MATH
SETS
 It is a well-defined collection of objects
in no particular order.
 Using it, we can easily identify which
things belongs or does not belong to a
certain group.
ELEMENTS
 These are the objects that belong to a
certain set.
 A set can have one, two, or more
elements. Also, a set can be empty or
null.
HOW TO WRITE SETS
 Roster Method – just list all the
elements of the described set.
Examples:
A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri.}
 Rule Method – as the name implies,
we have to construct a rule that will
constitute all of the elements of the
given set.
Examples:
A={k | k is the first 5 natural numbers
B={w | w is a weekday}
 Semantic Method – same idea with the
rule method, but delivered with a
sentence structure.
Examples:
Set A contains the first 5 non-
negative integers
Set B contains all the days in a
week except Saturday and Sunday.
N-Natural Numbers= {1,2,3,…}
Z-Integer Numbers={…,-2,-1,0,1,2,…}
Q-Rational Numbers={xlx=a/b and a,b
EZ}
R-Real Numbers={xl-
(infinity)<x>=(infinity)
C-Complex Numbers=
TYPES OF SETS
 Finite Sets – Sets that have a limited,
countable number of elements.
 Infinite Sets – Sets that have unlimited
number of elements.
SUBSET
 These are all the possible sets that can
be formed in other existing
sets…..Example
Given that A={1,2,3}, its subsets are the
following:
{},{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3}
UNIVERSAL SET
 It is a set that contains all elements
under consideration. 
 It changes depending on the given
problem or situation.
 It uses the symbol U
CARDINALITY OF SETS
 This denotes the number of all possible
subsets in a given set.
 Its formula is n(A)=2^k where k is the
number of elements.
Example
Given that A={a,b,c}, we can know, without
us listing all possible subsets, that
n(A)=2^3=8.
SET OPERATIONS
1. Intersection (concave U)
 This operation considers all of the
elements common orshared by the two
sets involved.
Example: If A={d,e} and B={a,c,d}, then
A (U’) B ={d}

2. Union (U)
 This just combines all of the elements
of two sets, disregarding the duplicates
of the elements if they have some
elements which are the same.
Example: If A={d,e} and
B={a,c,d}, then A U B ={a,c,d,e}
3. Set Difference (-)
 Also called as relative complement.
 This operation is the same as arithmetic
difference as it shows what element/s
are present in the first set but absent to
the 2nd set.
Example: If A={d,e} and B={a,c,d},
then A-B={e}. Also, B-A={a,c}
4. Set Complement (‘)
 Also called as absolute complement
 This operation talks about all the
elements of the universal set which
cannot be found in the choosen subset
Example: if U=(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) and
A={1,2,3,5,7}
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
 This is a set of ordered pairs, coming
from two different sets.
 Example:A={1,2,3,4} and
B={1,4,9,16}, we can have a possible
set of ordered pairs:C={(1,1), (2,4),
(3,9), (4,16)}
RELATIONS
 Can be represented in these ways;
Ordered pairs,table,graph,mapping
diagram
KINDS OF RELATIONS
one-to-one relation – each first element has
exactly one unique partner
one-to-many-relation – at least one first
component is paired with more than one
partner
many-to-one relation – two or more first
components have at least a common second
component
FUNCTIONS
 are relations in which no two ordered
pairs have the same first element.
 In a set of ordered pairs, no two
ordered pairs shares the same x-
coordinate.
Many to one=function
One to many=not function
One to one=function
VERTICAL LINE TEST
 Also called as the pencil test.
 This is done to know if a certain graph
can be considered a function or not a
function.
 HAVING INTERSECTION: NOT
FUNCTION
 1 OR NO
INTERSECTION:FUNCTION
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE REASONING
REASONING
 This is a type of reasoning where we
REASONING check if a specific statement holds true
based on existing rules or general ideas.
 The action of thinking about something
 When a specific situation is supported
in a logical, sensible way.
by underlying concepts, facts or
generalizations, we tend to accept it
-Merriam Webster
without hesitation.
 This kind of reasoning has the idea of
INDUCTIVE REASONING “prerequisite”.
 This is a type of reasoning where we
base our conclusion on observations
Example:Banks shares a common
we collected.
transaction schedule from Monday-Friday at
 Observing things which is true many
8 AM to 5 PM  excluding non-working
times would lead us to conclude that
holidays. Will you still go to bank if it is
this thing will generally hold true in
already 5 PM? Or will you still try to
general.
transact if it is New Year?
 We often generalize a case based on the
several specific ideas presented to us.
 But take note! There are times that
 This kind of reasoning has the idea of
even though the premises tend to be
“prediction”.
Example: true, the conclusion that we make is
It has been 3 consecutive times that you are somewhat false in a common sense.
having your quiz in a multiple choice format.  When this happens, our reasoning is
What type of quiz do you expect for the next deemed as invalid.
quiz?
All mammals have lungs.
 But take note! Here, the conclusions
that we make are not to be taken 100% The dolphin is a mammal.
true and accurate.
 The generalizations we made can only The dolphin has lungs.
be considered as an inference or
hypothesis so to speak and it further
needs more observations and analysis
before totally proven true.

My parrot imitates the sounds it hears.

The neighbor’s parrot imitates the sounds it

hears.

Probably all parrots imitate the sounds they

hear.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
 Problem solving is a goal of learning
mathematics and a means of doing so.
 Problem solving allows students to
explore, develop, and apply their
understanding of mathematical
concepts.
The primary goal of Problem Solving is
making sense of Mathematics.
GEORGE POLYA-
“Solving problems is a practical art like
swimming or playing the piano you can
learn it only by imitation and practice. If
you wish to learn to swim  you have to go in
the water, and if you wish to become  a
problem solver you  have to solve
problems.”
BOALER,1998-
Nowadays, students who follow traditional
ways of understanding mathematical
knowledge find themselves unable to use
problem-solving skills outside the classroom
context
POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
(SOLVING SYSTEMATICALLY)
4 STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
In his book entitled “How to Solve It?”
(1945), Mr. Polya shared that anyone can be
better problem solvers by systematically
approaching any problems that we may
face. These are the 4 steps, namely:
1.UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
2.DEVISE A PLAN
3.CARRY OUT YOUR PLAN
4.CHECK YOUR ANSWER
STEP 1: Understand the Problem
 The obvious first step, but often not
done.
 Determine the unknown data and
condition.
 Decide what you are trying to do.
Ask Yourself:
1. Do you understand all the words used in
the problem?
2. What are you being asked to
do/show/find out?
3. Can you put the problem into your own
words? 
4. Can you draw a diagram/picture that
would explain what to do?
5. Is there enough information to enable you
to find a solution?
6. What do we know already, and what do
we need to find out?
  STEP 2: Devise a Plan
 Find the connection between the data
and the unknown.
 here are many ways to solve a problem.
 You just need to identify a suitable
approach.
Problem Solving Strategy 1 – Making a
Model or Diagram
- It incorporates the use of objects, drawings
or sketches, acting out or writing an
equation.
Problem Solving Strategy 2 – Making a
Table, Chart or List
- It refers to the organizing of data through
table, chart or list.
Problem Solving Strategy 3 – Computing
Directly
- It includes the straightforward application
of arithmetic rules, order of operations, and
other procedures.
Problem Solving Strategy 4 – Look for a
Pattern
- It refers to determining certain common
characteristics  that can be generalized and
used to solve the problem.
Problem Solving Strategy 5 – Consider a
Simpler Case
- It is comprised of rewording the problem,
using smaller numbers, using a more familiar
setting, dividing the problem into simpler
problems or working backwards.
Problem Solving Strategy 6 – Act It Out
- It means physically acting out the problem
situation.
Problem Solving Strategy 7 – Using
Formula
- It involves substituting the values into a
formula or selecting the proper formula to use.
Problem Solving Strategy 8 – Guess and
Check
- It consists of making a reasonable guess,
checking the guess and revising the guess if
necessary.
Problem Solving Strategy 9 – Eliminating
- It involves eliminating possible solutions
based on information presented in the
problem or elimination of incorrect answers.
STEP 3: Carry Out the Plan
This is too often where students start!
Ask Yourself:
1. Can you see clearly that the step is
correct?
2. Can you prove that it is correct?
STEP 4: Look Back
Ask Yourself:
Is the plan working?
Does the solution make sense?
What worked? What didn't?
IMPORTANCE
Why Practice Problem Solving?
With exposure, experience, and shared
learning, we will develop a repertoire of
problem-solving strategies that they can use
flexibly when faced with new problem-
solving situations.
Becoming a better problem solver will
benefit you of:
 understanding and practicing skills in
context;
 being able to make hypotheses,
experiment, draw conclusions, and use
trial and error;
 using flexible representations to help
them solve problems;
 wondering about and questioning
situations in their world;
 persevering in tackling new challenges;
 formulating and testing their own
explanations;
 communicating their explanations and
listening to others’ explanations;
 participating in open-ended experiences
that have a clear goal but a variety of
solution paths;
 developing strategies that can be
 applied in new situations;
 collaborating with others to develop
new strategies;
 getting a chance now to enjoy
Mathematics!

“Math teaches us that we have every
reason to believe that every problem has
a solution!”
STATISTICS AND DATA
JOHN NAISBITT
“We are drowning in information but
starved in knowledge”
CLIFFORD STOLL
“Data is not information, information is not
knowledge, knowledge is not understanding,
understanding is not wisdom.”
STATISTICS
 a field of study that deals with
collection, organization, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of data.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 Describes and measures the
characteristics of data
Examples:
Frequency Distribution,Measures of Central
TendencyMeasures of Dispersion,Normal
Distribution
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
 Analysis and interpretation of data
Examples:
Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient
T-test
Chi-square
DATA
 are the facts and figures collected,
summarized,
     analyzed, and interpreted.
QUALITATIVE DATA
 It just tend to classify or label
 Mostly nonnumeric in nature
 statistical analyses are rather limited
QUANTITATIVE DATA
 Indicates how many or how much
 Always numeric in nature
 statistical analyses are plenty to choose
from
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
determines the amount of information
 contained in the data
1. Nominal – are labels or names used to
identify an attribute of the element. A
nonnumeric label or numeric code may be
used.
2. Ordinal – This data have the properties
of nominal data and the order or rank of the
data is meaningful. A nonnumeric label or
numeric code may be used.
3. Interval – The data have the properties
of ordinal data, and the interval between
observations is expressed in terms of a fixed
unit of measure. Interval data are always
numeric and no real zero exists on it.
4.Ratio –  The data have all the properties
of interval data and the ratio of two values is
meaningful. This scale must contain a real
zero value that indicates that nothing exists
for the variable at the zero point.
WHY STUDY STATISTICS?
In an era where data, information and news
can easily be shared, our generation is now
more open and eager to do research in all
field of studies and jobs. And doing research
calls the need for the way to handle the data
systematically to draw meaningful
conclusions out of it for our benefit. That is
where Statistics shines as it offers us a way
on how we deal with data.
CFLM-ADDITIONAL
I SHOP, THEREFORE I AM
Barbra Kruger’s photograph gives
representation to consumption in
terms of the literal meaning of the
word. By displaying the words, “I Shop
Therefore I Am,”
 Kruger is making a statement in
regards to material
consumption. The open-ended
statement allows the viewer to re-think
materialism. Kruger challenges the
notion of consumption.
 As well as this, she
challenges the audience perception. By
doing this she offers two meanings
in this artwork. The simplicity of the
photograph, allows the audience to
focus entirely on the statement that
Kruger is making. As Kruger previously
had a
career in advertising, her knowledge
allowed her to arrest the audience
attention. .
 Barbra Kruger’s artwork has
stemmed from Descartes’
philosophy of “I think therefore I am”.
She has appropriated this statement to
fit the idea of material consumption,
where Descartes’ initial meaning had
nothing to do with Kruger’s intentions.
The artwork was ironically printed onto
thousands of shopping bags, t-shirts
and other products of consumption.
Consumerism
Kruger associates his work with the
modern consumer-driven society. The
catchphrase “I shop therefore I am” was
borrowed from the French philosopher
Rene Descartes “I think Therefore I am.
The phrase means that provided
someone
is simply thinking; they are livening a
meaningful existence, was sufficient
proof that
they did exist.
WILLIAM JAMES
 Identities can be reflected in the
possessions that people have. Some
research is identified and drawn upon
developing this concept, which concept
is
from consumer behavior.
 To be able to identify this consumer
behavior, people need
to gain some understanding of the
meanings that consumers attach to
possessions.
People should first recognize that
possessions, intentionally or
unintentionally,
regard these as parts of themselves.
 As Tuan (1998) argues, “our fragile
sense of self needs support, and
this we
get by having and possessing things
because, to a large degree, we are what
we have
and possess.” This premise regarded
possessions are part of the self of a
person that
is not a new concept.
Two subclasses of the Material Self:
1. The Bodily Self. The components of
this are composed of the intimate parts
of the person, it includes our body’s
aspects such as physical (arms head,
legs, etc), emotional (feelings, desires,
etc), psychological (intelligence,
cognition, etc), and moral (values,
beliefs, etc).
2. The Extracorporeal Self. Also known
as the extended self. It includes the
people of great significance to us
(family), possessions (house, car,
clothes),
places that matter to us, products of
our labor (job, handwork, etc)
A Harvard psychologist in the late 19th
century, William James, wrote in his
book,
The Principle of Psychology that
understanding the self can be examined
through its
different components
. 1. Its constituents;
2. The feelings and emotions they
arouse
self feelings;
3. The actions to which they prompt
self-seeking and self-preservation.
The constituents of self are composed
of the material self, the social self, the
spiritual self, and the pure ego.
The material self is about our bodies,
clothes, immediate family, and home.
 The innermost part of our material
self is our body. Intentionally, we
are
investing in our bodies.
 Next to our body are the clothes
we use. Influenced by the
“Philosophy of Dress” by
Herman Lotze, James believed that
clothing is an essential part of the
material self. The fabric and style of the
clothes we wear bring sensations to the
body which directly affect our attitudes
and behavior. Thus, clothes are placed
in the second
hierarchy of material self. Clothing is a
form of self-expression. We choose and
wear
clothes that reflect ourselves (Watson
2014).
 Third, in the hierarchy is our
immediate family. Our parents and
siblings hold
another great importance of the self.
What they do or become affects us.
When an immediate family member
dies, part of ourselves dies, too. When
their lives are in success, we feel their
victories as if we are the ones holding
the trophy.
In their failures, we are put to shame or
guilt. When they are in a disadvantaged
situation, there is an urgent urge to help
as a voluntary instinct of saving one’s
self from danger. We place huge
investments in our immediate family
when we see them as
the nearest replica of our self.
 The fourth component of material
self is our home. Home is where
our heart is. It is the earliest nest of
our selfhood.
Our experiences inside the home were
recorded and marked on particular
parts and things in our home. The home
is an extension of
self, because in it we can directly
connect our self
Self-worth is defined by Merriam-
Webster as “a feeling that you are a
good person who deserves to be
treated with respect”. On the other
hand, self-value is “more behavioral
than emotional, more about how
you act toward what you value,
including yourself than how you feel
about yourself compared to
others”( Stosny, 2014)
Our self-worth is determined mostly by
our self-evaluated abilities and our
performance in one or more activities
that we deem valuable. However,
people commonly use other yardsticks
to measure their self-worth. Here are
five of the top factors that people use
to measure and compare their own
self-worth to the worth
of others:

1. Appearance—whether measured by
the number on the scale, the size of
clothing
worn, or the kind of attention received
by others;
2. Net worth—this can mean income,
material possessions, financial assets, or
all of
the above;

3. Who you know/your social circle—

some people judge their own value and
the
value of others by their status and what
important and influential people they
know;

4. What you do/your career—we often

judge others by what they do;
for example, a stockbroker is often
considered more successful and
valuable than
a janitor or a teacher;

5. What you achieve—as noted earlier,

we frequently use achievements to
determine one’s worth (whether it’s our
own worth or someone else’s), such as
success in business, scores on the SATs,
or placement in a marathon or other
athletic
challenge (Morin, 2017)

SELF IDENTITY AND CONSUMER
CULTURE
Consumer researchers have recognized
for a long time that people consume
in ways that are consistent with their
sense of self (Levy 1959; Sirgy 1982).
Important thought leaders in our field
have described and documented that
consumers use
possessions and brands to create their
self-identities and communicate these
selves to others and to themselves (e.g.,
Belk 1988; Fournier 1998; McCracken
1989)
One increasingly powerful context in which
individuals construct and express their
identities is the material and consumer
culture we live in. Having the 'right'
material
goods has become vital to many, not so
much because of these goods themselves,
but because of hoped-for psychological
benefits, such as moving closer to an ideal
identity, creating a desired social image,
and achieving positive emotional states.
Having, buying, and desiring material goods
has a profound impact on individuals'
identities and their well-being (Dittmar,
2008)
Previous studies have emphasized the
significance of self-concept and
consumer preference, as purchases
made by consumers were directly
influenced by
the image individuals had of themselves
(Onkivist & Shaw, 1987). Sirgy (1982)
defined self-image congruity (also often
referred to as product-image congruity)
as the process of consumers purchasing
products/brands that they perceived as
possessing symbolic images similar to
the image they hold of themselves.
This theory postulated that products
and brands have symbolic meanings
and display certain images. Consumers’
choices to purchase, display, and use
the products or brands
helped them communicate the symbolic
meaning to themselves as well as to
others. Thus, the greater the congruity
between human characteristics that
exhibit consumers’ senses of self and
the characteristics that depicted a
brand, the greater the consumers’
preferences were for the brand (Sung,
Choi & Tinkman, 2012).
Purchase can be the consumer’s self-
concept or identity. This includes both
sans possessions’ self and the extended
self and is often the object of
introspection
among most consumers at one time or
the other.
Although the concept of ‘I’ can
include virtually everything a person
ever come to own and live with, a
systematic list would include six
components a. their bodies, b. their
values, and character, their successes
and competence, d. their social roles, e.
their traits’ and finally,
their possessions. If a person had to
invest a lot of resources (money, time,
energy) finding and selecting a product,
then to psychologically justify that kind
of investment, people tend to view that
product as part of their extended self.
For this reason, more expensive
purchases, and purchases for which
they have saved for a long time are
more likely to become part of the
extended self.to enhancing their self
sans possessions’ and; b. by becoming a
valued possession. Products thus can
relate to one’s self in two ways: a. by
being instrumental
As to the second role, product
possessions become part of self by six
mechanisms
described above: by self-based choice
by investment in acquisition, by
investment
in use, by bonding during use, as
collections, and as memory markers.