THC 121 Module 1-4

MODULE 1 - THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TOURISM & THE SOCIOLOGY OF TOURISM
Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss the factors that motivate people to travel.
2. Elucidate the relationship of needs wants and motives to tourist motivation,
3. Describe the push/pull model: explain the relation between Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs and the travel.
4. Motivations listed in travel literature,
5. Describe the characteristics of psychocentric and allocentric,
6. Identify the characteristics of travelers based on purpose of travel; and
7. Analyze the travel constraints.
CONTENT
The Psychology of Tourism
A. Motivation for Travel

- Several studies on tourist motivations have listed various reasons why people
travel.
- Some of the motivations listed in travel literature are:
1. Escape
2. Relaxation
3. Relief of tension
4. Sunlust
5. Physical
6. Health
7. Family togetherness
8. Interpersonal relations
9. Roots or ethnic
10. Maintain social contact
11. Convincing oneself of one's achievement
12. Showing one's importance to other
13. Status and prestige
14. Self-discovery
15. Cultural
16. Education
17. Professional business
18. Wanderlust
19. Interest in foreign areas and
20. Scenery
Basic travel motivators can be divided into four classes:

1. Physical motivators - include those related to physical rest, sports participation, beach
recreation, relaxing entertainment, and other motivations directly connected with
health
2. Cultural motivators - include the desire to know about other countries their music art,
folklore, dances, paintings, and religion,
3. Interpersonal motivators - pertain to the desire to meet other people visit friends or
relatives, escape from routine from family, and neighbors,
4. Status and prestige motivators - concern ego needs and personal development
included in this group are trips related to business conventions, study, and pursuit of
hobbies and education Travel would enhance one's recognition and good reputation.
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Prepared by: KAYCEE H. NUESTRO
Instructor
B. Travel as a Means to Satisfy a Need and Want
- The key to understand tourist motivation is to view vacation travel as a vehicle to
satisfy one's needs and wants. Tourists do not go on vacations just to relax and
have fun, to experience another culture, or to educate themselves and their
children they take vacations in the belief that these vacations will satisfy either
completely or partially, various needs and wants.
C. Relationship of Needs, Wants, and Motives

- The difference between a need and a wont is awareness. It is the duty of people
involved in marketing to convert needs into wants by making the individual
aware of his need deficiencies. This awareness must be accompanied by
motivation. A motive enables a person to do something. Motivation occurs when
an individual wants to satisfy. To enable a person to be motivated to satisfy a
need, an objective or goal must be present. An individual will be motivated to buy
a product or service if he perceives that the purchase of that product or will be
beneficial in satisfying the need of which he is now aware. Thus, it is the role of
marketing to suggest objectives such as vacations, cruises, or flights to satisfy
needs, an awareness of which has already been created. This process is described
in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The Tourism System
✓ Push/Pull Model
- The push/pull model explains the push and pull forces in human motivation.
- According to the push/pull model, there are push and pull forces in human
motivation.
- Internal factors or personal needs "push" people to travel, while external forces
or attractions "pull" them to certain destinations.
- Much travel is motivated by both push and pull factors. For example, a college
student has begun to feel the "push to get away from college for rest and
relaxation and the "pull" to travel to a sunny beach for escape, self-discovery,
and scenic beauty.
- Push factors are the intangible desires that generate within the person.
Examples are needed to escape, self-discovery, rest and relaxation, prestige,
challenge, and adventure.
- Pull factors are external travel stimulators such as scenic beauty, historical
areas, cultural events, and sporting events.
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A. Maslow's Theory of Motivation and Travel Motivations
- A study of travel motivations found in travel literature indicates that these

motivations fit into the hierarchy of needs model of Abraham Maslow, a famous
psychologist.
- Maslow proposed the following hierarchy of needs as determinants of behavior:
1. Physiological Needs - hunger, thirst, rest, activity:

2. Safety Needs - safety and security, freedom from fear and anxiety.
3. Social Needs - love, affection giving and receiving.
4. Self-esteem - self-respect and esteem from others; and 5. Self-actualization -
personal self-fulfillment.
- This hierarchy suggests that lower needs demand more immediate satisfaction than
the satisfaction of higher needs. The first need is physical the other four are
psychological.
- To this original list, two intellectual needs were added. These are:
a. To know and understand - acquiring knowledge; and
b. Aesthetics - appreciation of beauty.
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Instructor
- The relationship between needs, motives, and references from tourism and literature
is shown in Table1.
MASLOW’S NEEDS AND MOTIVATIONS LISTED IN TRAVEL LITERATURE
B. Tourist Motivations
a. The Need for Escape or Change
- The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one word, "escape" - escape
from the dull daily routine; escape from the familiar, the commonplace, the
ordinary escape from the job, the boss, the customers, the house, and the
accelerated pace of modern life.
- According to Russ Johnston, a marketing research director, everyone is for
change. Travel can provide diversity. It removes a person from Sear familiar
surroundings to something that is new and exciting For example, a business
executive who travels with his wife from his home and stays overnight in
destination wishes to get away from the routines and demands of his family and
profession. An employee who goes to a beach resort is locking for a change from
the daily routine.
b. Travel for Health
- Development in the field of medicine has influenced travel for centuries, giving
rise to the concept of health tourism. The search for health and long life has
popularized spas, seaside resorts, as well as sun resorts. Majority of people think
of vacationing as a means of regaining one's energy, interest, and enthusiasm for
the job.
- The mineral water of different springs was believed to cure different ailments,
such as rheumatism, heart and circulation disorders, diabetes, and problems of
the kidneys and gall bladder.
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- Health-related travel is not limited to trips to thermal springs. "Reducing
ranches" attract middle aged women with weight problems Romania, with its
restorative. Gerovital attracts the elderly. Americans suffering from different
maladies go to China or Hong Kong to undergo acupuncture or to the Philippines
to consult faith-healers. As populations begin to age in industrialized societies,
health tourism will become increasingly popular.
c. Sports
- Interest in sports, either as a participant or a spectator, is attracting large

segments of the population, People demand activity and excitement during their
leisure hours to relieve them from the boredom of their work. They indulge in
activities, such as hiking, surfing, scuba diving, mountaineering, and skiing
Millions attend a variety of games, such as basketball, baseball, and tennis, soccer
in the United States, Europe, and Latin America. The Olympic Games which are
held every four years attract millions of tourists.
d. Social Contact
- Much travel grows out of the social nature of people. Human beings are social
animals. They need contact and communication with others. They feel
comfortable in a tour group. In the group, the traveler may develop friendships
that may last for years. Some tour groups have reunions after the tour took place.
- According to Charles Metelka, travel increases the "sociability resources of
individuals. It makes them more interesting to themselves and to others.
e. Status and Prestige
- Travel provides the means for ego and self-enhancement. Travel to a poor
country can provide the traveler with a feeling of superiority. Travel can also
provide a means of mingling with the wealthy and social elite.
- Much travel is done to keep up with the Joneses and to appear knowledgeable
about foreign places. Being well-traveled enhances one's status in society A trip
to an out-of-the-ordinary destination adds glamour to one's personality.
f. Travel for Education
- The search for knowledge and truth is inherent in every individual. Travel offers
an opportunity to satisfy the urge to learn. Once an interest has been developed
in a destination area, the urge to see that area emerges and the interest grows as
knowledge increases.
- Advertising generates interest in a destination but much more persuasive is the
interest created by a good book, a movie or television program. When a person
reads a book about a place or sees a television program with that place as
backdrop, he or she suddenly discovers a desperate desire to go there. James
Michener's Hawaii undoubtedly caused thousands of readers to want to visit the
islands.
- Many schoolteachers go to Europe every summer College students also go in large
numbers either on their own or as part of study groups sponsored by universities.
Thus, students combine travel with learning and receive academic credit for
doing so.
g. Personal Values
- The notion of personal values is an important travel motivator. Many people are
urged to travel to satisfy personal values, such as the search for spiritual
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experience, patriotism, and wholesomeness. Pilgrimages to religious sites or holy
places such as the Vatican, Lourdes, Jerusalem, and Mecca are undertaken for
spiritual reasons. Trips to Disneyland in Los Angeles and Tokyo and to Corregidor
in the Philippines are made to satisfy personal values of wholesome environment
and patriotism.
h. Cultural Experience
- Cross-cultural exchanges, experiencing how other people live, and fostering

international understanding are some of the reasons to satisfy curiosity about
other cultures, lifestyles, and places. Studies conducted among travelers abroad
reveal that seeking a new cultural experience is a primary reason for
international travel.
- North Americans are attracted to go to Europe because their ancestors came from
there and their history classes are full of stories about it. In Europe, they can learn
about its culture by viewing its cities and visiting its cathedrals and castles.
Travelers may have the feeling of becoming part of the culture by attending a
London theater in England, by joining the bullfight crowd in Spain, or by drinking
beer in Munich.
i. Shopping and Bargain Hunting
- To many people, the joys derived from buying certain goods may be the major
reason for travel. Millions of travelers go to Hong Kong, Singapore, and other tax-
free ports to shop. Almost everybody wants to buy and to bargain.
- Bargain hunting or being able to get special merchandise at a low cost is a travel
motivator. Tourists are looking for places that are inexpensive. They shop not
only en the trip but also for a particular trip. Before World War II, Austria was a
cheap vacation area, but when prices increased, the budget conscious travelers
went to Spain and Portugal. For persons living in high-cost areas, travel and
vacationing in low-cost countries can save money. For example, Americans find it
more expensive to rent a house in New York than in the Philippines.
j. Professional and Business Motives
- A great number of people travel for professional and business motives.

- Conferences and conventions about education, commerce, and industry increase
annually. More than one-half of all airline travel is done by business travelers.
Approximately 60% to 70% of guests who check in at five-star hotels around the
world travel for business reasons. However, a great portion of business travel is
mixed with pleasure. For example a tourist may be attending a convention in Las
Vegas, but may spend half of his time gambling in a casino.
k. Search for Natural Beauty
- Travel can satisfy one's search for beauty in the environment and in the scenery.
Natural beauty such as the sunset, trees, mountains, waterfalls, flowers, beaches,
valleys, bays, rivers, and lakes is usually pleasurable to the viewer. Most people
are inspired by the beauty of nature. The trips of city dwellers to the rural areas
on weekends show man's need to see beautiful scenery-trees, grass, streams, and
the open sky.
C. The Learning Process of a Tourist
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- An individual will buy a vacation package if he or she has learned that the
purchase will satisfy an important need. This process is shown in Figure 2. The
tourist compares various alternatives with a list of criteria to determine which
alternatives will most likely satisfy a particular motive. The resulting inclination
will have an effect on the decision to buy. This inclination may be positive or
negative depending on how well a chosen alternative will meet the motivation.
The number of alternatives will vary according to the characteristics of travelers.
Travelers who have previously visited many foreign destinations have a larger
number of alternatives to choose from than those who have not. A destination
will be included as an alternative if the destination has previously satisfied the
traveler. The level of satisfaction depends on one's expectation of a situation, as
well as one's perception of an actual situation. If the level of expectations is higher
than the actual experience, the tourist will be dissatisfied. For the traveler to be
satisfied with a product, service, or situation, the level of actual experience must
be equal to or greater than the level of expectation. Hence, the level of service
given to the vacationer must be given great importance to assure a quality
experience and a high level of satisfaction that will bring the traveler back.
- Serving as bridge between the motives of an individual and the perceived
alternatives are the criteria used for making a decision among these alternatives.
The criteria used are learned. They are the result of past experiences, as well as
information received from either the commercial or the social environment.
- An individual's learning input based on past experience is derived from having
experienced the same thing that is being considered or having experienced
something similar. For example, if a person stayed in a particular destination, the
factors that accounted for his satisfaction such as good weather and friendly
service will be the criteria by which he determines where to take his next
vacation. Thus, decision criteria are developed or modified from actual
experiences.
Tourist’s Learning Process
D. EFFECT OF CONSISTENCY AND COMPLEXITY ON LEISURE TRAVEL
- Edward J. Mayo and Lance Jervis, in The Psychology of Leisure Travel, believed
that individuals differ in the amount of psychological tension they can handle.
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- Too much repetition or consistency results in boredom and a corresponding
amount of psychological tension greater that he could handle.
- To reduce the tension, he will attempt to introduce some complexity in his life.
This explains why a tourist who for many years spent his vacation in a particular
vacation spot, will either change the destination or the method of reaching it.
- Similarly, too much complexity may result in more tension than a person can
endure. To reduce the level of tension, he will introduce consistency into that
experience. For example, a Filipino tourist in Europe may find the different
language and culture (complexity) need to be balanced by staying in a hotel chain
with which he is familiar (consistency).
- The traveler who experiences a great deal of consistency in everyday life may
compensate by seeking vacations which offer variety. The opposite is also true.
E. Classification of Travelers Based on Purpose of Travel
- The two major classifications of travelers based on travel purpose are the
business travelers and the pleasure/personal travelers.
a) Business Travelers
- Majority of travelers in most developed countries such as the United

States, Canada, and the United Kingdom are business travelers.
- They are divided into three categories, namely:
1. Regular business travelers:
2. Business travelers attending meetings, conventions, and congresses,
and
3. Incentive travelers.
b) Regular Business Travelers

- Among business travelers, the cost of the trip is shouldered by a
company: hence, travel is not influenced by personal income. The
volume and rate of growth of business travel is not greatly affected by
the cost of travel. This means that business travelers will continue even
if the price of travel services increases.
- Many studies have been conducted to find out the characteristics of
regular business travelers. The results of these surveys revealed that
business travelers are well-educated, rich, have high-level jobs, and
tend to fly often. More recent surveys have shown that ratio of women
business travelers to men business travelers have grown rapidly.
- These surveys show that there are major differences between male and
female business travelers.
- Some of these are:
1. Women business travelers are slightly younger.
2. They tend to stay longer at their destinations.
3. They are more apt to be unmarried than males.
4. They are more likely to attend a meeting or convention.
5. They are more likely to book through a travel agent.
6. They have a greater preference for downtown accommodation
facilities closer to work and
7. They are more concerned with security aspects of
accommodation facilities.
- Many airlines and hotels are exerting efforts to cater to the business executive
travelers. Airlines have been offering first-class seat service and first class
passenger lounges in airport terminals to these travelers for many years. More
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recent innovations include special check-in arrangements, bigger cats, and
sleeper seats. Many hotel chains have begun to allocate whole floors or wings of
the buildings for business travelers seeking greater luxury in their
accommodations. The rooms or suites are more spacious, contain mare personal
"giveaways," and they provide their guests with complimentary drinks and
express check-in and checkout service: Normally, airline and hotel companies
add a surcharge to their regular prices for business executive travelers. They have
achieved great marketing successes in doing so. Airlines, particularly in the
United States, have begun to search out and reward frequent flyers by logging
their air miles in airline computers. The rewards offered include discounts on
future trips and sometimes even free trips.
F. Business Travelers Attending Meetings, Conventions, Congresses
- Travel Pulse surveys indicate that 20% of all business travel trips are for the
purpose of attending meetings, conventions, and congresses. A congress,
convention, or conference is a regular formalized meeting of associations or body
or a meeting sponsored by an association or body on a regular or ad hoc basis.
Conventions are classified into four kinds, namely: international, continental,
national, and regional conventions. International conventions usually involve
members and nonmembers from more than two foreign countries, and they take
place in different countries every year. They are generally nonprofit and attract
persons with common fields of interest. Continental conventions have delegates
coming from a continent such as North America, Europe, or Asia. National
conventions are meetings organized by associations at the state, provincial, or
regional level. Normally, these organizations hold their conventions within their
own regions.
A. Incentive Travelers
- Incentive travel is a special type of business travel. It is travel given by

firms to employees as a reward for some accomplishment or to
encourage employees to achieve more than what is required.
- Incentive trips have risen sharply according to the Society of Incentive
Travel Executive (SITE).
- Salespeople are given trips for reaching a set goal in overall sales of a
particular item or in the number of new accounts. Experts say that these
incentive trips last for five days and usually include spouses. Prize trips
are often combined with business and sales meetings, especially those to
foreign destinations in order to be eligible for tax deduction.
- The most popular overseas destinations are Mexico, Spain, the
Caribbean, Bermuda, and Europe. Within the United States, the most
popular incentive travel destinations are Hawaii, Florida, Nevada,
California, and New Orleans.
- The increasing popularity of incentive travel has led to the establishment
of incentive travel organizations. They negotiate with suppliers such as
hotels and airlines to determine the cost of incentive travel trips. Thus,
they act as specialized types of tour wholesalers. To their prices, they add
a markup of 15% to 20% for their services and costs in packaging the
incentive travel trip.
- Corporations usually have the following objectives in buying incentive
travel trips:
1. Increase overall sales volumes.
2. Sell new accounts.
3. Improve morale and good will.
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4. Introduce new products.
5. Offset competitive promotions.
6. Bolster slow seasons.
7. Help in sales training.
8. Sell slow items; and
9. Obtain more store displays and support consumer promotions.
- Companies who buy incentive travel trips are usually those involved in
insurance, sales, electronics/radio/television manufacturing,
automobile and truck manufacturing, farm equipment manufacturing,
auto parts/accessories/tires, heating/air-conditioning, electrical
appliances manufacturing, office equipment manufacturing, and building
materials manufacturing.
B. Pleasure/Personal Travelers
- This group consists of people traveling for vacation or pleasure. They are
also called nonbusiness travelers. Experiences and research have shown
that nonbusiness travelers have different spending patterns from
business travelers. In general, the demand for travel services by
nonbusiness travelers is elastic with respect to prices. This means that
nonbusiness travelers are very much concerned with the increase in the
price of travel services since the cost of travel is usually shouldered by
the traveler himself. The traveler likewise chooses the vacation area.
- Traveling for pleasure is the largest segment of the international market
and the fastest growing. The reasons for the growth are the rising income
levels in developed countries, urbanization, higher educational levels,
increase in leisure time, and the length of paid holidays.
- Pleasure/personal travelers are classified into the following
categories:
a. Resort travelers.
b. Family pleasure travelers:
c. The elderly; and
d. Singles and couples
C. Resort Travelers
- Surveys have shown that resort travelers are better educated, have
higher household incomes, and are more likely to have professional and
managerial positions. It is also notable that majority of resort travelers
have families with children.
D. Family Pleasure Travelers
- The family pleasure travelers can be divided into three groups, namely:
junior families, midrange families, and mature families.
- These are defined according to the ages of the husband and wife and the
educational stages of their children as follows:
1. Junior families. With parents aged 20-34 having preschool and/or
grade school children only:
2. Midrange families. With parents aged 35-44 with grade school
and/or high school children only, and
3. Mature families. With parents aged 45 or over with children who are
of high school age and older.
- Family pleasure travel trips are motivated by three objectives.
• The first objective is to use travel as an educational experience for
their children.
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• The second objective is to do something different.
• The third objective is to use travel to bring the family closer together.
- The major hindrances to family pleasure travel are the cost of travel,
particularly the cost of transportation, accommodation, food, the ability
of the parents to have privacy from their children, and the problems of
organizing and coordinating family pleasure plans.
E. The Elderly
- An examination of population trends in developed countries particularly

in North America clearly indicates that the population is aging. At
present, there are many people who are fifty years of age and over,
including a greater number of people in the retirement age category.
These population shifts have made the elderly persons a lucrative target
for tourism destination areas.
- Persons in the "50 plus" age bracket are called active affluents or people
with the money and the desire to travel extensively. Active affluents
generally search for learning experiences, cultural enrichment,
socialization, and activities which lead to self-fulfillment.
F. Singles and Couples
- Another important segment of pleasure travel consists of singles and

couples.
- They take their vacations to fulfill their psychological, intellectual, and
physical needs by giving them the opportunity to rest, relax, escape the
routine or pressures of daily living, enjoy the naturalness of e, and to
express total freedom.
- A resort chain that targets singles and couples is the Club Mediterranee.
- Club Med is not the only organization which taps the singles and couples
pleasure travel segment; other resorts and destinations particularly in
the Caribbean region have also targeted this market segment.
✓ Travel Constraints
- The main constraints to travel are:
1. Lack of money.
2. Lack of time.
3. Lack of safety and security.
4. Physical disability.
5. Family commitments;
6. Lack of interest in travel; and
7. Fears of travel.
o Lack of Money
- Lack of money is the major travel constraint. Less money means less travel. The
wealthy members of society are the ones who travel most. People with more
disposable income will be able to travel more than those who just earn enough to
live on.
o Lack of Time
- Lack of available time is another inhibiting factor to tourist travel. The desire to
travel and the financial ability to travel are insufficient if one does not have the
time to travel. A senior company executive may have plenty of money to spend
but very little time available. A combination of time and money must be present
for travel and Tourism to take place.
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o Lack of Safety and Security
- Lack of security in public places, hotels ravel centers cause people to prefer to
remain in the security of their neighborhood and home Areas may acquire the
reputation of being dangerous and thus become less desirable travel destinations
as what has happened in the Philippines, the Caribbean and parts of Mexico,
Spain, and Italy, where there has been a sharp increase in the number of theft,
robberies, shootings, and assaults among the local people. Tourists will not go to
destinations that they consider unsafe.
o Physical Disability
- Physical disability in the form of bad health or physical handicap may keep people
at home. Elderly who are more susceptible to illnesses such as heart trouble,
hypertension, arthritis, and bronchitis travel less. After the age of 70, very few
travel because for most of them, long trips are tiring. changes in food are
upsetting, and a strange bed may cause sleeplessness Family Commitments
- Family commitments inhibit travel. Parents with young children find it
inconvenient and expensive to go on holiday. During the child-rearing period,
family obligations increase significantly for women and to a similar but lesser
degree, for men. Travel is curtailed and more time is spent at home Indeed, family
commitments of any kind, whether it be young children, taking care of the sick,
or looking after older people really affects travel.
o Lack of Interest in Travel

- This is mainly due to a preference to simply stay at home. This condition may be
due to a variety of factors, such as dislike of travel, shyness in meeting people,
dislike of changing routine, and many more.
o Fears
- Some people do not want to travel because of fears of travel. Fear of flying is quite
common and accounts for many people who insist on driving to a vacation area
instead of boarding a plane. Fear of the unknown keeps many people from leaving
their own country or even their own city. Many travelers are afraid to go to
countries where they cannot understand the language. Some potential travelers
are afraid of the unfamiliar decisions they will have to make in a strange place
such as how much to tip and how to get around a strange city. All these fears are
deterrents to travel.
✓ THE SOCIAL NATURE OF TRAVEL

- Travel is brought about by the social nature of man. Human beings, as social
animals, feel comfortable in a tour group. They feel that their trip is more
enjoyable and freer from anxiety if they join a group tour. Camaraderie often
develops friendships that last for years.
- In some subcultures, travel is the accepted way of spending one's vacation
Sabbatical leaves and foreign assignments make it possible for university faculty
members and employees to travel and develop a passion for it.
- Tourism evolves a mutual trust and respect for one another and the dignity of life
on earth.
- According to Pope John Paul II, "The world is becoming a global village in which
people from different continents are made to feel like next-door neighbors. In
facilitating more authentic and social relationships between individuals, tourism
can help overcome many real prejudices and foster new bonds of fraternity”.
✓ The Social Effects of Tourism
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- Tourism is concerned with the movement and contact between people in
different geographical locations.
- In sociological terms, this involves:
1. Social relations between people who would not normally meet.
2. The confrontation of different cultures, ethnic groups, lifestyles, languages,
levels of prosperity, and the like;
3. The behavior of people released from many of the social and economic
constraints of everyday life, and
4. The behavior of the host population which has to reconcile economic gain and
benefits with the costs of living with strangers.
- The degree to which conflict will occur between host and guest depends upon the
similarity in their standards of living, the number of tourists at any time, and the
extent to which the tourists adapt to local norms.
✓ Socioeconomic Variables and Their Effect on Travel
a. Age
- There are several differences between patterns of travel based on age.

Younger people tend to select more active recreational activities than older
people. The elderly (those in the late sixties and upward) prefer more
passive forms of recreation, such as visiting friends and relatives, fishing,
sightseeing, and playing golf. Older tourists tend to travel to farther
destinations, prefer ship travel, travel more in spring than younger tourists
do, and spend less than middle aged tourists but more than younger
tourists.
b. Income and Social Status
- Income and social status have a great influence on travel. Rich persons, as
well as persons with higher social status, travel more than those with lower
income and social class status. Higher income tourists stay longer and spend
more per day than those with lower incomes.
c. Education
- There is a strong correlation between education and travel Generally

speaking, the better educated members of the population have a greater
desire to travel Researchers have found that the more educated the
travelers are, they tend to be more sophisticated in their tastes. They prefer
activities that require the development of interpretative and expressive
skills, such as attending plays concerts, art museums, reading books, playing
golf, and skiing.
d. Life Stages of the Family
- The presence of children in the family limits travel. More leisure time is
spent at home. As the children grow up and save home, the married couples
renew interest in travel.
- Couples in this life stage usually have more discretionary income and are
more financially capable to travel.
✓ The Rise of New Travel Patterns
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o Travel Clubs
- The most significant development in group travel consists of travel clubs. A
very good example of these is the Club Mediterranee which started in
Western Europe and then spread to North America and other areas of the
world In this group travel plan, a club member enjoys travel opportunities
and vacation destination facilities at a much cheaper price than that paid by
a nonmember The accommodations offered by the club range from deluxe to
very modest There is also a wide choice of locations, climate, and other
vacation features
o Airline Group and Arrangements

- Another development in group travel is the introduction of different types of
tour fares promoted by airlines.
- These are the following:
1. Groups of 15 or more are given reduced fares,
2. Charter service is given by some airlines to affinity group tours which
are intended for those affiliated to a legitimate group for a period of six
months or longer.
3. Public charter in which an entire airplane is made available to a group
of persons who travel to the same destination, and
4. Incentive tours which are given by firms to employees as a reward for a
special achievement or as a motivation for achievement.
o Special Interest Tours

- Special interest group travel is becoming more popular at present. These are
tours arranged for those who are interested in a particular activity such as
bird watching, festivals, fishing, hunting, scuba diving photography, flower
arrangement, golf, skiing, mountain climbing, and the like.
✓ Preferences or the International Tourist

- The preferences of the international cost are divided into four categories,
namely;
1. Complete relaxation to constant activity,
2. Traveling rear one's home environment to a totally strange environment.
3. Complete dependence on group travel to traveling alone; and
4. Order to disorder.
o Relaxation Versus Activity

- Before, the workweek for most people including the middle class was
long and exhausting Thus, they demanded holidays that offered
relaxation and rest. At present, the workweek has been shortened and
the annual holiday leave has been lengthened. Work has become less
tiresome, and people have become used to greater leisure. Relaxation
has become possible throughout the year. Accordingly, people have
started to use their o- holiday time leisure to exercise new activity skills,
such as sailing, climbing, horse riding, and sports. The demand for
activity-oriented travel has greatly increased.
o Familiarity Versus Novelty
- In general, most tourists on their first trip abroad tend to seek

familiarity rather than novelty. They search for something that will
remind them of home, whether it be food, newspapers, living quarters,
or another person from their own country. As soon as they find a place
where they feel at home, these tourists will go back to the same place
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for a number of times. Not until they have gained more experience in
traveling will they want to go to a new environment-to see customs and
cultures different from their own, and to mix with people who speak
differently, eat differently, and dress differently.
- At present, there is an increasing positive attitude for novelty and for
change. People accept innovations in industry, education, family life, the
arts, and social relationships, among others Tourists move away from
traditional resorts to new tourist destinations.
o Dependence Versus Autonomy

- In the past, tourists Joined package tours in which transportation,
lodging, food, sightseeing, and entertainment were fixed in advance by
the tour agency, At present, there is the emergence of a group of tourists
who would like to acquire a sense of personal autonomy regarding their
Leisure time They would like to travel on their own and not part of a
group They would like to feel independent-in complete control of what
they do and how they do it.
o Order Versus Disorder

- In the past tourists sought holidays which enforce the traditional
concept of conformity-set meals at fixed times, guidebooks which told
them the right places to visit and resorts where their fellow tourists
were tidy, well-behaved, and properly dressed They avoided situations
where their adult imposed sense of orderliness might be offended.
- Now, the new generation of tourists is not very much concerned about
what to wear and how to behave when on day, informality in behavior,
a greater tolerance toward the differences of others and freedom from
institutionalized regulations are now the characteristics of the modern
traveler.
- Because of social and economic changes in modern society, the demand
for travel will be based less on familiarity, relaxation dependence and
order, but more on novelty, activity, autonomy, and informality.
✓ TYPES OF TOURIST ROLES

- The continuous combination of novelty and familiarity forms the basic variable
for the sociological analysis of the phenomenon of modern tourism. This
combination leads to the four types of tourist roles. Each type represents a
characteristic form of tourist behavior.
- The first two types, the organized mass tourist and the individual mass
tourist, are called institutionalized tourist roles because they are dealt within
a routine way by the tourist establishment, such as travel agencies and hotel
chains which cater to the tourist trade. The last two types, the explorer and the
drifter, are called noninstitutionalized tourist roles because they are loosely
attached to the tourist establishment.
a. The Organized Mass Tourist
- This type of tourist is the least adventurous. He buys a package tour in

which the itinerary of his trip is fixed in advance and his stops are well
prepared and guided. He seldom makes decisions for himself He
prefers a familiar environment rather than a new environment.
b. The Individual Mass Tourist
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- The individual mass tourist is similar to the organized mass tourist
except that the individual mass tourist has a certain degree of control
over his time and itinerary and is not bound to a group. However, all
the major arrangements of his tour are still made through a travel
agency. Like the organized mass tourist, he also travels within his own
country and goes out of it occasionally, Familiarity is still dominant,
but less than the organized mass tourist. The desire for novelty is
greater for the individual mass tourist.
c. The Explorer
- This type of tourist arranges his trip by himself and looks for
comfortable accommodations and reliable means of transportation.
He tries to associate with the people he visits and to speak their
language. The explorer dares to leave his country much more than the
previous two types but goes back to it when the experience becomes
too rough. Although novelty dominates, the explorer does not adopt
completely the lifestyle of the host country. He still retains some of the
basic practices and comforts of his native way of life.
d. The Drifter
- The drifter goes the farthest away from the accustomed ways of life of
his own country. He is almost totally immersed in his host culture. He
tries to live the way the people he visits live and to share their shelter,
food, and habits He retains only the most basic of his native customs.
He arranges his own trip and does not seek the help of a tour agency.
He does not have a fixed itinerary. Novelty is at its highest, familiarity
disappears almost completely.
✓ SOCIAL TOURISM
- In a general sense, social tourism is a subsidized system of travel through the
intervention of the government, employer or labor union to achieve social goals
and purposes. In the late 1930s, when many European countries passed laws on
paid holidays, it was recognized that the right to legal holiday could not only be
meaningful if the ordinary worker will be able to afford travel for recreation and
rest. Thus, a number of voluntary associations in the field of social tourism
worked to obtain reduced fares and to create a network of holiday centers for
tourists of limited means.
- In 1963, the International Bureau of Social Tourism (BITS) was founded in
Brussels to encourage the development of social tourism on an international
scale. At present, it has a membership of more than 100 associations all over the
world. The BITS is promoting tourism to achieve social objectives by studying
such issues as youth and senior citizen travel, the staggering of holidays, camping
and caravanning, building and financing moderate cost tourist facilities, and
preservation of local culture and environment.
- A number of European governments subsidized tourism in several ways. Belgium
grants subsidies for the modernization and construction of family hotels, Spain
has provided money for winter sports, camping sites, as well as rural and
mountain recreational facilities. The state owns a chain of 82 inns called
paradores. France gives assistance to holiday villages and camping grounds. It
also gives loans and grants for rural lodgings rented to tourists for at least three
months a year for a minimum of 10 years Ireland subsidizes inland cruising.
Norway and Sweden grant loans for less expensive accommodations.
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- In the United States, more than 100 different major programs of the federal
government provide for recreation, tourism, travel, and environmental
conservation Activities range from assigning approximately one billion acres of
public lands for recreation to the operation of historic sites, national parks, and
forests.
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MODULE 2 - TOURISM AND CULTURE & TRANSPORTATION SECTOR
1. Describe the effects of cultures in travel.
2. Clarify how cultural patterns are changed by internal and external forces.
3. Discuss the importance of cultural tourism.
4. Analyze the cultural factors which appeal to tourists.
5. Explain how each of these cultural factors contribute to cultural tourism.
CONTENT
✓ The Effects of Culture on Travel
- Culture can be defined as a "set of beliefs, values, attitudes, habits, and form of
behavior that are shared by a society and are transmitted from generation to
generation”. A knowledge of the culture of a country is important in order to
understand how individuals within that country will behave.
- Lack of understanding and inability communicate with the host culture might
result in a culture shock for the tourist:
- "Mass follow class" suggests that a destination first attracts a small number of
high-status individuals whose actions are eventually copied by a large number of
persons with lower social status.
- Culture patterns are also changed by external forces. Contact with other
environments may change previous attitudes and behavior. A visit to a foreign
country result in a change in attitude toward the people of that country. Travel
may also stimulate the sale of products in the destination visited.
- It can readily be seen that in order to understand a traveler, it is necessary to
understand why visitors act the way they do and be in a better position to
anticipate and satisfy their needs and wants.
✓ The Importance of Cultural Tourism
- Cultural tourism includes all aspects of travel in which people learn about each
other's way of life.
- Tourism is an important means of promoting cultural relations and international
cooperation.
- Louis D' Amore, the past president of the Travel Research Association, once said,
"These millions of daily person-to-person encounters are potentially a powerful
force for improved relations among nations of the world, relations which emphasize
a sharing and appreciation of cultures rather than the lack of trust bred by
isolation.”
✓ Cultural Factors with Tourist Appeal

- In tourism, there are cultural factors that appeal greatly to tourists. These are:
1. Art
2. Music and dance
3. Handicraft
4. Industry and business
5. Agriculture
6. Education
7. Literature and language
8. Science
9. Government
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10. Religion
11. Food and drink
12. History
□ Art
- The arts include performing arts and fine arts. The former refers to live theater,
music, and dance, and the latter includes painting, sculpture, graphic arts, and
architecture.
- Examples of performing arts are the Pangkat Kawayan (bamboo orchestra) and
the rondalla group. Amorsolo's and Francisco's paintings and the sculptural
works of Michelangelo are examples of fine arts.
□ Music and Dance
- Several countries, music is a major source of enjoyment and satisfaction to

tourists.
- The Philippines, Hawaii, Spain, the United States, and the Balkan States are
examples.
- Resort hotels can give visitors many opportunities to enjoy the best local music.
Evening entertainment programs, concerts, recordings, and sound reproduction
systems are greatly appreciated by tourists.
- Records and tape recordings which the guest can buy to use in his home provide
another effective means of keeping in touch with the culture of a particular
country and a reminder of rile country's music. An example of music in promoting
tourism is that of Hawaii with its musical presentation, "Hawaii Calls.”
- Dancing, in its native or ethnic forms, one of the most appealing aspects of a
country's culture and can be presented as a tourist attraction.
- The color, costumes, music, setting, and skill of form and execution add to the
attraction. Almost all countries have native dancing or ethnic dancing.
- Ethnic music and dancing are a part of the culture and should be used to
entertain tourists. The best place for such entertainment is resort hotels.
- Local shows, nightclubs, and community programs present added opportunities.
- Examples of dance as a cultural expression are the Bayanihan Dance Troupe of the
Philippines, the Ballet Folklorico of Mexico, the Russian Bolshoi Ballet, the folk
dances of European countries, the African dances, Thai dancing, and the Kabuki
dancers of Japan.
□ Handicraft
- To satisfy tourists, gifts and souvenirs for sale should be manufactured in the
country where the purchase is made. Usually, a tourist is dissatisfied when he
buys a particular souvenir and then discovers later that the article he bought was
made in another country. There is no substitute for genuineness. The locally
produced article is useful and attractive; it should be made available in
conveniently located shops. A visit to shops where handicrafts are actually being
made by the craftsman is an effective form of tourist entertainment.
- Examples are the shell-craft, handcrafted jewelry of Bulacan, the Baguio and
Ilocos hand loom wearers, and the traditional crafts of Thailand, Africa, Cyprus,
and Tunisia.
□ Industry and Business
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- Most travelers, particularly international travelers, are usually curious about the
country's industry, commerce, manufactured products, and its economic
situation.
- Industry tours are a very effective way of developing an interest in the culture of
a country, as well as providing a potential market for the product being made.
Tourist organizations should encourage tours to factories or processing plants.
Lists of these industrial establishments can be prepared by tourist promotional
organizations, chambers of commerce, resort hotels, and restaurants.
- Group tours can be organized for manufacturers of a specific product who visit
another country to see how the manufacture of a similar product is accomplished.
Such tours are mutually profitable because the representatives of the different
countries learn from each other.
- Business or industrial groups often conduct tours to become familiar with the
markets and processors in other countries in order to develop more interest in
their products and to increase sales in several areas.
- Business establishments, specifically retail stores, are important to visitors.
- The best examples are shopping centers near destination areas where tourists
can easily find the product or service they want. Shopping is one of the most
important elements in tourism. The success of a shopping area depends on its
attractiveness, variety of products, as well as the courtesy and efficiency of the
personnel.
- Hong Kong and Singapore are the best examples of tourist business.
□ Agriculture
- The agriculture of a country may be interesting to a large segment of tourists.

- Dairy undertakings, fresh fruits and vegetables, crops, and poultry and livestock are
types of farming which are important elements of culture.
- An important aspect of tourist services in rural areas is the farmers market in
which local agricultural products are sold to the travelers.
- Examples of this are the roadside stands selling fresh fruits, vegetables, and
products from nearby farms which are enjoyed by traveler.
- Local tours should include agricultural developments and services so that
tourists can see the agricultural products in the country and perhaps try some of
them.
- An example of this is a tour to Oahu, Hawaii, or the Del Monte farm in
Bukidnon, Philippines where visitors have a chance to taste fresh pineapples
grown in the pineapple plantations in the area.
□ Education
- The inhabitants of one country are usually anxious to know the educational system
of another country. The campuses of the colleges and universities of a country are
particularly appealing to tourists. Many of them have beautiful landscapes and are
ideally situated for an enjoyable and enlightening visit.
- Famous universities such as Oxford or Cambridge in England, Harvard in the US,
and the University of Sto. Tomas in the Philippines are tourist attractions.
- Several universities-conduct adult education programs within the university's
continuing education service. These educational opportunities attract students
from many countries around the world. Thus, students are motivated to travel.
- International conferences of business and industrial associations, as well as
scientific and educational organizations, are often held on the campuses of
colleges, universities, and other educational institutions. Best examples are the
adult education centers similar to the East-West Center at the University of Hawaii.
These centers attract thousands of adults every year from continuing education
courses, conferences, and meetings that are educational in nature.
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□ Literature and Language
- The literary achievements of a country form an important part of travel motivation.

- Books, magazines, newspapers, booklets, pamphlets, and other printed
literary works are significant expressions of the culture of a country.
- Libraries are favorite cultural institutions for the tourists. Many have very good
reading lounges and comfortable, attractive surroundings where visitors can enjoy
reading about the history, culture arts, and folkways of their host country.
Frequently entertainment programs include the reading of poetry or the
discussion of various books or other literary works as a cultural enrichment
for guests.
- A highly educated person is likely to speak or at least have studied more than one
language. Interest in the language of another country is an incentive for travel. This
is true for students who travel to a particular country to practice the language or
to become more familiar with its colloquial use.
- Most travelers like to learn the language of the country they visit. They usually start
learning the common expressions used in ordering food in a restaurant or in
talking with hotel or other tourism employees. Language classes should therefore
be included in the activities program of a tourist area.
□ Science
- Tourists are interested to know the scientific activities of a country, especially

those in technical industries, education, or scientific research.
- Tourist promotion organizations would be rendering a great service to the
scientific community by providing facilities for the exchange of scientific
information, organization of scientific installations, and other activities which
provide scientific information to visitors.
- The most popular scientific attractions are museums of science and industry,
planetariums, and visits to unusual scientific installations such as atomic
powerplants and space exploration centers. Zoos and aquariums are likewise
popular.
- Notable examples are the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas and
the John F. Kennedy Space Center in Florida. These scientific installations
provide scientific knowledge to large numbers of visitors each year.
□ Government
- Countries differ in their systems of government. Visits to centers of government,

such as capitals, are very motivating to individuals interested in political science
and government. When a person visits another country, he or she becomes aware
of the type of government in operation and compares it with the government in his
or her own country.
- Lawmakers often visit another country to observe the lawmaking process. A visit
to Washington D.C. can show visitors the process of making laws in the House of
Representatives and in the Senate. Hearings on different proposed regulations or
statutes are usually open to visitors.
□ Religion
- The religious pilgrimage is another motivation for travel. The most popular among
the Muslims is the pilgrimage to Mecca. Many people go to the different
headquarters of their church organizations and to that are well-known in their
religious literature.
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- These people usually travel in groups. Examples are the religious pilgrimages to
the Vatican in Rome, Lourdes in France, Fatima in Portugal, Jerusalem in Israel, and
Medjugojre in Yugoslavia. Visits to famous churches are also an incentive for travel.
- The best examples are St. Peter's in Rome, St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, San
Agustin Church in Manila, the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, and the Basilica Minore
del Sto. Niño in Cebu.
□ Food and Drink
- Food and drink are an important part of the culture of a country tourists usually
enjoy native food especially those which are local or ethnic in nature. Restaurants
and hotels can make a good impression to the tourists if they serve local dishes and
explain the menu—what the dish consists of and how it is prepared. The type of
restaurants where the atmosphere is conducive to the types of food being served
is particularly appealing to visitors.
- Very good examples are the seafood restaurants at the Fisherman's Wharf in San
Francisco and Los Angeles, California, and Cabalen Restaurant and Barrio Fiesta
Restaurant in the Philippines.
□ History
- The history resources of a country reveal its cultural heritage.

- The preservation of history and the quality and management of museums are very
important success of tourism.
- One of the weaknesses observed in historical museums is that the explanations of
the exhibits are given in only one language. Most of tourists do not enjoy the
historical exhibits because of the language used in explanations.
- Tourists should be provided with literature that describes the points of interest,
admission fees, hours of operation, special events, and other information they need
to visit historical attractions.
- Examples of museums are the British Museum in London, the National Museum of
Anthropology in Mexico City, the Smithsonian Museum in Washington D.C., and the
Ayala Museum and San Agustin Museum in the Philippines.
✓ TOURISM AND CULTURE (UNWTO)
- The convergence between tourism and culture, and the increasing interest of
visitors in cultural experiences, bring unique opportunities but also complex
challenges for the tourism sector.
“Tourism policies and activities should be conducted with respect for the artistic,
archaeological and cultural heritage, which they should protect and pass on to future
generations; particular care should be devoted to preserving monuments, worship sites,
archaeological and historic sites as well as upgrading museums which must be widely
open and accessible to tourism visits”
-UNWTO Framework Convention on Tourism Ethics Article 7, paragraph 2
✓ ABOUT CULTURAL TOURISM

- According to the definition adopted by the UNWTO General Assembly, at its 22nd
session (2017), Cultural Tourism implies “A type of tourism activity in which the
visitor’s essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the
tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination. These
attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual and
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emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and
cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living
cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions”.
- UNWTO provides support to its members in strengthening cultural tourism policy
frameworks, strategies and product development. It also provides guidelines for the
tourism sector in adopting policies and governance models that benefit all
stakeholders, while promoting and preserving cultural elements.
✓ UNWTO/UNESCO WORLD CONFERENCES ON TOURISM AND CULTURE

- The UNWTO/UNESCO World Conferences on Tourism and Culture bring together
Ministers of Tourism and Ministers of Culture with the objective to identify key
opportunities and challenges for a stronger cooperation between these highly
interlinked fields.
- Gathering tourism and culture stakeholders from all world regions the conferences
which have been hosted by Cambodia, Oman, Turkey and Japan have addressed a wide
range of topics, including governance models, the promotion, and protection and
safeguarding of culture, innovation, the role of creative industries and urban
regeneration as a vehicle for sustainable development in destinations worldwide.
✓ Intangible Cultural Heritage and Tourism

- The global wealth of traditions is one of the principal motivations for travel, with
tourists seeking to engage with new cultures and to experience the global variety of
performing arts, handicrafts, rituals and cuisines. The cultural interaction spurred by
such encounters prompts dialogue, builds understanding, and fosters tolerance and
peace.
- Fostering the responsible use of this living heritage for tourism purposes can generate
employment, alleviate poverty, curb rural flight migration, and nurture a sense of pride
among communities.
- Tourism offers a powerful incentive for preserving and enhancing intangible cultural
heritage, since the revenue it generates can be channelled back into initiatives to aid
its long-term survival. Intangible cultural heritage must be thoughtfully managed if it
is to flourish in an increasingly globalized world. Only true partnerships between
communities and the tourism and heritage sectors, built on a genuine appreciation for
the aspirations and values of all parties, can ensure its survival.
✓ SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIGENOUS TOURISM

- The Recommendations on Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism provide
guidance to tourism stakeholders to develop their operations in a responsible and
sustainable manner within those indigenous communities that wish to:
1. Open up to tourism development, or
2. Improve the management of the existing tourism experiences within their
communities.
- They were prepared by the UNWTO Ethics, Culture and Social Responsibility
Department in close consultation with indigenous tourism associations, indigenous
entrepreneurs and advocates. The Recommendations were endorsed by the World
Committee on Tourism Ethics and finally adopted by the UNWTO General Assembly in
2019, as a landmark document of the Organization in this sphere.
- Who are these Recommendations targeting?
1. Tour operators and travel agencies
2. Tour guides
3. Indigenous communities
4. Tourists
5. Other stakeholders such as governments, policy makers and destinations
- Highlighting innovative forms of policy-making, the UNWTO Study on Tourism and
Intangible Cultural Heritage recommends specific actions for stakeholders to foster
the sustainable and responsible development of tourism by incorporating and
safeguarding intangible cultural assets.
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➢ TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL EVOLUTION
- Transportation and travel have undergone many changes. A review of the history of
transportation and travel shows that their evolution took seven eras. These are the
pre-industrial travel system era, the early-industrial travel system era, the mature-
railway system era, the express-travel system era, the automobile based travel system
era, the modern-tourism travel system era, and the post-mobility adjustment era.
Pre-Industrial Travel System Era
- This was the period before the widespread industrialization in Europe and North
America. It was before the development of railways in the two continents. There were
few common carriers. There were almost no regularly scheduled transportation
services. There was little travel. Travelers made their own arrangements with several
suppliers. It was the era of the stagecoach and the wayside inn. Only few people had
the money and the reason to travel.
Early-Industrial Travel System Era
- During the era, road improvements such as railways, canals, and steamship services
were brought about due to rapid industrialization and advances in transportation
technology. Common carriers came into existence and began to offer regularly
scheduled transportation services. Travel increased because more people who had
money traveled.
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Mature-Railway System Era
- This era was characterized by railways which expanded their operations by running
hotels and providing other travel-related services. The railways began to market
services more aggressively. Travel agencies and tour companies were formed.
- Thomas Cook, an innovator in this field during this era, began his company's activities
in the United Kingdom in 1840. More people traveled in this era than in the previous
one.
Express-Travel System Era
- During this era, express service increased. Trains and other forms of transportation did
not stop at every station or terminal but only at the major ones. This increased the
speed of travel and encouraged more travel than before.
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Automobile-Based Travel System Era
- This influence of the owned automobile was enhanced in North America and Europe
from the 1920s onward.
- Car ownership boomed in North America.
- Motorway interstate and other trunk highways were developed in the latter half of this
era which was from 1920 to 1974.
- The automobile was predominant over other travel modes from 1920 to 1943.
Modern-Tourism Travel System Era
- The period from 1945 to 1974 is known as the modern-tourism travel system era.
- Car ownership continued to grow at a fast rate, mainly at the expense of long-distance
rail travel.
- Mass air travel was another post-World War II occurrence. The introduction of wide-
bodied jets in 1970 greatly increased our travel. The “mass tourism" philosophy and
marketing approaches were prevalent during the 1950s and 1960s.
Post-mobility Adjustment Era
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- This era began in 1973 to 1974 as a result of the oil embargo generated by the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the resulting increase in
fuel price events of the energy changed the travel patterns throughout the world. The
present era is one in which travelers continue to look to alternative, group-oriented
modes of transportation.
➢ HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM
- The desire to travel is stimulated with the improvement in transportation. Before

World War l, it took seven days for travelers to go from coast to coast by steam
locomotive. By 1950, travelers could complete the journey in two and a half days by
train. In 1938, an airplane with the speed of 400 miles an hour made possible nonstop
coast-to-coast flights of less than eight hours. In 1950, travel time from coast to coast
was lessened to four hours. At present, the Concorde can make a flight in two and a
half hours. Table shows the historical development of the transport system.
Historical Development of the Transport System
YEAR MODE OF TRANSPORT SPEED (miles per hour)

6000 BC Caramel caravan 8
1600 BC Chariot 20
AD 1784 First English mail coach 10
1825 First steam locomotive 13
1890 Improved steam locomotive 100
Land speed record
1931 (Bluebird: Sir Malcolm
Campbell)
Land speed record (Napier-
1938 350
Railton car: John Cobb)
1938 Piston aircraft 400
United States Liner from
1952 41
New York to Le Harve
1958 Jet Fighter aircraft 1,300
Boeing 707 and DC-8
1958 600
aircraft
Spaceship (Vostok 1
1961 17,560
orbiting)
1967 Rocket plane 4,534
1970 Fighter bomber (Mirage IV) 1,450
Commercial aircraft:
1970 1,320
Concorde
1970 Boeing 747 626
Source: Reason, James. Man in Motion: The Psychology of Travel. London: George Weindenfeld and Nicolson Limited, 1996.
- The development in transportation has made the world a smaller place. It is now
possible to take one to two weeks of vacation in distant places like Europe, the United
States, the Caribbean, Mexico, and South America. Now, travelers can go to any place
in the world due to fast and efficient means of transportation.
➢ SELECTION OF TRANSPORTATION MODE

- There are many reasons why people select one transportation mode over another for
their business and pleasure trips. The most common reasons are cost, traveling time,
safety, convenience, comfort, availability, and frequency of trips, ground services,
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terminal facilities and locations, status and prestige, and departure and arrival times.
People belonging to different travel segments have different value perceptions.
- For example, the time spent in traveling as well as departure and arrival times are very
important to the business traveler while the cost of the trip is the traveler's primary
consideration.
- Jagdish Sheth developed a theory identifying transportation variables and the value of
travelers. He found out that travelers choose a travel mode based on how they
psychologically weigh the five factors, namely: functional, aesthetic/ emotional, social,
organizational, situational, and curiosity. The functional utility of a mode is its
expected performance for a specific purpose.
- Examples are
1. departure and arrival times
2. safety record
3. the directness of the trip
4. the number of stops or transfers
- Aesthetic/emotional is related to such aspects as fear, social concerns, style, luxury,
comfort, and other personal feelings that the form of transportation might evoke.
- Social/organizational shows that the frequent users of certain kinds of transportation
are stereotyped according to sex, racial origin, income price/cost, and education. For
example, those who take bus trips are usually perceived to be female, either young or old,
while those who take bus tours and cruises are generally retired people.
- Situational refers to how conveniently located the particular mode of transportation and
its terminal for the traveler.
- Curiosity utility refers to the traveler's perceived need to do something new and different.
Flying transatlantic on Concorde may have a high curiosity value for many business
travelers.
Travel by Train
- Trains stimulated
travel within the
United States, Canada,
and Europe in the 19th
and early 20th
centuries. Britain had
its first organized train
tour in 1841 when
Thomas Cook
organized an
excursion between
Leicester and
Loughborough. In
1851, three million Englishmen boarded the train to see the Croat Exhibition in
London. The train was instrumental in stimulating the development of many seaside
resorts in Britain.
- The first transcontinental route in the United States was completed in 1869. With the
advent of the steam locomotive in 1825 until after World War II, travel by train became
the primary means of movement within the United States. During the latter part of the
1800s end the first port of the 1909s, the train connected major population centers
and popular spas and resorts such as the Niagara Falls, Long Beach, Saratoga, New
Jersey, and Las Vegas. This dependence on the train is shown in the development of Las
Vegas where large hotels were located downtown, a short distance from the railroad
station. This gave tourists who arrived by train quick and easy access to hotels and
casinos.
- In 1863, long-distance rail travel boosted when George M. Pullman built the Pullman
coach, a luxury first-class sleeping and dining facility.
- In 1868, the diner car was introduced on the Chicago and Alton line. Ten years later, an
elaborate meal could be obtained in all trains.
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- The popularity of the train lasted only for a brief period after World War II when the
automobile began to gain more popularity as a passenger transportation mode.
- Both Amtrak and VIA Rail have the national responsibility of providing intercity
passenger rail transportation.
- Several attempts have been made to determine why travelers select the train as a
transportation mode.
- Four evident factors are: cost/price, comfortable/safety, and the ability to see the area
where the train is passing. VIA Rail's onboard surveys of business travelers have
identified user cost, convenience, travel time, and comfort as of primary importance.
- A survey of Amtrak passengers showed that travelers favored the train for the following
reasons:
1. Safety;
2. Ability to look out of the train and see the interesting things en route;
3. Ability to up get up and walk around;
4. Arriving at the destination rested and relaxed; and
5. Personal comfort.
- The negative factors of rail travelers are slowness in reaching the destination, inflexible
departure times, and lack of quality in food services. Promotions by Amtrak and VIA Rail
have emphasized the rest and relaxation benefits of taking the train. They have also
pointed out that the downtown-to-downtown routing of trains saves the time of the
passengers.
- Train travel has continued in Europe and Asia more than in the United States,
particularly for long-distance travel. The Euro City network, formerly the Trans Europe
Express (TEE) network, as well as other national lines provided excellent rail services
between major cities in 10 countries. The system is being improved. In 1987, the TEE
had been replaced by a new system which includes high-speed trains, with both first-
and second-class accommodations.
- Travel within Europe would be further improved with the development and
construction of the Eurotunnel between England and the continent. The tunnel would
create the single biggest unified rail network in the world and reduce travel time
between England and other European countries by two hours.
- Europeans believed that the train was a more efficient form of transportation from city
center to city center on trips up to 300 miles.
- The first sensational rail accomplishment after World War II was Japan's shinkansen
or bullet trains which travel at speeds greater than 140 miles per hour. The bullet
trains run north and south and link major metropolitan areas. These began operations
in 1964 in time for the Olympics in Japan. They make the run of 560 mites in three hours
and 10 minutes from the former time of 18 hours. The Japanese rail system it: heavily
subsidized by the government.
- France has its own supertrain, the Tres Grande Vitesse which travels at a speed of 175
miles per hour between Paris and Lyons and Marseilles.
- In Russia, the Trans-Siberian Railroad, the longest in the world (5,787 miles) links
outlying Siberian industrial regions and mining centers with European Russia.
Railroads are important to the Russian economy.
- The Germans have a test track designed to carry passengers at a speed of 130 to 240
mites.
Tres Grande Vitesse

- The popularity of the train system
in Europe has increased not only
because of its quality and efficiency,
but because of the use of the Eurail
pass. In 1939, a number of
European countries introduced the
Eurail pass which allowed a
traveler to use it for two months of
unlimited second-class travel on
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any of the rail systems of the European countries. Later, it included unlimited first-
class service over different periods varying from 15 days, 21 days, one month, and
three months with access to many ferries and steamer routes. They also introduce the
student Eurail pass for second-class travel.
- It is less expensive than the Eurail pass and is good only in 16 countries.
Travel by Ship
- Travel by ship preceded travel by
train but it was not until the middle
of the 19th century that travel by
ocean liners began to become
prominent. Ocean liners were used
to provide an important link to
passengers among continents. At
present, water transport has two
major roles in travel and tourism-
ferrying and cruising.
- The steamship era began in 1840
when Sir Samuel Cunard pioneered
the first transatlantic-scheduled liner tips. However, the introduction of the jet aircraft
led to the rapid decline in the ships as scheduled passenger transportation mode.
- In the late 1990s, the era of travel by ships expired. Cruise chips took the place of
regularly scheduled passenger ships. Many passenger ships were converted into
cruise ships.
- Those that were too old or too large were junked or scrapped. Others that had
historical value were converted into tourist attractions. For example, the Queen Mary
which is permanently docked in Long Beach, California became a tourist attraction and
a hotel.
- Cruises are more of a vacation experience than a transportation mode. The romance of
cruising had been strongly promoted and was aided very much by the popular
television program, Love Boat. Cruises are divided into three types depending on the
duration of the trips. Short cruises are one week or less, intermediate long cruises last
one to four weeks, and long cruises go around the world and take one to three months.
Cruise Ship
- Short-duration cruises are more popular because they require less vacation time end
are less expensive. Other reasons are travelers can satisfy their desire to experience
new environments and see new cultures and still bring with them the comfort, safety,
and convenience of home. In addition, there is no changing of hotels, airports, and food
and beds which may cause sleeplessness and other problems.
- Examples of short cruises are the three-night cruises from Los Angeles to Mexico and
cruises on the St. Lawrence River on vessels such as the Canadian Empress.
- Cruise ships may be divided into large vessels which can accommodate 180 or more
passengers and small: vessels which carry less than 100 passengers. They are called
"mini-cruises" or "ultra-yachts." At present, the trend is toward large vessels.
- Recently, the typical ship was built
to carry 850 to 1,250 passengers
but now. The average capacity of a
new ship is 2,000 passengers. The
large cruise ships offer a wide array
of services and amenities to guests,
most of which are packed into the
cruise.
- Accommodations on board vary
from rooms for three to four
persons to lavish staterooms. The
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rooms are air-conditioned and have private baths.
- A cruise ship is both a floating hotel and resort because the guests are housed, fed, and
entertained. Food is offered throughout the day from seven-course meals to themed-
event dinners.
- Cruise ships also provide almost continuous entertainment which include
1. charm classes,
2. language lessons,
3. dance classes,
4. bridge,
5. table tennis,
6. aerobics,
7. jogging, and
8. shuffleboard.
- Many ships now have fully-equipped gyms, health spas, and an athletic counselor.
- Cruise directors plan activities and entertainment for the passengers which may be
full-scale musical productions, live entertainment with well-known performers, discos,
bingo, gambling, courses in self-improvement, and the like.
- For many passengers, the numerous opportunities to socialize on a cruise vacation is
one of its major attractions. Passengers who prefer a less active type of vacation can
relax by the pool or on deck and enjoy the warm climate and beautiful sunsets.
- Cruise enthusiasts prefer this type of vacation because it combines fresh air, plenty of
good food, a variety of activities, and visits to exotic places.
- Cruises are promoted and sold on the basis of health, recreation, and pleasure.
- Theme cruises are popular such as culinary cruises, historic voyages to less-known
places, stock market seminars, movie festivals, music festivals, as well as cruises devoted
to art, golf, astrology, tennis, photography, and beauty counseling.
Travel by Automobile
- The real inventor of the automobile was Carl Benz of Mannheim, Germany.
- In 1885 to 1886, he
combined the bicycle and
the international
combustion engine and
designed the complete
vehicle engine consisting
of the engine, chassis, and
transmission.
- Then came Henry Ford
who, in 1908, produced his
Model T car built with an
assembly technique for
mass production. The
price of the Model T car
decreased from $825 in 1908 to $260 in 1925. The automobile industry grew rapidly.
- However, it was only after World War II that the popularity of the automobile
increased significantly.
- The introduction of the automobile brought about the decline of the train's popularity
in most developed countries. The advent of the automobile spread the benefits of
tourism more widely and enabled people to travel individually or in private smaller
groups. The automobile brought about a more random pattern of travel movements,
opened up new destinations, and hastened the development of elaborate networks of
automobile-oriented facilities and services along highways and roads.
- Example of new facility types that developed in the United States and Canada after
World War II were the tourist court and the motor hotel or motel
- Traveling by automobile is now the chief travel mode in North America. Many travel
surveys have shown that automobile trips comprise 90% or more of the pleasure/
personal and business trips of Canadians and Americans.
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- Surveys show that the automobile is the most popular mode of vacation travel because it
provides travelers greater freedom in the choice of route, destination, and timing of the
journey. Family auto travel is also the most inexpensive and convenient form of travel
in the United States.
- The automobile stimulated tourism by creating attractions along tourist routes made
accessible by the automobile. Examples are homes of historical figures, scenic areas, and
historic shrines and monuments.
Travel by Bus/Motor Coach

- Bus travel is the most flexible and
economical form of
transportation. In the United
States, buses were first used to
carry passengers intercity in the
early 1900s. There was little
intercity travel before the 1920s.
In 1928, the Greyhound
Company, the largest privately-
owned bus company in the world,
was established. By this time,
buses traveled from New York to
Los Angeles in about five days.
With road improvements before World War II, cross-country trip time was reduced to
90 hours.
- The terms "bus”, “coach," and "motor coach" are used interchangeably. In North
America and elsewhere, the bus performs two major roles.
1. The first is to provide a regular schedule of intercity passenger transportation
services.
2. The second is to provide charter and tour services.
- Intercity service is indirectly competitive with private auto, rail, and air service.
Discount airfares have proven to be a major competition for intercity bus service. Thus,
intercity bus service has declined, while charter and tour services have grown.
- Bus ridership patterns also changed to short-haul distances of 250 miles or less.
- Continental Trailways and Greyhound Lines Inc. are the two major intercity companies,
with Greyhound accounting for 60% of the market.
- The main reasons for selecting bus travel over other modes of travel are convenience
and economy.
- Bus riders tend to be older and have less income. Bus service is available in practically
every town of 1,000 people or more, and a passenger station or ticket agent for bus
service is at hand in each of these communities. Most people do not choose bus travel
for long trips. Surveys have shown that women bus riders outnumber men.
- Charter and tour service is the fastest growing segment of the bus or motor coach
industry.
- Several tour packages are developed by tour brokers who charter buses and arrange
all the other components of the tour, including the itinerary, lodging, sightseeing,
admission, tour guides, meals, and the like. These packages are usually sold through
travel agents.
- Motor coach tours usually last five to six days and are limited to a particular
geographical area. The two principal markets for charter and tour services are school-
age children and senior citizens. Other markets include international visitors.
- Gambling tours by motor coach to the casino centers of Las Vegas, Reno, and Atlantic
City are very popular.
- The present coaches are wider, have •more leg room, more baggage space, lavatories,
climate and noise controls, better lighting, more sophisticated public address system, and
panoramic view windows.
Travel by Air
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- The airplane had a revolutionary impact on tourism from World War II onward. The
history of air transportation can be divided into three parts—Pre-World War II, World
War II, and Post-World War II.
- On December 17,
1903, the Wright
Brothers took a
flight on a beach in
North Carolina
which lasted 12
seconds with a
distance of 120 feet.
In 1927, the air
industry developed
regularly scheduled
passenger trips
between Boston
and New York.
- Other governments helped this growth in the 1920s by subsidizing air companies.
- In the United States, almost all early airlines started by carrying mail for the post office.
- One of the first was Varney which began in April 1926 and later became United
Airlines.
- Western Airlines began its passenger service on April 17, 1926 when it carried a
woman passenger along with the mail.
- Pan American Airways had the first international flight in 1927 when it carried mail
from Key West, Florida to Havana, Cuba.
- World War II influenced the development of the airline industry. It helped further
improve airplanes by accelerating technological research to improve their size and
speed and by using the knowledge gained by thousands of servicemen who became
familiar with planes and air travel.
- The tremendous time-saving aspects of air travel and its cost effectiveness, when
compared to other modes of transportation such as the train, ship, and automobile,
aided the growth of the airline industry during the post-World War II years.
- In the late 1950s and early 1960s, commercial jet aircraft were introduced, increasing
the speed of travel and creating smoother flights and greater seating capacity for
passengers.
- The commercial airline industry improved further in the 1970s with the Introduction
of wide-bodied aircrafts such as the Doughlas DC-10, Boeing 747, the Lockheed Tristar
1011, and the European Aerobus.
- These planes further increased passenger comfort as well as seating and freight
capacity. As the airline industry grew, the travel industry depended on it more. Cruise
lines, rental car companies, airport hotels, and ground transportation operators
depended on the airline industry to generate the bulk of the business.
- Executive business travel and international tourism are dependent on it. The impetus
of air travel to people traveling on business is its time-saving advantage; for the
pleasure traveler, it is the affordable price that has the greatest impact.
- The 1980s had witnessed still further improvements in aircraft technology with the
introduction of the DC-9-80 and Boeing 757 and 767 designed for fuel-efficient
operation offering approximately 30% lower fuel consumption for passenger than the
older models.
Airline Regulation
- International tourism requires a system of international air transportation. This
system requires negotiations among nations and carriers in the form of bilateral
agreements. Overflight privileges must be obtained from all nations over which an
airline will cross during international flights. Airlines are or may be assessed overnight
charges for the privilege of flying over other nations including countries which do not
have formal diplomatic relations with each other like Cuba and the United States.
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Instructor
Lending rights, fuel purchase agreements, maintenance provisions, and other
considerations require bilateral negotiation.
- Governments throughout the world have agreed that a complete free market for
international air travel is not possible. The original idea for a worldwide system of
airline regulation took place in the Chicago Convention of 1944 and the Bermuda
Agreement of 1946.
- The Chicago Convention marked the beginning of continuous dialogue about various
freedoms of the air but was not successful in establishing a multilateral system of
commercial aviation rights.
- The Bermuda Agreement established the first worldwide model for future bilateral
agreements’ regarding the exercise of the eight freedoms of the air:
1. First Freedom: The right of an airline to overfly one country to get to another;
2. Second Freedom; The right of an airline to :and in another country for a
technical stopover (fuel, maintenance, etc.) but does not pick up or drop off
traffic;
3. Third Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X. to drop off
traffic from country X to country Y;
4. Fourth Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to carry traffic
back to country X from country Y;
5. Fifth Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to collect traffic
in country Y and fly on to country Z, so long as the flight either originates or
terminates in country X;
6. Sixth Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to carry traffic
to a gateway—a point in country then abroad. The traffic has neither its origin
nor ultimate destination in country X;
7. Seventh Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to operate
entirely outside of country X in carrying traffic between two other countries;
and
8. Eight Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to carry traffic
between any two points in the same foreign country; also known as cabotage.
In the 2020 Readers' Choice Awards, you voted for your favorite cruise lines to take you
anywhere in the world – from the coast of the Caribbean to the rivers of Europe.
MEGA SHIPS (More than 4,000 passengers)

3. MSC Cruises 86.05
2. Norwegian Cruise Line 87.80
1. Royal Caribbean International 90.06
LARGE SHIPS (2,500 to 4,000 passengers)

9. P&O Cruises 82.17
8. Carnival Cruise Line 84.33
7. Royal Caribbean International 84.58
5. Holland America Line 87.46
4. Princess Cruises 88.01
3. Celebrity Cruises 88.76
2. Cunard 89.63
1. Disney Cruise Line 94.25
MEDIUM SHIPS (500 to 2,500 passengers)
14. Marella Cruises 84.21
13. Bahamas Paradise Cruise Line 84.39
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11. P&O Cruises 85.38
10. Celebrity Cruises 86.10
9. Cunard 86.85
8. Holland America Line 87.38
7. Azamara Club Cruises 87.90
6. Silversea Cruises 87.92
5. Oceania Cruises 87.92
4. Regent Seven Seas Cruises 92.10
3. Seabourn Cruise Line 93.29
2. Viking Ocean Cruises 95.14
1. Crystal Cruises 96.06 (pictured above)
SMALL SHIPS (Fewer than 500 passengers)
15. Ponant 90.09
14. SeaDream Yacht Club 90.35
13. Silversea Cruises 90.71
12. American Cruise Lines 91.14
11. Quark Expeditions 91.37
10. Australis 93.06
9. Metropolitan Touring 93.09
8. Quasar Expeditions 94.38
7. Ecoventura 94.69
6. Seabourn Cruise Line 95.38
5. Regent Seven Seas Cruises 95.42
4. Paul Gauguin Cruises 95.52
3. Lindblad Expeditions 95.75
2. Windstar Cruises 96.22
1. Crystal Cruises Yacht 96.44
RIVER SHIPS
10. Scenic, 88.42
9. AmaWaterway, 93.97
8. American Queen Steamboat Company 95.60
7. Avalon Waterways 95.72
6. Delfin Amazon Cruises 96.27
5. Aqua Expeditions 96.65
4. Tauck 96.94
3. Uniworld Boutique River Cruise Collection 97.13
2. Crystal River Cruises 97.24
1. Viking River Cruises 97.37
THE 20 BEST AIRLINES FOR 2020
1. Air New Zealand
2. Singapore Airlines
3. All Nippon Airways
4. Qantas
5. Cathay Pacific
6. Emirates
7. Virgin Atlantic
8. EVA Air
9. Qatar Airways
10. Virgin Australia
11. Lufthansa
12. Finnair
13. Japan Airlines
14. KLM
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Instructor
15. Korean Airlines
16. Hawaiian Airlines
17. British Airways
18. Alaska Airlines
19. Delta Air Lines
20. Etihad Airways
➢ Best Airlines for Long Haul
1. Delta Air Lines (Americas)
2. Lufthansa (Europe)
3. Emirates (Middle East/Africa)
4. Cathay Pacific Airways (Asia)
➢ Best Low-Cost Airlines
1. JetBlue (Americas)
2. Wizz (Europe)
3. AirAsia/AirAsia X (Asia/Pacific)
4. Air Arabia (Middle-East/Africa)
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MODULE 3 - ACCOMMODATIONS & FOOD AND BEVERAGES SECTOR
1. Cite the history of the accommodation or lodging industry;
2. Describe the different types of accommodations;
3. Explain the organization of the lodging industry;
4. Discuss the management methods in the lodging industry;
5. Differentiate chair accommodation operations from referral groups;
6. Explain the hotel terminology;
7. Discuss hotel profitability and profitability ratios;
8. Calculate the hotel's breakeven point;
9. Explain the accommodation reservation and promotion; and
10. Discuss the linkages between hotels and airlines.
11. Trace the history of the food and beverage industry;
12. Describe the different types of restaurants;
13. Explain the importance of franchising to the restaurant industry;
14. Discuss restaurant profitability and calculate food cost percentage, gross
15. Profit, and average guest check;
16. Calculate the restaurant's breakeven point;
17. Explain the role of the menu in a restaurant's success;
18. Differentiate airline catering from restaurant catering; and
19. Discuss restaurant promotion.
CONTENT
✓ History of the Accommodations or Lodging Industry
- The lodging industry developed because of the need to provide accommodations for
travelers. Early roadside inns were mentioned in several instances in both the Old and New
Testaments. The early reference to the inn is found in the Bible, when Joseph, Christ's foster
father, was told, "There is no mom at the inn." Excavations in pompeii reveal that the Romans
had developed the concept of inns into a trade.
- The history of the hotel in its present form goes back to the Middle Ages. In the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, German and English literature made frequent reference to the inn. The
development of the inn in the late medieval period was due to the improvements in security
in many European societies. It had become safe to travel.
- During the height of the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s and early 1500s, there was a
greater demand for accommodation as people migrated to the cities to work. The emerging
middle class could afford accommodations when traveling away from home. The Industrial
Revolution and the development of spas helped the growth of the hotel industry. By 1750,
Brighton, Blackpool, Southern, and other English seaside resorts were attracting bathers.
America's first hotels were seaport inns. An example of an early American inn is Manhattan's
Fraunces Tavern. Also, pre-revolutionary boarding houses are preserved in Guildfored,
Connecticut, Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, and elsewhere.
- By the middle of the seventeenth century, the public stagecoach had appeared. In the next
200 years, the lodging industry was influenced by the development of road transport. Coach
service was established by innkeepers to attract business. The inn was used not only as a
boarding house but also as a booking office, waiting place, eating establishment, and as center
of the town's social activities.
- With the rapid development of the railways in the 1820s and 1830s, a different kind of hotel
developed. In Europe, large hotels were built next to or across the downtown railroad station.
In the United States, hotels were constructed along the railroad network.
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- The introduction and development of the automobile industry led to the establishment of the
roadside hotel. With the construction of highways and expressways, the lodging industry
responded to the needs of the motorist. Thus, the motor hotel or motel emerged.
- After World War II, advances in air transportation led to the increased number of travelers
who demanded more and more hotel space. The widespread use of the car led hoteliers to
build more roadside motels. Business travelers demanded to build more roadside motels.
Business travelers demanded specialized accommodations, including meeting and
convention facilities. Recent major hotel growth was in the airports, downtown, and resort
areas.
- Ellsworth Statler was the first hotel chain Pioneer in the United States. Hotels bearing his
name had been built in Buffalo, Cleveland. St. Louis. Detroit, Boston, and New York.
- In the history of deluxe hotels, the most famous name is that of Hilton Corporation. Conrad
Hilton built an empire that includes the Waldorf Astoria in New York and the largest hotel in
the United States, the Conrad Hilton Hotel in Chicago with 3,000 rooms.
- Among the first-class hotels the fastest growing group was the Sheraton chain founded by
Ernest Henderson. The chain is now owned by International Telephone and Telegraph
Company (ITTI).
- In 1952, Kemmons Wilson founded the Holiday Inn chain and its concept of clean, comfortable,
and reasonably priced accommodations for the ordinary traveler.
- The popularity of the sun vacation in the 1960s brought about the development of the resort
hotel. It catered to the vacation traveler who stayed for a number of days. It differed from the
traditional hotel because it provided a wide range of special services and it targeted a special
interest group such as sun enthusiasts, golfers, tennis players, scuba divers, and
honeymooners.
- The change in the function of a hotel brought about a change in its architecture. Owners
renovated older downtown properties and adapted them to the needs of the modern-day
traveler. Hotels changed in appearance as extra features were added such as glass-covered
elevators, atrium lobbies, a variety of restaurants and bars, functional meeting rooms and a
full array of recreational opportunities.
- The atrium concept in hotels introduced by architect John Portman, boosted the popularity of
Hyatt. Another recent development is the overseas expansion of the American chains.
- Hotels which met international standards became an export item of the United States.
- Hilton International opened its first hotel in San Juan, Puerto Rico in 1949. In addition, it
opened a hotel in Berlin in 1958, followed by several properties in other countries in Europe.
- Intercontinental Hotels opened many hotels in Latin America before 1960. At present, it has
109 properties in 49 nations. Sheraton opened its first hotel in Canada in 1949. Holiday Inn
opened its first property in Montreal in 1960. At present, it has 221 international hotels in 52
countries outside the United States.
✓ Types of Accommodation
- Accommodation can be classified into various types; the most popular of which are the
following:
1. Hotels
- Hotels can be a 10-room boarding house or a building that has a thousand or more
rooms, convention and meeting facilities, recreation facilities such as swimming
pools and tennis courts, 24-hour room service, with several restaurants and bars
and various types of entertainment.
- Hotels have been designed and built to meet almost any kind of budget or comfort
level that the traveling public might want.
2. Motels or Motor Hotels
- Normally, motels only offer rooms only and free parking to guests.
- These are often found along busy highways and cater primarily to transient and
cost-conscious travelers.
3. Resort Hotels
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- Resort hotels are intended for vacation travelers. These hotels range from budget
to luxury and can accommodate these travelers and even convention delegates.
These are usually located near beaches and offer more amenities, shops, and
recreation opportunities.
4. Pensions
- Pensions are found principally in Europe. These are usually family-owned
accommodation facilities. In German speaking parts of Europe, a pension is also
called Gasthaus.
- Pensions and Gasthaus usually offer continental breakfast but do not have facilities
for other meals. Pensions are known for their informal family atmosphere.
5. Parodors
- Paradors are unique to Spain. These are generally old castles, convents, or
monasteries that have been converted into hotels by the government and are
operated by the government.
6. Condominium Hotels
- Condominium hotels are a recent innovation.
- These are often hotels with apartments (condominiums) instead of basic rooms.
- The condominium units are sold by the hotel developers to individuals who are
given a title to the physical real estate. The individual owners then contract the
developer or a management company to operate the hotel and rent the space to
visiting tourists. The individual owners have the right to stay in their own units
during specific periods of the year with a reduced room rate.
- The developers or management company receives a fee for managing and renting
out the; units. The resulting profit is shared among the individual unit owners.
Condominium hotels generally appeal to families because of the apartments.
7. Campgrounds
- Camping is a popular form of overnight accommodation in both Europe and North
America. In North America, there are at present more than 20,000 campgrounds
some of which are owned by hotels.
- Campgrounds usually appeal to families who travel in recreational vehicles RVs.
Campgrounds and RVs stopping spots are often found in government parks and
forests.
8. Bed and Breakfast
- Bed and breakfast is a form of lodging which originated in Europe. This form of
accommodation provides a bed for the night and breakfast the next day. It was only
in the 1970s that the idea was brought to the United States.
- Retired and semiretired people with large houses have contributed much to the
growth of these establishments.
9. Tourist Inns
- Tourist inns are lodging establishments that cater to transients. These do not
normally meet the minimum requirements of an economy hotel.
10. Apartment-Hotels (Apartels)
- Apartment-hotels are buildings which contain several independent and furnished
or semi-furnished apartments. These are leased to tourists and travelers on a long-
term basis and offer basic services to its tenant, similar to hotels.
11. Health Spas
- Health spas are hotels and resorts which cater to people who go to spas or mineral
springs for medical treatment or weight reduction. The idea of visiting health spas
originated in Europe. The Romans and the Greeks visited the spas as early as the
first century. The spas became the center of the social life of the English, the French,
and the Germans during the seventeenth and later centuries. At present, several
health spas in Europe offer modern techniques such as medically supervised
rejuvenation programs which include supervised diets and rigorous exercises to
shed fat and reduce weight.
- The spas in many European nations are controlled by the state. In Czechoslovakia,
there are more than 900 curative mineral springs and 50 spa towns and resorts
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that are visited by thousands of people from 50 countries. They are attracted by
the curative effects of the mineral waters on the spas. Private European hotel
chains have entered the health spa business in the continent.
12. Private Homes
- The private home is the earliest form of overnight lodging for travelers. It provides
lodging to tourists who cannot be accommodated in hotels and motels during peak
vacation periods.
13. Time-sharing
- Time-sharing is a more recent unique type of accommodation. It started in Europe
in the 1960s when people found it difficult to make reservations every year in
popular hotels during summer. Time-sharing is the selling of vacation lodging,
usually condominiums, for a specific week or weeks over a given number of years.
Originally, condominiums in resorts were bought and marketed as either a second
home or primary home depending on the needs of the buyer. The resort would rent
the units during the time when the owner was not in residence, thus providing an
income to help with the payments. Later, a new marketing approach that would
sell more lodging facilities at a higher profit to the developer was adopted. By
selling weeks instead of permanent residence, the total asking price could be
higher.
- For example, a unit which sells for $100,000 as residential structure would sell for
$15,000 per week, thus bringing a total sales price or profit of over $500,000.
Time-sharing also increases the number of potential buyers since the average
person who is restricted by both time and money would then be able to afford a
week at a resort and still receive the benefits of having made an investment in
property.
- Time-sharing began in the United States in the early 1970s when oil prices
increased. Florida developers, unable to sell their whole unit condominiums,
decided to adapt them to time-sharing. However, they knew they would have
difficulty selling the concept of right-to-use time-sharing to North Americans.
Therefore, the early North American time-share developers split each whole
condominium unit into 52 individual weekly portions and sold the portions or
shares. In this way, the buyers no longer had to pay $150,000 for the entire unit
but only $3,000 for one week or $6,000 for two weeks. There are two basic types
of time-sharing programs that have been developed.
- First, the fee-simple program provides the buyer with both an occupancy and
ownership right to a specific resort unit for a fixed period annually. This unit can
be sold or leased and used for tax purposes like any other real estate purchase.
Second, the right-to-use program guarantees an annual occupancy right for a
specific period but does not convey ownership interest in the proper. Both types
of time-share ownership interest in the property and both payment of a pro-rate
share of the annual maintenance costs of the entire property.
- A later development which has increased the attractiveness of time- shares is a
system of exchange. This allows a person who buys a time-share in a particular
resort to trade for another time-share in another resort. Several companies
provide computerized trading services for owners.
14. Hostels
- Hostels provide basic amenities such as a bunk bed and a commonly shared toilet
and bathroom. The traveler provides his or her own bedding. Hostels appeal
primary to young travelers. The idea of a hostel was conceived in 1909 by an
elementary school teacher in Germany who wanted to provide low-cost overnight
lodging to travelers throughout Europe. In 1930, there were more than 2,000
youth hostels that were established in Germany. In 1934, the first hostel was
established in the United States.
- At present, hostels are run by individuals or nonprofit organizations. A few are run
by the national organization.
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✓ Classification of Hotels
- There are different ways of classifying hotels, such as location, type of guest, and price.
- According to location, hotels may be center-city, suburban, airport, or highway.
- Based on guest type, hotels are classified as commercial, conventions, or resort.
- According to price, hotels are categorized as economy, standard, first class, or deluxe.
✓ Rating Systems
- A number of independent rating guides have been published by individuals,

automobile associations, and travel organizations using various combinations of star,
dots, and alphabetical indicators. Most rating systems are based on the quality of the
physical structure, furnishings, maintenance, housekeeping, and overall service.
- Experienced individuals inspect the hotels and restaurants every year. Many are
regional field representatives who submit detailed reports to the appropriate office.
- The raters are not known by the establishment being rated.
- The following are used to rate hotels, motels, inns, resorts, and guests ranches:
1. I-star = Good, better than average;
2. 2-star = Very good;
3. 3-star = Excellent;
4. 4-star = Outstanding; and
5. 5-star = One of the best in the country.
✓ Organization of the Lodging Industry
- A hotel organization can be large and complex. A typical hotel has seven major
divisions, namely: personnel, engineering and maintenance, accounting, security,
food and beverage, marketing and sales, and room division. Each division is run by its
own division head.
1. The personnel division recruits new employees and administers policies and
employee benefits for the company.
2. The engineering and maintenance division makes the necessary repairs and
implements the hotel's energy management program.
3. The accounting division handles the financial activities of the operation which
include payment of bills, sending out statements, payroll, and compiling monthly
income statements.
4. The security division provides protection for both employees and guests.
5. The food and beverage division is responsible for the food and beverages
6. The marketing and sales division is responsible for selling the rooms and food
service. It is involved in advertising, development of promotional materials, and
making direct contacts with prospective clients.
7. The room division is responsible for the front desk, telephone, reservations, and
housekeeping department.
- Figure 3 shows the lines of authority and communication.
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Figure 3. Typical Hotel Organization Chart
Source: International Hotel Development and Management
✓ Management Methods
- Traditionally, hotels are operated by the people who own the property. In some cases, the
operator may lease the hotel from the owner and then manage it. In other cases, special
arrangements are made such as franchising and management contracts.
Franchising
- Hotels that are franchised are usually owned and operated by the same person or company.
The hotel operator or franchisee signs a contract with the franchisor to maintain certain
operating standard and to use the franchise name on the hotel or motel.
- The franchisee receives benefits such as extra business as a result of the franchisor's national
or international advertisements, the use of the franchisor's operating and accounting system,
and a line into the franchise chain's reservation system. In return for these benefits, the
franchisee will pay a royalty and an advertising fee plus a percentage of annual room sales or
a specified number of dollars for each room sold.
Management Contracts
- Hotel management contracts are a recent phenomenon. Although the first management
contract was signed in 1946 by the International Hotels, it was only in the 1970s that
management contracts became widespread.
- Under a management contract, the hotel management company does not have a financial
interest in the hotel's land and building. The landlord owns the property but does not have
any interest in managing it. In return for operating the property for the landlord, the
management company receives a basic annual management fee, plus an incentive, which is
based on the hotel's gross profit and/or net profit but may also be based partly on total sales.
- Under a management contract, the investment rent is transferred from the operator to the
property owner. The management contract also allows hotel-operating companies to widen
their investment base by increasing the number of rooms managed, thereby increasing their
profits. Developers who do not have experience in hotel management usually build large
hotels and then turn them over to hotel management companies to run them. It was the
management contract that enabled hotel companies such as Hilton International to expand
rapidly around the world. The expansion was due to its ability to get capable management
teams.
Chain Accommodation Operations
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- Most hotels and motels are part of a chain operation. The individual units in the chain may all
be owned by one large company, be partly owned and partly franchised, or may all be
franchised. In any case, the owning company or franchisor establishes the standards and
operating policies to which each individual unit must conform. Because of their size, chain
operations often have the potential to implement employee selection and training programs,
to buy major equipment and furniture in bulk, and to conduct market research on such
matters as guest room layouts and productivity improvements. All these benefits are passed
on to the owners or managers of the chain units who also benefit from chain marketing and
a chain reservation system.
Referral Groups
- Referral groups have become popular because the individual owner or operator can remain
independent while achieving many of the benefits of a chain group. This is through voluntary
membership in the referral organization. Examples of these benefits are advertising and
reservation referrals. One of the largest referral groups in North America is Best Western
which has approximately 3,000 properties with more than 200,000 rooms.
Hotel Terminology
- Room rates for hotels are quoted in terms of what meals are included in the price.
- European Plan (EP) means that there are no meals included. This is the most commonly used
room rate quoted by North American hotels.
- American Plan (AP) means that breakfast, lunch, and dinner are included in the quoted price.
- In Europe, AP is known as full pension. Meals are usually a fixed menu with little or no choice.
- Modified American Plan (MAP) includes breakfast and dinner but not lunch or breakfast and
lunch but not dinner. In Europe, this is known as demi pension. A continental breakfast is
offered by most European hotels and is included in the room rate. In Europe, this type of plan
is known as hotel garni or pension garni which consists of rolls, coffee, and sometimes juice.
- The Bermuda Plan (BP) is offered by hotels in Bermuda and some other places. It includes
both a room and a full English or American type of breakfast. Bed and breakfast hotels operate
on a Bermuda Plan in Britain and the United States and on continental breakfast plan in
continental Europe.
Room Rates
- The maximum rates that hotels charge for a room normally depend on the number of people
occupying it. These rates are called rack rates. These are posted on the inside of the entrance
door of each guest room. The rack rate is not always the rate that is paid for a room. Hotels,
like airlines, have a system of discounted prices.
- The revenue that is not obtained for a guest room is gone and cannot be recovered. Thus,
hotels offer discounted rates to special classes of people to encourage them to stay in the
hotel. For example, there are special rates for business travelers, government employees,
airline employees, and other similar groups.
- For conventions and conferences, hotels compete with one another by offering the lowest
room rate. Profits on banquet meals and sales of liquor make up for the discounted room
rates.
✓ Hotel Profitability
Room Occupancy
- A simple measure of a hotel's profitability is its room occupancy. It is obtained by dividing
the number of rooms occupied by guests on any night by the number of rooms in the hotel
and by multiplying the result by 100 to determine the occupancy on a percentage basis. For
instance, if a 125-room hotel has 75 rooms occupied on a particular night, its occupancy will
be:
75 x 100 = 60%
100
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- Occupancy can also be determined for a week, a month, a year, or any other period of time. In
this case, the numerator is the number of rooms occupied for that period and the
denominator is the number of rooms available during that period, that is, the number of
rooms in the hotel times the number of days in the period. For example, if we want to know
the occupancy for a week in a 125-room hotel in which 463 rooms were occupied during that
week, the occupancy percentage would be:
463 x 100 - (463/875) x 100 = 52.9
(125 x 7)
- During peak season, a hotel may have 100% occupancy or close to it. However, occupancy
can be very low at other times of the year. In general, hotels are considered profitable if they
can operate with an average annual occupancy Of 65% or higher.
Double Occupancy Rooms

- Occupancy percentage is not usually the best measure of marketing success for a hotel
because it does not show whether the revenue is being maximized. Whether a room is
occupied by one person or by two persons, the occupancy percentage will not change, but the
revenue obtained will be changed. It is for this reason that hotels determine the occupancy
and the double occupancy rate which is the number of rooms occupied by more than one
person.
- Double occupancy is determined by dividing the number of guests accommodated during a
certain period by the total number of guest rooms during that same period.
- For example, if 463 rooms were occupied by 713 guests during a week, the double occupancy
is:
713 = 1.54
463
- The 1.54 double occupancy ratio means that 54% of the rooms were double occupied.
Average Rate Per Room Occupied

- Another way of measuring maximization of revenue is the average rate per room occupied.
The average rate will increase if more expensive rooms are sold or if more rooms are double
or triple occupied. The average room rate is obtained by dividing the revenue for a period by
the number of rooms occupied during that period. For example, if a hotel had 463 rooms
occupied during a week and a room revenue of $37, 640 for that week, the average room rate
is:
$37,640 = $81.30
463
Average Daily Rate Per Guest

- Another useful statistics is the average daily rate per guest. This is obtained by dividing total
room revenue for a period by the total number of guests accommodated during that period.
For instance, if the total revenue for the week was $65,529 for a hotel occupied by 1,050
guests, then the average daily rate per guest for the week is:
$65,520 = $62.40
1,050
Average Length of Stay

- To maximize revenue and increase room occupancy, hotels try to increase the length of stay
of customers through advertising and other marketing methods. If customers can be
motivated to stay an extra day or two, this will mean more revenue for the hotel.
Breakeven Point
- Hotels are often interested to know their breakeven point. It is that point at which a business
will make neither a profit nor a loss. The equation for determining it is:
Fixed costs
Contribution margin
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- Fixed costs are those that stay the same regardless of the volume of business. Examples are
management salaries, interest, depreciation, insurance, property taxes, mortgage payments,
amortization, and physical plant maintenance.
- Contribution margin is defined as the average room less the variable costs of having a room
occupied. Variable costs are those that change according to the number of guests in a hotel.
The variable costs for a hotel room are primarily the costs of housekeeping such as maid
wages, linen, laundry, and supplies. For example, if the fixed cost of a 125-room hotel is
$1,950 for a year, its average room rate is $80, and the variable cost pet room occupied is $20,
its breakeven point would be:
$1,950,000 = $1,950,000/$600,000 = 32,500
$80.00 - $20.00
- The 32,500 rooms to be occupied during the year can be converted into an occupancy figure
as follows:
32.500 x 100 = 32.500 x 100 = 71.2%
125 x 365 45,625
- This means that the hotel must average 71.2% occupancy during the course of the year.
- A breakeven analysis is an important managerial tool because it shows the percentage of
occupancy that a hotel must have to cover expenses.
✓ Accommodation Reservation
- Many large hotels have computerized reservation systems. However, despite these systems,
overbooking still occurs. Overbooking is selling more rooms than the actual available rooms.
Hotels do it for a reason. If hotels book only to capacity, they would often end up with empty
rooms because of "no-shows" or people who do not advise that they want their reservations
cancelled. Hotels know from experience that there is a no-show percentage that can be
compensated by overbooking. However, the numbers do not always Work out correctly. The
result is disappointed customers and negative publicity.
- Hotels use different methods to avoid overbooking and reduce the no-show factor. One
method is for a hotel to advise the customer that it will honor a reservation only if the
customer arrives at a certain stipulated time. Another method is for the hotel to ask for a
deposit when a room is booked. Upon receipt of the deposit, the hotel will give the customer
a written document confirming that the reservation has been made. The hotel guarantees that
the room will be available and the customer guarantees that the room will be paid even if he
or she does not show up.
Registration Cards
- Accommodation establishments use the guest registration card as a marketing tool. A
guest registration card provides information about the guests such as his or her name,
address, geographical origin, and other facts. This information can be used to produce
a direct mail list which is used for sending future promotional material.
- The list can also be expanded to include the names and addresses of clients who have
made reservations, canceled them, and even customers who made reservations but
never arrived.
- The geographical origin of the customers can be used to show where advertising
efforts should continue to be' directed rather than wasted by promoting the
accommodation in places where a few customers originate.
- The guest registration card information can also be used to produce a typical
customer profile. The customer profile can be presented to different print or
broadcast advertising media which can then determine if the market they serve fits
this profile. If it does, the establishment may then be able to use that medium for its
advertising.
Hotels and Airlines
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- At present, there is a natural link between airline companies and hotels. This is due to
the changed nature of transportation. One of the first links was Pan Am which tied in
with the International Hotels in the 1940s.
- According to Lane (1994), there are three major reasons why airline companies
link with hotels. These are:
1. Their desire to protect insisting business and develop future business, thus
increasing their profits;
2. The expectation that hotel ownership will boost tourism development in their home
countries; and
3. The desire to expand national culture.

- Today, there are many airline-hotel links such as KLM Hilton International, Air France
and Meridian Hotels, Air Lingus (Ireland) and Dunfey Hotels, and Japan Airlines and
Nikko Hotels. The links between hotels and airlines are not always formed by
ownership or merger. They can also be partial ownership or a working agreement.
Frequent Flyer Links

- Many of the frequent flyer programs of airlines are also linked to hotel usage. This
means that airlines grant airline passengers extra mileage points for staying in
participating hotels.
✓ Accommodation Promotion
- Most accommodation establishments promote their properties to members of the travel

trade as well as to tour wholesalers and travel agencies. They provide the travel trade with
printed promotional literature and invite them as guests on familiarization trips. They offer
discounted room rates to representatives of the travel trade when they stay in hotels but are
not on a familiarization trip. Large hotel chains install promotional booths at travel trade
expositions and advertise in travel trade publications. These travel trade advertisements
emphasize the benefits that will be derived by the tour wholesaler or travel agency in
recommending the hotel. These benefits are the commission the wholesaler or agency will
receive from the hotel and the repeat business that will be generated for the wholesaler or
agency. Many travel agencies handle resort hotel bookings especially when these are tied in
with air travel as a package.
- Hotels use the direct mail approach to groups who would like to hold meetings, conventions,
or conferences in the hotel. For these groups, hotels often offer the incentive of lower room
rates for group bookings, and make up the reduced revenue by means of additional sales of
meals and alcoholic beverages. Hotels also offer corporate rates to large companies from
which they would like to get guest room business.
- Accommodation establishments also use newspapers for promotion. They spend more
money on newspaper advertisements than on any other advertising vehicle. They use the
business sections of newspapers to reach the business traveler and the travel sector to reach
the vacation traveler. They also advertise on radios and televisions, on highways and airport
billboards, on city magazines or directories, and on telephone directories. Large hotels use
direct mail operations for advertising. Majority of hotels advertise in travel journals, travel
and recreation magazines, and airline in-flight magazines.
- Resort hotels advertise on magazines, on television, and by direct mail. Some resorts give
posters to travel agencies for window displays. Resorts often get free publicity when they
have stories to tell the media. The story may be about the arrival of a celebrity or the filming
of a television show at the resort. Another type of publicity is when a resort hotel is featured
in a documentary. Many large resorts have produced short video cassettes about their
properties which are given away or sold.
- Several chain organizations emphasize their image and uniqueness in their advertising. This
works if it is presented creatively in advertising. Budget emphasizes price in their advertising.
- Some accommodation entities feature the hotel's president or general manager in their
advertisements. They may also feature the chef in their restaurant advertising.
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✓ History of the Food and Beverage Service
- In early history, there was much evidence that certain groups of people cooked together in
big groups and that the early inns provided a crude menu. In the Roman era, there were some
establishments that offered sausage or roast meat, bread, and a cup of wine. The forerunner
of the modern restaurant that provides hot food and drink developed in Rome. Many of the
early restaurants were in the cities, near temples and government buildings. After the fall of
the Roman Empire, the manors and castles provided food to large numbers of people. The
early inns provided bread and wine to travelers.
- In 1200, public cook shops were opened in London which offered precooked takeout food.
The royal families of Europe introduced cutlery, table linen, crystal glasses, new foods such
as turkey and potato, and the roadside tavern. In the sixteenth century, British inns and
taverns began to serve one meal a day at a fixed time and price and at a common table. The
meal was known as ordinary and the dining rooms were called ordinaries. The most famous
ordinary in London was the Castle and Lloyd's which was the meeting place for merchants
and ship owners. In the seventeenth century, the ordinaries became fashionable clubs and
gambling places as well as centers for political activities. The word "restaurant" was used in
the late eighteenth century for a Paris dining room serving light dishes.
- In the United States, taverns and inns were very similar to those in England. A famous tavern
in New York was Fraunces Tavern. In 1834, the famous Delmonico's was opened in New York.
In the early 1900s, several events that were significant to the food industry occurred. The
hamburger was first served in 1904 at the St. Louis World's Fair. The first root beer stand
was founded by Roy Allen and Frank Wright.
- The Second World War brought many changes to the American public. People became richer,
the automobile made them more mobile, and they shifted to the suburban areas of cities. In
the 1960s, fast-food establishments emerged.
- At present, modern popular cuisine including French, Chinese, Mexican, and Japanese have
become common in most cities. The role food plays in tourism may not be a direct but an
indirect attraction.
✓ Types of Restaurants
The following are the different types of restaurants:
1. Family or Commercial Restaurants

- Family-style restaurants offer a wide menu of "meat and potato" selections with a
price range that appeals to an average family income. They serve beer and wine if they
have a liquor license. The decor is bright. A combination of counters, tables, and
booths is common. Parking is necessary since customers usually arrive by car. Family
restaurants are normally located near a residential area and a highway.
- The operating hours are usually from early evening to midnight. The staff are friendly
and efficient. The initial investment is medium to high.
2. Coffee Shops
- Coffee shops are characterized by a fast-food service. The decor is simple and prices
are relatively low. It is usually located in an office building or shopping mall. The rent
is high. The staff are often minimally trained. The peak periods of a coffee shop are
lunch and coffee breaks. Operating hours are from early morning to early evening. A
takeout service may be offered.
3. Cafeterias
- Cafeterias are usually located in shopping centers and office buildings. Self-service is
typical with limited menus of soups, entrees, desserts, and beverages.
- Cafeterias often require a large preparation area. Their staff are minimally trained.
Beer and wine may be offered. Fast service is necessary to handle the traffic volume.
The operating hours will depend on the location as school, office building, airport, or
highway.
4. Gourmet Restaurants
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- Gourmet restaurants generally require a higher initial investment than other types of
restaurants because they require an expensive ambience and decor. They cater to
those who want a higher standard and are willing to pay the price.
- Cafeterias often require a large preparation area. Their staff are minimally trained.
Beer and wine may be offered. Fast service is necessary to handle the traffic volume.
The operating hours will depend on the location as school, office building, airport, or
highway.
- The prices are higher at gourmet restaurants because of the high investment required.
The menu and wines are carefully planned and the staff are highly trained.
- The evening period is the main emphasis. The location is important but may not be
critical since discriminating diners look for quality gourmet restaurants. Word-of-
mouth advertising and repeat business are keys to success.
5. Ethnic Restaurants
- Ethnic restaurants feature the food of a specific region or country. They can be
Chinese or classical French cuisine. The decor usually has an ethnic motif.
- In order to be successful, ethnic restaurants must serve authentic cuisine of the region
or country they are featuring and those who prepare the food must be well-trained
and knowledgeable. Prices range from budget to high. Beer, wine, and liquor may or
may not be served. The initial investment is high because of the decor and staff
training. The location variable. Operating hours are in the evening.
6. Fast-food Restaurants
- Fast-food restaurants have increased in the past 20 years as people have become
more mobile. Franchising is common in this type of restaurant.
- The menu is limited with low prices. Because of low prices, many customers patronize
fast-food restaurants.
- Fast-food restaurants operate for long hours and generally for seven days a week.
Alcoholic beverages are not offered. A well-trained staff is required for franchise fast-
food operation in which the franchisor sets - standards of service and food quality that
must be maintained at all times.
- Fast-food chains have been successful in the past two decades because they have
offered a limited menu. This has given them greater purchasing power, less waste,
and lower labor costs by using disposable paper, plastic, and styrofoam containers
which save dishwashing costs. These restaurants are pioneers in establishing more
efficient food-operating systems.
7. Deli Shops
- Deli shops provide delicatessen food service, combining traditional delicatessen cold
meats and cheese with takeout sandwiches, salads, and similar items. Some deli shops
have limited seating capacity. They are usually located in shopping areas or office
buildings and are open from 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM or 9:00 PM. Capital investment is
low. Deli shops have low labor costs because only one or two owners and employees
are involved.
8. Buffet Restaurants
- Buffet restaurants are established on a completely self-serve basis. However, if liquor,
beer, and wine are offered, table and service for these beverages are provided.
- The food buffet is usually an "all you can eat" hot and cold food for one price. Food
preparation and service staff are kept to a minimum. Buffet restaurants cater to the
family and therefore offer reasonable prices. They are open from 5:00 PM to 11:00
PM.
9. Transportation Restaurants
- There is a natural link between transportation and food service. Several restaurants
are generally found along auto and bus transportation routes. They are also found at
bus, rail, and air transportation buildings, as well as on transportation vehicles as
trains and ships.
- Some transportation restaurants cater to tour groups, particularly bus tour groups.
These restaurants can be quite profitable if the market can be maintained. They
require special cafeteria or buffet-type facilities so that arriving groups can be served
quickly and continue on their journey.
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✓ Franchising
- Franchised restaurants are a major component of the food service industry, particularly in
the fast-food sector. The reasons for the popularity of franchising in the restaurant industry
are very similar to those in the hotel industry. Franchises are beneficial to the franchisees
because they provide operational, training, layout and design assistance, location assistance,
managerial expertise, group purchasing power, and most importantly, the identification of a
well-known brand supported by regional, national, and international advertising and
promotion. Franchised restaurants can easily get financing from lending institutions than
independents.
- In the early days of franchising, the common practice was to sell individual franchise rights
for a single restaurant. At present, a regional franchise has become popular with franchisees
and franchisors. A regional franchise allows a franchisee to develop multiple outlets within a
specific geographical area. The area could be a city, a state, a province, a major part of the
country, or the whole country. For example, Wendy's in the United States gave private
Canadian Country the territorial rights to all of Canada for Wendy's restaurant operations.
- Franchised restaurants include fast-food chains such as McDonald's, Kentucky Fried Chicken,
Pizza Hut, A&W Root Beer, and Burger King. They also include dine-in types of restaurants
such as Wendy's and Pizza Inn and carry-out establishments like Orange Julius. The fast-food
franchise is the most common. Table-service restaurants such as Denny's Steak and Ale and
Victoria Station, and buffet-style restaurants such as Bonanza are also franchised. These
table-service and fast-food restaurants have spread from the United States to other countries
throughout the world.
✓ Restaurant Profitability
Food Cost Percentage

- Food cost percentage is often used to measure a restaurant's marketing success. It is
determined by dividing the food cost for a period (a day, a week, a month) by the sales for
that same period and then multiplying it by 100. For example, if the cost of food for one month
is $40,000 and sales is $100,000, the food cost would be:
$40,000 x 100=4096
$100,000
- Many restaurant operators strive for a 40% food cost to make the restaurant more profitable.
Gross Profit
- Gross profit is the selling price of an item less its food cost. Table 3 shows tm importance of
gross profit in comparing two menu items.
-
- In this table, it would be better to sell item 1 rather than item 2 since item 1 has a higher cost
percentage and a higher gross profit; hence, a contribution to net profit than item 2. For each
of item I sold 50% food cost, there is a $4 gross profit compared with $3 with item 2.
Labor Costs
- Labor costs are controlled by expressing them as a percentage of sales on a daily, weekly, or
monthly basis and comparing the actual cost with the standard desired. Instead of treating
labor costs as separate from food costs, many successful restaurants look at these two as a
combined cost. For instance, they set a standard of 75% above in which food costs plus labor
costs must not increase. As long as the operation maintains the combined cost below this
level, the restaurant will be profitable.
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- In a large restaurant, the organization of the labor force is important to labor cost control.
The food service structure is illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Food Services Structure

Source: International Hotel Development
Average Guest Check

- Another profitability measure used in restaurants is the average guest spending or average
check. Average guest spending is calculated by dividing the total revenue received for a
particular period (a day, a week, a month or a year) by the total number of guests served
during that period. For example, if 350 guests are served dinner and the total revenue
received is $3,610, the average spending will be:
Breakeven Point
- Breakeven is that point at which business will make neither a profit nor a loss. The operation
for determining the breakeven point is:
Fixed costs
Contribution margin
- Fixed costs are those costs that remain the same regardless of the volume of business.
Examples are salaries, interest, depreciation, insurance rent, and the like. The contribution
margin is average check less variable costs. For example, if a restaurant has an annual fixed
cost of $125,000 and an average guest spending of $10.00 and its variable cost such as food,
labor, and others is 75% of revenue or $7.50% guest served, its breakeven point is:
$125,000 = $50,000
$2.50
- The contribution margin is average check less variable costs or $2.50 less $7.50. The
breakeven number of customers is $50,000.
- The proof of this is:
Total revenue: $50,000 x $10 = $500,000
Variable costs: $50,000 x $7.50 = $375,000

Fixed costs: $125,000
Profit or loss: O
Menus
- The menu is the basic planning document for a successful restaurant. Several aspects of the
restaurant's operation depend on the menu. The menu contains what the restaurant offers,
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the range of offerings, as well as the selling prices. The menu must portray the style and theme
of the restaurant. Thus, the menu's design, printing, size, and colors are important.
- The menu also determines the equipment needed and the investment required. In general,
the more extensive the menu is, the more varied the needed equipment Will be. If a restaurant
sells only hamburgers, hotdogs, fries, and softdrinks, its required equipment will be less
compared to those of a restaurant with 20 or 30 menu items which require different cooking
methods and more specialized equipment.
- In addition the menu identifies the labor costs of a restaurant. It can determine the staff
required and the cost of staff training for food preparation and service. The more items are
contained in the menu, the more complex the service will be.
- Lastly, the menu estimates the cost for uniforms, purchases, storage and space, and actual
food costs. The menu also helps emphasize, by means of bolder prints, which menu items the
restaurant would prefer customers to order.
Figure 5. Sample International Airline Menu
✓ Airline Catering
- Airline companies spend billions of dollars every year for food purchases. The average cost
per airline passenger is between $1 and $7 depending on the length of the journey. The
amount is less for shorter trips, since passengers may be offered only a non-alcoholic
beverage and a light snack. For longer trips in which two or three meals may be offered
including free alcoholic beverages, the amount is higher. Around 3 to 4% of an airline's total
costs is spent on food.
✓ Food Quality
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- The main problem of airline companies is to cook the meal on the ground and serve it several
hours later in an extraordinary dry cabin atmosphere, seven miles high, to different groups
of people with their own food preferences, and whose main motivation is to travel rather than
to eat.
- In 1992, airline passengers were served a sandwich and coffee from a vacuum flask on a flight
from London to Paris. At present, particularly on long flights, passengers expect hot meals.
✓ Logistics
- To produce hot meals, the airline companies have to prepare specifications for recipes,
ingredients, cooking methods and temperatures, and labor for each flight. These require a
forecast using the actual passenger reservations for each flight including an allowance for
standbys and last-minute reservations in order to have the correct raw materials, equipment,
and food production staff for each shift. Preliminary meal counts are usually prepared from
24 to 72 hours ahead so that food supplies can be bought.
- Menus must be carefully selected for each flight to avoid serving the same meal to a passenger
on two succeeding segments of a trip or on a round trip. In addition, trays and serving utensils
and supplies must be in the kitchen when the meal is prepared.
✓ Airplane Galleys
- The first airplane galley was designed in 1936 by Douglas for its DC-3. Meals prepared on the
ground were kept hot or cold in insulated containers on the aircraft. After World War II, the
introduction of larger airplanes enabled them to have ovens and refrigerators onboard in
their galleys. The removable ovens are filled with hot food in the ground flight kitchen, moved
to the aircraft, and then plugged into electrical outlets.
✓ Flight Kitchens
- The first airline flight kitchen was opened in the late 1930s near Washington D.C. Hoover field
airport by a gentleman named Marriott. He had a restaurant near the airport. He noticed that
passengers would go to his restaurant to eat before boarding their flights because no meals
were served in the airplane. He approached Eastern Air Transport, now known as Eastern
Airlines, and offered to prepare lunch boxes in his restaurant for Eastern's passengers.
Eastern agreed, so the first flight kitchen was established. At present, Marriott In-Flite
Services has approximately 100 flight kitchens around the world which cater to 150 different
airlines and serve 100 million meals a year.
- There is an ongoing trend at present in which Flight Kitchen operators lease their dining
equipment from other firms. Some airline companies have their own flight kitchens while
others contract with other airline companies that are equipped with their own kitchens. Most
of the airline companies turn over their catering services to outside caterers because airline
kitchens are not large and efficient.
✓ Difference Between Airline Catering and Restaurant Catering
- Airline catering is different from restaurant catering because in the latter, the cooks can make
last-minute adjustments. For example, a steak might be prepared in the flight kitchen to be
accompanied by a sauce and vegetables to be served two hours later. During this time, it must
be kept hot. If there is flight delay of one hour, the steak will be stringy, the sauce will be
congealed, and the vegetables will be mushy, In an ordinary restaurant, a meal like this will
not be served but on an airline, the serving crew usually has no other choice but to serve it.
- In airline catering, the logistics are very complex but airlines exert great efforts to serve good
meals to the passengers. They even respond to the needs of passengers on special diets if
given enough notice.
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✓ Restaurant Promotion
- Many restaurants advertise their menu on newspapers. Local newspaper advertisements are
used by most restaurants as a major form of external promotion.
- Several restaurants advertise in the yellow pages of the local telephone directory; some use
local radio or television stations. Most popular restaurants and national restaurant chains
advertise in airline in-flight magazines, consumer travel magazines, and travel trade
publications. Many restaurants try to foster good relations with nearby hotel employees such
as front office staff, bell desk personnel, and doormen because they are often asked by hotel
guests to recommend good nearby restaurants. Good public relations and word-of-mouth
advertising generate a lot of business.
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MODULE 4 - RECREATION & LEISURE & TOURIST ATTRACTIONS AND THEME PARKS
1. Define recreation and leisure;
2. Determine the varied views of recreation and leisure;
3. Describe the motivations for recreational participation;
4. Explain the factors which promote the growth of recreation;
5. Discuss the major types of organized recreation;
6. Explain the role of sports and tourism as major recreation service components;
7. Differentiate theme parks, water parks, fun centers, and sports tourism;
8. Analyze the need for professional leadership in the recreation field; and
9. Discuss the challenges facing the recreation and leisure service field in the 21st century.
10. Describe the nature and scope of tourist attractions;
11. Explain the evolution of tourist attractions;
12. Define and clarify tourist attractions;
13. Differentiate theme parks from amusement parks;
14. Discuss the main issues in the management of tourist attractions;
15. Clarify the role of technology in tourist attractions;
16. Explain the future of tourist attractions; and
17. Describe the international association of amusement parks and attractions.
CONTENT
✓ Meaning of Recreation and Leisure
The dictionary defines "recreation" as the process of giving new life to something,
of restoring something. "Leisure" is defined as the productive, creative, or contemplative
use of free time.
□ Recreational Activities
Recreational activities include all kinds of sports, both team and individual, such as
baseball, softball, football, basketball, volleyball, tennis, badminton, swimming, skiing,
hiking, jogging, aerobics, and rock climbing, which are active forms of recreation, passive
recreational activities include reading, fishing, playing and listening to music, gardening,
playing computer games, and watching television shows or movies.
□ Varied Views of Recreation and Leisure
For some, recreation means the network of public agencies that provide parks,
playgrounds, swimming pools, sports fields, and community centers in several cities, towns,
counties, or park districts. They may view these facilities as an outlet for the young people
or a means of achieving family togetherness or pursuing interesting hobbies, sports, or
social activities.
For others, recreation may be found in a senior center, a sheltered workshop for
mentally challenged individuals, or a treatment center for physical rehabilitation.
Environmentalists may be principally concerned about the impact of outdoor forms of
recreation on our natural surroundings such as forests, mountains, rivers, and lakes which
are the national heritage of a nation.
Recreation and leisure are all these things. They represent a rewarding form of
human experience and constitute an important aspect of economic development and
government responsibility.
At present, the value of recreation and leisure is universally accepted. As a
consequence, the government in both developed and developing countries has accepted the
responsibility of providing and assisting leisure opportunities through extensive recreation
and park systems.
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✓ Recreational Participation
The most common notion of recreation is that it is primarily a participation in sports

and games. Recreation actually includes an extremely broad range of leisure activities
including travel and tourism, cultural entertainment, participation in the arts, hobbies,
membership in social clubs, or interest groups, nature-related activities such as hunting and
fishing, and attendance at parties, special events, and fitness activities.
Recreation may be enjoyed with thousands of participants or spectators or may be

a solitary experience. It may be very strenuous or may be primarily a mental activity. It may
act as a lifetime of interest and involvement or may consist of a single, isolated experience.
✓ Motivations for Recreational Participation

Many participants take part in recreation as a form of relaxation and release from
the pressures of work and other tensions. Another recreational motivation is the need to
express creativity, expose hidden talents, or pursue excellence in various forms of personal
expression.
For some participants, active recreation offers a channel for releasing hostility and
aggression. It is also a way of struggling against the environment in adventurous and high-
risk pursuits. Others enjoy recreation because it provides them the opportunity to make
new friends or cooperate with others in group activities.
Many individuals take part in recreational activities which involve community
service, provide leadership in fraternal or religious organizations, and promote health and
physical fitness. A growing number of individuals enjoy participation in computer-based
entertainment and communication including CD-ROMs, interactive video games, and the
Internet; others are deeply involved in various forms of elite culture such as music, drama,
dance, literature, and the fine arts. Additional important motivations are exploring new
environments through travel and tourism or seeking self-discovery or personality
enrichment through continuing education or religious activity.
□ Factors Promoting the Growth of Recreation

The following are the factors that help bring about the growth of recreation:
1. Increase in discretionary time — A key factor underlying the growth of

recreation has been the growth of free or discretionary time in the 20 th century.
Due to advanced mechanical equipment and automated processes in factories,
agriculture, and the service fields, productive capacity increased remarkably
during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.
In addition, more holidays and longer vacations are now enjoyed by most
employees. Because of improved social security benefits and pension plans, as
well as medical advances which lead to a longer life, many employees can now
avail of 15 or more years of full-time leisure after retirement. Another reason is
that labor-saving devices such as automatic washing machines, lawnmowers,
microwave ovens, and vacuum cleaners have greatly simplified the demands of
life.
2. Influence of technology— Sophisticated technology has provided new forms of
recreation for people. Outdoor recreation uses complex and expensive devices in
activities such as skydiving, hang gliding, scuba diving, boating, roller blading,
skiing, and snowboarding. Computer dating provides a new form of social contact
for single adults. Video games offer interactive competition or exposure to new
varieties of play settings and "virtual realities." The Internet has become an
important part of travel and tourism by providing information and facilitating
reservations and vacation choices. Home-based recreation has become
dependent on varied forms of electronic entertainment.
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3. Public interest in health and fitness — A key trend in the 20th century is the
growth of public interest in exercise and physical fitness programs. Many people
are now concerned about improving their health, vitality, and appearance
through diet and exercise. Those who exercise regularly look and feel better.
Research showed that the most successful fitness programs were those that
provided recreational interest and satisfaction.
4. Commodification of leisure — Various forms of recreation are being developed
by profit-seeking businesses. Giant corporations have taken control of music,
television, movie businesses, sports stadiums, cruise ships, theme parks, and
other leisure operations. Many elaborate new facilities which offer varied forms
of recreation are being developed as part of the trend toward commodification.
In big cities, huge public fitness centers which include pools, aerobics, dance
rooms, and facilities for family play are being built and often charge membership
fees that cost several hundred dollars a year.
5. Therapeutic recreation service — An important aspect of the growth of
recreation has been the increased awareness of the recreation needs of persons
with physical, mental, or social disabilities. In recent years, there has been an
increased recognition of the need to provide recreational programs for special
populations such as the mentally challenged, mentally ill, and physically
challenged. These programs use therapeutic recreation as a form of treatment.
One of the sports programs for people with disabilities that has received much
attention in recent years is the Special Olympics, an international program of
physical fitness, sports training, and athletic competition for children and adults
with mental retardation.
6. New leisure roles for women — At present, there is a strong drive by women to
play a more equal role in recreational opportunities. In the past, women were
barred from a variety of athletic, outdoor recreation, cultural, and social
involvements. Women were treated as second-class citizens in leisure
opportunities. With the emergence of a strong feminist movement, this inequality
was corrected. There is now a growing interest in women's tennis, golf,
gymnastics, track and field, and similar events in every level of competition.
Outstanding women athletes have helped create a new image of feminine
strength, determination, and self-confidence.
✓ Types of Organized Recreation
1. Government recreation agencies —These are the federal, state, provincial agencies
and local departments that provide recreation and leisure services as a primary
function. Also included are other agencies that offer recreation programs as a
secondary responsibility such as those concerned with social service, education, special
populations, and the armed forces.
2. Voluntary nonprofit organizations — These are nongovernmental, nonprofit
agencies, both sectarian and nonsectarian, which serve the public at large with
multiservice programs that often include a substantial element of recreational
opportunity. The most popular voluntary organizations include the Boy Scouts, Girl
Scouts, YMCA, YWCA, and YM-YWHA.
3. Private membership organizations — They provide recreational and social activities
for their own members and, in some cases, assist community recreation needs.
Examples are golf, tennis, yacht, athletic, and country clubs. Also included under this
category are the recreation sponsors connected to residence such as swimming pools,
sports or fitness complexes or clubs attached to leisure villages, and apartments or
condominium units or retirement communities.
4. Commercial recreation enterprises — These are privately owned businesses which
operate to make a profit such as ski centers, bowling alleys, nightclubs, movie houses,
theaters, health spas or fitness centers, dancing schools, and theme parks.
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5. Employee recreation programs — They serve those who work for companies or
employers by providing recreation as a part of a total personnel benefits package,
linked to other services concerned with employee health and fitness.
6. Armed forces recreation — Although it is obviously a form of government-sponsored
activity, it is unique in its setting and purpose. Each of the major branches of the armed
forces operates an extensive network of recreation facilities and programs.
7. Campus recreation — It includes intramural athletics or sports clubs, social activities,
travel programs, performing arts groups, entertainment, lounges, film series, and other
forms of recreation on college and university campuses.
8. Therapeutic recreation services — These include any type of program designed to
meet the needs of persons with physical or mental disabilities, individuals with poor
health, dependent aging persons, social deviant persons in correctional facilities, and
similar special groups.
✓ Two Major Recreation Service Components
- In addition to the eight types of organized recreation, sports and tourism represent major
areas of recreational programming and constitute powerful economic forces through their
attraction for people of every age and background. Uniquely, they have strong links to each
other through the growing field of sports tourism and also overlap heavily with outdoor
recreation attractions.
Sports as Popular Recreation

- Sports are major areas of recreational involvement. Of all the types of recreational
involvement, sports command the highest degree of personal interest and emotional
involvement both for those who participate actively in them and those who are part of a big
number of fans of school, college, and professional teams.
- Sports are generally defined as physical activities demanding exertion and skill, involving
competition, carried on with both formal rules and general standards of etiquette and fair
play. Sports activities, in terms of both participation and spectator involvement, represent
key recreation interests for most youth and adults. Aside from amateur, school, and college
sports, there are professional sports which have become big businesses.
Tourism — A Major Recreation Service Component

- Tourism is a second major area of diversified recreational involvement. Several major
elements in the tourism enterprise which are closely linked to the growth of tourism as a
form of recreation are the theme parks, water parks, fun centers, and sports tourism.
Theme Parks
- Theme parks usually concentrate on one dominant theme which may be historical,
cultural, or geographical. An example of a theme park with a single theme is the marine
zoological Sea World Park. Other parks focus on multiple themes like the Great America
in California, a hundred-acre family entertainment center divided into five themes: Home
Town Square, Yukon Territory, Yankee Harbor, County Fair, and Orleans Place. The most
popular theme park is Disneyland in Anaheim, California which was built by the late Walt
Disney around the theme of Disney characters.
- Theme parks create an atmosphere in which the visitor is likely to experience fantasy,
glamour, escapism, prestige, and excitement. Once inside the gate, the Visitor is
completely shut off from the outside world and immersed in an enjoyable recreational
experience.
Water Parks
- A specialized type of theme park are the water parks. They feature wave pools, slides,
chutes, shows, and other forms of water-based play and entertainment. Water parks are
usually part of larger theme park operations. For example, Universal's Islands of
Adventure, the Jurassic Park River Adventure, Bilge Rat Barges, and Poseidon's Fury
offer either whirling and steep white-water rides and sluice falls or swirling vortexes that
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spray riders thoroughly. Each year, dozens of new water parks have been opened with
the latest technology.
Fun Centers
- In heavily populated metropolitan areas, entrepreneurs have developed a variety of

indoor fun centers, ranging from children's play, gymnastics, to family party centers,
video game arcades, and big restaurants with game area. New children's and family play
centers have been established in many suburban neighborhoods and shopping malls.
They offer a combination of computer and video games, billiards, miniature golf,
entertainment by clowns and magicians, music, and popular fast-food refreshments.
They also offer packaged birthday parties and attractive family play activities.
Sports Tourism
- The purpose of sports tourism is to participate directly in a form of sport or attend sports
events as a spectator. In the past, only the team traveled; the spectators remained behind
to read about their favorite game or to experience the game through radio and television.
Today, both the team and the spectators travel to the game especially where
championship games are involved. Major college and professional tournaments and
championships attract huge audiences along with major boxing matches, golf, and tennis
events ,and even sports like softball, soccer, rugby, volleyball, and roller skating. The
World Olympics is the biggest sports event. It attracts millions of spectators and
generates millions of dollars in revenue.
✓ The Need for Professional Leadership
- At present, there is a growing need for qualified professional leadership in the recreation
field. Very often, people assume that the tasks of organizing and conducting recreation
programs are relatively simple and that anyone can do it without specialized training.
However, the professional's assignment in the organized recreation field tends to be more
complex and difficult than that of the volunteer leader or coach. It must involve carefully
studied goals and objectives and sophisticated planning techniques.
- Recreation professionals should possess the skills needed for direct leadership and
supervision, group dynamics, and client assessment. They must have the ability to carry out
basic research and write meaningful reports.
✓ Emerging Professional Identity

As employment in recreation agencies grew over the past several decades, recreation
gained public recognition as a flourishing career field. Millions of men and women became employed
in various specialized sectors of recreation and leisure services. Many hold professional-level jobs as
recreation leaders, supervisors, planners, managers, and resource specialists. Through the efforts of
national, state, and provincial societies, higher standards for practice were developed and the first
steps of certification and accreditation were undertaken.
✓ Challenges Facing the Recreation and Leisure Service Field in the Twenty-First Century
Recreational professionals must be able to deal creatively with the following challenges:
1. Serve diverse society (race, age, gender);

2. Emphasize key social purposes of recreation in working with at-risk youth, serving
persons with disabilities, and promoting community development;
3. Achieve fuller public understanding of the value of recreation and parks, and of the
leisure-service profession;
4. Upgrade recreation and park programs and facilities, particularly in inner cities and
for minority populations;
5. Adopt a benefits-based management approach; researching, proving and publicizing
positive outcomes of recreation;
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6. Promote recreation's identity as health-related field;
7. Develop partnerships with environmental organizations to protect and restore wild
lands, waterways;
8. Employ marketing approach to achieve fiscal sufficiency and gain public respect and
support;
9. Expand and improve family-centered programs and facilities;
10. Promote higher values and ethical practices in youth sports competition;
11. Strive for fuller mainstreaming of persons with disabilities in community recreation
programs;
12. Plan for long-term role of recreation and leisure in potentially job-scarce economy;
13. Develop higher levels of professionalism through accreditation, certification,
continuing education, or program standards; and
14. Unify separate branches of recreation and leisure service fields (public, nonprofit,
commercial, and therapeutic) in common programs and projects.
✓ THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF TOURIST ATTRACTIONS
Tourist attractions are major components of the tourism Industry that function as main
motivators for travel. Without attractions that draw tourists to destinations, there will be little need
for other tourist services such as transportation, lodging, food distribution, and others. The natural
attractions, entertainment attractions, events, and recreation are included in the extensive list of
attractions that brings the tourists to a destination area. Figure 7 shows the overview of attractions.
- Natural attractions are the chief reasons why people travel. Examples of these are the
botanical, zoological, mountain and seaside parks, national forests, and national parks of the
United States, Canada, India, Australia, and Japan. The natural beauty of these attractions
entices and inspires the travelers.
- Heritage attractions such as the prehistoric and archaeological sites appeal to those who want
to learn about ancient and contemporary civilizations. The ancient monuments of Egypt,
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Greece, Israel, Turkey, Indonesia, India, Mexico, and Peru are examples of heritage
attractions.
- Recreation attractions on the other hand are for those who seek exciting adventures. These
attractions provide access to indoor and outdoor facilities where tourists can participate in
sports and other recreational activities such as bowling alleys, swimming pools, ice skating
rinks, golf courses, ski resort, biking trails, bicycle paths, and marinas.
- Commercial attractions are retail operations which deal with gifts, handicrafts, souvenirs,
and art. Recent surveys show that shopping is the principal activity of both domestic and
international visitors.
- In addition, industrial attractions such as wineries and breweries have long been tourist
attractions. Factory tours have increased and manufacturers have developed elaborate
facilities to handle tourists.
- Modern cities that are rich with cultural treasures also attract millions of visitors every year.
Because of this, sightseeing tours which make the city attractions accessible are provided.
Theaters, museums, zoos, aquariums, cultural arts, festivals, shopping, and dining are some
of the sites and activities that appeal to tourists.
- Entertainment, particularly musical entertainment, has become popular with tourists.as well.
✓ The Evolution of Tourist Attractions
- Tourist attractions are considered a modern creation. The evolution of tourism depended on
the existence and development of attractions. As far back as the Roman Empire, travelers
went to Egypt to see the pyramids. Later on, the Grand Tour routes were around the major
cultural attractions of Europe.
✓ Definition of Attractions
- According to Pearce (2001), a tourist attraction is a named site with a specific human or
natural feature which is the focus of visitor and management attention. On the other hand,
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Swarbrooke (2001) defines attractions as single units; individual sites or very small,
delimited geographical units based on a single feature. Destinations are different from
attractions because destinations are large areas that include several individual attractions
together with the support services required by tourists.
✓ Classification of Attractions
- Attractions may be classified according to its features such as its core product.
- Attractions can be grouped as:
1. Historic houses;
2. Museums and galleries;
3. Wildlife attractions;
4. Castles;
5. Botanical gardens;
6. Steam railways;
7. Visitor centers;
8. Country parks; and
9. Leisure parks.
✓ Physical Environment
Attractions may be located in the:

1. Natural environments such as forests, mountains, and national parks;
2. Built environments which are not originally designed for visitors but are adapted as
attractions due to its increasing popularity among people, such as historic houses,
workplaces, steam railways, and castles; and
3. Built environment and designed for visitor purposes such as visitor centers and
leisure parks.
In addition, attractions may be located in indoor or outdoor environments.
✓ Ownership
- Attractions are owned and managed by organizations, trusts, and individuals working in the
public, private, and not-for-profit-sectors. State involvement in attractions funding is shown
in Europe, Canada, and Singapore. In the United States of America, many attractions are
subsidized by charitable donations as well as the voluntary sector. The voluntary sector
includes organizations that own and manage' attractions on a nonprofit basis.
✓ Admission Policy
- Some attractions charge admission fees while others are free to the public. Attractions
operated by membership subscription organizations allow members free entry. Voluntary
donations are requested in other attractions such as churches and cathedrals.
✓ Appeal
- Attractions may appeal to a local market, regionally, nationally, or internationally. Domestic

tourists usually dominate the market for tourist attractions. However, there are different
types of attraction that appeal to different types of tourists. Foreign tourists make a large
percentage of visits to distilleries and castles. Visits to steam railways and country parks are
prevailed by domestic tourists. Historic houses and gardens attract mature visitors.
✓ Size and Capacity

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- Attractions differ in land coverage. Some are housed in small buildings while others occupy
several hectares. Attractions designed for mass tourists are able to receive a large number of
visitors. Moreover, such attractions may incorporate services and facilities that enable
visitors to prolong their stay. Understanding the capacity of sites is important in terms of
management and marketing.
✓ Composition
- Many attractions are located in or around a specific point such as a capital city. Some follows
line or route. Events may also be found in one venue or may occur in a variety of locations as
part of the festival.
✓ Degree of Performance
- Built tourist attractions are usually designed with a high degree of performance. Events and
festivals have a short duration. Hence, temporary sites and mobile infrastructure are often
used.
✓ Number of Visitors
- Tourist attractions receive varying visitor numbers. Some attractions regularly record
approximately more than 500,000 visitors while others attract smaller number of travelers.
✓ Amusement Parks and Theme Parks

- "Amusement park" and "theme park" are terms for a group of entertainment attractions and
rides and other events in a specific location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. An
amusement park is more elaborate than a simple city park or playground because it provides
attractions to people of all ages.
- Amusement parks evolved in Europe from fairs and pleasure gardens which were established
for the people's recreations. The oldest amusement park in the world is Bakken which was
opened in 1583 at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark.
- "Theme park" is often used as a synonym for "amusement park. " A theme park is a distinct
type of amusement park which promotes a specific theme or exclusive set of themes.
Disneyland in Anaheim, California is considered as the first theme park.
- Theme park trips are ideal for family vacations, including children below 19 years of age.
Theme park travelers usually fly to their destinations and rent a car once they arrive. They
engage in various activities such as shopping and visiting historical places, museums, and
beaches.
- Theme parks are popular in all parts of the world. New parks are established in the United
States, Europe, Latin America, Middle East, and Asia. Asia is the home to five of the 10 most
visited theme parks in the world: Tokyo Disneyland, Ocean Park in Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Disneyland, Lotte World in South Korea, and Dubailand in Dubai. All of these theme parks cater
to the family market. Theme park owners have found out that adding new attractions on a
regular basis increases the number of visitors and thus, the revenue.
✓ Main Issues in the Management of Tourist Attractions

Attractions face several threats from the external and internal environments which affect
the product quality, operational capability, and visitor experience. Thus, it is important for managers
of attractions to develop a strategy that recognizes threats and focuses on managing potential
impacts to attain long-term capabilities.
□ Management Planning
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In a study of Australian tourist attractions, Benckendoff and Pearce (2003) found that
attractions with the highest level of management planning perform best and are more profitable. The
following are the effects of higher levels of planning:
1. Higher visitor numbers;

2. Increased revenue;
3. Longer asset value;
4. Greater local profit;
5. Lengthened visitor stay;
6. Better growth; and
7. Greater confidence.
Managers of attractions must plan ahead, decide what actions will be taken, and identify
objectives, time scales, funding, and implementation of projects. Planning is necessary for the long-
term survival of attractions based on renewal and innovation.
□ Environmental Impacts
Environmental impacts caused by visitors raise a number of issues for managers of
natural, built, and event attractions. While natural attractions and those that charge admission fees
are highly susceptible to seasonality, places of worship and country parks are less susceptible. In
addition, attractions in cities suffer less from seasonality than those located in the external areas.
□ Visitor Numbers
There are several factors that affect visitor numbers. These are promotions, global issues,
and the weather. Mechanisms for recording visitor numbers include admission tickets, car parking
receipts, and manual or mechanical tools. However, recording visitor numbers at some sites is a
problem particularly when the entry is free, when the site has multiple entry points, and when the
installation of mechanical counting is not feasible.
□ Destination Planning
Gunn (1988) found out in his study that attractions function more effectively when they
are clustered together. Several areas have adopted the strategy of clustering attractions and events
which provide more activities to tourists. The rationale for clustering attractions is greater tourist
mobility, competition among tourist areas, stronger marketing mechanisms, and higher investment
in development. Managers of attractions are able to collaborate with one another to attract visitors
to an area rather than to a simple attraction together with the motivation to visit all attractions by
means of big discounts and visitor passes. Collaboration enables attractions to become more
receptive to changes in the market place, and helps in the formation of strong regional identities
through destination marketing rather than specific attractions. Investment in popular attractions can
be a tool for regeneration. The development’ of attractions in urban areas is undertaken not only to
attract more visitors but also to stimulate urban renewal.
□ Diversification
Many attractions have developed from an existing business such as farm attractions to a
diversified agricultural business. Industry attractions have developed through a similar process
where company identifies an opportunity to promote its products and create brand awareness
through the visitor market. Globally, there are examples of companies that operate visitor centers
that are linked to a product offering such as nuclear energy production and chocolate. On Alaska,
even oil installations are considered tourist attractions.
□ Renewal and Innovation
Innovation is a principal concept in tourism business. Many attraction managers find it
necessary to incorporate technology and innovation to their featured attractions to retain and
stimulate the interest of the visitors. An example is the virtual reality ride through New York called
New York Skyride at the Empire State Building.
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✓ The Future of Tourist Attractions
Pearce, Benckendoff, and Johnstone (2000) identified four areas that will affect the
future of tourist attractions. These are:
1. management;
2. marketing;
3. product development; and
4. interpretation and communication.
□ Management: Revenue Generation

Other than ticket sales, attractions can generate revenue through several means. Efficient
management is necessary for the success of attractions. Table shows the alternative mechanisms for
revenue generation in attractions.
Alternative Mechanisms for Revenue Generation in Attraction

1. Encouraging educated visits.
2. Providing a venue for corporate hospitality, meetings, and product launches.
3. Hosting weddings and birthday parties.
4. Generating rental income from alternative usage of infrastructures, such as retail
outlets, clubs, and offices which utilize redundant building or space on-site.
5. Introducing car parking charges or leasing of the car park to a management
company.
6. Improving retail and catering initiatives that offer unique and distinctive products
and experiences that reflect the ethos of the attraction.
7. Attracting more visitors and more frequent repeat visit.
8. Increasing length of stay by offering more activities (such as children's sleepovers
at the Boston Children's Museum).
9. Extending opening hours to expand experiences on offer (such as nighttime visiting
(as in the case of Singapore Zoo).
10. Introducing members or friends schemes giving privileges and discounts.
11. Hosting high-profile events.
12. Attracting corporate sponsorship.
Source: Page, Stephen and Joanne Connell. Tourism: A Modern Synthesis, 2006.
□ Marketing
Marketing is significant in the success of attractions. Marketing is not only concerned with
promotion and advertising but also with pricing, products, and distribution channels. Several
attraction managements produce a promotional leaflet which contains either a single attraction or a
collection of attractions in a region. These leaflets may be displayed in tourist information centers or
in leaflet racks maintained by distribution companies in principal tourist locations. Some attraction
managements have websites that show important information to lure visitors. Other means of
promotion are tourist brochures, magazines, newspapers, and television. Among the channels of
advertisement, word-of-mouth (WOM) remains as the most powerful and cheapest tool for many
attractions.
The most successful attractions have produced professional media kits which are used in
public relations work such as photographs, brochures, maps, and posters for different markets.
Managers of attractions should prepare effective marketing strategies that appeal to the consumers,
such as offering the right product to the right person at the right time in the right place.
P a g e 64 | 65
Instructor
□ Product Development: Creating World-Class Destinations
Product development is a process in which managers of attractions engage in innovations

that tend to develop a new concept and use new technology such as virtual reality and animations
which enliven the product offering through tours, re-enactment, and personal forms of
interpretation.
The main factor in creating a world-class destination is the establishment of a superior

product. The product must be centered on a clear understanding of the visitor experience, the
principles of human resource management, and a commitment to product development. In addition,
other important factors are understanding and anticipating consumer needs and expectations,
understanding the wider market and the supply of competitive products, and the ability to innovate.
□ Interpretation and Communication

- There are two brand themes that are significant in interpretation and
communication. These are:
1. The role of technology known as "high tech"; and

2. The role of personal interaction known as "high touch."
- There are several reasons why operators of attractions invest and develop
technology-based elements. These are:
1. To create a unique product;

2. To enhance visitor experience through entertainment, education, and
interaction;
3. To be competitive;
4. To manage visitors by means of technology-driven transport such as the
one found in York Museum New York; and
5. To improve systems management with the use of computerized ticketing,
online booking, customer feedback, and client databases.
- In general, helpful and friendly staff is also an important element in tourist

attractions even if technology plays a big role in the attraction experience.
✓ International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions

The world's largest amusement parks and attractions association is the International
Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) in Alexandria, Virginia, USA. The
association was founded in 1918 and has more than 4,500 members in 90 countries. It represents
and serves as operators of amusement parks, tourist attractions, water parks, miniature golf courses,
family entertainment centers, and manufacturers and supplies of amusement equipment and
services. The association conducts research, compiles statistics, and publishes Fun World and an
annual International Directory and Buyer's Guide. In addition, it holds an annual convention and
trade show.
P a g e 65 | 65
Instructor

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MODULE 1 - THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TOURISM & THE SOCIOLOGY OF TOURISM

The Psychology of Tourism

A. Motivation for Travel

Basic travel motivators can be divided into four classes:

C. Relationship of Needs, Wants, and Motives

Figure 1: The Tourism System

- A study of travel motivations found in travel literature indicates that these

1. Physiological Needs - hunger, thirst, rest, activity:

MASLOW’S NEEDS AND MOTIVATIONS LISTED IN TRAVEL LITERATURE

a. The Need for Escape or Change

b. Travel for Health

- Interest in sports, either as a participant or a spectator, is attracting large

e. Status and Prestige

f. Travel for Education

- Cross-cultural exchanges, experiencing how other people live, and fostering

i. Shopping and Bargain Hunting

j. Professional and Business Motives

- A great number of people travel for professional and business motives.

k. Search for Natural Beauty

C. The Learning Process of a Tourist

Tourist’s Learning Process

D. EFFECT OF CONSISTENCY AND COMPLEXITY ON LEISURE TRAVEL

E. Classification of Travelers Based on Purpose of Travel

- Majority of travelers in most developed countries such as the United

b) Regular Business Travelers

F. Business Travelers Attending Meetings, Conventions, Congresses

- Incentive travel is a special type of business travel. It is travel given by

D. Family Pleasure Travelers

- An examination of population trends in developed countries particularly

F. Singles and Couples

- Another important segment of pleasure travel consists of singles and

o Lack of Interest in Travel

✓ THE SOCIAL NATURE OF TRAVEL

✓ The Social Effects of Tourism

✓ Socioeconomic Variables and Their Effect on Travel

- There are several differences between patterns of travel based on age.

b. Income and Social Status

- There is a strong correlation between education and travel Generally

d. Life Stages of the Family

✓ The Rise of New Travel Patterns

o Airline Group and Arrangements

o Special Interest Tours

✓ Preferences or the International Tourist

o Relaxation Versus Activity

o Familiarity Versus Novelty

- In general, most tourists on their first trip abroad tend to seek

o Dependence Versus Autonomy

o Order Versus Disorder

✓ TYPES OF TOURIST ROLES

a. The Organized Mass Tourist

- This type of tourist is the least adventurous. He buys a package tour in

b. The Individual Mass Tourist

✓ The Effects of Culture on Travel

✓ The Importance of Cultural Tourism

✓ Cultural Factors with Tourist Appeal

□ Music and Dance

- Several countries, music is a major source of enjoyment and satisfaction to

□ Industry and Business

- The agriculture of a country may be interesting to a large segment of tourists.

- The literary achievements of a country form an important part of travel motivation.

- Tourists are interested to know the scientific activities of a country, especially

- Countries differ in their systems of government. Visits to centers of government,

□ Food and Drink

- The history resources of a country reveal its cultural heritage.