Karl Popper (1902-1994) was an Austrian-British philosopher known for his influential

work in the philosophy of science, political philosophy, and social theory. He is widely
regarded as one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century.

Popper is best known for his ideas on the philosophy of science and the concept of
falsifiability. He argued against the notion of scientific theories being verifiable and
instead proposed that scientific theories should be open to falsification. According to
Popper, a scientific theory is only meaningful if it is capable of being tested and
potentially disproven through empirical observations. He believed that scientific
progress is made through the constant refinement and rejection of theories that fail
empirical tests, rather than by confirming existing theories.

Karl Popper's theory of falsification is a central concept in his philosophy of science. It is

a criterion he proposed to distinguish scientific theories from non-scientific ones and to
demarcate science from pseudoscience.

According to Popper, scientific knowledge does not progress through verification or

confirmation but rather through falsification. He argued that no amount of confirming
instances can prove a scientific theory to be true. However, a single contradictory
observation or result has the potential to falsify or disprove a theory.

Popper believed that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be formulated in a

way that makes it empirically testable and falsifiable. A scientific theory must make
specific predictions that can, in principle, be refuted by empirical evidence. If a theory is
not falsifiable, if it cannot be subjected to potentially conflicting observations, Popper
considered it to be unscientific.

According to Popper, the process of scientific discovery and progress involves

subjecting theories to rigorous attempts at falsification. Scientists formulate hypotheses,
make predictions based on those hypotheses, and then design experiments or
observations to test those predictions. If the predictions fail, the theory is rejected or
modified. If the predictions hold up, the theory is provisionally accepted but remains
open to future falsification attempts.

Popper argued that the criterion of falsifiability sets science apart from non-science,
such as metaphysics or unfalsifiable claims like those found in pseudoscience. For
example, claims that rely on vague or unfalsifiable concepts, such as astrology or some
forms of psychoanalysis, do not meet Popper's criteria for scientific status.

It's important to note that while falsification is a key aspect of Popper's philosophy of
science, it is not the sole criterion for scientific validity. Popper acknowledged that
theories can be provisionally accepted even in the face of some falsifying evidence, as
long as they withstand repeated attempts at falsification and remain the best available
explanations based on current knowledge.

Overall, Popper's theory of falsification highlights the critical role of empirical testing
and the potential for refutation in the scientific method, aiming to ensure that scientific
theories are subjected to rigorous scrutiny and are open to revision in the face of
empirical evidence.
EXAMPLE
ALL SWANS ARE WHITE.

In order to falsify this statement, we would need to find a single swan that is not white. If we observe
a swan that is, for example, black or any color other than white, it would contradict the claim that all
swans are white. This single observation would be sufficient to falsify the statement and demonstrate
that it is not universally true.

The key aspect of falsification is that it only takes one counterexample to disprove a universal claim.
Even if we observe hundreds or thousands of white swans, it does not confirm the statement that all
swans are white. However, a single non-white swan is enough to falsify the claim.

This example illustrates how falsification operates in the scientific method. Scientific theories make
predictions about the world, and these predictions are subject to empirical testing. If the empirical
evidence contradicts the predictions, the theory is falsified and requires modification or rejection.