Module-5 Manufacturing Engineering-I & II Module

2023
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVESITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Manufacturing Engineering-I&II
Course Module
Alemayehu A. and Gebre F.

Debre Berhan University
3/18/2023
Manufacturing Engineering, I&II, Module
What is manufacturing?
The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus (make); the
combination means made by hand.
❑ As a field of study in the modern context, manufacturing can be defined in two ways,
1. Technologically, manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter
the geometry, properties, and appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products;
as depicted in Figure 1 (a).
2. Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater value
by means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations, as depicted in Figure 1 (b)
Figure 1: Two ways to define manufacturing: (a) as a technical process, and (b) as an economic process
Manufacturing process
A manufacturing process is a designed procedure that results in physical or chemical changes
to a starting work material with the intention of increasing the value and utility of that material.
Figure 2: conversion process of raw materials to product
Classification of manufacturing processes

➢ Manufacturing operations can be divided into two broad types: Processing operations and
assembly operations.
➢ A processing operation transforms a work material from one state of completion to a more
advanced state that is closer to the final desired product.
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➢ An assembly operation joins two or more components to create a new entity, called an
assembly, subassembly, or some other term that refers to the joining process
The detail classification of manufacturing processes is presented in Figure 3 bellow.
Figure 3: Classification of manufacturing processes
❑ Processing operation
A processing operation uses energy to alter a work part’s shape, physical properties, or appearance
to add value to the material. The forms of energy include mechanical, thermal, electrical, and
chemical.
❑ Shaping or forming: In solid-state- (forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.), In liquid

state – (casting, injection molding) and In powder form – (powder metallurgical process)
❑ Solidification processes, in which the starting material is a heated liquid or semifluid that
cools and solidifies to form the part geometry.
❑ Particulate Processing, in which the starting material is a powder, and the powders are formed
and heated into the desired geometry.
❑ Deformation Processes, in which the starting material is a ductile solid (commonly metal)
that is deformed to shape the part
❑ Material-Removal (machining process) (conventional or non-conventional).
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✓ Conventional machining process: uses a human operator to direct and control machining
tools and sharp cutting tool to manufacture a product, such as milling, boring, and drilling
machines as well as lathes machine.
❑ Property-enhancing operations add value to the material by improving its physical

properties without changing its shape. Heat treatment is the most common example
❑ Surface Processing operations includes:
✓ Cleaning is a chemical or mechanical processes to remove dirt, oil, and other contaminants
from the surface.
✓ Surface treatments: include mechanical working such as shot peening and sand blasting, and
physical processes such as diffusion and ion implantation.
✓ Coating and thin film deposition processes apply a coating of material to the exterior surface
of the work part. Common coating processes include electroplating, anodizing of aluminum,
organic coating
❑ Assembly/ Joining process (welding, brazing, soldering, fastening, bonding etc.)
❑ Regenerative manufacturing (stereo lithography (liquid), selective sintering (powder),
laminated object manufacturing LOM (sheet), fused deposition modelling, FDM (wire).
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Part 1
1. Solidification: Fundamentals of metal Casting
1.1. General information about casting

Generally, solidification processes can be classified according to the engineering material that is
processed: (1) metals, (2) ceramics, specifically glasses,1 and (3) polymers, and polymer matrix
composites (PMCs). But, focus on Metal casting/casting
Casting is also one of the oldest known manufacturing processes. These are the only processes
where liquid metal is used. It requires the preparation of a cavity usually in a refractory material
to resemble closely the final object to be made. Molten metal is poured into this refractory mold
cavity and is allowed to solidify. The object after solidification is removed from the mold. Casting
processes are universally used for the manufacture of a wide variety of products. The principal
process among these is sand casting where sand is used as the refractory material. The process is
equally suitable for producing a very small batch and on a very large scale.
Advantages of casting
✓ Can be used to create complex internal and external part geometries.
✓ Can produce very large parts (cast parts weighing over 100 tons).
✓ Can be used with any metal that can be heated to its liquid phase.
✓ Some types of casting are suited to mass production.
✓ Simple and inexpensive tools
✓ Wastage of raw materials is less
Limitations of casting
✓ It is labor intensive process- it requires a lot of labor
✓ Poor dimensional accuracy- we must carry out the finishing and machining operations.
✓ Surface finish problem
✓ Formation of pores during processing/porosity
✓ safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten metals
Application area of casting
Typical applications of the sand-casting process are cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds,
pistons, piston rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings, water supply pipes and specials, and bells.
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1.2. Classification of casting
Figure 4-Classification of Casting
1.2.1.Expendable mold casting

An expendable mold means that the mold in which the molten metal solidifies must be destroyed
in order to remove the casting. These molds are made out of the sand, plaster, or similar materials,
whose form is maintained by using binders of various kinds. Sand casting is the most prominent
example of the expendable-mold process. More intricate casting geometries are generally possible
with the expendable-mold processes.
1. Sand casting
With the sand-casting technique, metal castings are produced in sand molds (to be precise, special
foundry sand mixed with a number of binders and additives) and molten metal is poured in by
gravity, that is, poured without external pressure. Thus, molds are disposable and metals are poured
in by gravity. Almost all metals are suitable for sand casting. Ferrous materials are most commonly
manufactured using this technique.
Figure 5-Cross section of a sand mold ready for pouring.
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Generally, sand is placed around a pattern (usually made of wood, metal, or polymers), then
rammed or chemically hardened. Once the mold is made, it is necessary to extract the pattern from
the mold.
Read the details about cope, drag, parting line, core, pouring basin, sprue, runner, gate, chaplet,
chill, and riser.
Steps in making a sand casting
1. Patternmaking- the pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold. If the
casting is to be hollow, cores are used to form these cavities.
2. Core making- cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to
form the interior surface of castings or a cavity.
3. Molding- molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten
metal. (Ramming (compacting tightly), withdrawing the pattern, setting the cores in the mold
cavity, finishing and closing the mold).
4. Melting and Pouring- the preparation of the molten metal for casting is referred to simply as
melting. The molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled with
the molten metal.
5. Cleaning- removal of sand, scales, and excess metal from the casting. Excess metal, in the
form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. E.g., using a cleaning brush,
pressurized air, water and etc.
6. Inspection- inspection of the casting for defects and general quality.
Figure 6- Sand casting steps.
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Sand casting-patterns
A pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. The mold cavity is
made with the help of the pattern.
Pattern requirements:
✓ Easily worked, shaped, and joined
✓ Easy to extract from the mold (no undercuts, divided into two or more parts);
✓ Light in weight
✓ Easy to machine (often wood, but also metal or plastics);
✓ Strong, hard, and durable
✓ Resistant to wear and abrasion ((in contact with sand).
✓ Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
✓ Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
✓ Available at low cost
Pattern allowances
Dimensional allowances must be given in the pattern so that the casting obtained is of the required
specification.
a. Shrinkage allowance: As the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mold, natural
shrinkage occurs. The size of the pattern is made oversize and for the inner, dimension-like
hole; the pattern is made under size.
✓ Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid
to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this, risers are provided in the
molds.
b. Draft allowances: At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the sand mold, the vertical
faces of the pattern are in continual contact with the sand which may damage the mold
cavity. To reduce its chances, the vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered from the
parting line. This provision is called draft allowance.
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Figure 7-Draft pattern withdrawing
c. Machining allowance: extra material added on a certain detail of casting so that the casting
may be machined to the exact dimension. It depends on;
✓ Size of the casting
✓ Degree of finish
✓ Machining method
✓ Metallic alloys for which the casting is made
Sand Casting –Cores
A core is a body made of refractory material (sand or metal). Functions of core:
✓ To provide an accurate internal shape of the casting

✓ To simplify molding of difficult outer shapes of castings
While using blind cores, avoid core shift. Cores should keep their position both before closing the
flasks and after pouring: their center of gravity should fall inside the print.
Sand Casting –Sands

The choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are
generally required in molding materials are:
Flow ability: - it is the ability of the molding sand to flow and get compacted all around the pattern
and take up the required shape.
Refractoriness: - it is the ability of the molding material to withstand the high temperature of the
liquid metal to be poured (heat resistance to stand contact with molten metal). The refractoriness
of the silica sand is the highest.
Permeability- the ability to permit gases to pass through
Strength- is the ability to keep the desired shape, against shocks and metallostatic pressure. After
all the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach a high temperature when the metal
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in the mold is still in the liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of
the mold cavity is called hot strength.
Collapsibility- to allow an easy shakeout
Adhesiveness: - it is the ability of the molding sand to stick to the walls of molding boxes.
Durability: - it is the ability of the molding sand to withstand repeated cycles of heating and
cooling during casting operations. during the contraction of the solidified casting, it does not
provide any resistance which may result in cracks in the casting. They should be reusable and
should have good thermal conductivity so that heat from the casting is quickly transferred.
Fluidity Test
Test for the ability of the metal to fill thin cavities. The fluidity index is the length of the filled
part, under “standard” testing conditions.
Factors affecting fluidity include;
✓ Pouring temperature relative to the melting point

✓ Metal composition
✓ Viscosity of the liquid metal and
✓ Heat transfer to the surroundings
Desirable material properties for a casting
1. Low melting point: not really necessary in all casting processes, but always useful;
2. Castability: a complex mix of properties able to give accurate and sound castings:
✓ high fluidity of liquid phase, to easily fill “difficult” cavities;
✓ phase-diagram properties, esp. to reduce dendrite formation;
✓ low shrinkage, during both solidification and cooling;
✓ chemical properties, to control compounds inclusions (especially with O, Si, S).
Other casting processes
1. Shell mold casting- read the details.

2. Expanded polystyrene process-read the details.
3. Investment casting-read the details.
4. Plaster mold and- read the details.
5. Ceramic mold casting- read the details.
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1.2.2. Permanent mold casting process

In all the processes that have been covered so far, a mold needs to be prepared for each of the
castings produced. For large-scale production, making a mold for every casting to be produced
may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a permanent mold, called ‘die’ may be made from
which a large number of castings, anywhere from 100 to 250 000, can be produced depending on
the alloy used and the complexity of the casting. This process is called permanent mold casting or
gravity die casting, since the metal enters the mold under gravity. The mold material is selected on
the consideration of the pouring temperature, size of the casting, and frequency of the casting
cycle. They determine the total heat to be borne by the die. Fine-grained gray cast iron is the most
generally used die material. Alloy cast iron, C20 steel, and alloy steels (H11 and H14) are also
used for very large volumes and large parts. Graphite molds may be used for small-volume
production from aluminum and magnesium. The die life is less for higher melting temperature
alloys such as copper or grey cast iron. For making any hollow portions, cores are also used in
permanent mold casting. The cores can be made out of metal or sand. When sand cores are used,
the process is called semi-permanent molding.
The mold cavity should normally be simple without any undesirable drafts or undercuts, which
interfere with the ejection of the solidified castings. In designing the permanent molds, care should
be taken to see that progressive solidification towards the riser is achieved. The gating and risering
systems used are very similar to that of sand casting.
Figure 8-Schematic of a permanent mold die with various possible elements.
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Permanent mold casting is particularly suited to the high-volume production of small, simple
castings with uniform wall thickness and no intricate details.
Advantages of permanent molding

✓ Because of the metallic molds used, this process produces a fine-grained casting with
superior mechanical properties.
✓ They produce a very good surface finish of the order of 4 microns and a better appearance.
✓ Close dimensional tolerances can be obtained.
✓ It is economical for large-scale production as the labor involved in mold preparation is
reduced.
✓ Small cored holes may be produced compared to sand casting.
✓ Inserts can be readily cast in place.
Limitations of permanent molding
✓ The maximum size of the casting that can be produced is limited because of the equipment.
✓ Complicated shapes cannot be produced.
✓ The cost of the die is very high and can only be justified for large-scale production.
✓ Not all materials are suited for permanent mold casting essentially because of the mold
material
Applications of permanent mold processes
Some of the components that are produced in permanent molds are automobile pistons, stators,
gear blanks, connecting rods, aircraft fittings, cylinder blocks, etc.
Die casting
Die casting involves the preparation of components by injecting molten metal at high pressure into
a metallic die. Die casting is closely related to permanent mold casting, in that both processes use
reusable metallic dies. In die casting, as the metal is forced in under pressure compared to
permanent molding, it is also called “pressure die casting”. Because of the high pressure involved
in die casting, any narrow sections, complex shapes, and fine surface details can easily be
produced. In die casting, the die consists of two parts. One is called the stationary half or cover die
which is fixed to the diecasting machine. The second part called the moving half or ejector die is
moved out for the extraction of the casting. The casting cycle starts when the two parts of the die
are apart. The lubricant is sprayed on the die cavity manually or by the auto lubrication system so
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that the casting will not stick to the die. The two die halves are closed and clamped. The required
amount of metal is injected into the die. After the casting is solidified under pressure the die is
opened and the casting is ejected. The die casting die needs to have the provision of ejectors to
push the casting after it gets solidified.
Classifications of die casting: Hot chamber die casting, and Cold chamber die casting
The main difference between these two types is that in the hot chamber, the holding furnace for
the liquid metal is integral to the die-casting machine, whereas, in the cold chamber machine, the
metal is melted in a separate furnace and then poured into the die casting machine with a ladle for
each casting cycle which is also called ‘shot’.
I. Hot Chamber Process/Hot chamber die casting

In this, a gooseneck is used for pumping the liquid metal into the die cavity. The gooseneck is
submerged in the holding furnace containing the molten metal. The gooseneck is made of gray,
alloy, or ductile iron, or of cast steel. A plunger made of alloy cast iron and is hydraulically
operated moves up in the gooseneck to uncover the entry port for the entry of liquid metal into the
gooseneck. The plunger can then develop the necessary pressure for forcing the metal into the die
cavity. A nozzle at the end of the gooseneck is kept in close contact with the sprue located in the
cover die.
Figure 9-Schematic of a hot chamber die casting machine.
II. Cold Chamber Process/Cold chamber die casting
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The hot chamber process is used for most of the low melting temperature alloys such as zinc, lead,
and tin. For materials such as aluminum and brass, their high melting temperatures make it difficult
to cast them by hot chamber process, because the gooseneck of the hot chamber machine is
continuously in contact with the molten metal. Also, liquid aluminum would attack the gooseneck
material and thus hot chamber process is not used with aluminum alloys. In the cold chamber
process, the molten metal is poured with a ladle into the shot chamber for every shot. This process
reduces the contact time between the liquid metal and the shot chamber. The operation starts with
the spraying of die lubricants throughout the die cavity and closing of the die when molten metal
is ladled into the shot chamber of the machine either manually by a hand ladle or by means of an
auto ladle. An auto ladle is a form of a robotic device that automatically scoops molten aluminum
from the holding furnace and pours it into the die at the exact instant required in the casting cycle.
The metal volume and pouring temperature can be precisely controlled with an auto ladle and
hence the desired casting quality can be had. Then the plunger forces the metal into the die cavity
and maintains the pressure till it solidifies. In the next step, the die opens and the casting is ejected.
At the same time the plunger returns to its original position completing the operation.
Figure 10-Operation sequence of cold chamber process.
Advantages of die casting

✓ Because of the use of movable cores, it is possible to obtain fairly complex castings than
that feasible by permanent mold casting.
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✓ Very small thicknesses can be easily filled because the liquid metal is injected at high
pressure.
✓ Very high production rates can be achieved. The typical rate could be 200 pieces per hour
since the process is completely automated.
✓ Because of the metallic dies, a very good surface finish of the order of 1 micron can be
obtained. The surfaces generated by die casting can be directly electroplated without any
further processing.
✓ Closer dimensional tolerances of the order of + 0.08 mm for small dimensions can be
obtained compared to the sand castings.
✓ The die has a long life which is of the order of 300,000 pieces for zinc alloys and 150,000
for aluminum alloys.
✓ Die casting gives better mechanical properties compared to sand casting because of the
fine-grained skin formed during solidification.
✓ Inserts can be readily cast in place.
✓ It is very economical for large-scale production.
Limitations of die casting
✓ The maximum size of the casting is limited. The normal sizes are less than 4 kg with a
maximum of order of 15 kg because of the limitation on the machine capacity.
✓ This is not suitable for all materials because of the limitations on the die materials. Normally
zinc, aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys are diecast.
✓ The air in the die cavity gets trapped inside the casting and is therefore a problem often with
the die castings.
✓ The dies and the machines are very expensive and therefore, economy in production is possible
only when large quantities are produced.
Read more about continuous casting, centrifugal casting, and continuous casting.
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in casting. General defects are;
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Misrun- a casting that has solidified before completely filling the mold cavity. Typical causes
include:
o Fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient

o Pouring temperature is too low
o Pouring is done too slowly
o Cross section of the mold cavity is too thin.
Cold shut- two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to premature
freezing, its causes are similar to those of a misrun.
Shrinkage cavity- depression in the surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage
that restricts the amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze.
Hot tearing- hot tearing, cracking, occurs if casting is restrained from shrinking, during
solidification.
Sand blow- balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by the release of mold gases during pouring. Low
permeability, poor venting and high moisture content of the sand mold are the usual causes.
Pin holes- formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting.
Read also about casting defects; penetration, mold shift, core shift, mold crack and scabs.
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Part 2
2. THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
2.1.Fundamentals of Shearing
❑ A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and die, it is a sheet-metal cutting operation
along a straight line between two cutting edges. As the punch begins to push into the work,
plastic deformation occurs in the surfaces of the sheet and more punch moves downward,
penetration occurs in which the punch compresses the sheet and cuts the metal.
❑ The basic process parameters of sheet metal cutting process are:
Clearance(c) between punch and die type of metal and its strength
stock thickness(t) length of the cut
❑ Blanking and Punching
Blanking: is cutting of the sheet-metal along a closed outline in a single step to separate
the piece from the surrounding stock. The part that is cut out is the desired product in the
operation and is called the blank.
Punching: is similar to blanking except that it produces a hole, and the separated piece is
scrap, called the slug. The remaining stock is the desired part.
❑ Shearing related metal work operations

Notching and Semi notching
Cutoff and Parting
Perforating and shaving
Material removal process

The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations by machine in which excess
material is removed from a starting work-part to produce the desired final geometry.
Material removal process mostly involves in secondary and finishing operations. Secondary
manufacturing process is necessary to produce net-shape products
Machining: Is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape.
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Machining is one of the most important manufacturing processes that Industrial Revolution
and the growth of the manufacturing-based economies of the world can be traced largely to the
development of the various machining operations
The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation of the work material
to form a chip.
❑ Advantages of Machining
1) Variety of work materials can be machined such as; All solid metals, plastics, and plastic
composites and ceramics
2) Variety of part shapes and geometric features can be machined such as; flat planes, round
holes and cylinders and from irregular geometries screw threads and T-slots
3) Good dimensional accuracy can be achieved (Tolerances around ±0.025 mm (±0.001 in))
4) Good surface finishes can be achieved; Roughness values less than 0.4 microns (16 µ-in.) can
be achieved
❑ Disadvantages of Machining
1) Wastage of material such as; the chips generated in the operation
2) Time consuming; it takes a long time to shape a given part
3) Generally, require more energy
4) Machining can have adverse effects on the surface quality and properties of the product.
Principle of machining- for a machining process to take place, there should be a relative movement
between the cutting tool and the workpiece material.
Figure 11- Principles for various machining processes.
2.2.Types of machining process

Machining Process
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conventional machining non-conventional machining

It involves compressive shear chip formation, It involves Chemical, electrochemical or
Common and most versatile machines. thermal process.
✓ Lathe ✓ Grinding ✓ Electrochemical machining (ECM)
✓ Milling ✓ Broaching ✓ Electron discharge machining (EDM)
✓ Shapers ✓ Shaper ✓ Photochemical machining (PCM)
✓ Sawing ✓ Planer etc. ✓ Electron beam machining (EBM)
✓ Drilling ✓ Laser beam machining (LBM)
✓ Ultrasonic machining (UM)
✓ Water jet machining (WJM)
✓ Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
Drawback of Conventional machining
➢ It needs a large amount of energy ➢ It needs cooling of the tool and
➢ Holding the workpiece may lead to distortion workpiece.
Chip formation
a) Discontinuous chip-read the details
b) Continuous chip-read the details
c) Continuous chip with a built-up
edge- read the details
d) Serrated chips-read the details
Under this, read about chip thickness
ratio and the velocity diagram in
machining and chip formation,
mathematical relations in more detail
with examples.
2.3.Cutting-tool Technology
Machining operations are accomplished using cutting tools
Cutting tool technology has two principal aspects: these are
I. Tool Material: - this is concerned with developing materials that can withstand the forces,
temperatures, and wearing action in the machining process.
II. Tool Geometry: - Deals with optimizing the geometry of the cutting tool for the tool material
and for a given operation. The general shape of a single-point cutting tool
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Figure 12: geometry of single-point cutting tool

1. Side rake angle is more important than the back rake angle, although both of them usually
control the direction of chip flow. For machining metals and using carbide inserts, these
angles typically are in the range from -5° to 5°.
2. Side cutting edge angle (SCEA) determines the entry of the tool into the work and can be
used to reduce the sudden force the tool experiences as it enters a work part. Usually, it is
around 15°.
3. End cutting edge angle (ECEA) provides a clearance between the trailing edge of the tool
and the newly generated work surface, thus reducing rubbing and friction against the
surface. Usually, it is around 20°.
4. Relief angles (side and end relief angles) these angles determine the amount of clearance
between the tool and the freshly cut work surface. Usually, their angles are 7°.
5. Nose radius affects the surface finish and tool-tip strength. The smaller the nose radius
(very pointed tool), the rougher the surface finish of the workpiece and the lower the
strength of the tool. However, large nose radii can lead to tool chatter or vibration
Rake face: defined by two angles: back rake angle and side rake angle.
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Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of rake surface from the reference plane. determine the
direction of chip flow across the rake face. It could be positive, negative or zero.
Figure 13-Rake angles in material removal processes.
Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

✓ Positive rake – helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
o Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
o Considered by some to be the most efficient way to cut metal
o Creates large shear angle, reduced friction
o Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool zone
o Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile materials which are not hard or brittle
Problems as we increase the angle:

✓ Reduce the strength of the tool
✓ Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat away from the cutting edge.
✓ To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to conduct heat better, in some tools, zero
to negative rake angles are used.
✓ Negative rake – to increase edge strength and life of the tool (Initial shock of work tool is
on the face of the tool and not on the point or edge. This prolongs the life of the tool.).
Typical tool materials which utilize negative rakes are: Carbide, Diamonds, and Ceramics
✓ Zero rake – to simplify the design and manufacture of the form tools.
Flank surface: it is defined by the end relief angle (ERA) and side relief angle (SRA).
Clearance angle (α)-determine the amount of clearance/Angle of inclination between the tool and
the freshly cut work surface.
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Relief angle controls the interference/rubbing at the tool-work piece
✓ Too big- tool may chip off

✓ Too small- flank wear
✓ Small relief angle is employed for less tough (brittle materials)
Figure 14-Flank angle.
✓ Increasing the relief angle provides a cleaner cut and by reducing friction at the flank which
reduces the cutting force.
2.4.Tool failure
❑ There are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail during machining:
1. Fracture failure
✓ This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point becomes excessive,
causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
✓ It occurs when the cutting temperature is too high, causing the tool tip to soften, which
leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge
3. Gradual wear
✓ Gradual wearing of the cutting-edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting
efficiency, the tool becomes heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to
a temperature failure.
❑ Tool wear
✓ Flank wear
✓ Crater wear
✓ Diffusion wear
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2.4.1. Tool life

✓ Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used. Operating the
tool until final catastrophic failure is one way of defining tool life
✓ As cutting proceeds, the various wear mechanisms result in increasing levels of wear on
the cutting tool. The general relationship of tool wear versus cutting time curve is shown
in Figure 5.
✓ F. W. Taylor crates an equation that relates cutting speed and cutting time, called the
Taylor tool life equation:
𝑽𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪 … Toylar Tool life Eq.
Where v = cutting speed, m/min; T = tool life, min; and n and C are parameters whose
values depend on feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling (material in particular), and
the tool life criterion.
2.5.Cutting tool Materials

The selection of cutting-tool materials for a particular application is among the most important
factors in machining operations.
2.5.1. Requirement of a cutting tool material/desirable properties
Toughness: is the capacity of a material to absorb energy without failing.

Hot hardness: is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at high temperatures.
Wear Resistance: is the single most important property needed to resist abrasive wear. All
cutting-tool materials must be hard.
Thermal shock resistance: to withstand the rapid temperature cycling encountered in
interrupted cutting.
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Chemical stability: to avoid or minimize any adverse reactions, adhesion, and tool–chip
diffusion that would contribute to tool wear.
Cost: The cost of the cutting tool should be low as much as possible.
To respond these demanding requirements, various cutting-tool materials with a wide range of
mechanical, physical, and chemical properties have been developed over the years, as listed below.
(deeply read about the properties of each material).
1. High-speed steel 6. Cubic boron nitride

2. Cast-cobalt alloys 7. Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
3. Carbides 8. Diamond
4. Coated tools 9. Whisker-reinforced materials and nanomaterials
5. Alumina-based ceramics
Multi-point Cutting Tools

Most multiple-cutting-edge tools are used in machining operations in which the tool is rotated.
Such as:
✓ Drilling
✓ Milling
✓ Broaching
✓ sawing operations (hack
sawing and band sawing
Figure 15:multi-point cutting tools
Force and power in metal cutting

The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be separated into two mutually perpendicular
components:
Friction force and

Normal force to friction
In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there are two force components applied by the
work piece on the chip:
Page | 23
Shear force and

Normal force to shear.
None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can be directly measured in a machining
operation. Because the directions in which they are applied vary with different tool geometries and
cutting conditions. However, it is possible to measure additional two force components acting
against the tool directly by using a measuring device called a dynamometer; Thus, forces are:-
Cutting Force (Fc )

Thrust Force (Ft )
Merchant derived the four force components that cannot be measured relative to the two forces
that can be measured by using the force diagram in Figure 6. Those subscribed in circle. The
following trigonometric relationships can be derived.
Figure 16: Force diagram showing geometric relationships between F, N, Fs, Fn, Fc and Ft
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 … … … … 1
𝑁 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼 … … … … 2
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 sin ∅ − 𝐹𝑡 cos ∅ … … … … 3
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐 sin ∅ + 𝐹𝑡 cos ∅ … … … … 4
2.6.Surface Finish and Integrity

✓ Surface Finish describes the geometric features of a surface or we can say it is the roughness
and smoothness of a surface
✓ The term surface texture is preferable for surface finish as surface finish implies coatings
and finishing techniques (Painting, chrome plating etc.)
✓ The surface texture is made up of in four forms, they are:
Page | 24
❖ Roughness
❖ Waviness
❖ Lay
❖ Flaws
Figure 17:Surface texture features

2.6.1. Factors affecting surface finish
➢ The surface finish of a machined surface depends on many factors that can be grouped as
follows: -
✓ Geometric factors: it includes machining parameters (type of machining operation,
cutting tool geometry, feed etc.)
✓ Work material factors: includes built-up edge effects, tearing of the work surface
during machining ductile materials, cracks in the surface when machining brittle
materials, friction between the tool flank and the newly generated work surface.
✓ Vibration and machine tool factor
❑ Machinability
Machinability means that material is cut with good surface finish, long tool life, low force and
power requirements, and low cost
➢ There are various criteria used to evaluate machinability, the most important criteria are:
1. Tool life 3. Surface finish

4. Ease of chip disposal
2. Forces and power
❑ Methods for improvement of machinability

 Adding some elements, like lead and Sulphur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.
 Thermally assisted machining: To relieve machining of difficult-to-cut materials, some
heat can be added to the cutting zone to lower shear strength of work material
Page | 25
Machining Operation and machine Tools

I. Lathe machine
❑ Machine operation performed on lathe machine
✓ Turning (Taper turning, Contour turning, form ✓ Chamfering
turning) ✓ Cutoff
✓ Facing ✓ Boring,
✓ Thread ✓ Knurling
✓ Drilling
❑ Important cutting operational conditions/ parameters of lathe operation
✓ Cutting speed ✓ Material removal rate
✓ Feed ✓ Machining time
✓ Depth of cut
III. Basic components of lathe machine
1. Bed
2. Head Stock
3. Quick change
(gear box)
4. Carriage
5. Cross Slide
6. Apron
7. Tail Stock
❑ Types of lathe machine
1. Engine Lathe 4. Tool Room Lathe 6. Turret Lathe

2. Bench Lathe 5. Automatic Lathe 7. Computer Controlled Lathe
(CNC)
3. Tracer Lathe
Page | 26
II. Milling machine
❑ Milling is a machining operation in which a work-part is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool
with multiple cutting edges and the axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the
direction of feed
❑ Cutting Conditions in Milling
✓ Feed ✓ Material removal rate
✓ Cutting speed ✓ Machining time
❑ Classification of milling machine
Classification of milling machine
Face/ vertical Peripheral/ horizontal

milling milling
General-purpose milling Special-purpose milling

CNC milling machines machines
machines
Knee-type Vertical bed-type Planer-type Rotary-table Gear-cutting Gear-grinding honing machine
Peripheral (horizontal) Milling

✓ The axis of the tool parallel to the surface
✓ Cross section of the milled surface corresponds to the contour of the cutter
✓ Cutting operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery of the cutter.
Basic operations are;
Figure 18- Operations to be done on a horizontal milling machine.
Page | 27
Based on the directions of movement of the milling cutter and the feeding direction of the work
piece, there are two possible types of milling:
Up milling (conventional milling)- In up milling the cutting tool rotates in the opposite direction
to the table movement. In conventional or up milling, the chip starts at zero thickness and gradually
increases to the maximum size. This tends to lift the workpiece from the table. There is a possibility
that the cutting tool will rub the workpiece before starting the removal. However, this process is
inherently safe. The initial rubbing of the cutting edge during the start of the cut in up milling tends
to dull the cutting edge and consequently have lower tool life. Also, since the cutter tends to cut
and slide alternatively, the surface generated is left with the machining marks.
Down Milling (Climb Milling)- In down milling, the cutting tool rotates in the same direction as
that of the table movement. In the climb or down milling, the chip starts at the maximum thickness
and goes to zero thickness gradually. This is suitable for obtaining a fine finish on the workpiece.
The cutting force will act downwards and as such would keep the workpiece firmly in the work-
holding device. This is good for thin and frail work pieces.
Advantages of down milling

✓ Suited for machine thin and hard-to-hold parts since the work piece is forced against the
table or holding device by the cutter.
✓ Work need not be clamped as tightly.
✓ Consistent parallelism and size may be maintained, particularly on thin parts.
✓ It may be used where breakout at the edge of the work piece could not be tolerated.
✓ It requires up to 20% less power to cut by this method.
✓ It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling deep, thin slots.
✓ allows greater feeds per tooth and longer cutting life between regrinds than the
conventional milling.
Vertical milling machine

✓ Axis of rotation perpendicular to work piece surface.
✓ The milled surface is flat and has no relationship to the contour of the cutter.
Page | 28
✓ Combined cutting action of the side and face of the milling cutter.
Figure 19- Operations to be done on a vertical milling machine.

III. Shaper and planner machine- read the differences between
shaper and planner machine and possible operations.
Moreover, read about the single point cutting tools, multipoint cutting tools and tools use
abrasive wheels with examples. Plus, read about cutting parameters and machining time for
each machining process and operations, formulas and relations.
IV. CNC Machine
❑ CNC means Computerized Numerical Control (Computer + Numerical Control) which means
a machine tool that controlled by computer and the operation is performed due to written
program on computer, the program consists Numbers, Letters, and symbols. Example G-Code,
M-Code, X, Y & Z-Codes, F-Code etc.
❑ Sequence and format of program words
Part 3
3. Fundamentals of Metal Forming
❑ Basic Types of Metal Forming Processes
1. Bulk deformation 2. Sheet metalworking
Rolling processes Bending operations- read the
Forging processes details
Page | 29
Extrusion processes Deep or cup drawing- read the

Wire and bar drawing details
Shearing processes- read the
details
❑ There are three temperature ranges used in metal forming

1. Cold working- read the details with advantages and disadvantages.
2. Warm working and- read the details with advantages and disadvantages.
3. Hot working- read the details with advantages and disadvantages.
I. Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by compressive
forces exerted by two opposing rolls
Forming process related to rolling such as; Shape Rolling, Thread rolling, Gear rolling,
Ring rolling. Read about peak pressure and friction in rolling.
II. Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between two dies, using
either impact or gradual pressure to form the part.
There are three types of forging operation

1. Open-die forging
2. Impression-die forging, and
3. Flash less forging
III. Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow through a die
opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. Read about the types of extrusion and friction
in forging.
There are two types of extrusion they are: direct extrusion and indirect extrusion
IV. Wire and Bar Drawing: In the context of bulk deformation, drawing is an operation in which
the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening.
The general features of the process are similar to those of extrusion.

The difference is that the work is pulled through the die in drawing, whereas it is pushed
through the die in extrusion
Page | 30
Part 4
4. Principles of Joining and Assembling Process
4.1.Welding
❑ Welding is a material joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.
❑ Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone, with no pressure applied; others by
a combination of heat and pressure; and still others by pressure alone, with no external heat
supplied.
TYPES OF JOINTS
❑ There are five basic types of joints for bringing two parts together for joining. They are
a) Butt b) Corner c) Lap d) Tee e) Edge
Features of Fusion-welded Joint
❑ A typical fusion-weld joint in which filler metal has been added consists of several zones. They
are fusion zone, weld interface, heat-affected zone, and unaffected base metal zone.
Classification of welding
According to the source According to the types of fusion According to the use of electrode
of heat
➢ Arc welding ➢ Fusion welding ➢ Welding with consumable electrode

➢ Non fusion welding
➢ Gas welding ➢ Welding with non-consumable electrode
❑ Arc Welding: A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved by the
heat from an electric arc between an electrode and the work. Electric energy from the arc
produces temperatures ~ 10,000F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal.
❑ Types of Arc Welding Process
1. SMAW/MMAW/ 3. TIG 5. PAW /plasma/
2. SAW/submerged 4. MIG 6. FCAW /flux cored
Page | 31
❑ Gas welding
Gas welding is a fusion welding process in which heat is obtained by the combustion of fuel
and gases.
Several different fuel gasses can be used, Such as: Propane (LPG), (Liquefied Petroleum Gas),
Natural Gas, Acetylene, MAPP (methyl-acetylene-prop-diene), Hydrogen.
Read about shielding in welding and shielding methods.
❑ Resistance Welding
Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding processes that uses a combination of
heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical resistance
to current flow at the junction to be welded. It can be classified as
1. Resistance Spot Welding
2. Resistance Seam Welding
3. Resistance Projection Welding
❑ Solid State-Welding Processes

In solid state-welding, coalescence of the part surfaces is achieved by pressure alone, or heat
and pressure. Solid state welding includes.
Forge Welding Hot Pressure Welding Friction Welding

Cold Welding Diffusion Welding Friction Stir Welding
Roll Welding Explosion Welding Ultrasonic Welding
Page | 32

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2023

DEBRE BERHAN UNIVESITY

Alemayehu A. and Gebre F.

Figure 2: conversion process of raw materials to product

Classification of manufacturing processes

Figure 3: Classification of manufacturing processes

❑ Shaping or forming: In solid-state- (forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.), In liquid

❑ Property-enhancing operations add value to the material by improving its physical

1.1. General information about casting

1.2. Classification of casting

Figure 4-Classification of Casting

1.2.1.Expendable mold casting

Figure 5-Cross section of a sand mold ready for pouring.

Figure 6- Sand casting steps.

Figure 7-Draft pattern withdrawing

✓ To provide an accurate internal shape of the casting

Sand Casting –Sands

Factors affecting fluidity include;

✓ Pouring temperature relative to the melting point

1. Shell mold casting- read the details.

1.2.2. Permanent mold casting process

Figure 8-Schematic of a permanent mold die with various possible elements.

Advantages of permanent molding

I. Hot Chamber Process/Hot chamber die casting

Figure 9-Schematic of a hot chamber die casting machine.

II. Cold Chamber Process/Cold chamber die casting

Figure 10-Operation sequence of cold chamber process.

Advantages of die casting

o Fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient

❑ Shearing related metal work operations

Material removal process

1) Wastage of material such as; the chips generated in the operation

2) Time consuming; it takes a long time to shape a given part

3) Generally, require more energy

Figure 11- Principles for various machining processes.

2.2.Types of machining process

conventional machining non-conventional machining

Figure 12: geometry of single-point cutting tool

Figure 13-Rake angles in material removal processes.

Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

Problems as we increase the angle:

Relief angle controls the interference/rubbing at the tool-work piece

✓ Too big- tool may chip off

Figure 14-Flank angle.

2.4.1. Tool life

2.5.Cutting tool Materials

2.5.1. Requirement of a cutting tool material/desirable properties

Toughness: is the capacity of a material to absorb energy without failing.

1. High-speed steel 6. Cubic boron nitride

Multi-point Cutting Tools

Figure 15:multi-point cutting tools

Force and power in metal cutting

Friction force and

Shear force and

Cutting Force (Fc )

2.6.Surface Finish and Integrity

Figure 17:Surface texture features

1. Tool life 3. Surface finish