BEE2143

SIGNALS &
NETWORKS
Chapter 1
Introduction to Signals & Systems

Prepared by Nurul Wahidah Arshad, August 2019

1 Classifications of Signals & System
Introduction
2 Signal Characteristic to
3 Time and Frequency domains Signals &
Systems
4 Elementary signals

5 Signals Operations
6 Convolution
 3

Learning Outcomes Chapter 1

At the end of Chapter 1, student should be Course outcome
able to:
• Identify each signal based on its characteristic.
#1
• Write equation of elementary signal and draw
its graph. Identify the different types
• Perform operation between two signals.
& operations of signal, and
suitable Fourier techniques.
• Solve signals convolution in time domain.
 SIGNAL 4

• Variables That Carry Information

• Example:
– Electric signals
• V & I in electric circuit
– Acoustic signals
• Audio, speech, voice, sounds etc.
– Video signals
• Intensity variations in an image (e.g. CAT scan)
– Biological signals
• Sequence of bases in a gene
 SYSTEM 5

Processing the signals to become other signals or information

Input signal Output signal

Systems
(excitation) (response)
1.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SIGNALS & SYSTEM 6

1 2
Signal System
(classified according to how a system interacts with the input
• Continuous-time signal applied to the system)
• Discrete-time • Memory & memoryless systems
• Continuous-value • Causal & non-causal systems
• Discrete-value • Linear & nonlinear systems
• Random • Time-invariant & time-variant
• Nonrandom systems
• Linear & time-invariant (LTI) systems
 1.1.1 Classifications of Signals 7

Continuous- • For CT, we use x(t) if time is the domain

• Example of CT signals: voltage, current,
Time Signals temperature, velocity, etc.
(CT) • Many physical systems operate in
continuous time such as mass and spring,
and leaky tank
Discrete-Time • For DT, we use x[n] for n is a number where
time varies discretely (samples)
8

Signals (DT) • Examples of DT signals: population, DNA

based sequence
• Digital computations are done in discrete
time such as state machines: given the
current input and current state, what is the
next output and next state.
 Continuous-time vs. • Continuous-time signals
Discrete-time Signals – Defined values at every instant of
time over time interval
– Real world (analog)

• Discrete-time signals
– Defined values only at discrete
points in time (not between them)
– Set of samples
– Usually transmitted as digital signal
 1.1.2 Classifications of Systems 10

Memoryless • The output at time t0 depends only on the input at the

same time to. For example:
Systems

• Therefore, vo(to) depends upon the value of vi(to) and not

on vi(t) for t ≠ to.
 Systems • The output at time t0 depends on the input at the
some range of time t. For example:
With Memory

• Therefore the systems that relates v to i exhibits

memory
 Causal • For a causal system the output at time to
depends only on the input for ti ≤ to
Systems - the system cannot anticipate the input.
• output only exist after the input applied to the
system
 Linear • The output is proportional to the input.

Systems • Linear systems satisfy the properties of

addition, superposition and scaling.
• Addition
Given x1(t)  y1(t) and x2(t)  y2(t)
∴ x1(t) + x2(t)  y1(t) + y2(t)
• Scaling
Given x(t)  y(t)
∴ kx(t)  ky(t)
• Superposition
Given x1(t)  y1(t) and x2(t)  y2(t)
∴ k1 x1(t) + k2 x2(t)  k1 y1(t) + k2 y2(t)
Nonlinear
Systems – The homogeneous (superposition & scaling)
and additive properties doesn’t apply
– Nonlinear equations are usually complex
– Example of nonlinear systems equations:

- For x = 0, but y ≠ 0 is also a nonlinear system

 Time- Time-invariant

invariant & – Delaying the time in input will delayed the

time of output in same amount
Time-variant
Systems
where τ is
delayed time

Time-variant systems
- The opposite of time-invariant systems.
Simple example:
y(t) = x(2t)
 • Combination of linear systems and time-
Linear & invariant systems
Time- • Thus, both system’s properties apply

Invariant (LTI) • Will be focused more in this course

Systems • Many powerful analysis tools will be covered

for calculating and transforming LTI systems
(Fourier, Laplace transform)
 1.2 SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 17

Characteristic Example Characteristic Example

1. Periodic 3. Even symmetry
• x(t) = x(t + T)
for all t
• E.g.: Sine, x(t) = x(-t)
cosine, square
signal

2. Aperiodic 4. Odd symmetry

• Random
signals
• E.g.: speech, x(t) = -x(-t)
all type of
noise signals
 Periodic Function
 Periodic function is defined as (t ) f (t + T ) ,
f=
t = time
T = period
 If T in second, f in hertz (oscillation per second), the periodic function is
1
T=
f
 If angular frequency,ω in radians per second is defined by ω = 2π f , then
2π
ω=
T
 f (t )
1
A
−3π −π π 3π t
−4π −2π 0 2π 4π
−1

 f(t) is a waveform with an amplitude A = 1, period T = 2π and the angular

frequency, ω = 1 . This waveform represented analytically by

f (=
t ) sin t , − π < t < π
( t ) f ( t + 2π )
f=
Example 1
From the graph, find the period T, the angular frequency ω , and the
amplitude A, for 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 3 sin 2𝑡𝑡

f (t ) answer
a ) f ( t ) = 3sin 2t
3 A=3
−2π
−π
0
π t T =π
2π
−3 2π
ω = 2
=
π
Example 2
From each of the following waveform, find the analytical description.

answer
4, 0 ≤ t < 5
f (t ) = 
0, 5 ≤ t < 7
f=(t ) f (t + 7 )

answer
f ( t )= t , −2 ≤ t < 2
(t ) f (t + 4)
f=
 Even & Odd Function
cos ( t ) sin ( t )

−3π −π π 3π t −3π −π π 3π t
−4π −2π 0 2π 4π −4π −2π 0 2π

For even function, the function is inverted on the other For odd function, the function is symmetric about
side of the y − axis. That is say : the origin. That is say :
f (t ) =
f ( −t ) for all t ∈  . f ( −t ) =− f ( t ) for all t ∈  .
Example 3
Sketch the graph of each of these periodic functions and determine
whether its is even, odd or neither.
 Solution
a) f(t) b) f(t) c) f(t)
2 3
3
t
−3π −2π −π π 2π 3π t
−π π 2π 3π
-2 t
−π − π π 3π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2

The graph is The periodic function is The periodic function is

symmetric about the even since the graph is neither even nor odd
origin. Hence, the symmetric about the function since the graph
periodic function is vertical axis. is not symmetric about
odd. the both the origin and
the vertical axis.
1.3 TIME & FREQUENCY REPRESENTATION 25

• The most common representation

of signals is time domain
• However, most signal analysis
techniques work only in frequency
domain
• Solutions can be more easily found
in the frequency domain
• The frequency domain is simply
another way of representing a
signal
 26

Example of
Laplace transform:
Relationship between
time &
frequency domains
1 Unit step
1.4
Impulse response
2
ELEMENTARY
3 Sinusoid & exponential complex SIGNAL
4 Unit Ramp

5 Sync function

6 Rectangle

7 Triangle

8 Signum
 Unit-Step Function
• The unit step function u(t), also known
as the Heaviside unit function.

 0, t<0
u (t ) = 
1, t>0

28
 Unit Impulse Function
• Derivative of the unit step function
• Also known as Dirac delta function
• The unit impulse δ(t) is zero anywhere except
at t=0

 0, t<0
d 
δ (t ) = u (t ) = undefined , t = 0
dt 
 0, t >0
 Sinusoids
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
• A general expression for the sinusoid, Where;
A = the amplitude of the sinusoid
f (t ) = A sin(ωt + θ ) f (t ) = A cos(ωt + θ ) ω = the angular frequency in
radians/s = 2π/T
θ = the phase

30
 Complex Exponential Signal
• Review of Complex Numbers:
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃
2 2 −1 𝑦𝑦
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥

• Using Euler’s formula for the complex exponential:

𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃); 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡 + ∅

Real Imaginary
part part
 Complex Exponential Signal 32

Example 4
 Unit Ramp
• Integration of the unit step function
𝑡𝑡
𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
−∞

𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 > 0
𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 = �
0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0
Sinc Function
 Rectangle function
• Functions as a switch to turn on and turn off any equipment
in a specific time period
 1
1, − < t < 1
rect (t ) =  2
0, others t 2


rect(t)
 Triangle Function
1− | t |, | t |< 1
tri (t ) = 
 0, | t |> 1
 Signum Function

Derivation of Signum function

using Unit step function:

-1
 38

Recall
Common
Function
 1.5 SIGNAL
1 Riversal OPERATIONS
2 Scaling

3 Shifting

4 Addition & Multiplication

 Signals Operation 41

1 2

Time Amplitude
(operation will
(operation will
affect the y-axis)
affect the x-axis)
 Reversal
1 2
Time Riversal (Time Folding) Amplitude Riversal

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓(−𝑡𝑡) 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = −𝑓𝑓 (𝑡𝑡)

Note: For impulse response, 𝛿𝛿 −𝑡𝑡 = 𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡)

 Scaling
1 Time Scaling
Compresses or dilates a signal by multiplying the time variable by
some quantity, a.
• If a> 1, the signal becomes narrower and the operation is called
compression,
• if a<1, the signal becomes wider and is called dilation.

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ; Where a is a real constant

Example 5
for any time t = t0 ,
y 1 (t0 ) = x(2t0 )
∴ x(t0 ) = y 1 (t0 / 2)

for any time t = t0 ,

Draw the signal if time y 2 (t0 ) = x(0.1t0 )
scaling is applied, y1(t)=x(2t)
& y2(t)=x(0.1t) ∴ x(t0 ) = y2 (10t0 )
 Scaling 45

2 Amplitude Scaling
Amplitude is scaled by a factor ‘a’

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 ;
Example 6

Draw the signal if amplitude

scaling is applied,
y1(t)=2.5x(t) & y2(t)=10x(t)
 Shifting
1 Time Shifting
• The shifting of a signal in time.
• When we add a constant to the time, we obtain the advanced
signal, & when we decrease the time, we get the delayed
signal.
– y(t) = f (t - a)
 Shifting
1 Time Shifting - in elementary signals
• Shifted unit step
 0, t < to
u (t − t o ) = 
1, t > to

 0, t < − to
u (t + t o ) = 
1, t > − to

• Shifted ramp function

t − t0 , t − t0 > 0 ⇒ t > t0
ramp(t − t0 ) = 
 0, t − t0 ≤ 0 ⇒ t < t0
Example 7

• Delayed 3 unit of t: • Advanced 3 unit of t:

Example 8
If a signal experiencing simultaneous time scale and shift y(t)=x(at-t0)
- If a is negative: time reversal is apply
x(t) is an original signal, find y(t)=x(-2t-1)

• Method 1: Shift x(t) to get x(t-t0) and scaling x(t-t0) with a

• Method 2:
Scaling x(t) with a to get x(at) and shift x(at) with t0/a  x[a(t-t0/a)]= x(at-t0)

• Method 3: Replace t with τ. Let τ=at-t0 , ∴ τ=-2t-1. Then draw y(t) using the new t.
 Shifting 52

2 Amplitude Shifting
Upward & downward shifting.

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 ;
Example 9
Can you write
both equation for
x(t) and y(t)?
Example 10
Scaling & amplitude shift y(t)=Ax(t)+B, where A & B are constants. Given
x(t) as shown in figure, find y(t) = -2x(t)+1.
  2; - 2 < t < 0

− 2 x (t ) =  − 6; 0 < t < 1
3t + 9; 1 < t < 3

 2 + 1 = 3; -2 < t < 0

∴ y (t ) =  − 6 + 1 = −5; 0 < t <1
3t + 9 + 1 = 3t + 8; 1 < t < 3

 Addition & Multiplication
Example 11
Find y1(t) and y2(t)
a. y1(t) = x(t)+x(-t)
b. y2(t) = x(t) x [δ(t+1/2)-δ(t-1/2)]

solution: a. y1(t) = x(t)+x(-t)

y1(t)

+ =
b. y2(t) = x(t) x [δ(t+1/2)-δ(t-1/2)]

x =
Example 12
x (t ) = 3u (t + 3) − u (t ) + 3u (t − 3) + u (t − 6)
Solution :
3, t > −3 1, t > 0
3u (t + 3) =  u (t ) = 
0, t < −3 0, t < 0
3, t > 3 1, t > 6
3u (t − 3) =  u (t − 6) = 
0, t < 3 0, t < 6
0 − 0 + 0 − 0 = 0, t < −3
3 − 0 + 0 − 0 = 3, − 3 < t < 0

 3 − 1 + 0 − 0 = 2, 0 < t < 3

∴ x(t ) =  3 − 1 + 3 − 0 = 5, 3 < t < 6
 3 − 1 + 3 + 1 = 6, t >6




1.6 Convolution
 Convolution Integral
• Convolution means “folding”
• The formula equation: t
y (t ) = h(t ) ∗ x(t ) = ∫ x(λ )h(t − λ )dλ
0

• Useful application
– Finding response function y(t): y (t ) = h(t ) ∗ x(t ) In time domain

– Alternative method: Y ( s) = H ( s) X ( s) In frequency domain

(Laplace Transform)
Example 13: Change t to λ.
- Fold & shift one of the signal, let choose x1(t):
Two
rectangular Fold: Shift:

pulses

x1 (t ) = 1 ,0 < t < 1
h(λ ) = 1 ,0 < λ < 1
h(−λ ) = 1 ,−1 < λ < 0
h(t − λ ) = 1 , t − 1 < λ < t
 Table of Basic Integral
• Change t to λ fot x2(t): 62

𝑥𝑥2 𝑡𝑡 = 1 , 0 < 𝑡𝑡 <3

𝑥𝑥 𝜆𝜆 = 1 , 0 < 𝑡𝑡 <3

• For t < 0: no overlapping between two signals, y(t) = 0

𝑡𝑡
• For 0 < t < 1: 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 1 1 𝑑𝑑𝜆𝜆
0
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡|𝑡𝑡0 = 𝑡𝑡
• For 1 < t < 3 : 𝑡𝑡
63

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 1 1 𝑑𝑑𝜆𝜆
𝑡𝑡−1
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡|𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 = 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 − 1 = 1

3
• For 3 < t < 4:
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 1 1 𝑑𝑑𝜆𝜆
𝑡𝑡−1
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡|3𝑡𝑡−1 = 3 − 𝑡𝑡 − 1 = −t + 4

• For t > 4: no overlapping between

two signals, y(t) = 0
 0 ; 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝑡𝑡 ; 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 1
𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑡𝑡 ∗ 𝑥𝑥2 𝑡𝑡 = 1 ; 1 < 𝑡𝑡 < 3
−𝑡𝑡 + 4 ; 3 < 𝑡𝑡 < 4
0 ; 𝑡𝑡 > 4
 GROUP 1. 65

ACTIVITIES
Fold & shift
the given 2.

function.
3.
Practice Problem Change t to λ:
x1 (t ) = 1 ,0 < t < 1
15.12 h ( λ ) = 1 ,0 < λ < 1
h(−λ ) = 1 ,−1 < λ < 0
h(t − λ ) = 1 , t − 1 < λ < t

1 ,0 < t < 1
x2 (t ) = 
2 ,1 < t < 2
1 ,0 < λ < 1
x (λ ) = 
2 ,1 < λ < 2
 t
• For 0 < t < 1:
y (t ) = ∫ h(t − λ ) x(λ )dλ
0
t
= ∫ (1)(1)dλ
0

= [λ ]
t
0

=t

• For 1 < t < 2: y (t ) = 1 t

∫
t −1
(1)(1) dλ + ∫ (1)(2) dλ
1

= [λ ]t −1 + 2[λ ]1
1 t

=t
 2
For 2 < t < 3: 2

y (t ) = ∫ (1)(2)dλ
t −1

= 2[λ ] 1
2
t −1

= 6 − 2t
0 1 t-1 2 t λ
 For t < 0 & t > 3: no overlap, so y(t) = 0
 Thus,
0 ,t ≤ 0 y(t)
t ,0 ≤ t ≤ 2
2

y (t ) = 
6 − 2t ,2 ≤ t ≤ 3
0 ,t ≥ 3
0 1 2 3 t
Practice Change t to λ:

Problem g (t ) = 1 ,0 < t < 1

15.13 h(λ ) = 1 ,0 < λ < 1
h(−λ ) = 1 ,−1 < λ < 0
h(t − λ ) = 1 , t − 1 < λ < t

f (t ) = 3e − t , t ≥ 0
x(λ ) = 3e , λ ≥ 0
−λ
• For 0 < t < 1:
t
y (t ) = ∫ (1) 3e −λ dλ
0
( )
= −3 e [ ] −λ t
0

= −3e −t + 3
(
= 3 1 − e −t )
1)(3e )dλ
• For t > 1: t
y (t ) = ∫
t −1
( −λ

= −3 e [ ] −λ t
t −1

= −3e −t + 3e −t e
−t
= 3e (e − 1)
For t < 0: no overlap.
Thus,

0 ,t ≤ 0

y (t ) = 3(1 − e ) ,0 ≤ t ≤ 1
−t

3e −t (e − 1)
 ,t ≥ 1
Conclusion: 72

1 Classifications of Signals & System

2 Signal Characteristic
3 Time and Frequency domains
Thank you
4 Elementary signals Nurul Wahidah Arshad, FKEE
+09-424 6090
5 Signals Operations wahidah@ump.edu.my

6 Convolution