SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE • The forward resistance is defined as

RF = VF / IF
A semiconductor is a material that is neither a
good conductor nor a good insulator. In their • The diode acts like a short
purest form, semiconductors have few
applications in electronics. However, when the
characteristics of a pure semiconductor are Non-Conduction Region
altered through a process known as doping,
many useful electronic devices can be
developed. The most basic semiconductor
device is the diode, a device that allows
current to pass through it in only one
direction. This characteristic of a diode has
many useful applications in electronics. One of
the most useful applications is converting an
ac voltage into a dc voltage. When used for
this purpose, diodes are typically referred to • All of the voltage is across the diode
as rectifier diodes.
• The current is 0 A
Diodes
• The reverse resistance is defined as R R
The diode is a 2-terminal device. = V R / IR

• The diode acts like open

Semiconductor Materials
A diode ideally conducts in only one direction. Materials commonly used in the development
of semiconductor devices:

• Silicon (Si)

• Germanium (Ge)

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

• Selenium (Se)

Diode Characteristics • Metal Oxide

Conduction Region Doping

The electrical characteristics of silicon and

germanium are improved by adding materials
in a process called doping.

There are just two types of doped

semiconductor materials:

n-type materials contain an excess of

• The voltage across the diode is 0 V conduction band electrons.

• The current is infinite

p-type materials contain an excess of valence
band holes.
Diode Operating Conditions

No Bias
p-n Junctions
• No external voltage is applied: VD = 0
One end of a silicon or germanium crystal can V
be doped as a p-type material and the other
• No current is flowing: ID = 0 A
end as an n-type material.
• Only a modest depletion region exists
The result is a p-n junction.

p-n Junctions

At the p-n junction, the excess conduction-

band electrons on the n-type side are
attracted to the valence-band holes on the p-
type side.
The electrons in the n-type material migrate
across the junction to the p-type material
(electron flow).
Diode Operating Conditions
Reverse Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n
junction in the opposite polarity of the p- and
n-type materials.

The electron migration results in a negative

charge on the p-type side of the junction and
a positive charge on the n-type side of the
junction.

The result is the formation of a • The reverse voltage causes the

depletion region around the junction. depletion region to widen.

Diode Operating Conditions • The electrons in the n-type material

are attracted toward the positive
A diode has three operating conditions: terminal of the voltage source.
• No bias • The holes in the p-type material are
• Forward bias attracted toward the negative
terminal of the voltage source.
• Reverse bias
Forward Bias

External voltage is applied across the p-n

junction in the same polarity as the p- and n-
type materials.

Majority and Minority Carriers

Two currents through a diode:

Majority Carriers

• The majority carriers in n-type

materials are electrons.

 The forward voltage causes the • The majority carriers in p-type

depletion region to narrow. materials are holes.
 The electrons and holes are pushed Minority Carriers
toward the p-n junction.
 The electrons and holes have sufficient • The minority carriers in n-type
energy to cross the p-n junction. materials are holes.

• The minority carriers in p-type

materials are electrons.

Actual Diode Characteristics

Note the regions for no bias, reverse bias, and

forward bias conditions.
Zener Region
Carefully note the scale for each of these
The Zener region is in the diode’s reverse-bias
conditions.
region.

At some point the reverse bias voltage is so

large the diode breaks down and the reverse
current increases dramatically.
 3. Reverse saturation current (IR) at a
specified voltage and temperature

4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or

V(BR), at a specified temperature

5. Maximum power dissipation at a

specified temperature

• The maximum reverse voltage that
won’t take a diode into the zener
region is called the peak inverse
voltage or peak reverse voltage.
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr
8. Operating temperature range

• The voltage that causes a diode to

enter the zener region of operation is Diode Symbol and Packaging
called the zener voltage (VZ).

Forward Bias Voltage

The point at which the diode changes from

no-bias condition to forward-bias condition
The anode is abbreviated A
occurs when the electrons and holes are given
The cathode is abbreviated K
sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction.
This energy comes from the external voltage
applied across the diode.
Other Types of Diodes
The forward bias voltage required for a:
Zener diode
• gallium arsenide diode  1.2 V
Light-emitting diode
• silicon diode  0.7 V
Diode arrays
• germanium diode  0.3 V

• Selenium diode  1.0 V

Zener Diode

Diode Specification Sheets

Data about a diode is presented uniformly for

many different diodes. This makes cross-
matching of diodes for replacement or design
easier. A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at
the Zener voltage (VZ).
1. Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified
current and temperature Common Zener voltages are between 1.8 V
and 200 V
2. Maximum forward current (IF) at a
specified temperature
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Common Cathode

An LED emits photons when it is forward

biased.

These can be in the infrared or visible

spectrum.

The forward bias voltage is usually in the Photodiodes:

range of 2 V to 3 V.
While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are
sensitive to received light. They are
constructed so their pn junction can be
exposed to the outside through a clear
window or lens.

In Photoconductive mode the saturation

current increases in proportion to the
intensity of the received light. This type of
diode is used in CD players.
Light-Emitting Diodes:
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is
Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the
large band gap so movement of carriers across diode generates voltage and can be used as an
their depletion region emits photons of light energy source. This type of diode is used in
energy. Lower band gap LEDs (Light-Emitting the production of solar power.
Diodes) emit infrared radiation, while LEDs
with higher band gap energy emit visible light.
Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs
because they are extremely bright and last
longer than regular bulbs for a relatively low
cost.

Diode Arrays

Multiple diodes can be packaged together in

an integrated circuit (IC).

A variety of combinations exist.

Common Anode