TN: 850844 (NUNC Document Delivery Article Request BAYLOR Source Title: Interpreting biblical literature : an introduction to biblical studies Vol: — Issue: Year/Month: / Pages: 105-125 Location: Moody General Collection Call #: BS475.3 .C67 2009 Print session: 8/19/2015 10: ‘Comments: Article/Chapter Title: Author: Patron: Bryan_Maine Contact us: Status: Graduate Ph: 254-710-3054 E-Mail: BU_ILS@baylor.eduAy Se FMEUSET ROME aoe Ba The Bible. contains mai STN ies ‘atrative is a pervasive form of writing in Scripture, so learning to interpret biblical stories takes on considerable importance. To do justice to biblical literature, we must take it seriously as literature and avoid fragmenting stories by only reading selected passages from them. By entering into their narrative worlds: in light of ancient Israelite history and customs, we better appreciate their content. 1 find’ it helpful to consider how children listen to stories—picturing in their minds the characters and events that unfold. Of course, this Comparison should not be pressed. too far. Childéen, after all, picture story events completely in Character Portrayal Biblical stories rarely" give “physical descriptions of their characters. Modern histories and novels typically provide informa~ tion about the physical and psychological traits of their main characters. Stories. in the’ Bible, however, seldom specify how tall or muscular or fat or lovely or eloquent of troubled ‘or optimistic or haunted by the past a person ‘is. Some stories state that a man’ was particularly handsome (for example, Absalom in 2°Samuel 14:25-26) or that a woman was particularly beautiful (Sarai in Genesis 12:10-16 or Tamar CHAPTER 6: SHORT STORIES IN THE HEBREW BIBLE SchayenColecton M193 The Crosby-Schoyen Codex, written in Greek iri the third century, contains the oldest manuscript of Jonah and is purported to be the oldest book in private ownership. in 2 Samuel 13:1), but often such traits are not mentioned. You might learn from an account of ‘Moses complaining to God that Moses had a speech impediment (Exodus 4:10; 6:12), but you will not read what he looked like. You will learn a lot about Jesus from the ways in which he interacted with people, but you will not find a physical description of him. When a narrative mentions physical attributes, pay attention; they normally are important to the plot. Peake) 1. Through what narrative details does the story reveal Jonah's hatred toward Assyrians? | 2. How does the story make you personally feel about Jonah? Do you like him, despise him, identify with him, pity him, or__? 3. How does the story portray God? What. specific characteristics of God emerge from the narrative? Do any of these characteristics surprise you? 113INTERPRETING BIBLICAL LITERATURE men or women are dishonest and deceptive, we observe these characteristics at work in the narrative. In the short story about Jonah, there is no physical description of the man. Yet we can formulate definite opinions about him. sailors, however, ex Biblical stories portray characters through i their actions and through what they say either in speeches or in dialogues. The story of Jonah H does not actually say that the prophet viciously ; hated Assyrians. It reveals his attitude by i describing his actions. In narratives generally, if learn about these traits by noting what they say : or how they behave, Biblical authors seldom tell us that someone is brave or cowardly. We ‘The Jonah narrative also employs reversals of expectations—from a Jewish perspective. Jonah, a prophet, runs from God, is defiant, and behaves in-ways that are reprehensible. The it noble intentions by ; resisting throwing Jonah overboard until it becomes very clear that all are doomed unless they do so (1:10-17). Likewise, the king of the wicked Ninevites not only commands fasting and wearing of sackcloth, but he also demands that his subjects turn away from evil and violence (3:5-9). Sackcloth was a coarse material, often made from goat hair, and was worn during times of mourning or when praying fervently to God for deliverance. People believed that if God saw how miserably hungry and uncomfortable they were then perhaps God would have mercy on them. Thus, in the story of Jonah, the Ninevites respond in appropriate obedience to God, whereas the Israelite prophet runs away in disobedience. This reversal of expectations fits with the way the story portrays God's love even for outsiders. What is in an Ending? ‘A story's ending may reveal a good deal about a point the author sought to make in section containing Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias. You will find single-volume | works containing brief articles (for example, © HarperCollins Bible Dictionary). You will also discover more detailed, multi-volume sets (for example, Interpreter’ Dictionary of the Bible or {Anchor Bible Dictionary). Locate volumes that | are fairly recent, not books that were written in the late 1800s or early 1900s. Significant archaeological discoveries and a massive today that were unavailable to those living in earlier decades. Look for Bible dit + The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, ed. P. J. Achtemeier (San Francisco: HarperSan Francisco, 1996). In the reference area of your library, locate the amount of biblical scholarship have taken place during the past 100 years. Scholars know things naries like the following: + The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vols. 1-6, ed. D. N. Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992). + The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Testament, ed. Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, Press, 2000). Md Read articles about casting lots in several Bible dictionaries so that you can see what different authors say about this practice. Determine the following: 1. What was the theological reason behind casting lots? 2. What procedure was used? 3. For what purposes did people cast lots?CHAPTER 6: SHORT STORIES IN THE HEBREW BIBLE Potent ars eeeeeees What might the ending of the account of Jonah reveal about the author's reason for telling the story? Why might this story be very challenging for most Israelites to hear? telling the account. Some endings resolve the conflicts described in the narrative, tying together the loose ends of the story and giving «1. a sense of completion. The bad characters get justice. The heroes are vindicated and seem poised to live happily. Other endings, however, 2. may focus on the down side of life. The main character gets killed and justice goes wanting, ‘The conclusion seems gloomy and ugly, leaving the reader agitated. 3. What relevance do you believe the Jonah story has for today? Some endings leave the story conflicts unresolved. The conclusion is open ended so that you do not know what happens next. This technique invites you to use your imagination to envision various ways the story might continue. The New Testament book of Acts, for example, ends with the main character, Paul, under house arrest in Rome for two years—waiting to appear before Caesar for either condemnation or vindication. The narrative does not say whether Paul was executed or liberated. It leaves the reader with a big question mark. Ruth: A Story About Hard Work and Loyalty The story of Ruth depicts a very different character than Jonah: a considerate and obedient foreign woman as opposed to a stubborn Israelite prophet. But again we must deal with ancient cultural norms. A central part of the Ruth natrative involves a marriage custom that most modern readers from Western cultures might view as outrageous. We will get into the juicy details about that shortly, But first, read through the short story of Ruth, identify the episodes in the narrative and assign subtitles to each. Make a note of any parts of the narrative that scem confusing and need Likewise the story of Jonah ends in an unresolved way. Jonah complains about God sparing the Ninevites and destroying his shade bush. And the story's final line is God's question to Jonah: “And should I not be concerned about Nineveh, that great city, in which there are more than a hundred and twenty thousand persons who do not know their right hand from their left, and also many animals?” We are not told if Jonah repented, or what happened next. We are left with a question to ponder. ‘The next narrative in the Hebrew Bible that we will analyze, Ruth, utilizes an ending that brings the story to a satisfying sense of closure. And unlike the stubbornly rebellious Jonah, Ruth is a very endearing character. clarification. No Bread in the House of Bread Frequently the beginning and ending lines of a document alert us to the nature of the text we are reading. Some forms of writing have distinct styles, and we recognize immediately the kind of text they signify. For example, what kinds of writing do the following examples represent? 1, Charles O'Brien, being of sound mind and body, do hereby bequeath... Once upon a time in a land far, far away, there lived a beautiful princess... Te was a dark and stormy night... ‘The Third Reich finds its origins in ... 115116 INTERPRETING BIBLICAL LITERATURE * Congratulations, you have been approved to receive the platinum version of our credit card with a pre-approved credit line of $30,000... For comparison, here is the first verse of Ruth. “In the days when the judges ruled, there was a famine in the land, and a certain man of Bethlehem in Judah went to live in the country of Moab, he and his wife and two sons” (Ruth 1:1). What this New Revised Standard translation does not reveal is that the word Bethlehem in Hebrew means “House of Bread.” Consequently, a translation that captures the coded message in Hebrew and transfers it to English would be “Once upon a time ... there was no bread in the house of bread.” Such a beginning has the feel of a story told to make a point. But what is the point? Historical background information adds to the texture of the narrative. The journey from Bethlehem to Mozb in Ruth 1:1 takes on greater significance when we realize that people from Judah considered Moabites to be enemies. The Bible provides various accounts of armed conflicts between Israel and Moab, and one law bans Moabites from participating with Israelites in worship in the temple: “No Ammonite or Moabite shall be admitted to the assembly of the LORD. Even to CR cee) Be cautious about web sites you visit. The first site that pops up on a web browser might give false or misleading information. There are no editorial controls over what goes on the Web, so people often display ill-founded claims. Look for web sites that professors at colleges or universities post for their students, or find online versions of published texts (for example, The Catholic Encyclopedia). the tenth generation, none of their descendants shall be admitted to the assembly of the LORD” (Deuteronomy 23:3), Genesis 19:30-38 even attributes the origin of the Moabite people to an incestuous union between a man named Lot and his oldest daughter. For Elimilech and Naomi to move from Bethlehem to Moab underscores their desperate circumstances due to the famine. The opening paragraph of Ruth depicts a family situation that goes from bad to terrible for the family of Elimilech, ‘The name of the man was Elimelech and the name of his wife Naomi, and the names of his two sons were Mahlon and Chilion; they were Ephrathites from Bethlehem in Judah. They went into the country of Moab and remained there. But Eliinelech, the husband of Naomi, died, and she was left with her two sons. These took Moabite wives; the name of the one was Orpah and the name of the other Ruth, When they had lived there about ten years, both Mahlon and Chilion also died, so that the woman was left without her two sons and her husband. (Ruth 1:2-5) Naomi’s circumstances are grave. What will she do? We, as readers confronted with such a bleak beginning, wonder what will happen to Naomi and her daughters-in-law. The narrative causes us to pity the women, and it draws us into the story. If we had previously read a number of other stories from ancient Near Eastern literature, we would also be suspicious that the beginning of Ruth signals us to be alert to some point that the story is designed to teach. Extremely good or bad characters or circumstances signaled Israelite audiences familiar with this storytellers’ technique to be alert for what they were supposed to learn from the story. And they would have been familiar with the customs of levirate marriage and kinsman-redeemer.CHAPTER 6: SHORT STORIES IN THE HEBREW BIBLE The Jordan River winds through the Judean wilderness, ust north of the Dead Sea, Imagine walking through this area on your way from Moab to Bethlehem. Leviraté Marriage or Kinsman-Redeemer In ancient Israel, women needed to be protected by their husbands, sons, and other males in their extended families. Without men to protect them, women were vulnerable to sexual abuse and powerless to prevent it. Foreign women especially were often considered to have no honor, so men felt little restraint from taking advantage of them. Naomi’s plight was desperate, Removed from the city of her birth and her extended family, bereaved of her husband and two sons, and left alone with two foreign daughters-in-law, she faced immense obstacles. Traveling back from. Moab to Bethlehem without the protection of kinsmen would be dangerous—even -if she traveled with a caravan. Naomi tries to persuade her daughters-in- Jaw to return to their homes and marry again: Naomi said to her two daughter law,“Go back each of you to your mother’s house. May the LORD deal kindly with you, as you have dealt with the dead and with me. The LORD grant that you may find security, each of you in the house of. your husband” (1:9). Bonds of affection between these women do not negate the stark reality that the daughters- in-law need husbands, and Naomi cannot help them with this need. Yet some of her reasoning sounds absurd unless you understand the ancient Levirate snarriage law. Naomi said, “Turn back, my daughters, why will you go with me? Do I still have sons in my womb that they may become your husbands? Turn back, my daughters, go your way, for I am too old to have a husband. Even if I thought there was hope for me, even if I should have a husband tonight and bear sons, would you then wait until they were grown? Would you then refrain from marrying? No, my 117aw 118 INTERPRETING BIBLICAL LITERATURE daughters, it has been far more bitter for ‘me than for you, because the hand of the LORD has turned against me.” (Ruth 1:11-13) Why would she say such a seemingly outrageous thing to her widowed daughters-in- law? Surely she could not be serious about raising a baby boy for a grown woman to marty—or could she? Is she using some Israelite figure of speech, or is she referring to an Israelite custom? Ancient Israelites believed that everyone goes to Sheol, Basically, the way the men thought that they lived on after their death was through their sons. In light of this belief, the extreme nature of Naomi’s comment actually makes sense. In her culture women believed that one of their most important contributions was to:produce male offspring for their husbands. Loyalty to.a dead husband sometimes took on extreme formis (as we will see later in the story of Tamar in Genesis 38). The levirate marriage law found. in Deuteronomy 25:5-10 adds further insight into a ‘custom that might lie behind the story of Ruth. Levirate comes from the Latin’ Yevir, which means “husband's brother.” | 5 When brothers reside together, and one | of them’ dies and has no son, the wife of | the deceased shall not be married outside ‘the family ‘to a stranger. Her husband's brother.shall go in to her, taking her in inarriagéy-and performing the duty of a husband's. brother to her, and the firstborn. whom she bears shall succeed to the name of the deceased brother, so that his name'may not be blotted out of Isra 7 But if the man has no desire to masry his ‘brother's widow, then his brother's widow shall go. up to the elders at the gate and say, “Myhusband’s brother refuses to perpetuate his brother's name in Israel; he will not perform the duty of a husband’s brother ‘to me.” § Then the elders of his town shall summon him and speak to him. If he persists, saying, “I have no desire to marry her,” ? then his brother’s wife shall go up to him in the presence of the elders, pull his sandal off his foot, spit in his face, and declare, “This is what is done to the man who does not build up his brother's house.” " Throughout Israel his family shall be known as “the house of him whose * sandal was pulled off.” (Deuteronomy 25:5-10) Verses 9-10 might strike you as rather humorous, but in the honor-shame culture of ancient Israel, the threat of being publicly dishonored—having a woman pull off your sandal and spit in your face in the presence of the most honorable men in your community— provided a sobering threat. Ina levirate marriage, if the surviving brother already had a wife, he simply gained another. Ancient Israelites did not look down on polygamy. In the situation described above, the brother would be expected to become polygamous if he were already married. The point was that the dead man’ closest kin, his brother, needed to provide a male heir for him. It was his duty to supply this service. Age was CORT) In ancient Israel, the city gate provided a public place to settle judicial matters. The elders of the community gathered at this main entrance to hear | | cases, acting as judges to resolve | disputes and to answer legal questions. | In Deuteronomy 25:7, the widow brings | the resisting brother to the elders atthe | city gate (see also Amos 5:10, 15). In Ruth 4:1-6, Boaz, in order to settle the \ | legal issues with acquiring Ruth as his wife, speaks with his kinsman in the | | presence of ten elders at the city gate.not a concern. The brother could be much older or much younger than the son-less widow. Love was not the motivating factor for such a marriage. With respect to the story in Ruth, aspects of the levirate marriage law do not match what Naomi says. For one thing, Levirate marriage involved a surviving brother of the dead man— one who had the same father, But Naot husband and sons were all dead. Her concern in 1:9-11 seems to be more for the well being of her daughters-in-law than for producing males to carry on the names of her husband and sons in Israel, Because her own situation is hopeless, she cannot help the younger women. Yet in the narrative her mention of providing a husband does carry with it a foreshadowing of Ruth’s future marriage to Boaz, which Naomi helps to arrange. We do not know for sure what connection the story of Ruth has with levirate marriage. Boaz is a close kinsman of Naomi, but not her son. Yet she gets very excited in 2:20 after hearing that Boaz has shown kindness to Ruth, exclaiming that he is one of her closest of kin. Boaz tells Ruth in 3:12-13 that there is one closer of kin than he is, so whatever obligations he has in mind involve assistance from the closest kin possible—if he is willing to fulfill the obligations. There does not appear to be any shame involved if he does not make the offer. And when Boaz speaks to the next-of-kin in 4:3-4, the focus is on redeeming land for a widowed relative. The kinsman does not initially seem aware of marriage to Ruth being part of the deal. When he discovers that he will have “to maintain the dead man’s name on his inheritance” (4:5), he reverses his initial willingness to buy the land, citing a problem with his own inheritance (4:6). Did he not want to produce children with Ruth for his dead kinsman because the personal cost would lower the amount of inheritance he could give to his own sons? CHAPTER 6: SHORT STORIES IN THE HEBREW BIBLE fir tuo ru ks a eeeeemeeen In the 1960s-1980s, many weddings included a lovely song written in 1954 by Guy Singer that was based on the King James Version of Ruth 1:16, The song begins with the bride saying to the | groom, "Whither thou goest, | will go. Wherever thou lodgest, | will lodge. Thy people will be my people my love” Given the context of these words in the story of Ruth, what is the problem with this wedding song? ‘The situation in the story of Ruth contains enough ambiguity that we do not know if the practice of levirate marriage lies behind the narrative or if the story has in mind the Israelite practice of the kinsman-redeemer who pro- vides for a needy relative. The Hebrew word for Kinsman-redeemer is gocl, and .the basic meaning is to “buy back” (redeem). If, for example, a poor member of the extended family had to sell land in order to survive, the goel, a wealthy benefactor, restored the land to the Kinsman by paying off the debt (see Leviticus 25:25, 47-49). Scholars are divided on the meaning of “next-of-kin’ in Ruth 4:1-6; 4:8-13. Historical and sociological considerations of ancient Near Eastern societies complicate reaching a decision on precisely what the author had in mind, You can probe deeper into this topic by consulting Bible commentaries on Ruth. Character Portrayal in Ruth Not infrequently in biblical stories the names of the characters have symbolic significance, and the story of Ruth provides an excellent example of this phenomenon. The name Orpah comes from the Hebrew ‘oreph, which designates the “back of the neck.” The figurative meaning of the word is “obstinate,” because the back of the 119INTERPRETING BIBLICAL LITERATURE neck is what you see as a person walks away. In the Bible ‘oreph sometimes describes rebellious Israelites who turned away from God (for example, Exodus 32:8; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Deuteronomy 9:6, 13; 31:27; 2 Kings 17:14). Ruth, on the other hand, probably means “friendship,” because it comes from the Hebrew verb ra‘ah, which means “to be a special friend.” Boaz means “quickness or strength,” which seems appropriate for him. Naomi means “pleasant.” Most Bibles explain her name in a footnote for Ruth 1:20, in which the despairing widow says, “Call me no longer Naomi (Pleasant), call me Mara (Bitter), for the Almighty has dealt bitterly with me.” Remember that narratives tell stories about people’s actions and belicfs, Just because a character says something does not mean that the author endorses that statement, Naomi’s comments in 1:20-21 make sense in light of her bitter experiences, but beware of assigning too much theological weight to her words. Long, Long Ago The story of Ruth ends at 4:17 (the genealogy in 4:18-22 might be original to the textor might have been added later). Notice that the final paragraph of the story (4:13-17) indicates that everything turned out fine in the ene 1. 120 How is Naomi portrayed in the story? What words best characterize her? . What does the story emphasize about Ruth? What words best characterize her? . How is Boaz portrayed? What words best characterize him? Which actions show that he is true to his name, Boaz? . What do you believe was the author's purpose for telling this story about Naomi, Ruth and Boaz? end and the main characters lived happily afterwards. How long after the time of the Judges (Ruth 1:1) was the story of Ruth actually written? Centuries later! For one thing, the book of Ruth is found in the Writings, the last section of the Hebrew Bible. For another, the author of the story finds it necessary to explain an ancient custom to his readers in 4:7, because they might not understand its significance: “Now this was the custom in former times in Israel concerning redeeming and exchanging: to confirm a transaction, the one took off a sandal and gave it to the other; this was the manner of attesting in Israel.” This comment indicates that the story time of Ruth in the time of the Judges (1200-1020 BCE) represents a distant past from the perspective of the author and his audience. Understanding the Literary Character of Biblical Stories Reading the Bible as literature involves implementing standard literary tools for interpretation. Stories in the Bible are like stories elsewhere. They share most of the same basic components. Story plot lines are typically built around the resolution of conflicts. The conflicts might be with nature, as with the fierce storm at sea in Jonah 1, or spiritual, as with Jonah’s complicated relationship with God, or emotional/mental, as with Jonah’s hatred of Assyrians and his disappointment and turmoil when God did not destroy Nineveh. The conflicts can also involve physical conflict between humans. The Hebrew Bible contains many stories about violence, from Cain killing his brother, Abel, in Genesis 4 to the horrible war atrocities recounted in 2 Kings. Human history is filled with conflict, and stories use conflicts to produce engaging narratives. In Ruth, the opening paragraph presents a bleak picture filled with problems that theValue of Bible Commentaries The difficulty levels of commentaries vary considerably. Some are written for general readership, with no assumption that readers have technical knowledge of the Bible. Others are written for scholars, assume knowledge of Hebrew and Greek, have extensive footnoting, and use demanding, technical vocabulary. The first part of a Bible commentary typically devotes a number of pages to explaining the commentator's views on the authorship of the book, when it was written, its theology and major themes, and so forth. Following this introductory material, the commentary usually provides a verse-by-verse analysis of the book. This format has a long history of use and is quite predictable from commentary to commentary. Examples of commentary series + Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary. Clearly written and accessible. Uses a modern, multi- media format and includes a CD with pictures, background information and internet links. Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Written by good scholars for a general audience. + The New International Commentary. Detailed analysis, but not necessary to know Greek and Hebrew, 7 Sacra Pagina. Detailed expositions by an international team of Catholic scholars. Anchor Bible. Detailed and scholarly, . + Word Biblical Commentary. Knowledge of Greek and Hebrew presupposed, but not essential to understand these books. + International Critical Commentary, Written for scholars. Knowledge of Greek and Hebrew presupposed. What happened on the threshing floor? Acommentary exercise Most readers are curious about what happened in 3:1-13, where Naomi has Ruth bathe, put on perfume and nice clothes, sneak into where Boaz lies asleep, and ask him to spread his cloak over her. Locate several recent commentaries on Ruth and see how they clarify these verses, Note what evidence they give to support their claims, and see if they discuss what other scholars think about the passage. How do they explain the following? 1. What does Ruth mean when she says to Boaz in 3:9:"I am Ruth, your servant; spread your cloak over your servant, for you are next-of- kin”? 2. Why does Boaz respond in 3:10:"May you be blessed by the LORD, my daughter; this last instance of your loyalty is better than the first; you have not gone after young men, whether poor or rich"? 3. What does Boaz’s advice about next-of-kin in 3:13 mean? 4, When Boaz springs the trap on the man who is next-of-kin to Naomi dead husband, Elimelech, in 4:5, why does the man respond as he does in 4:67 When choosing a commentary, be aware that some are written for general audiences, but some assume the reader has an understanding of Greek and Hebrew. ge 121122 hove 2apPe events in the rest of the story resolve. The author carefully focuses on specific events that contribute to the story’s main themes, leading to the climax of the account. The Ruth narrative gives few details on the physical and emotional suffering of its characters, but it succeeds in eliciting pity for the women. By imaginatively entering into the story, we can sense how ‘Naomi’ bitterness slowly changes to hope and then to joy. Suspense is another aspect of a good story, because it makes the reader/audience want to know what happens next. The story of Ruth begins with the suspense surrounding whether or not Ruth will follow Naomi back to Bethlehem. Will she be like Orpah and return to her family? Later we experience suspense Mery, Schmerey --You ond your rey! Zeus ld sites vorinees INTERPRETING BIBLICAL LITERATURE when wondering what will happen during the covert meeting between Ruth and Boaz in the middle of the night. Finally, suspense builds before and during Boaz’s meeting with the closest of kin at the city gate. Will the other man take Ruth as his wife, thus foiling the union of Ruth and Boaz? Narratives have a central character called the protagonist. In Hollywood, Academy Awards are given for best actor and actress, and these awards go to those who play the role of the protagonist in a movie (unless, of course, someone gets the award for doing a really fine job of playing a villain). The story of Ruth has three main characters: Naomi, Ruth and Boaz. One could argue that Naomi plays the leading role, even though Ruth is the hero. Ultimately, Ruth’s actions all relate back to Naomi. Boxz plays an important supporting role, but he is certainly not the focus of the story. Other characters in the story of Ruth remain undeveloped. They serve merely as agents to move the story forward (for example, Orpah in 1:4-15 or the next-of-kin in 6). They also enhance characteristics of fhain characters. The servant in charge of the harvesters in 2:5-7 describes Ruth's industriousness: “she has been on her feet from carly this morning until now, without resting even for a moment” (2:7). He facilitates the meeting of Boaz and Ruth. In the beginning of the story, Ruth and Orpah are equals—Moabite wives of Naomi’s sons, But Orpah’s return to her family makes Ruth’s unswerving loyalty to Naomi seem more heroic. Orpah is a minor character, and as such she does not inspire much attention or concern. Who would write a book entitled Orpab: The Other Heroine and How She Lived in Moab? Movies and books cause us to focus on what happens with the main characters, viewing theirlives as more important than others. We want to know about Naomi and Ruth, not the other nameless widows in Bethlehem. Good ‘stories have an. affective quality, causing readers to identify with the main characters. They do not merely recount a series of events. They invite readers to interact with the events—to resonate with the conflicts and quandaries. The story of Jonah invites us to reflect on issues related to hatred between different races of people and to ponder the problem of divine justice. The story of Ruth invites us to feel the plight of two women enduring desperate circumstances and finally managing through cunning and hard work to overcome their situation. The events in both stories are selected to emphasize central themes, providing narrative coherence, Both authors avoid including extraneous material that does not contribute to advancing their plots. There is an observable cause-and-effect sequence of events, with each episode resulting from what precedes it. Both plots build toward a climax—a resolution of the conflicts, In the case of Ruth, the story has a happy ending. The ending of Jonah's story remains unresolved, leaving readers to ponder what happens next—and hopefully to ponder what they believe should happen next (i.c., did they get the point®).. Also central to. most stories are the important choices made by characters. When the hero of a story confronts a test, what will he or she decide to do? As a result of these decisions, events unfold in the story. Will Ruth return home after the death of her husband, or will she remain with Naomi? Her decision determines subsequent events. As we read the story we might ask ourselves, “Did she make the right decision?” and “What would I have done had I been in her place?” If we identify with Ruth, her story in a way can become our story through the imaginative process. CHAPTER 6: SHORT STORIES IN THE HEBREW BIBLE Another important narrative technique is dramatic irony, If we have knowledge that characters in the story do not, ‘we can see implications of events that the characters cannot know. We also see incongruity between the words of the characters and events in: the narrative—an incongruity that the characters do not grasp. The stories of Jonah and Ruth do not use this technique, but when we read-the story of Job, we will see tremendais irony at work because the narrator provides information about a divine wager that affects Job’s entire li Yet Job knows nothing of the wager. Sometimes closely related to dramatic irony is poetic justice, in which characters in a story * get what they deserve. Good people are rewarded and bad people are punished. Naomi, -~ who suffers tremendously in the first part of the story, in the end gains happiness: Ruth, who endures sorrow, hardship and poveity, gains.a wealthy husband. One of the most pronounced instances of poetic justice in the Bible occurs in the story of Esther, where the wicked Haman is. hanged on the very gallows that he had built to Pemrerie ran 1, What kind of emotional response did you have toward the character of Jonah and to the story's message regarding God's love for one’s enemy? 2, How do beliefs like Sheol and customs like casting lots and levirate marriage or kinsman redeemer, which provide background for biblical stories, affect your reflections on the contemporary value of stories like Jonah and Ruth? 3, How did you personally respond to Jonah 3:10?“When God saw what they did, how they turned from their evil ways, God changed his mind about the calamity that he had said he would bring upon them; and he did not do it” 123124 INTERPRETING BIBLICAL LITERATURE execute the virtuous Mordecai (Esther.7:9-10). The size of the gallows, 75 feet high, provides a good example of exaggeration for’ narrative effect. Such endings bring a feeling of balance to life, even though our personal experience does not always correspond to poetic justice. In real life, the wicked often win and the righteous suffer unjustly. ns Storytellers illustrate their beliefs” "through the actions of their characters. ‘They do’ not lecture readers. Authors recount events’ in the lives of their characters, but they typically do not explain the significance of these ‘events. They deseribe their characters’ attitudes’ and behaviors in ways that draw readers int the legitimacy or illegitimacy of th depicted in the narrative. Instead of lecturing on how our actions should be noble, or how we should make appropriate moral choices, authors reveal such beliefs through the consequences of choices in their stories. Jonah flees from God in disobedience." As a result, the sailors have to cast the ship’ Cargo overboard, and Jonah personally ends up being swallowed by a huge fish in whose belly he remains for three dreadful days. Ruth works very hard, which causes her to be noticed by the wealthy Boaz, which leads to a desirable martiage—obviously a positive consequence. The story of Jonah shows that one should obey God, even if it involves doing something distasteful. The story of Ruth shows that loyalty and hard work are rewarded. If authors do explain key points regarding their philosophies of life, they do so through the mouths of their characters in speeches to others or through private ponderings. Thus, a good story teaches its readers in a much more indirect manner than a lecture or sermon, a; By selecting events to include in their stories, authors stack the deck, if you will. They push us into sharing their visions of reality. by recounting events that lead to their,“own conclusions. Authors control what we'see by being seléctive in the events they include and by the sequence in which they present the events. Each story creates‘ its own narrative world, sequencing events=to lead té a particular conclusion. Choosing other events and sequencing themidifferently Could lead to alternate views of reality. The author of Ruth ays nothing about: whether or not Boaz, an older man, died long before Ruth, leaving her a widow for an extended time period. That is not the point of the story. However, another author could focus on:the. difficulties of marrying an older: man by: takirig the story in another direction through alternate selectivity and sequencing.) + ‘At times in the Bible such selective telling of eveiits in a story is striking. A notable example is’ the: difference between the way 1-2 Chronicles tellsthe ‘story of David, king of Israel; and the account given in 1-2 Samuel. ‘The narfative in'1-2 Samuel includes a number of ‘terrible actions: taken by David and the hortible ‘consequences that followed. 1-2 Chronicles, however, leaves out the dirt on David, which results in a much inore positive depiction of the man. What authors leave out is often as’ important.as what they include in a story. ‘Their selectivity and sequencing can be quite influential in readers’ responses to their stories. Stories’ play a powerful role in shaping our beliéts by depicting life in certain ways. Authors cainse~us to feel sympathy or hatred toward individual characters by the ways they depict them, If-a book or movie depicts:a villain as ruthlessand cruel, audiences may well cheer when the villain gets poetic justice:in the story and: dies painfully. “Yes!” we ‘think. “Finally! ‘That creep really had it coming.” Ifjon the other hand, the story describes the pitiful and unjust suffering of good characters, we feel compassion for,these people and root for them.to win. In real life such justice does not always happen. But most people have an innate senseCHAPTER 6: SHORT STO that it should. When a book has what I consider to be a bad or unsatisfactory ending, I feel personally disappointed. I might mutter, “It is just not fair!” or I might say, “The author messed up big time! This ending is deplorable!” remember actually throwing a novel across the living room when I finished it, because I was so angry at the death of the main character. Stories told with skill engage us, drawing us into their narrative worlds and influencing our personal beliefs. Of course, stories are only one form of persuasive writing in the Bible. In the next chapter, we transition from narratives to the wisdom literature collected in Proverbs. Our study of Proverbs will reveal more about SU asc 1. Of what. “ekeca relevance is the message of the story of Jonah in today’s world?, . Do you consider Jonah to be a historical |? accouint of actual events'or a fictionalized story that uses an obscure prophet mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25 to make a point about God's compassion toward non-israelites? Why? And ; with respect t6 the seeming intent of the story, do you believe that it makes any difference whether or not the-events in the narrative actually happened? Why or why not? IN THE HEBREW BIBLE selectivity in the ‘composition of documents in the Hebrew Bible» We will also analyze: the poetic narrative of Job; a very, feisty book that presents ‘a”thinority’ report, challenging. the dominant paradigmarguing, we might say, with: Proverbs. After, interacting “with ‘the intense message of Job, we will explore, Psalms to see how selected poem in this collection of poetry functioned in ancient Israelite society. And after studying the ‘form and function. of psalms, we will oneé aghin study narrative, this time the lengthy narrative of Genesis, the first book of the Bible. You ,will then. see why..we studied Wisdom Literature’ and Psalms before exploring the primeval history in Genesis, “as. eee DEDES 3, From your own cultural perspective, what is. your opinion of the tralts that made Ruth so endearing to ancient Israelites? How do you, respond to what you see in this story about roles of women in Israelite society? . Do you consider the story of Ruth to be a histori¢al account or a {atleast somewhat) fictionalized story? Why? 125