Topology

Midterm Reviewer
LESSON 1. SETS
SETS
Definition 1.1. Set
A set is any well-defined list or collection of objects, and will be denoted by capital letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑋, 𝑌, ….
The objects comprising the set are called its elements or members and will be denoted by lower case letters
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦, ….
We write “𝒑 is an element of 𝑨” or “𝑝 belongs to 𝐴” as 𝒑 ∈ 𝑨 otherwise, we write 𝒑 ∉ 𝑨 .
Two Ways of Naming a Set
1. Roster method. Listing/enumerating all elements of the sets.
2. Set builder notation. Describing the common characteristic/s of a set.
Definition 1.2. Universal Set
The universal set is the set of all elements. Thus, for every element 𝑥, 𝑥 is an element of 𝑈. This can be written
in propositional form as ∀𝒙, [𝒙 ∈ 𝑼].
The universal set is an example of a proper class, a class which is not an element of another class.
Definition 1.3. Types of Sets

1. Null set. The class which has no elements is the empty or null class. Thus, for every element 𝑥, 𝑥 is not
an element of the null class ∅. This is written in propositional form ∀𝑥, [𝑥 ∉ ∅].
2. Singleton sets. A set with only one element
3. Finite sets. A set is finite means that the number of elements in the set is a whole number, if it has a
specific number of elements.
4. Infinite sets. If there is no particular whole number that gives the number of elements in a set, then it is
infinite.
5. Subset. 𝐴 is said to be a subset of 𝐵 denoted by 𝐴  𝐵 if every element of 𝐴 is an element of 𝐵. Thus
𝐴  𝐵 ↔ ∀𝑥, [𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵].
6. Superset. We say that 𝐴 is contained in 𝐵 or 𝐵 contains 𝐴 or 𝐵 is a superset of 𝐴 written as 𝐴 ⊇ 𝐵.
7. Proper subset. 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵 if there are elements of set 𝐵 that are not in set 𝐴. That is
𝐴  𝐵 ↔ (𝐴  𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵).
8. Equal sets. Two sets are equal if they have exactly the same elements.
9. Equivalent sets. Two sets are equivalent if they have the same cardinality. Cardinality means the
number of distinct elements in a set.
“Equal sets are always equivalent sets but equivalent sets are not always equal sets.”

10. Disjoint sets. Two sets are disjoint if they share no common element.
SET OPERATIONS
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be sets.
The union set of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.

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The intersection set of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
The difference set of 𝐴 and 𝐵 or the relative complement of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 is the set 𝐴\𝐵 =
{𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

The complement set of 𝐴 is the set 𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.

The product set of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 written as 𝐴 × 𝐵 consists of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵
such that 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

ALGEBRA OF SETS
Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be sets.
1. Idempotent Laws.
𝐴∪𝐴=𝐴 𝐴∩𝐴 =𝐴
2. Associative Laws.
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
3. Commutative Laws.
𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴 𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴
4. Distributive Laws.
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
5. Identity Laws.
𝐴∪∅=𝐴 𝐴∪𝑈 =𝑈 𝐴∩𝑈 = 𝐴 𝐴∩∅=∅
6. Involution Law.
(𝐴𝑐 )𝑐 = 𝐴
7. Complement Laws.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈 𝑈𝑐 = ∅ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 = ∅ ∅𝑐 = 𝑈
8. De Morgan’s Laws.
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵𝑐

Example 1. Prove: (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩)\(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) = (𝑨\𝑩) ∪ (𝑩\𝑨) using 𝑿\𝒀 = 𝑿 ∩ 𝒀𝒄 .

Proof. Let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵), then
𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐
⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵𝑐
⟺ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵) ∧ (𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵)
⟺ [(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵) ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴)] ∨ [(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵) ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵]
⟺ [𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∧ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵))] ∨ [𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 ∧ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)]
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 ⟺ [(𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)] ∨ [(𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)]
⟺ [(𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴)] ∨ [(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵) ∨ (𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)]
⟺ (𝑥 ∈ ∅ ∨ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵\𝐴)) ∨ (𝑥 ∈ (𝐴\𝐵) ∨ 𝑥 ∈ ∅)
⟺ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵\𝐴) ∨ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴\𝐵)
⟺ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴\𝐵) ∨ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵\𝐴)
⟺ 𝒙 ∈ (𝑨\𝑩) ∪ (𝑩\𝑨)

Example 2. Prove: (𝑨 × 𝑩) ∩ (𝑪 × 𝑩) = (𝑨 ∩ 𝑪) × (𝑩 ∩ 𝑫).

Proof. Let (𝑥, 𝑦) be an arbitrary element of (𝐴 × 𝐵) ∩ (𝐶 × 𝐵), then
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ (𝐴 × 𝐵) ∩ (𝐶 × 𝐵) ⟺ [(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ (𝐴 × 𝐵)] ∨ [(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ (𝐶 × 𝐷)]
⟺ [(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑦 ∈ 𝐵)] ∨ [(𝑥 ∈ 𝐶) ∨ (𝑦 ∈ 𝐷)]
⟺ [(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)] ∨ [(𝑦 ∈ 𝐵) ∨ (𝑦 ∈ 𝐷)]
⟺ [𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)] ∨ [𝑦 ∈ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐷)]
⟺ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) × (𝐵 ∩ 𝐷)
INDEXED SETS AND GENERALIZED OPERATIONS
Definition 1.3. Indexed Sets
An indexed class of sets, denoted by {𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼}, {𝐴𝑖 }𝑖∈𝐼 , or simply {𝐴𝑖 } assigns a set 𝐴𝑖 to each 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼. The set 𝐼
is called the index set, the sets 𝐴𝑖 are called indexed sets and each 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼 is called an index.

When the index set 𝐼 is the set of positive integers, the indexed class {𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … } is called a sequence of sets.

Definition 1.4. Generalized Operations

The union of collection {𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼}, denoted by:

⋃{𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} = ⋃ 𝐴𝑖 = ⋃ 𝐴𝑖
𝑖∈𝐼 𝑖

consists of those elements which belong to at least one of the 𝐴𝑖 . Namely,

⋃{𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 for some 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼}

The intersection of a collection {𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} , denoted by

⋂{𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} = ⋂ 𝐴𝑖 = ⋂ 𝐴𝑖
𝑖∈𝐼 𝑖

consists of those elements which belong to every 𝐴𝑖 . Namely,

⋂{𝐴𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 for every 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼}

For infinite sets, we shall write:

∞ ∞
⋃ 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … ; ⋂ 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ …
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Theorem 1.1. For any class 𝒜 = {𝐴𝑖 } and any set 𝐵:

(i) 𝐵 ∪ (⋂𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ) = ⋂𝑖(𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝑖 ), (ii) 𝐵 ∩ (⋃𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ) = ⋃𝑖(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝑖 )
Theorem 1.2. Let 𝒜 = {𝐴𝑖 } be any class of subsets of 𝑈. Then,
(i) (⋃𝑖 𝐴𝑖 )𝑐 = ⋂𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑐 , (ii) (⋂𝑖 𝐴𝑖 )𝑐 = ⋃𝑖 𝐴𝑐𝑖
Theorem 1.3. Let 𝐴 be any set and, for each 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴, let 𝐺𝑝 be a subset of 𝐴 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺𝑝 ⊆ 𝐴. Then 𝐴 =
⋃{𝐺𝑝 : 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴}.

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OPEN AND CLOSED SETS
Definition 1.5. Open Sets
Let 𝐴 be set of real numbers. A point 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴 is an interior point of 𝐴 if and only if 𝑝 ∈ 𝑆𝑝 ⊆ 𝐴. The set 𝐴 is an open
set if and only if each point is an interior point.
Definition 1.6. Closed Sets
A subset 𝐴 of ℝ, is a set of real numbers, is a closed set if and only if its complement 𝐴𝑐 is an open set. A
closed set can also be described in terms of its accumulation points.
Example 3. Prove that the intersection of finite number of closed sets is closed.
Proof. Let 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 , … , 𝐹𝑘 be closed sets. WTS that 𝐹 = 𝐹1 ∩ 𝐹2 ∩ 𝐹3 ∩ ⋯ ∩ 𝐹𝑘 is a closed, then

𝐹 = ⋂ 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹1 ∩ 𝐹2 ∩ 𝐹3 ∩ ⋯ ∩ 𝐹𝑘 ; 𝐼 = {1,2,3, … , 𝑘}
𝑖∈𝐼
𝑐

𝐹 = (⋂ 𝐹𝑖 ) = 𝐹1𝑐 ∪ 𝐹2𝑐 ∪ 𝐹3𝑐 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐹𝑘𝑐

𝑐

𝑖∈𝐼
= ⋃ 𝐹𝑖𝑐
𝑖∈𝐼

Since 𝐹𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑘 is closed, its complement 𝐹𝑖𝑐 must be open by definition of closed/open sets. Because
the finite union of open sets is open, it follows that 𝐹 𝑐 is open.
Example 4. Prove that the finite union of open sets is open.
Proof. Let 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 , … , 𝐹𝑘 be open sets. WTS that 𝐹 = 𝐹1 ∪ 𝐹2 ∪ 𝐹3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐹𝑘 is open, then

𝐹 = ⋃ 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹1 ∪ 𝐹2 ∪ 𝐹3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐹𝑘 ; 𝐼 = {1,2,3, … , 𝑘}
𝑖∈𝐼
𝑐

𝐹 = (⋃ 𝐹𝑖 ) = 𝐹1𝑐 ∩ 𝐹2𝑐 ∩ 𝐹3𝑐 ∩ ⋯ ∩ 𝐹𝑘𝑐

𝑐

𝑖∈𝐼
= ⋂ 𝐹𝑖𝑐
𝑖∈𝐼

Since 𝐹𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑘 is open, its complement 𝐹𝑖𝑐 must be closed by definition of closed/open sets. Because
the finite intersection of open sets is closed, it follows that 𝐹 𝑐 is closed.
LESSON 2. FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
Definition 2.1. Function
A function is a relation such that no two ordered pairs have the same first element. A function may be denoted
as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) which is read as “𝑓 of 𝑥”. A function may also be written as 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 or 𝑓 is a mapping from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
o If (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓, then we call 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) the image of 𝑥 under 𝑓 and 𝑥 the preimage of y under f.
o Set 𝐴 is called the domain of the function 𝑓.
o Set 𝐵 is called the codomain of 𝑓.
o If 𝐴 = 𝐵, then we call 𝑓 a function on 𝐴.
Definition 2.2. A function 𝒇, from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 with the following properties:
i. For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, there exist 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 such that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓.
ii. If (𝑥, 𝑦1 ) ∈ 𝑓 and (𝑥, 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑓, then 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 .
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ONE-TO-ONE, ONTO, COMPOSITION, INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Definition 2.3. Injective Function.
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called injective (or one–to–one written 1 – 1) if, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, the following condition holds:
[𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)] → [𝑎 = 𝑏].

Injective function simply states that if 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑦 has at most one pre-image 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Definition 2.4. Surjective Function.
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called surjective (or onto) if the range of 𝑓 is equal to the codomain, that is, ran(𝑓) = 𝐵
or 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎)
Surjective function simply states that every element 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 has a pre–image 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Definition 2.5. Bijective Function.
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called bijective (or one–to–one correspondence) if it is both injective and surjective.
Definition 2.6. Composition Functions.
Let A, B and C be non-empty sets. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are functions, then the function (𝑔 o 𝑓)(𝑎) =
𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)) = 𝑔𝑓(𝑎), ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, called the composition of 𝒇 and 𝒈.

Definition 2.7. Inverse Functions.

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a bijection. Then the function 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 satisfying the condition that (𝑓 o 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and
(𝑔 o 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is called the inverse of the function 𝒇. Then, 𝑔 = 𝑓 −1 is said to be invertible.

The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is the range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and the range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).
Steps on finding the inverse of a given function.
1. Replace 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑦 since 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
2. Interchange the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦. If the independent variable of is 𝑥 we will replace it by 𝑦, and vice-
versa.
3. Solve for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.
4. Change the resulting 𝑦 by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).

Example 5. Prove 𝒇: [𝟎, ∞) → ℝ defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 is bijective.

Proof. To show that the function is bijective, need to show that it is injective and surjective.

To show that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is injective, need to show that: ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, [𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)] → [𝑎 = 𝑏]
Thus, 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎2 ; 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑏 2 . Hence, 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⟹ 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 ⟹ |𝑎| = |𝑏| ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏. This holds ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ [0, ∞).
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is injective.
To show that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is surjective, need to show that: If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, then 𝑓 is said to be surjective if: ∀𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, ∃𝑎 ∈
𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏; 𝑓: [𝟎, ∞) → ℝ.

Let 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑎2 = 𝑏 ⟹ |𝑎| = ±√𝑏 ⟹ 𝑎 = ±√𝑏 ∈ ℝ. This holds ∀𝑎 ∈ [0, ∞). Take any 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, so 𝑎 = ±√𝑏 ∈
2
ℝ. Then 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 2 = 𝑓(±√𝑏) = (±√𝑏) = 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is surjective on the given
mapping.

Now, since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is injective and surjective, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is bijective.

Example 6. If 𝒇 and 𝒈 are surjective, then 𝒈 𝐨 𝒇 is surjective.

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Proof. Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 are surjective. Need to show that 𝑔 o 𝑓 is surjective.
To prove that 𝑔 o 𝑓 is surjective, we should be able to show that ∀𝑐 ∈ 𝐶, ∃𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑔 o 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐.
Since 𝑔 is surjective ∀𝑐 ∈ 𝐶, ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑐. Since 𝑓 is surjective ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.
Hence, 𝑔 o 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑐. Therefore, 𝑔 o 𝑓 is surjective.
𝒙+𝟐
Example 7. Determine the domain and range and inverse of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟏.

Solution. Domain 𝑓(𝑥): ℝ\{1}: 𝑥 − 1 ≠ 0 → 𝑥 ≠ 1

𝑥+2 𝑦+2
Range 𝑓(𝑥): ℝ{1}: 𝑦 = 𝑥−1 ⟹ 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 ⟹ 𝑥(𝑦 − 1) = 𝑦 + 2 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦−1

𝑦−1≠0→𝑦 ≠1

Domain 𝑓 −1 (𝑥): ℝ\{1}

Range 𝑓 −1 (𝑥): ℝ\{1}

Finding the inverse:
𝑥+2 𝑦+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2
𝑦= ⟹𝑥= ⟹ 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 2 ⟹ 𝑦(𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 + 2 ⟹ 𝑦 = ⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
𝑥−1 𝑦−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1

To check the inverse is correct, determine if 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥.

𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥
𝑥+2
𝑥+2 + 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 + 2(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 2 + 2𝑥 − 2 3𝑥
𝑓( )=𝑥−1 ∙ = = = =𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥+2 𝑥−1 𝑥 + 2 − (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+2−𝑥+1 3
𝑥−1 − 1

𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
𝑥+2
𝑥+2 + 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 + 2(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 2 + 2𝑥 − 2 3𝑥
𝑓 −1
( )=𝑥−1 ∙ = = = =𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥+2 𝑥−1 𝑥 + 2 − (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+2−𝑥+1 3
𝑥−1 − 1

LESSON 3. TOPOLOGY ON LINE AND PLANE

Definition 3.1. Real Numbers
The set of real numbers ℝ can be characterized by the statement that ℝ is complete, Archimedean ordered
field.
Definition 3.2. Accumulation Points
Let 𝐴 be a subset of ℝ. A point 𝑝 ∈ ℝ is an accumulation point or limit point of 𝐴 if and only if every open set
𝐺 containing 𝑝 contains a point of 𝐴 different from 𝑝, i.e., 𝐺 is open, 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 implies 𝐴 ∩ {𝐺\{𝑝}} ≠ ∅.
The set of accumulation points of 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴′ , is called derived set of 𝐴.
Example 8. Let 𝑨 = ℕ, 𝑩 = (𝒂, 𝒃], 𝑪 = ℤ. Find the derived set of 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪.
Solution. 𝐴 = ℕ is the set of natural numbers, does not have any limit points. For if 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, we can find a 𝛿 > 0
arbitrarily small that the open set (𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑎 + 𝛿) contains no point of ℕ other than 𝑎.
For 𝐵 = (𝑎, 𝑏], every point 𝑝 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] is a limit point of the open-closed interval (𝑎, 𝑏], since every open interval
containing 𝑝 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] will contain points of (𝑎, 𝑏] other than 𝑝.

6|Page
Lastly, 𝐶 = ℤ does not have any points of accumulation. In other words, derived set of 𝐶 = ∅.
Theorem 3.1. Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem
Let 𝐴 be bounded, infinite set of real numbers. Then 𝐴 has at least one accumulation point.
Theorem 3.2. A subset 𝐴 of ℝ is closed if and only if 𝐴 contains each of its points of accumulation.
Theorem 3.3. Heine-Borel Theorem
Let 𝐴 = [𝑐, 𝑑] be a closed and bounded interval, and let 𝒢 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} be a class of open intervals which covers
𝐴, i.e., 𝐴 ⊆ ⋃𝑖 𝐺𝑖 . Then 𝐺 contains a finite subclass, say {𝐺𝑖1 , … , 𝐺𝑖𝑚 }, which also covers 𝐴, i.e., 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐺𝑖1 ∪ 𝐺𝑖2 ∪
⋯ ∪ 𝐺𝑖𝑚 .
1 1
Example 9. Consider the open, bounded unit interval 𝐴 = (0,1). Observe that 𝒢 = {𝐺𝑛 = (𝑛+2 , 𝑛) : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} of
1 1 1 1 1
open intervals covers 𝐴, 𝐴 ⊆ ( , 1) ∪ ( , ) ∪ ( , ) ∪ ⋯. But the union of no finite subclass of 𝒢 contains 𝐴.
3 4 2 5 3

SEQUENCES, CONVERGENT SEQUENCES, SUBSEQUENCES, AND CAUCHY SEQUENCE

Definition 3.3. Sequences
A sequence denoted by {𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , … }, {𝑠𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}, or {𝑠𝑛 } is a function whose domain is ℕ, i.e. a sequence assigns
a point 𝑠𝑛 to each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. The image 𝑠𝑛 or 𝑠(𝑛) of 𝑛 ∈ ℕ is called the 𝒏-th term of the sequence.
A sequence {𝑠𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} is said to be bounded if its range {𝑠𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} is a bounded set.
Definition 3.4. Convergent Sequences
The sequence denoted by {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … } of ℝ converges to 𝑏 ∈ ℝ is the limit of the sequence {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} denoted
by lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏, lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏, or 𝑎𝑛 → 𝑏, if for every 𝜀 > 0, there exists a positive integer 𝑛0 such that
𝑛→∞
𝑛 > 𝑛0 ⟹ |𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏| < 𝜀
Definition 3.5. The sequence {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} converges to 𝑏 if every open set containing 𝑏 contains almost all, i.e.,
all but a finite number, of the terms of the sequence.
𝟑𝒏+𝟐
Example 10. Prove that the sequence { } converges to 0.
𝟓𝒏

3𝑛+2
Proof. By Definition 3.4, we need to show that has a limit of 0.
5𝑛

3𝑛+2
If 𝑛 > 𝑛𝑜 , then | 5𝑛
− 0| < 𝜀, taking the latter condition:

3𝑛+2 3𝑛+2 1 5𝑛 5𝑛 1 5 𝑛 1 1 5 𝑛 9 5 𝑛 9
| 𝑛 |<𝜀⟺ 𝑛
< 𝜀 ⟺ < 𝑛+2 ⟺ 𝑛+2 > ⟺ ( ) ⋅ 2 > ⟺ ( ) > ⟺ log 5 ( ) > log 5 ( )
5 5 𝜀 3 3 𝜀 3 3 𝜀 3 𝜀 3 3 3 𝜀

9
⟺ 𝑛 > log 5 ( )
3 𝜀

9 9
Thus, if 𝑛 > 𝑛𝑜 , then 𝑛 > log 5 (𝜀 ). For this statement to hold, taking 𝑛𝑜 = log 5 (𝜀 ), and we have if 𝑛 ∈ ℤ and if
3 3

9 3𝑛+2 1 9
𝑛> log 5 (𝜀 ), then | 5𝑛 − 0| < 𝜀. Observe that, if in particular 𝜀 = 2
, then 𝑛𝑜 = log 5 ( 1 ) = log 5 (18) ≈ 5.6582.
3 3 2 3
311 311 177147 1
For instance, 𝑛 = 9, then | 59 − 0| = | 59 | = = 0.0906 … <
19533125 2

Thus, the given sequence has a limit of 0.

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Definition 3.6. Subsequences
Consider a sequence {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … }. If {𝑖𝑛 } is a sequence of positive integers such that 𝑖1 < 𝑖2 < ⋯, then
{𝑎𝑖1 , 𝑎𝑖2 , 𝑎𝑖3 , … } is a called a subsequence of {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}.

Example 11. Given {𝒂𝒏 } = {(−𝟏)𝒏−𝟏 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)} = {𝟏, −𝟑, 𝟓, −𝟕, 𝟗, −𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟑, −𝟏𝟓, … }. Determine whether or not
each of the ff. sequence is a subsequence of {𝒂𝒏 }.
a. {𝒃𝒏 } = {𝟏, 𝟓, −𝟑, −𝟕, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟑, −𝟏𝟏, −𝟏𝟓, … }
b. {𝒄𝒏 } = {𝟏, 𝟓, 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟑, … }
c. {𝒅𝒏 } = {−𝟑, −𝟕, −𝟏𝟏, −𝟏𝟓, −𝟏𝟗, −𝟐𝟑, … }
Solution.
a. Not a subsequence, because 5 appears before −3 in {𝑏𝑛 } but −3 appears before 5 in {𝑎𝑛 }.
b. Not a subsequence, because the terms 3,7,11 does not appear in {𝑎𝑛 }.
c. A subsequence, because for {𝑖𝑛 } = {2𝑛} = {2,4,6, … } is a sequence of positive integers such that 𝑖1 <
𝑖2 < 𝑖3 < ⋯, so {𝑎𝑖1 , 𝑎𝑖2 , 𝑎𝑖3 , … } = {−3, −7, −11, … } is a subsequence of {𝑎𝑛 }.

Definition 3.7. Cauchy sequences

A sequence {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} of ℝ is a Cauchy sequence if and only if for every 𝜀 > 0, there exists a positive integer
𝑛0 such that
𝑛, 𝑚 > 𝑛0 ⟹ |𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚 | < 𝜀
I.e., a sequence is a Cauchy sequence if and only if the terms of the sequence become arbitrarily small to each
other as 𝑛 → ∞.
Definition 3.8. Completeness
A set 𝐴 of ℝ is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} of points in 𝐴 converges to a point in
𝐴.
Theorem 3.4. Cauchy’s Theorem
Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers converges to a real number.
Example 12. Prove that every Cauchy sequence {𝒂𝒏 } of ℝ is bounded.
Proof. Let 𝜀 = 1, then by the definition of Cauchy sequence, ∃𝑛𝑜 ∈ ℕ such that 𝑛, 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛0 ⟹ |𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚 | < 1.

In particular, 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛0 ⟹ |𝑎𝑛 0 − 𝑎𝑚 | < 1 or 𝑎𝑛 0 − 1 < 𝑎𝑚 < 𝑎𝑛 0 + 1.

Now, let 𝛼 = max{𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 0 , 𝑎𝑛0 + 1}, 𝛽 = min{𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 0 , 𝑎𝑛0 − 1}, then 𝛼 is the upper bound for the
range {𝑎𝑛 } of the sequence {𝑎𝑛 } and 𝛽 is the lower bound. Thus, {𝑎𝑛 } is bounded.
CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Definition 3.9. Continuity
A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is continuous at point 𝑥0 if ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0 such that
|𝑥 − 𝑥0 | ⟹ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )| < 𝜀

The function 𝑓 is a continuous function if it is continuous at every point.

Definition 3.10. A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is continuous at every point 𝑝 ∈ ℝ if for any open set 𝑉𝑓(𝑝) containing 𝑓(𝑝),
there exists an open set 𝑈𝑝 containing 𝑝 such that 𝑓[𝑈𝑝 ] ⊆ 𝑉𝑓(𝑝) . The function 𝑓 is a continuous function if it is
continuous at every point.
8|Page
Theorem 3.5. A function is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every open set is open.
Theorem 3.6. Weierstrass Intermediate Value Theorem
Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then the function assumes every value between 𝑓(𝑎) and
𝑓(𝑏).
I.e., if 𝑦0 ∈ ℝ for which 𝑓(𝑎) ≤ 𝑦0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑏) or 𝑓(𝑏) ≤ 𝑦0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑎), then ∃𝑥0 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥0 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑓(𝑥0 ) =
𝑦0 .
𝒙 𝟏
Example 13. Prove that 𝑮(𝒙) = is continuous at 𝒙𝟎 = .
𝒙+𝟏 𝟐

Proof. Using the definition of continuity, for all 𝜖 > 0, there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that if 𝑥0 ∈ dom(𝑓) and 0 <
1 𝑥 1
|𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿, then |𝑥+1 − 3| < 𝜖. We first start to guess what 𝛿 is by using the latter condition:

1 1 1
𝑥 𝑥 1 3𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥−2 |𝑥 − 2|
| − 2 |=| − |=| |=| | = 2| |=2 <𝜀
𝑥+1 1+1 𝑥+1 3 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 |𝑥 + 1|
2
1 1 1
Observe that there is another factor |𝑥+1| aside from |𝑥 − 2|, we will find an upper bound for |𝑥+1|. If we choose
1 1
𝛿 ≤ 1 and 0 < |𝑥 − | < 𝛿, then |𝑥 − | < 1,
2 2

1 3 1 3 3 1 5 1 2 1
⟹ −1 < 𝑥 − < 1 ⟹ −1 + < 𝑥 − + < 1 + ⟹ < 𝑥 + 1 < ⟹ 2 > > ⟹| |<2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 𝑥+1 5 𝑥+1
1
|𝑥− | 2𝛿 2𝛿 𝜖|𝑥+1|
2
Thus, 2 |𝑥+1| < |𝑥+1| < 𝜖; |𝑥+1| < 𝜖 ⟹ 𝛿 < 2

1 2𝜖
Since we had found that the upper bound of| | is 2, then we can take 𝛿 = = 𝜖. Now, if we choose 𝛿 = 𝜖,
𝑥+1 2
1
|𝑥− | 2𝛿 𝑥 1
2
then 2 |𝑥+1| < 2
= 𝛿 = 𝜖.Taking the 𝛿 = min{1, 𝜖}, therefore, 𝐺(𝑥) = 𝑥+1 is continuous at 𝑥0 = 2.

TOPOLOGY ON THE PLANE

Definition 3.11. Open disc
An open disc 𝑫 in the plane ℝ2 is the set of points inside a circle with center 𝑝 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and radius 𝛿 > 0, i.e.,
𝐷 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): (𝑥 − 𝑎1 )2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎2 )2 < 𝛿 2 } = {𝑞 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑑(𝑝, 𝑞) < 𝛿}.
Here, 𝑑(𝑝, 𝑞) denotes the distance between two points 𝑝 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and 𝑞 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ) in ℝ2 : 𝑑(𝑝, 𝑞) =
√(𝑎1 − 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )2.

Definition 3.12. Interior point in Open disc

Let 𝐴 ⊆ ℝ2 . A point 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴 is an interior point of 𝐴 if and only if 𝑝 belongs to some open disc 𝐷𝑝 which is
contained in 𝐴: 𝑝 ∈ 𝐷𝑝 ⊆ 𝐴.

Definition 3.13. Open set in ℝ2

The set A is open (or 𝓤-open) if and only if each points is an interior point.

Definition 3.14. Accumulation point in ℝ𝟐

A point 𝑝 ∈ ℝ2 is an accumulation point or limit point of a subset 𝐴 or ℝ2 if and only if every open set set 𝐺
containing 𝑝 contains a point of 𝐴 different from 𝑝, i.e., 𝐺 ⊆ ℝ2 is open, 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 implies 𝐴 ∩ {𝐺\{𝑝}} ≠ ∅.

9|Page
Definition 3.15. Closed set in ℝ2

A subset A of ℝ2 is closed if and only if its complement 𝐴𝑐 is an open subset of ℝ2 .

Definition 3.15. Sequences in ℝ2

A sequence (𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … ) of points in ℝ2 converges to the point 𝑞 ∈ ℝ2 if and only if every open set containing 𝑞
contains almost all the terms of the sequence. Convergence in the plane ℝ2 can be characterized in terms of
convergence in ℝ as follows.

Definition 3.16. Consider the sequence {𝑝1 = (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ), 𝑝2 = (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ), … } of point in ℝ2 and the point 𝑞 = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈
ℝ2 , then 𝑝𝑛 → 𝑞 if and only if 𝑎𝑛 → 𝑎 and 𝑏𝑛 → 𝑏
Definition 3.17. Continuity in ℝ2

A function 𝑓: ℝ2 → ℝ2 is continuous at a point 𝑝 ∈ ℝ2 if and only if for any open set 𝑉𝑓(𝑝) containing 𝑓(𝑝), there
exists an open set 𝑈𝑝 containing 𝑝 such that 𝑓[𝑈𝑝 ] ⊆ 𝑉𝑓(𝑝) .

ANALOGOUS THEOREMS IN ℝ

Theorem 3.7. The union of any number of open subsets in ℝ2 is open.

Theorem 3.8. The intersection of any finite number of open subsets in ℝ2 is open.

Theorem 3.9. A subset A of ℝ2 is closed if and only if its complement 𝐴 contains each of its accumulation points.

Theorem 3.10. A function 𝑓: ℝ2 → ℝ2 is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every open set is open.
Example 14. Clearly an open disc, the entire plane ℝ2 and the empty set ∅ are open subsets of ℝ2 . We now
show that the intersection of and two open discs, 𝐷1 = {𝑞 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑑(𝑝1 , 𝑞1 ) < 𝛿1 } and 𝐷2 = {𝑞 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑑(𝑝2 , 𝑞2 ) < 𝛿2 }
is also an open set.
For let 𝑝0 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 , so 𝑑(𝑝1 , 𝑝0 ) < 𝛿1 and 𝑑(𝑝2 , 𝑝0 ) < 𝛿2 . Set 𝑟 =
min{𝛿1 − 𝑑(𝑝1 , 𝑝0 ), 𝛿2 − 𝑑(𝑝2 , 𝑝0 )} > 0 and let 𝐷 = {𝑞 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑑(𝑝0 , 𝑞) <
1
2
𝑟}.

Then, 𝑝0 ∈ 𝐷 ⊆ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2, or 𝑝0 is an interior point of 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 .

LESSON 4: TOPOLOGICAL SPACES: DEFINITION

TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Definition 4.1. Topology
Let 𝑋 be a non-empty set. A class 𝒯 of subsets 𝑋 is a topology on 𝑋 if and only if 𝒯 satisfies the following
axioms.
[Ο1 ] 𝑋 and ∅ belongs to 𝒯.
[Ο2 ] The union of any number of sets in 𝒯 belongs to 𝒯.
[Ο2 ] The intersection of any two sets in 𝒯 belongs to 𝒯.

Definition 4.2. Topological space

The members of 𝒯 are then called 𝒯-open sets, or simply open sets, and 𝑋 together with 𝒯, i.e., the pair (𝑋, 𝒯)
is called a topological space.
Definition 4.3. Usual Topology
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Let 𝒰 denote the class of all open sets of real numbers. Then 𝒰 is a topology on ℝ; it is called the usual
topology on ℝ.

Similarly, the class 𝒰 of all open sets in the plane ℝ2 is a topology, and also called the usual topology, on ℝ2 .
Definition 4.4. Discrete Topology and Discrete Space
Let 𝒟 denote the class of all subsets of 𝑋. Observe that 𝒟 satisfies the axioms for a topology on 𝑋. This topology
is called the discrete topology; and 𝑋 together with its discrete topology, i.e., the pair (𝑋, 𝒟), is called a discrete
topological space or simply a discrete space.
Definition 4.5. Indiscrete Topology and Indiscrete Space
The class 𝒥 = {𝑋, Ø}, consisting of 𝑋 and Ø alone, is itself a topology on 𝑋. It is called the indiscrete topology;
and 𝑋 together with its indiscrete topology, i.e., {𝑋, 𝒥}, is called an indiscrete topological space or simply an
indiscrete space.
Definition 4.6. Cofinite Topology
Let 𝒯 denote the class of all subsets of 𝑋 whose complements are finite together with the empty set Ø. This
class 𝒯 is also a topology on 𝑋. It is called the cofinite topology or the 𝑇1 -topology on 𝑋.
Theorem 4.1. Let {𝒯𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} be any collection of topologies on set 𝑋. Then the intersection ⋂𝑖 𝒯𝑖 is also a topology
on 𝑋.
The union of topologies need not be a topology.
Definition 4.7. Open and Deleted Neighborhood
If 𝐺 is an open set containing a point 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋, then 𝐺 is called an open neighborhood of 𝑝. Also, 𝐺 without 𝑝,
i.e., 𝐺\{𝑝}, is called a deleted open neighborhood of 𝑝.
Remarks: The axioms [Ο1 ], [Ο2 ], and [Ο3 ] are equivalent to the following two axioms:
[Ο1∗ ] The union of any number of sets in 𝒯 belongs to 𝒯.
[Ο∗2 ] The intersection of any finite number of sets in 𝒯 belongs to 𝒯.

Example 15. Let 𝑿 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆}. Determine whether or not each of the following classes of subsets of
𝑿 is a topology on 𝑿.

a. 𝓣𝟏 = {𝑿, ∅, {𝒂}, {𝒂, 𝒃}, {𝒂, 𝒄}}

b. 𝓣𝟐 = {𝑿, ∅, {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}, {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒅}, {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅}}
c. 𝓣𝟑 = {𝑿, ∅, {𝒂}, {𝒂, 𝒃}, {𝒂, 𝒄, 𝒅}, {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅}}

Solution.
a. 𝒯1 is not a topology on 𝑋 since {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐} ∈ 𝒯1 but {𝑎, 𝑏} ∪ {𝑎, 𝑐} = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} ∉ 𝒯1 .
b. 𝒯1 is not a topology on 𝑋 since {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑} ∈ 𝒯1 but {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} ∩ {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑} = {𝑎, 𝑏} ∉ 𝒯2 .
c. 𝒯3 is a topology on 𝑋 since it satisfies the three axioms.
Example 16. List all topologies on 𝑿 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄} which consists of exactly four members.
Solution. Each 𝒯 on 𝑋 with four members is of the form 𝒯 = {𝑋, ∅, 𝐴, 𝐵}, where 𝐴, 𝐵 corresponds to the following
cases.
Case 1: {𝐴, 𝐵} is a partition of 𝑋. Then we can list the topologies as

𝒯1 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑎}, {𝑏, 𝑐}}; 𝒯2 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐}}; 𝒯3 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏}}

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Case 2: The members of 𝒯 are totally ordered by inclusion. Then we can list the topologies as

𝒯4 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑎}, {𝑎, 𝑏}}; 𝒯5 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑏}}; 𝒯6 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑎}, {𝑎, 𝑐}}
𝒯7 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑐}}; 𝒯8 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑏}, {𝑏. 𝑐}}; 𝒯9 = {𝑋, ∅, {𝑐}, {𝑏, 𝑐}}

CLOSED SETS AND CLOSURE OF A SET

Definition 4.8. Closed Sets
Let 𝑋 be a topological space. A subset 𝐴 of 𝑋 is a closed set if and only if its complement 𝐴𝑐 is an open set.
Definition 4.9. In a topological space 𝑋, a subset 𝐴 of 𝑋 is open if and only if its complement is closed.

Example 17. Let 𝓣 = {𝑿, ∅, {𝒂}, {𝒄, 𝒅}, {𝒂, 𝒄, 𝒅}, {𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆}} defines a topology on 𝑿 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆}. Find all the
closed subsets of 𝑿.
Solution. The closed subsets of 𝑋 are simply the complements of the open subsets of 𝑋 which are
∅, 𝑋, {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑒}, {𝑏, 𝑒}, {𝑎}.
Note that there are subsets of 𝑋 such as {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} which are both open and closed, and there are subsets of 𝑋
such as {𝑎, 𝑏}, which are neither open nor closed.
Definition 4.10. Let 𝑋 be a discrete topological space, i.e., every subset of 𝑋 is open. Then every subset of 𝑋
is also closed since its complement is always open. In other words, all subsets of 𝑋 are both open and closed.
Theorem 4.2. Let 𝑋 be a topological space. Then the class of closed subsets of 𝑋 possesses the following
properties:
i. 𝑋 and ∅ are closed sets.
ii. The intersection of any number of closed sets is closed.
iii. The union of any two closed sets is closed.
Theorem 4.3. A subset 𝐴 of a topological space 𝑋 is closed if and only if 𝐴 contains each of its accumulation
points.
In other words, a set 𝐴 is closed if and only if the derived set 𝐴′ of 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐴, i.e., 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝐴.
Definition 4.11. Closure of a Set
Let 𝐴 be a subset of a topological space 𝑋. The closure of 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴̅ or 𝐴− is the intersection of all closed
supersets of A. In other words, if {𝐹𝑖 : 𝑖 = 𝐼} is the class of all closed subsets of 𝑋 containing 𝐴, then 𝐴̅ = ⋂𝑖 𝐹𝑖 .

Definition 4.12. Let 𝐴̅ be the closure of a set 𝐴. Then:

i. 𝐴̅ is closed.
ii. If 𝐹 is a closed superset of 𝐴, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴̅ ⊆ 𝐹.
iii. 𝐴 is closed if and only if 𝐴 = 𝐴̅

Example 18. Consider the topology 𝓣 = {𝑿, ∅, {𝒂}, {𝒄, 𝒅}, {𝒂, 𝒄, 𝒅}, {𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆}} on 𝑿 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆}. Determine
the closure of the sets {𝒃}, {𝒂, 𝒄}, {𝒃, 𝒅}.
Solution. The closed subsets of 𝑋 are ∅, 𝑋, {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑒}, {𝑏, 𝑒}, {𝑎}. Then the closed supersets of {𝑏}
are {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and {𝑏, 𝑒}; the closed superset of {𝑎, 𝑐} is 𝑋; and the closed supersets of {𝑏, 𝑑} are {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and
𝑋.

Thus, ̅̅̅̅
{𝑏} = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} ∩ {𝑏, 𝑒} = {𝑏, 𝑒}, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
{𝑎, 𝑐} = 𝑋, and ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
{𝑏, 𝑑} = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} ∩ 𝑋 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}.

Theorem 4.4. Let 𝐴 be a subset of a topological space 𝑋. Then the closure of 𝐴 is the union of 𝐴 and its set of
accumulation points, i.e., 𝐴̅ = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ .
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Definition 4.13. Closure point
A point 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 is called a closure point or adherent point of 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋 if and only if 𝑝 belongs to the closure of 𝐴,
i.e., 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴− . In view of the preceding theorem, 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 is a closure point of 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋 if and only if 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑝 is a limit
point of 𝐴.
Definition 4.14. Dense subset
A subset 𝐴 of a topological space 𝑋 is said to be dense in 𝐵 ⊆ 𝑋 if 𝐵 is contained in the closure of 𝐴, i.e., 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴̅.
In particular, 𝐴 is dense in 𝑋 or is a dense subset of 𝑋 if and only if 𝐴̅ = 𝑋.
̅̅̅̅ = {𝑏, 𝑒}, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Example 19. In example 18, we see that {𝑏} {𝑎, 𝑐} = 𝑋, and ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
{𝑏, 𝑑} = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}. Hence, {𝑎, 𝑐} is a dense
subset of 𝑋.
Definition 4.15. Kuratowski Closure Axioms
The operator "closure", assigning to each subset 𝐴 of 𝑋 its closure 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋 satisfies the following four properties.

i. ̅=∅
∅
ii. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴̅
iii. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅
iv. (𝐴− )− = 𝐴̅
̅ = 𝑨 ∪ 𝑨 ′.
Example 20. Prove 𝑨

Proof. Since 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴̅ and 𝐴̅ is closed, 𝐴′ ⊆ (𝐴̅)′ ⊆ 𝐴 and hence 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 ′ ⊆ 𝐴̅. But 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 ′ is a closed set containing
𝐴 , so 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝐴̅ ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 ′ . Thus, 𝐴̅ = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 ′ .

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