this allowed the sociocultural hegemony of the West to expand at the
expense of other cultures.
In discussing the transformation of societies through globalisation, the term

„developing societies‰ is adopted. These societies differ from traditional societies
in three respects: politically they are nation-states; most are undergoing the
experience of urbanisation; and agriculture dominates but as an export crop rather
than for subsistence. Many of these countries continue to suffer worsening poverty
exacerbated by the cost of servicing their debts to the West, but the developing
world is far from homogeneous and also includes the economic success stories of
newly industrialising countries (NICs) such as Brazil, Mexico, and South Korea.
Asian NICs are involved in both traditional industrial production (steel,
shipbuilding) and innovations such as electronics and financial services.
In tracing the development of these different types of society, scholars have been
engaged in the study of social change. Change is difficult to define, as everything
changes all of the time. A change becomes significant when there are alterations in
underlying structures and modifications of basic institutions.

Social theory has failed to produce a convincing monocausal explanation of social

change, but three main factors that have influenced social change are identified as
follows:
 cultural factors
 physical environment
 political organisation
Technological changes promoted rapid change during the modern era leading to
globalisation. Among the constituents and causes of globalisation is the growth in
ICT, most notably the advent of fibre-optic cables and communications satellites.
The impact of this is uneven, but everywhere it is on an upward trajectory.
ICT helps in the compression of time and space and accelerates

interconnectedness. In this sphere, transnational corporations (TNCs) contribute
to the globalising dynamics by operating their business across borders, whether
they are Coca-Cola or Colgate-Palmolive. Alongside TNCs, we are introduced to
the „global commodity chain‰, the worldwide networks of labour and production
processes leading to a finished product.
The flow of information on the large array of fresh produce on offer in the
supermarket, and the constant transportation of the goods have created the
concepts of „food miles‰ and „local produce‰ in eco-debates. A second argument
concerns global culture, a social fact maintained and reinforced by television, the
global economy, „citizens of the world‰, transnational organisations, and
electronic communications.
According to Ogohi (2014), the social aspect is that globalisation has deeply
influenced the social structure of different societies. Every society used to have its
own unique culture with respect to language, social norms, morality, civic sense,
and other aspects. With the advent of globalisation through the aid of technology,
this special capability to influence millions at the same time has challenged the
social institutions of society, mainly the family.
A particular society following its style of living without being much influenced by
Western culture is now seen as uncivilised, which is a very cunningly designed
propaganda of the West to inculcate their culture into the rest of the world and
thereby dominate the globe. Culture links us to our historical past. It determines
peopleÊs behaviour, ways of acting and ways of thinking.

Culture also defines the value system, customs, education, and knowledge of a
people. It is the channel through which knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws,
customs, and other capabilities and habits are conveyed to members of a
community from generation to generation (Bello, 2001).
Culture consists of the values and rules we live by, our ideas of good and evil, our
language, and our religion. However, the sociocultural phenomenon, which gives
people identity, personality, and individuality, has been masked by globalisation.
The hegemonisation of culture by the Western world or rather, by America, is an
obvious attempt to leave the society of southern countries or developing countries,
without identity, individuality, or personality.
The overall effect on us is that we become mindless atoms in the material world.
This perhaps accounts for why some have defined globalisation from a negative
perspective. Aborishade (2002) maintained that globalisation is Western
imperialism, particularly, American imperialism, which seeks to enforce its
hegemony on other nations through threats of economic, political, or military
coercion. To him, globalisation not only deepened inequality between the core and
periphery nations, but also sought to wage unparalleled attacks on the rights and
prosperity of poor nations.
On the other hand, culture is very much an elusive term to define, perhaps because
of its wide scope and broad nature. However, what comes to mind while thinking
of culture is values and norms people have which make them live in a particular
way. It is a way of living in a particular community. It is, therefore, the sum total
of all things that refer to religion, cultural roots, symbols, languages, songs, stories,
celebrations, clothing and dressing, and all expressions of our way of life. It
encompasses food productions, technology, architecture, kinship, interpersonal
relationships, political and economic systems, and all the social relationships that
these entail.
Culture is learned, not inherited or genetically transmitted. It is absorbed from the

social environment, through deliberate instruction, or through the process of
socialisation. As culture is learned, it can also be unlearned. For example, Malaysia
has a lot to unlearn from its contact with the West (e.g., Western values that are
alien and destructive to Malaysian culture). However, this does not mean that
Malaysia learnt nothing good from the West. In fact, it learnt a lot that is good.
Culture is also dynamic. It is never static. Every now and then, we are transformed
culturally. Culture changes exactly the same way that human beings change. This
transformation is gradual and not sudden or abrupt. According to Fridah (1998),
culture is a continuous process of change but in spite of the change, it continues to
give a community a sense of identity, dignity, continuity, and security, and binds
the society together.

The dynamism of culture casts doubts on the possibility of a global culture. Part of
this dynamism is that each culture has its own personality. The fact that we are all
humans does not mean that we are all the same. To ignore this would mean to
destroy GodÊs own beautiful rainbow made from the many colours of cultural
diversity. But central to globalisation is the idea of a global culture (Guillen, 2001).
However, only a few scholars accept that a global culture is in the making. A
„cultural ideology of consumerism‰ driven by symbols, images, and aesthetics of
lifestyles and self-image – has spread throughout the world and is having some
momentous effects including standardisation of tastes and desires (Guillen, 2001;
Leslie, 1991) which goes a long way to affect culture.
The combination of progressively advanced technology and complex social

structure, which are sustained by ideas of change as desirable progress, enhances
social change as being one of the major impacts of globalisation. The social
dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on the life and work
of people, families, and societies. There are clearly other social aspects of
globalisation beyond employment, working dimensions, income, and social
protection.
Globalisation is seen therefore, as the new coloniser, insensitively spreading

particular views of the world into developing nations with the mistaken belief that
this is actually helping people. The potential power of globalisation to spread
dominant ideologies and to crush emerging structures, whether wittingly or
unwittingly, is the main cause of concern.
9.1.2 Globalisation and Political Transformation

The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. Within the
internal and domestic politics of countries, the advent of globalisation has left an
unprecedented mark. The conduct of election campaigns, for example, has a wide-
reaching effect, since by using online campaigns, messages travel across national
borders. Using online campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has
become the norm.
Another political development is the spread of institutions of government that do

not match national boundaries, such as the European Union, the United Nations,
and a tranche of non-governmental bodies. The spread of information across
borders does not just destabilise regimes, as in Tiananmen Square or Berlin; it also
creates international awareness, for example, through pictures from war zones.
The global outlook that follows from this led some to look for referents both above
and below the nation-state for identities or allegiances.

The collapse of the Soviet bloc reintegrated a large number of countries into the
trading community. As global communications overrode ideological control of the
state media, one could argue that globalisation was both cause and consequence
of the break-up of Soviet hegemony.
9.1.3 Globalisation and Economic Transformation

Gone are the days when countries trade and do business within a particular
locality or region. Come globalisation, no country is an island and countries of the
world trade among themselves. With advancements in transportation and
telecommunication facilities, distance is no longer a hurdle. Advancement in ICT
has further brought an impact on globalisation. With the advent of the electronic
economy, not only is physical capital more mobile between countries but financial
capital can also flow and ebb within seconds on a computer screen. Hence, we are
living in a world which has experienced economic transformation more than ever
before.
Globalisation has changed situations in such a manner that the power of the state
is determined by the power of the firm. If the goal of globalisation is a more liberal
exchange of goods, services, labour, thoughts, etc., which in later stages would
make the world uniform, then there would be no space for identity. Globalisation
is not a debate about divergence or convergence, but a dialectical process which
can both integrate and fragment, while creating both winners and losers, especially
in the economic arena.
In line with globalisation, countries must allow the free and unselective operations
of transnational corporations in their economies; open their economies freely and
indiscriminately to imports and concentrate on exporting what they are supposed
to be good at; reduce the role of governments in the economy to that of supporting
the market and private enterprise; and leave the determination of prices of goods,
currencies, labour as well as the allocation of resources to the operation of the
market, which is called the free market or laissez-faire economy.
In light of the above, one can argue that globalisation is primarily not a neutral
process driven by laws and factors of development, such as technology, and
operating outside of human control and agency. Rather, it is a conscious
programme of restructuring international economic and political relations in line
with a particular set of interests (the profit motivations of businesses, especially
the transnational corporations of advanced industrial countries) and vision (belief
in the primacy of the free market and of private enterprise in all processes of
human development) (Fridah, 1998).

ACTIVITY 9.1
Explain the impact of globalisation on the sociocultural, political, and
economic transformation of your country. Discuss your findings with
your coursemates in myINSPIRE.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What do you understand by the term „globalisation‰?
9.2 GLOBALISATION AND MEDIA SYSTEM

Before the 1990s, most mainstream media belonged to the state and focused mostly
on national issues. However, from the 1990s, most communication media have
become progressively global, reaching a global audience. The international flow of
information has been assisted by the development of global capitalism, new
technologies, and the increasing commercialisation of global television, which
have occurred as a result of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries
in Europe and the US, facilitating the proliferation of cable and satellite channels
(Matos, 2012).
Early advancement in globalisation of communication was facilitated by the

development of technologies capable of transmitting messages via electromagnetic
news, marking a turning point in advancing the globalisation of communications.
This gave birth to international news agencies such as Reuters in the 19th century
which paved the way for the beginning of a global system of codification.
It was in the 1960s, with the launch of the first geo-stationary communication
satellite, that transmission became fully global, thus making the globalisation of
communications a unique phenomenon of the 20th century (Thompson, 1995).
News agencies are seen as crucial for globalisation as they are closely tied to the
modernisation of the West and the expansion of communication media since their
appearance in the mid-19th century. They have an important role to play.
International news agencies such as Reuters, Associated Press, United Press
International, and Agence France-Presse (AFP) are seen by media scholars as
having contributed to a global agenda and creating perceptions of the South
(developing countries) as being a place of corruption, political instability due to
government overthrow and disaster for Western audiences.

These four agencies have remained key players that dominate the global
dissemination of news and information, with many newspapers and other media
organisations across the world depending on them for international news.
The advent of the Internet has further made the media very impactful, whereby
news agencies and the press have an online presence thereby furthering the
globalisation agenda of the media system. A media house or press that has no
online presence would be left behind. This is obvious all around us. The media
system in Malaysia also has an online presence making it global.
9.3 NEW MEDIA AND POLITICS

With the advent of new media, the way politics is conducted has been largely
affected. This has brought about a new dimension to the way political
communication is done. The new media has permeated the domain of political
communication for about a decade now. A classic case was the use of new media
in politics during the Obama campaign back in 2008. In Malaysia, the use of new
media in politics occurred during roughly the same period, during the 12th
General Election (Ali & Mohd Safar, 2011) and later exceedingly used during the
14th General Election with exceptional results when the Barisan Nasional coalition
was ousted from power after over six decades of authoritarian rule, by a new
opposition coalition – Pakatan Harapan (Nadzri, 2018). However, the Obama
campaign had a tremendous impact on the electorate, especially the millennial
generation, compared to the Malaysian scenario. However, the impact on the
Malaysian electorate cannot be discounted.
On 4 November 2008, more than 12 million young Americans selected the person
who made them believe in their abilities to bring about change, the person who
gave them hope, and the person who made them feel united. It was Barack Obama
who won the election and it was young people who were pivotal in helping him
win. The Obama campaign itself was said to draw lessons and inspirations from
the new media tools in the Howard Dean primary campaign in 2004.
Prior to the Obama campaign, Howard Dean was the first to validate the power
of online communities for politics in the new media era. As Dean pointed out,
he learned that politics has to respond to popular demand and move away from
traditional concepts. „You have to build community, not just enable fundraising.
You need to listen, be willing to lead and be willing to be decentralised,‰ he said
(Teachout & Steerman, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010). As his campaign was
going on, DeanÊs team was turning the one-way political communication path into
a two-way street, benefiting on various levels from citizensÊ desire to act. A lot of
ideas for the Dean campaign came from the grassroots.

In the new media environment, political communication is more effective when

it is two-way, and with a lot of ideas stemming from bottom to top. Similarly,
ObamaÊs campaign was engineered as a bottom-up campaign and so was his
communication strategy (Tumulty, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010). Dean was
the first to tell people: „You have the Power.‰ Obama adapted DeanÊs strategy
by addressing the nation with the words „Yes, We Can.‰ By comparison, both
ClintonÊs and McCainÊs communication strategies followed top-down schemes
(Lopez-Ayala, 2008; Feltz, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
In the Malaysian context, the run up to the 2008 General Election saw the
opposition, more than Barisan Nasional, using blogs to attract young voters in
particular. This strategy paid off as for the first time in a General Election, a blogger
turned politician from the opposition won a seat in parliament. This took the ruling
coalition by surprise as it was caught off guard (Ali & Mohd Safar, 2011). From this
development, the political landscape began to change as a result of the increasing
use of new media in politics.
Following the events of 2008, the use of new media in politics became the norm
and in 2013, the Malaysian General Election was dubbed the social media election.
As distinct from the 2008 General Election, where blogs were mainly used, the 2013
and 2018 elections saw the use of social media platforms like Facebook and
Twitter.
The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape, playing an
important role in political communication. Politicians who are ardent in using new
media stand to benefit in their political communication and campaigns while those
who are still sceptical about social media stand to lose.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain how globalisation affects the media system.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe how new media has changed the political landscape and
political communication. Support your answers with examples. Discuss
with your coursemates in myINSPIRE.

 Globalisation is a process of interaction and integration among the people,

companies, and governments of different nations. It is a process driven by
international trade and investment, and aided by information technology.
 Culture is a continuous process of change but in spite of the change, culture

continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity, continuity, and
security, and binds it together.
 The social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on

the life and work of people, families, and societies.
 The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. The conduct
of election campaigns, for example, has a wide-reaching effect, since by using
online campaigns, messages travel across national borders. Using online
campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has become the norm.
 New media has become part and parcel of the political landscape. Politicians
who ardently use new media in their political communication and campaigns
stand to benefit a lot, while those who are sceptical about social media stand
to lose.

Developing societies Mainstream media

Economic transformation Newly industrialising countries
Electromagnetic news Political communication
Global culture Political transformation
Global village Social change
Globalisation Social media
Homogeneous Socio-cultural hegemony
Industrial technology Socio-cultural transformation
Information technology Southern or developing countries
Integration Traditional societies
Interaction Transnational corporations
International trade and investment
Aborishade, F. (2002). Effects of globalization on social and labour practices

in privatized enterprises in Nigeria. Centre for Advanced Social Sciences.
Aida Idris. (2015). Globalisation and socio-economic development in Malaysia:

Wither small businesses? Asian Journal of Business and Accounting, 5(1),
109–127.
Alexandrova, E. (2010). Using new media effectively: An analysis of Barack

ObamaÊs election campaign aimed at young Americans (Masters thesis,
Fordham University).
http://www.academia.edu/1526998/Using_New_Media_Effectively_an_Analys
is_of_Barack_Obamas_Election_Campaign_Aimed_at_Young_Americans
Ali Salman, & Mohd Safar Hasim. (2011). New media and democracy: The
changing political landscape in Malaysia. AKADEMIKA, 81(1), 15–21.

Ugbam, O. C., Chukwu, D. B., & Ogbo, D. A. (2014). The effects of globalization on
African culture: The Nigerian perspective. IOSR Journal of Business and
Management, 16(4), 62–71.
Bello, S. (2001). AfricanÊs culture – Paradigm for African technological

development. http://www.africult/develop/html
Fridah, M. (1998). The effects of globalization on culture in Africa in the eyes of an

African woman. ECHOES. World Council of Churches.
Friedman, T. L. (2000). The lexus and the olive tree: Understanding globalization.
Anchor Books.
Giddens, A. (2013). Sociology (7th ed.). Polity Press.
Guillen, M. F. (2001). Is globalization civilizing, destructive or feeble? A critique of

five key debates in the social science literature. Annual Review of Sociology,
27(1), 235–260.
Leslie, S. (1991). Sociology of the global system. Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Matos, C. (2012). Globalization and the mass media. In Encyclopedia of

globalization. Wiley-Blackwell.
Nadzri, M. M. (2018). The 14th General Election, the fall of Barisan Nasional, and
political development in Malaysia, 1957-2018. Journal of Current Southeast
Asian Affairs, 37(3), 139-171.
Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in

Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(17), 31–41.
Scholte, J. A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. Macmillan Press.
Thompson, J. B. (1995). The media and modernity: A social theory of the media.
Stanford University Press.

Topic  Research
Methods and
10 Evaluation
Process of
Media and
Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss why the media is called the kingmaker in political
information.
2. Identify the methods and evaluation processes used in the study of
the media and politics.
3. Explain how technological developments have affected the
relationship between the media and politics.
4. Describe media content analysis.
5. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative content
analysis.
6. Compare the different roles played by vernacular newspapers in
raising political consciousness among different ethnic groups
during the pre-independence period.

150  TOPIC 10 RESEARCH METHODS AND EVALUATION PROCESS OF
MEDIA AND POLITICS
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the relationship between the media and politics, research
methods, and evaluation processes. As you go through the topic, you should
be able to conduct an impact study on the effects of political information in the
media on an audience. This topic describes the evaluation process and identifies
two main types of content analysis. You will also look at the value of content
analysis in political communication.
In a democratic society, the media is used by both those in power and the general
public to exchange ideas and opinions. The media continues to be the
main source of information for citizens in any democratic society in both
developed and developing countries.
Mass media has a strong influence on politics and could shape public opinion.
Importantly, the media should fulfil its political role of disseminating unbiased
information, so that the general public could make their own political choices, and
therefore, participate in the national discourse that affects their lives.
In a truly democratic society, the media helps to inform the general public and also
acts as a watchdog for the government. Ideally, mass media should make the
political system more open and transparent by creating an equal playing field for
both politicians and the people to participate in political decisions.
10.1 POLITICS
Politics could be defined as a decision-making process and effort to attain decision-
making positions and resources that could be used to further oneÊs own political
interests (Louw, 2010). For one to gain and retain political power, there has to be
some element of control or authority.
In a liberal democratic society, politicians normally gain access to power through

elections. Politicians and political parties will always need the media to advertise
their party manifestos and highlight their political agendas in order to encourage
large numbers of people to vote for them.
Successful and impressive media management could enhance the aura of

politicians and help them gain access to parliament and government, where
policies and power are executed.

TOPIC 10 RESEARCH METHODS AND EVALUATION PROCESS OF  151
MEDIA AND POLITICS
10.2 IMPACT STUDY OF POLITICAL

INFORMATION IN THE MEDIA
The media is the most important cultural resource for politicians and political
parties. As a key political kingmaker, the media conducts discourses which
legitimise or de-legitimise hierarchies of positions.
Technological development has drastically changed the relationship between the

media and politics. With the rise of the Internet since the 1980s and 1990s, social
media now involves virtually almost everybody in society – whether they are
regular citizens, activists, software providers, telecommunications firms, non-
government organisations or government organisations. In the new media
environment, there are different social network services and blogs which have had
a significant impact on present-day society. The public is now actively aware of
what is happening daily in the political circle.
New media has allowed the public more access to political news, thereby avoiding
the barriers they usually encounter, such as control of publishers, editors, and
journalists in traditional media (McPhail, 2002). However, Tay (2000) is of the
opinion that even with new media, many Asian governments minimise or control
the role of the media as a watchdog and an independent check and balance on the
government of the day. In a book entitled, The Emergence of American Political
Issues, Shaw and McCombs (1977) wrote: „The most significant effect of the media
was its ability to organise our world for us. The news media are stunningly
successful in telling us what to think about.‰
10.2.1 Types of Methods

Most studies on the impact of political information in the media use focus
group discussions, in-depth interviews, online analytics, quantitative and
qualitative research, surveys, and social media analysis. Through this combination
of methodological approaches, media experts could gain comprehensive
understanding of the beliefs, attitudes, and political beliefs of an audience.
In a bid to understand the impact of political information in the media on an

audience, the Harmony Institute developed „HI score‰, which is a system to
quantify or assess how the media influences the political beliefs of people during
electioneering campaigns (Abelson, 2012). An initial attempt at generating HI
scores combined data from Twitter, news media, and Google searches. As the

MEDIA AND POLITICS
test set, Harmony Institute selected the last three years of Oscar-nominated
documentary films. This list provided comparable examples and allowed the
researchers to expand on some of their past work. Through a trial and error
process, they arrived at a score of 1 to 100 (the higher the better) that estimates the
influence of a documentary film over time (Abelson, 2012).
10.2.2 Evaluation Process

Mass media can facilitate short-term, intermediate, and long-term effects on
audiences. The short-term effects include the following:
 exposing audiences to political information;
 creating awareness and knowledge;
 altering outdated or incorrect knowledge; and
 enhancing audience recall of particular advertisements or public service

announcements, promotions, or programme names.
The intermediate effects include behavioural changes and perceptions of social

norms. Long-term effects incorporate all of the above, together with focused
restructuring of perceived social norms and maintenance of behavioural change.
Iyengar (1991) evaluates the effects of news coverage on public opinion and
political choice, saying that, „The framing of issues by television forms the way the
society understands the causes and the solutions to central political problems‰.
Shaw and McCombs (1977) studied the agenda-setting capacity of the news media
in American presidential elections and presented the results in their book, The
Emergence of American Political Issues.
10.2.3 Usage and Function of Impact Analysis

In Denmark, a team of social scientists analysed more than 30,000 news features
on the Danish government which were aired by Danish radio stations over 20
years. They found that critical coverage in the media could lead to a decline in the
public ratings of a government. The study does not agree with the theory that
having more media coverage is always good for the government.
A study by Shotts and Ashworth (2010) from the University of Chicago, United
States, found that a healthy media makes it less likely for those holding political
positions to engage in activities that could tarnish their image. The researchers
constructed a theoretical model in their study, using well-established principles of

MEDIA AND POLITICS
the game theory. They found that if the media always produced commentaries on
policy choices, there would be less incentive for politicians to pander since voters
would know which policies were in their interest. This prevents politicians from
pandering and encourages them to take actions that are good for voters without
fear of being criticised by the media.
Most journalists operate under the belief that when it comes to political issues, only
bad news is worth reporting. Therefore, citizens are hardly treated to stories about
how political institutions are functional or how government officials are admirable
public servants. Instead, news media have the tendency to highlight political
misunderstandings, malfeasance, and scandals involving party members (Bennett,
1996).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Why is the media called a kingmaker in politics?
2. What are the methods used to assess the impact of political

information on an audience?
ACTIVITY 10.1
How have technological developments affected the relationship
between the media and politics? Discuss this question in the context of
Malaysian politics. Share your findings with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE.
10.3 CONTENT ANALYSIS

A generally accepted definition of content analysis was provided by Berelson
(1952), who described it as a „research technique for the objective, systematic and
quantitative description of the manifest content of communication‰.
However, this definition was found wanting by researchers as the word

„objective‰ raised some argument from researchers, such as Berger and Luckman
(1967). They stated in The Social Construction of Reality that even the most
scientific methods of social research cannot really produce objective results. With
regard to media content, they argued that media texts are always open to different
interpretations by researchers and that the analyses could not be said to be
objective.

MEDIA AND POLITICS
Other definitions of content analysis are listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Definitions of Content Analysis
Source Definition
Stone, Dunphy, Smith Content analysis is any research technique for making
and Ogilvie (1966) inferences by systematically and objectively identifying
specified characteristics within text.
Weber (1990) Content analysis is a research method that uses a set of

procedures to make valid inferences from text.
Lasswell, Lerner and  Content analysis operates on the view that verbal
Pool (1952) behaviour is a form of human behaviour, that the flow of
symbols is a part of the flow of events, and that the
communication process is an aspect of the historical
process.
 Content analysis is a technique which aims at describing,
with optimum objectivity, precision, and generality, what
is said on a given subject in a given place at a given time.
In 1948, Lasswell (as cited in Shoemaker & Reese, 1996) defined media content
analysis as „Who says what, through which channel, to whom, with what effect‰.
According to Berelson (1952), the main purposes of content analysis are to:
 predict the effects of contents on the intended audience;
 make inferences about audiences of contents;
 make inferences about producers of contents; and
 describe characteristics of message contents.
During the 1920s and 1930s, media content analysis became a very popular
research methodology for the investigation of movies.
10.3.1 Value of Content Analysis to Political Process

In political content analysis, the process should apply systematic research
techniques and the researcher should strive for objectivity, validity, and reliability.
A key component in content analysis is the coding book or coding list, which is a
list of all the variables or units of analysis to be researched.

MEDIA AND POLITICS
The value of content analysis to the political process is that it should contain
examination of multiple variables (multivariable). In content analysis, the primary
units (variables) are messages expressed as words or phrases. In the coding list, all
the messages considered relevant in the study are listed, whether they are negative
or positive.
The coding list may also include some categories of issues, places or topics and
may also seek to identify important names of certain sources like individuals and
organisations relevant to issues in the messages to be analysed.
10.3.2 Types of Content Analysis

There are various types of content analysis, such as the following:
(a) Quantitative Content Analysis

In quantitative content analysis, data are usually determined by the key
contents, circulation of media, audience reach, and frequencies of units of
analysis. Quantitative content analysis considers the media form, such as
visual media and television. Neuendorf (2002) stated that both content form
and characteristics are important in content analysis.
Neuendorf (2002) argued that media content is quantitative in nature only,

whereas Shoemaker and Reese (1996) said that it is a good idea to apply a
combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches to achieve
a balanced result. According to these researchers, „behavioural content
analysis is not necessarily conducted using quantitative or numerical
techniques but the two (quantitative and qualitative) tend to go together‰
(Shoemaker & Reese, 1996). They further stated that humanistic content
analysis moves towards quantitative analysis. They said that reducing large
amounts of text to quantitative data does not provide a complete picture of
meaning and contextual codes, since text may contain many other forms of
emphasis besides sheer repetition.
(b) Qualitative Content Analysis

Qualitative content analysis examines the relationship between text and
meaning. It recognises that media texts are polysemic, in other words, that
they have different meanings for a lot of readers. This method of research
analysis pays more attention to the audience, media, and contextual factors,
and not just the text.

MEDIA AND POLITICS
It could therefore be concluded that qualitative content analysis relies

significantly on researchersÊ „readings‰ and interpretations of the media text.
This type of media research is very intensive and time consuming. This is
why qualitative content analysis tends to use a small sample size, which
resulted in it being criticised by some researchers as unreliable and not
scientific.
It could be said that quantitative content analysis is able to conform to certain

levels of scientific analysis, can produce reliable findings, and is positivist in
nature. This is not the same with qualitative content analysis, which is
relatively difficult and unable to give a reliable and scientific result. Even
with the shortcomings of qualitative analysis, its text contents are important
and help to reveal a thick description of words and their deeper meanings
and also the likely interpretation of action. However, it is good to combine
the two methods to overcome any shortcomings.
10.4 GENERAL METHODS AND PROCESS OF

CONTENT ANALYSIS
There are several studies that discuss the general methods and process of content
analysis, such as those conducted by Krippendorff (2004), Neuendorf (2002) and
Riffe et al. (2005). Content analysis can be conducted through human or computer
analysis. Both human and computer content analysis use the same basic method –
they require conceptual, reliable categories, and a reasonable sample size for the
analysis.
However, these two methods differ in some areas. For example, computer content
analysis requires computer files of sample texts for analysis while in human
analysis, physical texts are read and coded by humans (trained researchers).
Computer software is then used to analyse the results just like in a regular survey
research.
Examples of computer programs that are most often used at this stage for database
and storage are SPSS for statistical analysis and Microsoft Excel for the tabulation
of data and calculations. The Excel program is used to generate graphic programs
and charts. Many social researchers and authors, such as Newbold et al. (2002),
claimed that computer media content analysis is irrelevant, and that analysis
should be done manually.

MEDIA AND POLITICS
When content analysis is conducted in different languages and across cultures, the
problem of machine coding is most likely to arise. This is because most of the
automated coding systems work only with English texts, and when computer
translations are used, they may not be reliable, except for basic interpretation.
On the other hand, when human coding is used, the software applied in storing
the data and doing the analysis is not that significant to the research. Hence, a very
good reliable program needs to be used. What is more important at that stage is
the methodology applied. Likewise, the training of the coders is important to
ensure that the content analysis is done in accordance with strict criteria.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What is media content analysis?
2. Discuss the differences between quantitative and qualitative

content analysis.
3. Discuss human versus computer content analysis.

 In a democratic society, the media is a watchdog for the government. There is

a need to make the mass media open and transparent for people, including
politicians, to enable their participation in the political decision-making
process.
 Technological developments in the 1980s and 1990s drastically changed the

relationship between the media and politics. With the advent of the Internet
and social media, almost everybody can become virtually involved in political
discourse. The kingmaker in media and political communication is mass
media.
 To understand the impact of political information in the media on an audience,

researchers usually conduct focus group discussions, in-depth interviews,
online analytics, quantitative and qualitative surveys, and social media
analysis. These research methods assess the impact of political information on
a media audience and identify where to make improvements.
 Content analysis is „any research technique for making inferences by

systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics within text‰
(Stone, Dunphy, Smith & Ogilvie, 1966).

MEDIA AND POLITICS
 Weber (1990) defines content analysis as a „research method that uses a set of
procedures to make valid inferences from text‰.
 In media studies, quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods are

usually applied by researchers. Each method has its own merits and demerits.
Researchers advocate a combination of the two methods to overcome the
shortcomings of either method.
Analysis Qualitative content analysis

Content analysis Quantitative content analysis
Government Research techniques
Media Researchers
Political information
Abelson, B. (2012). HI score: Towards a new metric of influence. Harmony

Institute.
Ashworth, S., & Shotts, K. W. (2010). Does informative media commentary

reduce politiciansÊ incentives to pander? Journal of Public Economics, 94(11),
838–847.
Bennett, W. L. (1996). The politics of illusion. Longman.
Berelson, B. R. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. Free Press.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social constructions of reality. Doubleday
Anchor.
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci.

International Publishers.
https://harmony-institute.org/latest/2012/06/27/hi-score-towards-a-new-metric-
of-influence/

MEDIA AND POLITICS
Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues.

University of Chicago Press.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology

(2nd ed.). Sage.
Lasswell, H. D., Lerner, D., & Pool, I. S. (1952). The comparative study of symbols:
An introduction. Stanford University Press.
Louw, P. E. (2010). The media and political process (2nd ed.). Sage.
McPhail, T. L. (2002). Global communication: Theories, stakeholders and trends.

Allyn & Bacon.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Sage.
Newbold, C., Boyd-Barrett, O., & Van Den Bulck, H. (2002). The media book.
Arnold.
Riffe, D., Lacy, S., & Fico, F. G. (2005). Analyzing media messages: Using
quantitative content analysis in research (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Shaw, D. L., & McCombs, M. E. (1977). The emergence of American political issues:
The agenda-setting function of the press. West Pub. Co.
Shoemaker, P., & Reese, S. (1996). Mediating the message: Theories of influences
on mass content. Longman.
Stone, P. J., Dunphy, D. C., Smith, M. S., & Ogilvie, D. M. (1966). The general
inquirer: A computer approach to content analysis. MIT Press.
Tay, S. S. C. (2000). Democracy and the media in ASEAN and Asia. Media Asia,
27(4), 223–227.
Weber, R. (1990). Basic content analysis (2nd ed.). Sage.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


ABCG4203 Politics and Media Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

ABCG4203 Politics and Media Module

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ABCG4203 Politics and Media Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ABCG4203

Politics and the Media

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), ABCG4203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Media and Politics 1

Topic 2 Relationship between Media and Politics 17

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.4 Relationship Between Media and Politics: 25

Topic 3 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 37

Topic 4 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 50

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 Media and Mediation Function 68

Topic 6 Electronic, Print and New Media: Their Position in a Political 82

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 Mass Media and Propaganda 95

Topic 8 Media and Politics: The Process 117

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8.5 Political Journalism and the Media 124

Topic 9 Media Politics and Globalisation 136

Topic 10 Research Methods and Evaluation Process of Media and 149

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1: Student Learning Time

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 discusses the issue of propaganda, focusing on mass media as tools of

Topic 8 discusses the role of gatekeepers in relation to media ownership

Topic 9 focuses on media, politics and globalisation, encompassing socio-cultural,

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of mass communication: An introductory text

Khan, M. A. (2016). Multinational enterprise management strategies in developing

McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: An introduction. Sage.

McQuail, D. (2010). McQuailÊs mass communication theory (6th ed.). Sage.

Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MEDIA

(a) Traditional media includes television, radio, newspapers, magazines,

(b) Social media describes the new generation of digital, computerised, or

1.2 MEDIA SYSTEMS

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.3 THEORIES OF MEDIA SYSTEMS